Masonry Construction Manual - C

Masonry
Construction
Manual
PFEIFER
RAMCKE
BIRKHÄUSER ACHTZIGER
EDITION DETAIL ZILCH
The original German edition of this book was conceived and developed by
DETAIL, Review of Architecture
Authors:
Gunter Pfeifer, Professor, freelance architect

Department of Design and Construction I, Darmstadt Technical University
Rolf Ramcke, Prof. Dipl.-lng., architect

Department of Planning Theory and Building Technology, Humboldt University, Berlin
Joachim Achtziger, Dr.-lng.

Forschungsinstitutfur Warmeschutz e.V. (Thermal Insulation Research Institute), Munich
Konrad Zilch, Prof. Dr.-lng.

Martin Schatz, Dr.-lng.
Chair of Monolithic Construction, Munich Technical University
Published by:
Institut fur internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH, Munich
Editorial services:
Andreas Gabriel, Dipl.-lng.; Christian Schittich, Dipl.-lng.;
Sabine Drey, Dipl.-lng.; Cornelia Hilpert M.A.;
Johanna Reichel-Vossen, Dipl.-lng.; Heike Werner, Dipl.-lng.;
Drawings:
Marion Griese, Dipl.-lng.; Kathrin Draeger, Dipl.-lng.; Martin Hammel, Dipl.-lng.;
Oliver Katzauer, Dipl.-lng.; Emese Koszegi, Dipl.-lng.; Nicola Kollmann, Dipl.-lng.;
Peter Lingenfelser, Dipl.-lng.; Isabel Mayer
Translators (German/English):
Gerd Sbffker, Philip Thrift, Hannover; Elizabeth Schwaiger, Toronto
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress,
Washington, D.C., USA
Deutsche Bibliothek - Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Masonry construction manual / [publ. by: Institut fur Internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH, Munich].
Joachim Achtziger... [Transl. (German/Engl.): Gerd Soffker; Philip Thrift, Elizabeth Schwaiger]. -
Basel; Boston; Berlin: Birkhauser; Munchen: Ed. Detail, 2001
ISBN 3-7643-6543-9
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically
the right of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways,
and storage in databases. For any kind of use, permission of the copyright owner must be obtained.
This book is also available in a German language edition (ISBN 3-7643-6478-5).
©2001 Birkhauser - Publishers for Architecture, P.O. Box 133, CH-4010 Basel, Switzerland
Member of the BSpringer Publishing Group.
Printed on acid-free paper produced from chlorine-free pulp. TCF ~
Printed in Germany
ISBN 3-7643-6543-9
987654321 http://www.birkhauser.ch
Contents Preface 6 The building of masonry
Konrad Zilch, Martin Schatz
144
Part 1 • Masonry in architecture 8

Rolf Ramcke Mixing and using mortar on site 144
Protecting masonry against moisture 145
What is masonry? 9 Laying during cold weather 145
Positions in history 10 Suitability and quality tests 145
Design 30 Perpends and bed joints 146
Masonry - today and tomorrow 51 Junctions with intersecting walls 146
Chases and recesses 148
Part 2 • Fundamentals 54 Building and cleaning facing masonry 149
Jointing 150
Material 55 Joint design 151
Konrad Zilch, Martin Schatz Gauged brickwork 153
Mechanical fixings in masonry 153
Masonry units 55 Rationalization measures 155
Natural stone units 63
Mortar for masonry 63 Building science 160
Plasters 67 Joachim Achtziger
Masonry bonds 72 Thermal insulation 160

Konrad Zilch, Martin Schatz Climate-related moisture control 179
with Christina Radlbeck Sound insulation 186
Fire protection 196
General 72 Units and symbols for building science 202
Formats and specials 72
The relationship between dimensional Part 3 • Construction details 204
coordination and unit format 76 Gunter Pfeifer, Rolf Ramcke
The rules of bonding 78
Masonry wall bonds 79 Flat roof 212
Shallow pitched roof 214
Structural masonry 92 Pitched roof 215
Konrad Zilch, Martin Schatz Floor junction 221
Openings 222
The loadbearing behaviour of masonry 92 Balconies 228
The principles of masonry design 96 Junction with terrace 230
Deformation and crack formation 105 Plinth 231
Natural stone masonry 112 Stairs 232
Reinforced masonry 113 Re-entrant corner 232
Prefabricated masonry elements 119 Corner 234
Masonry in earthquake zones 121 Free-standing walls 234
Masonry details 122 Part 4 • Built examples in detail 236

Konrad Zilch, Martin Schatz Gunter Pfeifer
External walls 122 Built examples in detail

Internal walls 129 Overview examples 1 - 34 237
Columns and free-standing masonry walls 132
Party walls 133 Appendix
External basement walls 133 Directives and standards 384
Natural stone masonry 135 Bibliography and references 385
Openings in walls 137 Subject index 388
Vaulting and arch floors 139 Index of names 392
Point loads 141 Picture credits 392
Connections 141
5
Preface
"The brick is a different master.

How ingenious: a small, handy,
usable format for every purpose.
What logic there is in the bonding.
What spiritedness in the joints.
What wealth there is in even the
simplest wall surface. But what discipline
this material demands."
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
When it was first published more than 15 years glass and many other materials, also brought
ago, the Masonry Construction Manual imme- about fundamental changes in the production
diately established itself as a standard work and use of masonry materials. Since then the
dealing with all the issues and problems of very essence of building has had to be re-
masonry construction. Its great success is evi- defined and relearned at regular intervals.
dent in the fact that it became necessary to During this evolution, masonry construction,
reissue the book a total of five times. Although like all other forms of building, adapted to the
each new issue had been adapted to take new technical conditions in a way appropriate to
technical developments into account, changes the material, thus proving its unique, fascin-
to the standards and regulations governing the ating character. However, realization and
building industry, likewise changing architectu- aesthetic accomplishment did not always
ral fashions and aesthetic values, had assumed correspond to these developments; shortco-
such dimensions over this long period of time mings are evident which must be attributed
that a completely new edition of the work had to the designers and observers but not the
by now become essential. This new edition masonry construction itself.
would allow the authors to present, demon- This new edition of the Masonry Construction
strate and assess the current state of the art Manual provides a fresh, apposite means of
in masonry construction. expression for the latest developments in this
There are many indications that masonry con- field. It acts as a textbook for planners, tea-
struction will, in future, be paid more attention chers and students, as a work of reference for
in the building industry. Although masonry was all today's issues in masonry construction, and
just as popular as ever during the late 20th also as a source of inspiration for individual
century, in terms of respect and significance it creations in masonry, a material which imme-
had taken a back seat behind elegant designs diately inspires engineering faith, which quickly
of metal, stone panels and glass. Today, we reveals the limits to its engineering and archi-
detect a need for a style of architecture that tectural strengths, and thereby exerts a unique
puts a personal imprint on a structure to con- incentive to draw artistic vigour from this di-
trast with the anonymously controlled produc- lemma. The simplicity of the masonry material
tion process. Masonry construction can achie- allows the observer to experience the design
ve this. process, as it were, including him in the cre-
The requirements of energy conservation, ation - watching and supervising. This com-
which play an ever increasing role in building, pulsion to establish clarity leads to a vitality
can be realized in masonry in a way that is which fascinates us again and again on build-
compatible with our modern lives. In its infinite ings of masonry.
number of possibilities we see the spirit and
charm of an ancient but never outdated trade. The Authors
The revolutionary technical inventions of the
19th century, which made possible construc-
tions of concrete, reinforced concrete, steel,
6
Part 1 • Masonry in architecture
What is masonry?
Positions in history
Masonry materials • Clay brick masonry •

The unifying force of building • The plastic
spirit in Greek and Roman architecture •
Technical advances in Roman antiquity •
Technical development in the Middle Ages •
Geometry and system in the Middle Ages •
The world as a representational system •
The functional method • Technical develop-
ments in the 19th century • The technical
aesthetics of brick • Historicism and dog-
matism • Jugendstil - a new path • The
United States in the 19th century • Action-
oriented building • The power of expression
in continuous space • System rationality
and structural analysis
Design
Basics • Manufacture • Formats • Colours

and surfaces • The bond • Natural stone •
The joint • Division in masonry • Vaults •
Openings and lintels • Columns and piers •
Plinths and ramps • Terminations and junc-
tions • Sills • Framework • Free-standing
walls
Masonry - today and t o m o r r o w
8
Masonry in architecture
Rolf Ramcke
What is masonry? In each instance, we aim to answer the ques-

tion: What is masonry?
We rarely see the simplicity of building - the
layering and jointing - at work on modern con- The question of authenticity is a natural by-
struction sites. Today, the scene is dominated product of this investigation. Illusions, even
by "montage", assembly and prefabricated forgeries can be legitimate means of design.
building components. "Montage", it would The observer is deliberately addressed. The
seem, has come to dominate our everyday person shapes the perception. A pheno-
lives. Robert Musil even likened a person's menology of perception would lead to the
character, his nature, to a "montage". What we question of what is illusory in an illusion, what is
experience as nature is merely naturalized. On forged in a forgery. The question of authenticity
closer inspection, the fiction of untouched and verisimilitude is one of image interpretation
nature is rapidly debunked. and discovery.
These internal and external conditions of daily Another question arises from the fact that the
life are rarely at the forefront of our thoughts. It technical development in building and the per-
takes images of catastrophic events - a car ception of building have grown in opposite
accident, a building after an explosion - to directions, with no parallels or converging
open a window and look behind the mask of lines. Thus far, there are few convincing
stability. The main task of the mask is to pro- 1.1.1 answers that provide a clear differentiation -
vide a visual representation of stability without from the perspective of design - between the
being stable itself. meaning of layering units as a half-brick curtain
turns out to be antagonistic. Being simple is not wall or as a bonded wall. Where does this
If we are only too willing to accept the daily the same as being accommodating. Simplicity deficit originate? Is it a poverty of theory?
"montage" of architecture as an image, it is tends to baffle and amaze because it contains
because we live in an image-driven world. what is basic and renders it visible. And finally, there is yet another conflict to be
Images have more clout than the objects they addressed, one that has arisen only recently in
represent. Hence the importance of the ob- Building a wall is an activity that obscures its the urban renewal of Berlin and in the current
server and his perception. He must decipher own process. A wall is impenetrable, its core is debate of tectonic versus geometric architec-
the illusion and judge the veracity of the image inaccessible. Layering and jointing enable the tural interpretation. The morphological chal-
in its deciphered state. In other words: the act surface to communicate this activity in extra- lenge that a building's character must express
of looking shapes the object that is looked ordinary variety, as if the surface held out a its function seems to contradict another chal-
upon. And the image formed by the act of look- promise to provide insight into the plan of the lenge, namely that the facade must reflect the
ing is also changed. On closer inspection, the internal design. The observer is always in building's functions. In other words, the facade
image of our highly artificial world is revealed search of traces. Traces intentionally and un- is understood as a mirror of internal relation-
as a web of relationships between its compo- intentionally left behind on the surface of the ships. Is the expression in masonry an exten-
nents. wall are self-referential signs, the legacy of its sion of the building's character, directed at
mass. It has appropriately been referred to as effect? Or should masonry be an informative
Today, building is a deliberate and carefully mimesis, a play of gestures and expressions. reflection of internal processes relating to
planned intervention in this vast array of mutual The interpretation of the observer produces a structure, building science and use? We've
dependencies, in an effort to render them different cipher for each age, thereby forming a come full circle, back to our original question:
accessible within the planning limitations and new image of history. All surfaces - even those What is masonry?
to subjugate them to our intention. Unintention- that are hermetic - are visible and hence open
al effects must be taken into consideration. to interpretation.
In this interpretation of building, material is but The following sections explore a variety of posi-
one interchangeable aspect of planning, tions against the background of the history of
dependent on supply, The formative and aes- masonry. They are by no means intended as
thetic power of the natural resistance inherent examples for contemporary building but allow
in a material is simply eliminated through sub- us to draw conclusions with regard to our own
stitution. This "virtual" approach to design perception. These conclusions, in turn, can
makes building materials arbitrary in a synthe- alter our present perspectives, thereby making
sizing manner. Resistance is not tolerated. a contribution to current issues in designing
Layering and jointing, the simplicity of building masonry structures.
9
Positions in history moulding or shaping them with moisture. They

must be blended with siliceous sand and othe
When people shifted from a nomadic to a settled aggregates. Straw or chaff are common aggre
lifestyle, they began to build walls to create gates that have been used for the past 16 000
solid, self-made security, enduring foundations years. They improve the tensile strength of
for settlements, to differentiate between identi- loam and dry out more evenly. The sandy filler
ty, beginning and end. Such concepts are only provide the supporting and loadbearing func-
insufficiently explained by metaphors of estab- tion. Loam prepared in this way can be worked
lishing roots or by indigenous customs. How- in moist consistency. During the drying process,
ever, giving form to that which is formless is a the clay particles form a solid envelope around
basic human need, as is the instinct to explain the coarser sand grains, decreasing the
the exotic, to conquer fear, to oppose the over- degree of shrinkage and ensuring that it is
whelming onslaught of nature with order, to evenly distributed, to produce a stable struc-
transform the heterogeneous outside into a ture. Clay soil that is the product of wind ero-
homogeneous inside. Transferred to the interior sion tends to more blended even in its natural
domain, the hidden materiality of masonry is state and not as "rich" (in clay content). In
expressed in how the mass of the wall, its other words, clay does not set like hydraulic
weight, is designed. The history of masonry is lime or cement, but simply hardens. This pro-
the story of how this problem has been 1.1.2 cess is reversible. As soon as moisture pene-
approached and newly interpreted in design trates into building components, they lose
across the ages. was already quarried and cut in the same era. hardness and cohesion. This vulnerability to
With the discovery of bronze (circa 2500 BC), water, more specifically to rain, is countered
If we were to present a material chronology of ashlar stones could be cut with great precision. in a variety of ways. We need only look to
these history-making designs to derive and By that time, fired brick had already undergone northern Germany to understand that all
explain the current state of our culture, or yet, if a long evolution. In the river basins of the Nile, methods basically aimed at providing protec-
we were to attempt to discover a causality the Euphrates, the Tigris and the Indus, tion against wind erosion and rain washout.
between historic phenomena and ourselves, archaeological traces have been discovered Here we find farmhouses in the northern plain
we would inadvertently fall into the trap of two and researched of early civilizations that used which feature contained rammed earth screeds
questionable misconceptions. First, when we both fired and unfired, i.e. sun-baked, brick. In in their living areas and barns well into the 20th
look at buildings from the past, our interpreta- Mesopotamia, bordered by the Euphrates and century. Coupled with a core of packed stone
tion is always informed by contemporary the Tigris rivers, builders employed bricks of these screeds are impervious to moisture rising
knowledge, that is, we look at historic manifes- different colours, and even glazed brick or tile, from the ground, for clay can be waterproof
tations through the lens of modern contexts. as early as 3000 BC. The Tomb of Menis, circa when used in layers. Clearly, building with clay
And second, we are far from being distanced, 3000 BC, was built with sun-baked clay bricks. was (and is) not only common in arid, equato-
uninvolved observers. Rather, we are partici- The lower reaches of the Indus River were home al climate zones. The properties of the material
pants who cannot escape our own history and to sophisticated cultures with major urban and its workability, the excellent insulating and
- in that sense - we're always too late. Every centres, e.g. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, thermal storage characteristics of this mono-
age rediscovers history. History only exists where houses up to five storeys high were built lithic construction method, and finally the low
through our own awareness of it. Hence, the with fired bricks. These structures offered an energy consumption in manufacture, were
history of building does not unfold in a continu- impressive degree of comfort. These cultures, obviously equally appreciated in mountainous
ity of meaning. It is a record of events that among the earliest to be documented, and countries and in the lowlands of northern
change what came before, interpreting it, cre- other building cultures in Asia and on the Ame- Europe. Nor does the list of advantageous
ating new contexts, and, paradoxically, result- rican continents, relied on natural stone as well properties end here; the high dead weight also
ing in a reverse chronology. Events make or as fired and unfired clay brick for building, and provides good sound insulation, low natural
alter history. most continue to do so to this day. A large per- resonance and fire resistance.
centage of the world population still lives in Clay has the ability to absorb, store and re-
buildings constructed of clay in a variety of lease air humidity. Although this is a positive
What follows is therefore not a chronology or
processing methods. characteristic in principle, it can also result in
even a documentation of progress. Instead, we
unhealthy living conditions in humid climate
propose to illuminate specific positions in his-
zones.
tory and the changes in production and manu-
facturing techniques across the ages. Clay brick masonry The plinth was usually built in natural stone, as
protection against splashing rainwater and
Loam is a mixture of clay and siliceous sand. washout. Even the early cultures of Meso-
Masonry materials The clay components consist of ultrafine potamia protected their walls with reed matting
platelets of broken-down primary rock, such as suspended in front of the external surfaces,
With the building of walls came the manufac- granite, gneiss or feldspar. The crystalline with bitumen additives, or by facing solid clay
ture of specialized building materials: mortar structure of the platelets binds the clay parti- brick walls with fired bricks on the outside.
as binder and masonry units. Bitumen ("mineral cles. When moisture is added, the water Material erosion is also minimized by the shape
pitch") as a binder for or additive in mortar can adheres to the platelets, surrounds them and into which the clay mortar daub is formed, a
be traced back to prehistoric times in Meso- causes the clay to expand and grow slick in softly rounded roof parapet covered with
potamia. Hand-moulded clay bricks found in consistency. Pure types of clay, which exist in stones, or sharp points that offer little resis-
the lower layers of Nile deposits in Egypt date all parts of the world in alluvial deposits, are tance to rainwater runoff, a solution whose or
back as far as 14.000 BC, while the knowledge unsuitable as building materials since they lack disadvantage is that it requires constant main-
of preserving clay bricks by firing has been dimensional stability and tend to shrink and tenance (fig. 1.1.4).
documented for circa 5000 BC. Natural stone crack during the drying process that follows
10
A simple means of rain protection is to build

beneath a rocky overhang; this is common in
the south-west of North America and in Mali in
Africa (fig. 1.1.2).
It goes without saying that roofs with wide canti-
levered projections also provide rain protection
for clay walls.
Similar climatic conditions and building materi-
als have obviously resulted in equally similar
architectural forms in all areas of the world for
millennia. However, this alone should not be
understood as a cultural criterion: the urban
clay structures in Yemen, for example, are
distinctly different from those in Mali even
though they are subject to identical external
conditions (figs. 1.1.3 and 1.1.4).
In addition to hand-beading techniques and

rammed earth technique with sliding formwork, 1.1.3
masonry construction with clay brick has been
the most common building technique world-
wide from the beginning of recorded history.
Wall thickness ranges between 400 and 650 mm.
As we describe later on, there are a number of
shell-like or rhomboid brick formats whose stab-
ility under load is improved with joggle jointing,
in addition to orthogonal bricks with a nominal
size of 100 x 200 x 400 mm. Clay brick con-
struction is suitable for multistorey structures.
The above-mentioned limitations in construc-
tion technology have produced architecture of
stunning sculptural variety within the framework
of these parameters. The material can be formed
and worked by hand, and allows for a plasticity
of design, which can be highly expressive.
The history of advanced civilizations abounds

with examples of structures built with unfired
brick, many of which have gone unnoticed as
such, Even large sections of the Great Wall of
China are built from clay that is still stable
today. And in the age we generally associate
with the monumental stone architecture of the
pharaohs, most Egyptians lived in dwellings
constructed of unfired clay bricks. Rome, too,
evolved from being a city of clay to a city of
marble (or, to be precise, marble facing).
1.1.1 Tunnel entrance to the stadium at Olympia,

Greece, 300 BC
1.1.2 Pueblo in Mesa Verde, USA
1.1.3 Clay architecture in Yemen
1.1.4 Clay architecture in Mali
1.1.4
11
The unifying force of building masterful example of relief. Similar brick reliefs mental stairway led to the top platform from
had appeared once before, on the great temple which a two-storey temple rose into the sky.
The urban Sumerian and Babylonian cultures at Uruk, where perfectly preserved niche figures The tower was part of a temple complex on the
were the first to develop baked and glazed from circa 1400 BC have been excavated shores of the Euphrates. Archaeological find-
brick successfully and to use coloured bricks (fig.1.1.7). ings of inscribed clay tablets indicate that each
in surface ornamentation. This achievement The most significant structures of the Sumerian section of the tower had a specific meaning.
stood at the end of a long development be- and Babylonian cultures were soaring temple The same tablets also give us fairly good
ginning around 3500 BC. The most stunning buildings, called ziggurats, erected as stepped insight into the liturgical rites practised there.
example among excavated fragments from this pyramids on whose uppermost platform stood What is important in the context of this study is
period is the Ishtar Gate in Babylon (fig. 1.1.5). a temple reached via one or several continu- the fact that the building of the ziggurats was
It was built under Nebuchadnezzar II around ous stairways. The earliest ziggurats were con- undertaken as an act of promoting culture and
600 BC. The complex at the Ishtar Gate was structed from unbaked bricks and presumably unification. "[...] let us build a city and a tower,
both processional roadway and defence fortifi- faced at a later period in baked brick. The best whose top may reach unto heaven [..] lest we
cation. The gate was ornamented with over known are the Ziggurat at Ur (2300 BC; fig. 1.1.6) be scattered abroad upon the face of the
500 animal reliefs on the front and side walls, and the Tower of Babel, which was destroyed whole earth." (Genesis, 10, 11:4)
integrated into the faced wail as brick reliefs. and reconstructed several times. The last, and Babylonian culture declined only when the zig-
The size, splendour and artistry of the individ- largest, reconstruction of the tower had a gurats ceased to be effective symbols of the
ual figures of lions, bulls and mythical crea- 90-m-wide foundation and rose to an equal unifying force of communal building after
tures in the masonry on either side of the pro- height. Calculations estimate that 85 million 1800 years of continuous building and recon-
cessional roadway of the Ishtar Gate is a bricks were used in the construction. A monu- struction. European humanistic tradition has
1.1.5
12
frequently explored this symbol as a metaphor

for the unifying force of language or the confu-
sion that results from a Babylonian profusion of
languages. In his short story The Coat-of-Arms
of the City, Franz Kafka describes how building
intended as a unifying activity in fact under-
mines unity, concluding that architectural per-
fection breeds a yearning for destruction.
Architecture owes one of its most significant

inventions to the "Land Between Two Rivers":
the vault. Excavations at Ur, on the lower
reaches of the Euphrates, led to the discovery
of Sumerian tombs of kings with brick vaults
constructed circa 3500-3400 BC.
The shift in early Sumerian culture towards
durable, baked brick, vaulting and the inven-
tion of cuneiform script mark a spiritual and
intellectual liberation whose profundity is
unique in human history. It was a victory over
the force of gravity that seemed to emanate
from unworked stone. In northern Europe, 1.1.6
efforts to overcome this force during the same
period were expressed by assembling huge
boulders into dolmens or cromlechs on bar-
rows (burial mounds) and by engraving the
surfaces with symbols. Stones were regarded
as sacred objects with magical powers. Work-
ing the stone created a sense of coming to
terms with, or perhaps even taming, these
powers, and appropriating stone as a building
material and vehicle to express one's own
ideas and perceptions.
Despite many highly inventive efforts, the tran-
sitory nature of buildings constructed from sun-
baked clay bricks was demonstrated all too
frequently in the erosion and subsequent
oblivion of even the most monumental struc-
tures. There had been a prevailing sense that
this was an inevitable fate. These two achieve-
ments in building technique responded to
those fears and, in combination with the inven-
tion of cuneiform script, satisfied a need for
permanence. Man's domination over the mater-
ial world had begun.
Ever since we have become accustomed to
building with other materials (iron, glass, con-
crete), the sense of the power of worked stone
has increased. What seemed like a natural
manner of building for millennia has become
not only a symbol of life in the past or of a nat-
ural state of things, but also a key symbol of
cultural evolution, of human activity.
The towering structure of the ziggurat is an
expression of the superhuman effort to create
order through a communal effort, of opposing
the risk of being "scattered" and falling into
obscurity by setting a monument, of linking
heaven and earth with a stairway. In short, of
1.1.5 Ishtar Gate of Babylon, circa 570 BC

1.1.6 Ziggurat of Urnammu in Ur, circa 2100 BC
1.1.7 Detail of wall relief on Innin temple in Uruk,
circa 1430 BC
1.1.7
13
reacting to life's uncertainties by creating per-

manence through self-determination. Taken to
the extreme, this approach can lead to para-
doxical solutions, as it did under the pharaohs
in Egypt when quarried stone was manipulated
to simulate sun-baked brick in a tribute to the ,
emancipating value of man-made units.
The plastic spirit in Greek and Roman architecture
The architectural knowledge of Mesopotamia,

Egypt and India reached Greece, regarded by
many as the cradle of architectural develop-
ment in Europe, by many different routes:
trade, war and migration.
Masonry laid in courses of fired and unfired

bricks and natural stone was the standard
building material for most building tasks, even
for major tasks such as the city wall of Athens
(fig. 1.1.9), royal palaces and temple interiors. 1.1.8
Vaulting techniques were also widely known.
At its best, however, masonry from this period of looking, objects are brought to life as draw- compendium that contains all that is necessary
is sculpture built of finely worked ashlar stone. ings themselves. The term "vision" defines the for building, from material selection to material
The plasticity in Greek temple structures stems principle of designing as an act of remem- manufacture, and from design to the execution
from the mastery of representing the human brance, awareness, and communicating know- of a variety of building tasks. Vitruvius engages
form in sculpture and drama as a swelling ledge, whose prerequisite is self-knowledge in a polemic condemnation of "disfiguration"
body held in tension by pulsating liquids. This rather than knowledge of the world. and the lack of expertise among certain archi-
idea applies to the temples of the classic Hel- tects and builders. He aimed to develop a uni-
lenic era. Ashlar stones were subtly modified To recognize or determine knowledge of the fying technical language of building. Two of his
with carefully calculated minimal deviations in world, origin, references and influences-these basic ideas have been revisited over the past
measurement (fig. 1.1.8). are what make Roman architecture so attrac- two millennia. In analogy to proportion in
This "animation" of the stone and of the struc- tive to the educated observer. Fascinating though human anatomy, Vitruvius demanded that the
ture would remain a secret for millennia. Enta- these aspects are, they do not help us to eval- internal proportions of a building must similarly
sis, the very slight curvature on columns and uate its achievement. To do proper justice to be derived from the building itself and to
plinths, has been a familiar term only since the the grandiose technical and visual feats of ensure that each building component relates to
early 19th century. Schinkel referred to these engineering, we would do better to undertake the others in scale. This is indeed a challenge
optical illusions as "irrational tumescences". a technological and historical inquiry into the worth supporting in our modern world of ubiq-
His buildings contain inclines, curvatures and science of building. In the first century AD, uitous external standardization, where too
banks that are so subtle that one has to look Vitruvius authored just such a treatise on build- much attention is paid to unifying scale and too
long and hard to discover them. And even the ing in 10 volumes. It is a systematic, scholarly little to the internal relationships within a building.
"unaware" observer cannot escape their effect.
Hellenic buildings, especially their isodose

ashlar masonry (fig. 1.1.10), demonstrate per-
fect technical mastery of the task of breathing
life into each stone, each joint as an individual
element, achieving buildings that are based on
an intrinsic scale. Viollet-le-Duc gave us an
antithetical definition of this design law of anti-
quity by noting that as the real scale of a (Greek)
temple increases, man becomes smaller, while
the soaring height of a medieval cathedral has
no such influence. The building grows inde-
pendently.
Viollet-le-Duc's remark indicates that the inher-
ent laws of Hellenic architecture are linked to
effect, much like an antique statue. The read-
ability of its distinct character - which the
observer can reconstruct in his own mind - is
self-referential.
Outside is inside, and this inside reflects our
own character. The object we are looking upon
is shaped by our interest in looking. In the act
1.1.9 1.1.10
14
Technical advances in Roman antiquity
The basis for the development and outstanding

quality of Roman engineering lay in the ration-
alization and commercialization of the building
task, Construction materials and cladding
materials were systematically separated, which
led to tremendous advantages in organization.
In the Augustan era (around the time of Christ's
birth), Rome consisted largely of buildings con-
structed from unfired clay brick. They were ren-
dered or faced with ceramic tiles.
Fired brick became a cost-efficient, industrially
manufactured construction material that was,
however, rarely in evidence in the form of fac-
ing brickwork. The brick industry had its own
differentiated hierarchy: there were state-run
brickworks and the legions in the provinces
operated their own brickworks to satisfy public
and private supply needs. In addition, there
were private brick manufacturers, who usually 1.1.11
set up field factories next to construction sites.
We have fairly precise information about the
manufacturing processes and the variety and
quality of the products as a result of excava-
tions of entire brickworks and manufacturing
tools. One of the largest brick-firing kilns from
the 3rd/4th century was discovered in Rehlin-
gen near Trier in 1999. The kiln alone mea-
sures 8 x 13 m. The bricks used in buildings
within the sphere of Roman culture measured
between 200 and 800 mm in length and
between 20 and 100 mm in thickness. They
were rectangular, square or divided along the
diagonal, that is triangular, to use the material
as efficiently as possible and to achieve a bet-
ter bond between shell and infill. They were
often laid in header courses between natural
stone masonry. The bed joints were up to
30 mm thick. Perpends were kept to a minimal
dimension, The effect of this masonry, which
came to light only as Roman buildings began
to decay, is one of powerful stability with rigor-
ous courses enhanced even further by the
nearly imperceptible perpends. Vaults were
easily built with this brick material as the wedge-
shaped joints were never too widely spaced
because of shallow prefabricated bricks.
Wedge-shaped bricks (voussoirs) were also
used and openings were often covered by sev-
eral layers of arches (figs. 1.1.12 and 1.1.13),
1.1.8 Poseidon Temple, Paestum, 460-450 BC

1.1.9 Athens city wall at Karameikos, in 1900,
clay brick on natural stone base
1.1.10 Antique isodone ashlar masonry at the Temple
of Nike, Athens, 421 BC
1.1.11 Roman masonry charts, after Rondelet
1.1.12 Imperial Baths, Trier, begun 293 AD, main apse
1.1.12
15
Masonry generally consisted of exterior leaves, in the East Roman Empire. The cupola of the times in two storeys. What we see here is
clad and ornamented with precious materials Hagia Sophia in Byzantium, for example, was naked masonry of huge granite ashlar units,
or plaster. Coarse rubble was used to fill the built in 532-537 AD: spanning 35 m, it is one of without mortar and joggle jointing (fig. 1.1.14).
space between these leaves. At times, the the most impressive and famous masonry The adaptation of the Greek universe of gods,
cavity was also filled with a mass of gravel and cupolas in the world. their philosophy, the copying and reproduction
broken rubble bound with trass, reinforced at With the fall of the Roman Empire, this know- of Greek works of art and architectural form are
regular intervals with three to four layers of ledge was lost in the West for some time. We universal characteristics of the Roman culture
brick masonry (Vitruvius: Greek method) or need only look at the Kaiserdom in Speyer, of antiquity. But Roman architecture is also
simply filled without header courses (Vitruvius: built some 1000 years after the Pantheon (span distinct for the widespread use of facing and
Roman method). The filler mass (opus cae- approx. 40 m) as the first, fully vaulted church cladding elements. The organizational division
mentitium) corresponds to modern concrete. space north of the Alps. It was to span barely of construction tasks into components with
Opus caementitium was also used without 14 m, yet even this proved a daring feat at the specific functions led to the development of
masonry as a substructure in large buildings, time and it succeeded only after several failed architecture marked by a high degree of struc-
such as amphitheatres, cast in formwork as attempts and structural modifications. tural sophistication. Parallels with the schemat-
walls or even in loadbearing vaults. The ring Another area in which Roman engineering ic repetition that is quite frequent in today's
wall construction of the Pantheon (120-25 AD) excelled was aqueduct and bridge construc- architecture of cladding and sheeting are ob-
is an example of this type of brick construction tion in stone. The aqueduct at Segovia, circa vious and, perhaps, cause for concern.
with opus caementitium filling. Roman architec- 100 AD, is part of a 17-km-long water conduit In the sophisticated context of rational Roman
ture was highly sophisticated in the vaulting that bridges a valley and leads to the high town architecture, the Tomb of Theoderich in Raven-
technique. It was evolved further and perfected of Segovia in a succession of 119 arches, at na (first quarter of 6th century), topped by a
1.1.13
16
monolith of massive proportions, appears

almost atavistic.
After the technical and organizational know-
ledge and traditional experience had dis-
appeared almost completely in Europe after
the fall of the Roman Empire, marginal influ-
ences of upper Italian, Byzantine and Arabian
architecture reached the countries to the
north of the Alps in the age of the Carolingians
(800 AD onwards) and the Ottonians (950 AD
onwards).
Technical development in the Middle Ages
We cannot describe here the full range of

problems that arose in building tasks in the
Middle Ages, such as the endless difficulties in
transport and mortar production, or the quarry-
ing and cutting of stone, and brick manu-
facture. The latter took several years from dig-
ging clay to storage, chilling in winter, forming, 1.1.14
drying and firing to the final step of sorting out
nearly 40% rejects. In contrast to construction
with natural stone, building now became a mat-
ter of long-term planning and obtaining materi-
als far in advance. Important advances
occurred between the 10th and 11th centuries
in natural stone masonry, all aimed at reducing Chartres
the time required for construction and improv-
ing efficiency in manufacturing. This goal was
achieved by means of rationalization and
series production.
When stone was first quarried, the practice
was to break off as large a block of stone as
possible and cut it into ashlar stones, which
were then made to fit into the masonry. The
cutting, transport and laying of stone had to be
carried out consecutively and this slowed the
St Denis 1.1.15
progress of construction quite considerably.
Preparatory work in winter did not help to
speed up the laying process and continuous
bed joints were simply not possible.
The masonry in the west tower on the north
side of St Cyril in Gernrode from the 10th cen-
tury is an example of this working method (fig.
1.1.16), while the immediately adjacent mason-
ry of the west choir from the 12th century
reveals a more methodical, organized
approach. Quarrying and cutting stone in
advance meant that the masonry could be laid
much more rapidly. The masonry bond in
Chartres Cathedral (fig. 1.1.15) is horizontal
with embedded joints. Wall and piers had to be
built simultaneously. While preparation and
storage had become possible, they were still
cumbersome tasks. The nave of St Denis, on
the other hand, shows piers that were manu-
1.1.13 Roman masonry, Imperial Baths, Trier

1.1.14 Roman aqueduct in Segovia, circa 100 AD
1.1.15 Masonry bonds of the cathedrals at Chartres
and St Denis
1.1.16 Collegiate church St Cyril, Gernrode,
10th and 12th centuries
1.1.16
17
1.1.17 St Martin, Chapaise, Burgundy, 1030/1040 AD

1.1.18 St Philibert, Tournus, Burgundy, 1020 AD
1.1.19 St Etienne, Nevers, 1063-97 AD
1.1.20 St Mary's, Stralsund, first half of 15th century
1.1.21 Prague Cathedral, 1344-85 AD
1.1.22 St Nikolai, Stralsund, south tower,
second half of 13th century
1.1.23 Tracery on St Catherine's in Brandenburg,
1401 AD
Chapel at St Philibert shows the same capital

motif some 20 years earlier in a geometry that
is even more economic and elemental (fig.
1.1.18). The primeval, dense, heavy, almost
otherworldly power of the wall speaks directly
to the senses, without any need for intellectual
interpretation. Over the subsequent centuries,
1.1.17 a concept of masonry would develop out of the
elemental-geometric division of space and the
factured, laid and staggered independently of Geometry and system in the Middle Ages systematic organization of the plan, whose
the masonry. The masonry between the projec- main objective was to dematerialize the wall.
tions was constructed with a great quantity of Early Romanesque churches express the The architectural forms seem to negate their
prefabricated pieces in frame construction. weight and strength of masonry and enclosed own volume and weight, and draw our attention
By improving the arrangement of joints, the spatial volume in an elemental, "cubic" man- away from their material self. Indeed, the mas-
moulded bricks were standardized and the ner. With the rise of the Cluniac order in France, sive material dimension is but a representation
number of types reduced. The ultimate goal Burgundy became the centre for sacral archi- of something greater. In other words, they do
was to develop ashlar forms that would mini- tecture in Europe. The Jurassic limestone of not derive their right to exist solely from the
mize the need for pitting and reduce cutting Burgundy was processed into rubble stone, gaze of the observer. They demand no optical-
time, transport and waste. which marks the stunning simplicity of the capi- spatial comparison or visual perception, but
Without this extraordinary development, the tals at St Martin (fig. 1.1.17) at the transition the viewer's identification with a speculative
speed with which church buildings were erect- from the square cross section of the arched construct of meanings presented as a wall that
ed in the 13th century would not have been vault to the column in pure geometric form. Its aspires to an intellectual superstructure, an
possible. The sophistication in design is brittle roughness gives the stone a particular allegoric interpretation. In complete contrast to
matched by an equally sophisticated approach plasticity and supports the demi-columns, as if the sensuous-spatial presence of stone in St
to planning and labour organization. this were completely natural. The Michael Martin in Burgundy (fig. 1.1.17), the theme here
is to tame this primordial power of the stone, to
transpose and integrate it into a transcendent
hierarchy of meanings. The observer is chal-
lenged to grasp the meaning of the wall. This
presupposes that he already has an idea of the
meaning and is willing to subordinate himself
to its abstraction by reconstructing, as it were,
the "train of thought contained in the masonry".
This makes a high demand on the observer
indeed, triggered by the feeling of identifying
with the wall. During this period of the Gothic
age, masonry - especially in churches - is a
thoroughly systematic, cleverly calculated geo-
metric game and a mathematical game, too, in
which the smallest part visualizes the whole. It
is a functional construct in the purest sense, in
which all parts reciprocally create, cause,
explain and derive from one another. Such
masonry systems do not create spaces.
Instead, they represent a wholly independent,
transcendental world of their own, inhabited by
flows of energy. Space is only manifest within
the diaphanous, translucently formed wall,
1.1.18 1.1.19
18
1.1.20
which creates its own boundary by means of Church (fig. 1.1.22) is a textbook example of In later developments of Gothic masonry the
its visual divisions. This idea of masonry is per- Gothic masonry: the four-part recesses demon- forces represented in the masonry are resolved
fectly expressed in the triforium of Prague strate the energy at work in the depth of the with Mannerist aloofness, until vault ribs tra-
Cathedral (fig. 1.1.21). Peter Parler lets the tri- masonry. The rendered tracery panels - like the verse space freely and unencumbered and
forium arcades swing into the attached colon- entire three-dimensional treatment - are then return to the surface. In other examples,
nettes and back again. This movement is con- images of the diaphanous nature of the interior sharp-edged, sinewy profiles rise from sur-
tinued in the clerestory windows. The result is space. The tracery that stretches like a mem- faces soft as putty in an equally eloquent ex-
that the entire plane of the wall comes alive in a brane across the north and south gables of the pression of internal energy. The resolution of
surge that leaps from the internal wall volume, St Catherine's Church in Brandenburg (fig. forces in vault ribs sometimes misses the
which the wall creates by its own boundaries, 1.1.23) is one of the richest and most precious springing, landing next to it instead. With the
to the adjacent borders, exposing the internal facades of the Hanseatic Gothic. The north gable advent of the more playful Mannerism in the
energy of the wall in an animated surface. especially is realized in complete indepen- 16th century, the immaterial-spiritual inter-
Such artificial masonry concepts are not depen- dence from the building task itself; it perfectly pretation of masonry begins to wane.
dent on the design potentiality of the material. embodies the paradox of minimizing material
They are equally effective when applied to brick. by maximizing the effort put into working it, in
The fenestration in the south tower of St Nikolai order to express the spiritual, referential goal.
1.1.21 1.1.22 1.1.23
19
The world as a representational system Gothic architecture, (indeed, its meaning was
so significant that it was placed beneath the
The Palazzo Pitti in Florence (1457), a structure vaulting crown in a detached, plastic manner in
built for defence like all Florentine palazzi of its the Late Gothic) then the spatial boundary of
day, features a plinth storey of barbaric, almost volumes is now emphasized in a downward,
violent, rusticated ashlar stones of mammoth lateral and upward direction. The spatial rela-
proportions. Stone with such rough surface t i o n s h i p s - t h a t is, top/bottom, right/left, and in
treatment and an almost "natural" appearance front/behind - become the principal theme.
was chiefly a building material This made it possible to create perspectival
for fortresses with little artistic value. It had no sequences. Gothic walls, on the other hand,
relationship to the elemental, pure cubism of had been designed to materialize energy set
Roman architecture. Its purpose was simply to into a void and not to enclose space. Differenti-
be coarse so that one might tap into the violent ation of planes - front, rear and lateral -
force of the material as a design element - an engaged the mind of the observer, demanded
interpretation of the natural power of stone that the purifying, creative effect of looking. It also
harks back to ancient beliefs in the material's required specific constructional means. Per-
magical powers in Norse barrows. spective transforms the world into a new sys-
The reference here is not to the power of the tem of representation. It aims to condition the
spirit or yet the religious power of healing, but eye to recognize and comprehend clarity.
to political might and the power of wealth. The Transposing the material character of un-
oversized dimensions had no practical pur- processed stone to a processed wall as if it 1.1.24
pose for defence, for it was no more than fac- were unprocessed, as seen on the Palazzo
ing bonded to a masonry backing. Rustication, Pitti, is an idea that would become an enduring for which it was not originally intended, when it
introduced here as a new motif in architecture, formative element for the development of archi- is masked, when what is actually false is clev-
has recurred in the history of architecture in a tecture in the modern age. Palladio's applica- erly put right again, the observer is enchanted
variety of forms ever since, most recently in the tion of the Greek temple front on the facades of and the link with reality is multiplied and modi-
form of citation. his Venetian churches resulted in presentations fied through the visual reality of the architec-
Another feature worth noting in Renaissance of the facade as a series of images staggered ture. The question of what is masonry actually,
architecture is the emphasis on the quoin. The in relief (fig. 1.1.24). By translating, modifying is answered here with a proposal that takes us
corner, where two walls converge, was struc- or multiplying the original figure of the temple, by surprise: it is an altered reality that is open
turally reinforced in ashlar masonry by choos- the architect transforms the facade into an to interpretation. All the world becomes a stage
ing larger formats with deeper bonds and in image of the same. on which everything is a show. The Hofbiblio-
brickwork frequently by means of random bond Applied to material characteristics, this thek in Vienna (fig. 1.1.27), whose elaborately
or ashlar bonded with masonry. This reinforce- approach of mental and visual paraphrases designed rendered facade has in fact been
ment by projecting the corner stones from the creates architectonic quality. To reconstruct achieved with only a few projections and
wall or visually emphasizing them by means of rough-hewn ashlar in rendered brick masonry recesses, can serve as a perfect example of
a pier, indicates a new attitude born from look- is a deliberate deception undertaken to enrich plasticity in plaster design. The facade con-
ing back at the lessons of antiquity. It was a the visual experience (fig. 1.1.26). tains only a small number of natural stone com-
means of creating a clear contrast between Plaster instead of stone, stucco vaulting ponents. A disciplined concept achieves this
buildings and surroundings, volume and instead of stone vaults, colour instead of relief elaborate effect by resorting to the Baroque
space. - in short, illusion and revelation - contribute to stylistic vehicle of crossover. Thus the plinth in
If the keystone was a metaphorical completion the complexity of the observer's experience. the central projection rusticated with horizontal
of the flush system of wall and vault in medieval When material is borrowed for artful purposes grooves and batter has a more powerful pres-
ence than the incline at the corner projections,
which has been reduced to a delicate, angled
edge projecting from the vertical surface. By
continuing the rustication upwards into the sur-
faces between the projections, the plasticity is
reversed: the window reveals retreat and the
observer, seeking order, is confused.
The same can be said of the two-storey-high

main windows in the projections. A string
course, which runs along the surface between
the first and second floor, and which seems to
have been placed there as an afterthought, lies
behind the projecting pilasters but in front of
the rusticated surfaces and pulls the openings
back into the facade relief. More confusion for
the eye! In the vertical, the same visual ambi-
valence is achieved by repeating the arch
above the main windows on the second floor in
the tympanum of the lateral windows on the
first floor. This puzzling articulation of depth in
the facade is played out on planes that are
1.1.25 1.1.26
20
differentiated by no more than a few centi-

metres. Here is refinement of a rare beauty,
executed in humble plaster. It is founded in the
artistic challenge that we must borrow the
properties of a different material to reveal the
artful truth hidden within the illusion. An effect
that can only succeed if the relationship
between familiarity and alienation is explored
independently each time and brought into har-
mony.
The concept that design is always a process of
translating an idea into material form is the very
foundation of the most powerful spatial inven-
tions of the 18th century. An observer who sur-
renders to these relationships also becomes a
calculated element in the drama. He must
prove his "worth" through his own clever inter-
pretations. This attitude heralds the idea of
exploring the sequence of action itself. Or, to
stay with the image of the world as a stage: the
actors are aware of themselves as actors. This 1.1.27
idea would become the dominant theme as the
second half of the 18th century unfolded, and principle which had inspired a critical study of that looks straight at the viewer. The represen-
ultimately, the point of departure for the disso- the actions of living creatures, especially of tational system has been overthrown!
lution and revolution of all previously familiar humans. Actions, sequences of actions, the The pyramid, built in masonry of alternating
laws of building. relationship between action and man (society), scale (one course corresponding to nearly one
action and object (work) became determinants man-height) renders the temple abstract, that
of building. The challenge that building forms is it sets the temple apart, makes it self-
The functional method should be made to satisfy the needs of human sufficient. It is transformed into a historical set
activity is a purpose-driven demand, which piece.
Conscious experience, that is, an awareness of can only apply to the realization of buildings
one's own action as action, transforms origin for individual uses. It must be differentiated
and destination into a theme. Indeed, it is aware- from the aforementioned functionalistic method,
ness of history in a dual sense: the studied although it is easily confused with it. Here, we
recognition of something as historical simul- are confronted by yet another influence that
taneously recognizes itself to be "historical". changes our understanding of what masonry
This thought process of the Enlightenment is: it is an envelope, a skin stretched around 1.1.24 II Redentore, Venice, begun 1577,
exploded all previously established contexts actions. The distance, which the so-called architect: Andrea Palladio
and moved on to the next logical step: dividing architecture of the revolution had already put 1.1.25 Palazzo Pitti, Florence, begun 1540
the history of building into distinct, readable between itself and the past in the 18th century, 1.1.26 Gustrow Castle, 16th century
is evident in the Utopian drawing by architect 1.1.27 Hofbibliothek, Vienna, 1721-26,
periods. To begin with, the focus was on ex-
architect: Johann Bernhard Fischer
ternal features as criteria for this division. Later, Etienne Boullee (fig. 1.1.28). The doll-like, von Erlach
the division, catalogued as a compendium of diminutive Greek temple appears like an eye 1.1.28 Etienne-Louis Boullee, design
styles, gave rise to studies on the conditions of
style and, by extension, to the need for estab-
lishing one's own stylistic position within this
context of order, which in turn led to the chal-
lenge of defining "style in itself". This approach
was soon revealed as too superficial. Building
was divided into further categories: measure-
ment, space, physics, structure and pro-
duction.
As an extension to the catalogue of definitions,
the individual elements of masonry become
independent of their respective tasks: load-
bearing, insulating, blocking and cladding.
Immaterial tasks are not part of the equation in
this analysis. This (pseudo-)scientific, or rather,
functionalistic method of inquiry has been
applied to building ever since, and changes
have evolved and still evolve on the basis of
ideas that raise the system of self-sufficiency to
a new level, either by reflecting on one's own
ideas or by an awakening to new ideas. An-
other direction evolved out of the 18th-century
1.1.28
21
Technical developments in the 19th century The novelty of Hoffmann's invention was that to inspire a playful treatment of masonry and
the fixed cycle was developed into a continu- trims and, above all, sales.
Set in motion by the principles of the 18th cen- ous process by arranging at least two firing
tury, a drastic change took hold of the process chambers in a circle and by shifting the firing At the same time as Schlickeysen's and Hoff-
of building in the 19th century: the technical or heating process from the outside to the mann's inventions revolutionized brick manu-
and machine development. The manufacture of inside (fig. 1.1.29). The chambers are separat- facturing, the first lever pumps were introduced
masonry bricks was revolutionized by two ed from each other with iron dampers. As soon for a material that had always been an essen-
inventions. In 1854, the Berlin manufacturer as one chamber is loaded with "green" bricks, tial component for building with masonry: mor-
Carl Schlikeysen invented the extrusion press, a stoking apparatus is lowered from the top tar made of sand and lime. The Romans had
which consisted of a worm-like ram and an through a shaft to add fuel. The bricks them- already tried to manufacture building bricks
interchangeable die through which premixed selves serve as a heating grate. When the fir- from mortar, or to use it as filler in twin-leaf
clay was extruded and cut into pieces with a ing process is completed, the stoking appara- walls. However, two prerequisites had to be
wire. The process of brick manufacture could tus is drawn up and the damper is opened in fulfilled to achieve the necessary compressive
thus be transformed into one continuous oper- the direction of the next chamber, closed and strength: the ability to press the material for
ation from preparing the material to firing, so forth. Ring kilns can be operated continu- greater density and solidity, and the ability to
whose every step could be controlled, regul- ously for decades. They were called "efficiency accelerate the setting process, which usually
ated and automated. The same goal had been kilns" because the heating of one firing cham- took two years. Thirty years would pass in
pursued for some time, and experiments had ber also preheated the neighbouring chamber. experiments before an accelerated and prac-
been undertaken in England since the begin- This effect was even augmented by integrating tical setting process was discovered. In 1880
ning of the 17th century. Prior to Schlikeysen's fans to increase the performance despite exist- a patent application for a steam-hardening
invention, bricks were manufactured by hand ing savings in energy and fuel. The inventions process was filed; the first automated, indus-
in a variety of forming and moulding methods. multiplied the production capacity of a brick- trial cylinder press for the production of cal-
This had been linked to a far greater risk of yard fivefold. One weak point in the process cium silicate units was set up in Neumünster.
shrinkage and cracking, as well as greater was the manual loading and unloading of the From there, the building material soon spread
energy requirements and longer production firing chambers. The invention of the tunnel throughout Europe. In structure, calcium sili-
times. A few years later, in 1858, Friedrich Hoff- kiln, which came into use only 10 years after cate units are similar to natural stone and at
mann, also from Berlin, invented the continu- Hoffmann's invention, albeit with some hesita- first they were used in much the same manner.
ous ring kiln, in which brick could be fired more tion at first, made it possible to automate even The inexpensive units were initially produced in
quickly, more economically and using less this step in the process. Some ring kilns are field factories set up right at the construction
energy. Fixed-cycle operation for firing had still in use today. They achieve a livelier surface site. The units were immediately used for pri-
already been introduced in England some time and distinct manufacturing traces by means of vate and public buildings, as well as for indus-
before. That is, two or three kilns were heated scale modifications. In the tunnel kiln, green trial building projects. This development was
from the outside in alternating cycles. As soon bricks were transported through a 40-50 m much helped by the fact that the manufactur-
as one load of bricks was fired and had long firing tunnel, heated from the sides and ers formed an association as early as 1900 and
cooled, it could be removed and the kiln from above. By blowing the oxygen required established quality standards in 1902 that
reloaded. for combustion into the tunnel from the far end, would become the model for brick standardiza-
the fired bricks were automatically cooled tion. To demonstrate that the units were also
down and reached the end of the tunnel ready suitable for facing masonry, buildings were
for unloading. Today, tunnel kilns increase the erected shortly after the start of the 20th cen-
productivity of a comparable brickyard twelve tury in exposed calcium silicate masonry.
fold. Full automation has made heavy manual However, calcium silicate units were only "dis-
labour redundant. Berlin, of which Mark Twain covered" on a large scale as facing bricks in
wrote admiringly (in The Innocents Abroad) the 1960s. The aesthetic appeal of the material
that it was built entirely of stone and immune to lies in its blend of a severe, technical character
conflagrations, consumed 550 million bricks and a natural grain that distinguishes it from all
during its growth spurt in the Grunderzeit in other stone building materials.
1871. The bricks were transported into the city
from surrounding brickyards on barges. By
1905, the figure had risen to 1775 billion bricks.
The ziggurat of Babylon consisted of 85 million
bricks. The performance capacity of the new
building industry increased through the pro-
duction of prefabricated elements in the last
quarter of the 19th century. Prefabricated steel
structures such as Paxton's Crystal Palace or
the Eiffel Tower are not the only examples
worth mentioning in this context. In addition to
construction "kits" for balcony balustrades,
cast-iron fountains, zinc-sheet oriels and pre-
fabricated stucco pieces for interior finishing,
the catalogues of the day offered complete
building kits for the ceramic elements of
masonry: columns, lintels, consoles, crowns 1.1.29 Hoffmann ring kiln, patented in 1858
e t c , which looked liked oversized stone build- 1.1.30 St Matthew's, Berlin, 1844-46,
ing kits by Lilienthal and which were intended architect: Friedrich August Stuler
1.1.31 Jugendstil window in Nancy
1.1.29
22
passionate as it was unremitting. Had senti-

ments and dogmatism of this nature existed in
an earlier time, there would have been no
Renaissance (no Bramante, Palladio, Alberti,
Raphael, Michelangelo ...) in the era when anti-
quity was rediscovered. The buildings of the
various schools of the 19th century certainly
demonstrate great knowledge of history, but
they are often unimaginative and "dry" despite
the excellent detail in material treatment.
Jugendstil - a new path
Style had now been freed from the context of

building and established itself as sufficient unto
itself. As a result, style became the theme that
defined the external character and was then
reintegrated with the remaining components of
building; in other words, following a path that
was reversed, from the outside in. During a
short phase of 20 years at the beginning of the
20th century, this path was successfully prac-
tised by a small group of architects in cities
such as Vienna, Paris, Brussels and Glasgow.
Artificial ornament and structure merged in a
feverish and at times bombastic fusion that per-
fectly expressed the fin-de-siècle sensibility.
The synthesis was characterized by the fact
that architectural elements were deformed and
warped less by the tectonic or spatial forces of
architecture than by ornamentation (fig. 1.1.31).
This style, which flourished briefly under vari-
ous names and was called Jugendstil in Ger-
man, was more or less a way station along the
new path toward transition, for it demanded fur-
ther exploration of the very conditions that
make stylistic thought possible in the first place.
1.1.30 In this sense, it was but the final, rebellious
phase of historicism.
The technical aesthetics of brick Historicism and dogmatism
The first half of the 19th century saw a number The naïve and superficial application of histori-
of improvements in the quality of brick materi- cal styles gradually evolved into a profound
als. and structural penetration over the course of
We should perhaps note Karl Friedrich Schinkel's the century. Architectural competence was
efforts in this context. Impressed by the indus- increasingly measured by historical know-
trial brick buildings he had encountered on his ledge, and theorists of architecture engaged in
journey to England in 1862, Schinkel began to heated debates over style and concept. "Goth-
pursue a style of building in which the charac- ic" and "classic" schools developed. Propo-
ter of the material determined the architecture. nents of dogmatism formed their own opinion
From the character of brick as "a single materi- in opposition to the emerging functionalism,
al", he developed a technical conception of although the intellectual premise was basically
building, whose theory he formulated in his identical. Hard lines were drawn in the devel-
"Treatise on Architecture" and whose influence opment of architecture in the second half of the
was felt well into the 20th century. Several of 19th century. Indeed, opinions were so inflexi-
his students continued to evolve this building ble that historicizing schools of building were
style, in which the material set the tone for the founded (the guilds) whose doctrines many
design (fig. 1.1.30). architects adopted with fervour, while others
Even the silhouettes of buildings, whose stylis- were "converted" to them. Nine schools existed
tic revetment was basically laid onto the sur- in the German-speaking countries alone: the
face like a veneer, such as the Houses of Par- Nuremberg, Cologne, Kassel, Hannover,
liament in London (1836), are characterized by Vienna, Aachen, Berlin, Munich and Karlsruhe
a severity and clarity that is comparable to a schools. They proselytized a German-Christian
brick building by Schinkel. Gothic revival with a fervour that was as
1.1.31
23
1.1.32 1.1.33 1.1.34
The United States in the 19th century Action-oriented building number of courses of the masonry in the
entrance projection, rusticated by recessed
In the United States, architecture emancipated As historicism was being rejected for the single courses, alternates between these
itself over the course of the 19th century, espe- hypocrisy of its stylistic aspirations, a number recesses, which are harmonized with the glass
cially in the industrial centres. of factors combined to give rise to a new view facade. The design c o n c e p t - incidentally, also
A brick building such as the Monadnock Build- of architecture. These were chiefly the Arts and a clever response to Behrens's AEG Turbine
ing in Chicago (1890-91) - executed with such Crafts movement in England, and a new factory in Berlin - is geared towards creating a
rigorous restraint from using any facade orna- awareness of nature, of the social problems of sense of fragility, both in its totality and in its
mentation-would have been inconceivable in living and working and of the building process details, down to the choice of brick and brick
Europe for at least another 20 years. itself. The principal focus of architecture shifted colour, of bond and brick quality. This fragility
Masonry was the standard material in the towards the simple act of manufacturing build- is the result of design characteristics that seem
1920s for the construction of skyscrapers in ings and their uses. At the start of the 20th cen- to contradict one another. The most prominent
Chicago, New York and other major cities in tury, this movement gathered under the umbrella detail is the absence of a corner column in the
the USA. It was reinforced with iron frames, a of the Werkbund. In Austria, the Wiener Werk- glass wall as well as the ambiguous architec-
building method that found its way back to statten set the same goals. The Werkbund was tural response to the question whether the cur-
Europe. Many larger masonry structures of the as passionate in its moral demands on building tain wall supports or is supported by the brick
1920s, e.g. Chile House in Hamburg (Fritz as the guilds of the 19th century had been. cornice! In all this, the recessed columns are
Hoger, 1923-24) and the warehouse of the The Viennese architect Adolf Loos decided to the least conspicuous and yet the most effec-
Gute-Hoffnungs-Hutte in Oberhausen (Peter dispense with ornamental trimmings altogether. tive element in this aesthetic feat. This design
Behrens, 1921-25), were built around steel This went so far that he wanted to build the marks the beginning of a new phase in the
cores (fig. 1.1.33). windows on the upper floors of his commercial development of architecture and yet another
The best-known forerunner in the United States building on Michaelerplatz in Vienna without answer to the question of what is masonry.
of building that rigorously realized the intellec- frames. He defended his position with furious Here, it is the exploration of support and load.
tual tradition of the 18th century was Robert energy and such high ethical demands on Yet masonry isn't seen in relative terms.
Louis Sullivan. His famous statement "form fol- building that a public scandal ensued. It no longer defines supporting and being sup-
lows function" is one of the most misunder- Meanwhile, in a small town in northern Ger- ported, outside and inside, but derives its
stood and, owing to this misinterpretation, trivi- many, Walter Gropius succeeded at exactly tectonic and spatial expression from the poten-
alized quotes of the day. What Sullivan meant the same time in a pioneering act of architec- tial of transposition.
was that individual functions seek expression tural perfection that has rarely been matched In the evolution from the Palazzo Pitti to the Hof-
in form. He explained it with the example of an since: the Faguswerk shoe last factory (fig. bibliothek and on to the Faguswerk, this shift is
oak tree in which each part - trunk, branch, 1.1.35). The harmonious scale of the facade is clearly legible in the rustication of the Faguswerk
leaf, flower, fruit - is pure oak and applied this subtle and differentiated. (Gropius was origi- (which, in turn, is an interpretation of Behrens's
image to the skyscraper: "It must be tall, every nally commissioned exclusively for the facade rustication on the AEG Turbine factory).
inch of it must be tall. It must express the design.) The corner areas of the glass facade Gropius's design is independent and convinc-
power and violence of height [...]." are only a few centimetres wider than the ing by comparison to the narrow, dogmatic
Function is an organic force of expression, not glazed sections in the walls. By the same Arts and Crafts ethic of truth, honesty, justice,
inane fulfilment of purpose. token, the upper windows are again a few cen- sincerity, decency, clarity and loyalty. Once
timetres taller than the windows on the lower upon a time, these principles had been a
floors. The structure is pure brickwork. The polemic call to arms of the arts against the
columns are recessed by one face length. The stultified orders of historicism. Faced with the
24
1.1.32 Monadnock Building, Chicago, 1890-91,

architects: Burnham and Root
1.1.33 Hannover municipal library, 1929,
architect: Karl Elkart, during construction
1.1.34 as in fig. 1.1.33, after completion
1.1.35 Faguswerk, Alfeld, 1911,
architects: Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer
vacuity that marked the pose of the latter, these

principles made as much sense as did the
moral revolt of the Impressionists against the
pomposity of salon painting, which - much like
architecture - had allowed itself to be (ab-)used
as an ancillary art that expressed the interests of
the state. These retrospective "declarations of
war" expressed in the moral principles of build-
ing at the decline of the 19th century reverberate
even today. Perhaps because they seem to offer
ready and comfortable solutions without the
need for an exhaustive, and exhausting, investi-
gation of facts. Thus, they run the risk of becom-
ing a cause for opposition themselves.
To Gropius, however, they were appeals worth

taking to heart and he adopted them as the
principles for the Bauhaus. But, like Mies van
der Rohe, he was always conscious of the
superiority and persuasiveness of the design.
The purifying intent of the Bauhaus is expressed

in liberating architecture from its character of
being a means, of giving rise to and directing
feelings and moods. The Bauhaus seeks to
establish immediacy by looking upon building
as a social task directly linked to work and
society, that is, the sphere of the human activi-
ty, certain that these tasks can be transmuted
into building forms without styles that cloak the
intent. In doing so, the movement unconscious-
ly delves so deeply into aesthetic principles of
the architecture that the final built products
take on a common, unmistakable character. To
stay with the metaphor: the intended "naked
reality" unintentionally becomes a cloak, as if it
were naked.
Ultimately, historicism was rejected out of the

same spirit from which it had been born.
1.1.35
25
The power of expression in continuous space functional method. The common interest in
material-construction-production is subsumed
Simultaneous with the rather bourgeois tone of in the pre-eminence of action and use: all
the masons' guild and the Werkbund, there building tasks and building goals are projected
emerged a strong movement towards the spiri- onto the human canvas. Another strong influ-
tual creative forces of man. Embracing and ence on the building concepts of the following
reflecting primordial, natural elements, these decades was provided by the De Stijl move-
tendencies met with widespread approval. ment in the Netherlands, whose founder. Theo
But they came dangerously close to "cosmol- van Doesburg, sought to gain a feeling of
ogy" and exaggeratedly "earthy" evocations of space, of floating, from the wall by translating
the forces of the soil and the elements. Still, the time into pictorial movement. Gerrit Rietveld
combination of turning away from civilization realized these ideas (fig. 1.1.36). Mies van der
and towards the mythology of nature and the Rohe's interpretation of masonry was equally
enthusiasm for Utopian, futuristic concepts influenced by this movement in architecture.
released creative energies that encouraged an His residential buildings from the 1920s de-
abandoned, violent and inspired development monstrate an open flowing sense of space (fig. 1.1.36
among artists. 1.1.38). Van der Rohe established the spatial
Antonio Gaudi's buildings had none of the movement of walls and openings as the princi-
offensive, occasional character of the ple theme of architecture in the 20th century. encompassing design element, a determinant
Faguswerk or the scandalous effect of Loos's During the same period, the Amsterdam in addition to the elements of mass and space.
architecture. They were immediately popular. School, represented by Michel de Klerk, Piet Fritz Schumacher, who greatly influenced the
Academically speaking, they were a blend of Kramer and others, translated ideas borrowed development of masonry in the first three
clear, precise, structural-constructive thinking from the visual arts into plastic masonry, whose decades of the 20th century as both an archi-
and a baffling transposition of primeval power curved or vertical bed joints and folded open- tect and an author, referred to examples of
into masonry that reveals the basics of tecton- ings qualify its loadbearing property, yet by Backsteingotik (the impressive and very simpli-
ics and is reminiscent of the equilibrated struc- this very device also emphasize the original fied Gothic in northern Germany) to draw atten-
ture of tectonic plates (fig. 1.1.37). spatial quality (fig. 1.1.40). tion to the importance of the surface and the
From this perspective, the Bauhaus (with its out- Van Doesburg explored a duality that is a difficult relationship between colour and plas-
ward focus on social relationships and work) recurring topic in the history of masonry, name- ticity in the surface. These ideas on two-dimen-
and Expressionism (with its inward-looking ly that masonry is both mass and surface, by sionality, surprising as they may be at first, also
focus) are but logical developments of the stressing colour as a two-dimensional, all- identify the qualifying relationship between
columns and loadbearing, outside and inside,
that we encounter in Gropius's work as a new
attitude.
Building mass is an image of building mass,
uniting two-dimensionality and cubic form, a
visualization of the spatial concepts of move-
ment. The aesthetic influences of photography
and, above all, film are evident here. The new
laws of cinematography begin to show their
impact, which would continue to grow stronger
as the century advanced.
In contrast to German Expressionism, which
was founded in the internal dynamic of spiritual-
emotional forces, De Stijl and the Amsterdam
School were more intellectual, but at the same
time also more geometric-cosmic in orientation.
Both were open to exploring the problems of
industrial production and its impact on society.
Housing shortages after World War I led to a
building boom in the Netherlands and in Ger-
many, which made it possible to translate the
previously theoretical-speculative develop-
ments into practice.
Red bricks and engineering bricks were the
building materials of choice. The latter are
marked by a weather-resistant quality resulting
from the sintering of clay and lend themselves
to expressive wall articulations with projecting
and recessed blocks and courses.
The effect of buildings by Fritz Schumacher
and Fritz Höger differs from the Amsterdam
School in that it is created by the rhythmic
design of the masonry surfaces.
1.1.37
26
1.1.38
To Schumacher, brick as a material is a unique ations on masonry bonds into a fabric that 1.1.36 Schroder House, 1924, architects:
opportunity for discipline in design in the sense breathes rhythm. Gerrit Rietveld and Trus Schrdder-Schrader
of concentrating on the building purpose as well 1.1.37 Chapel crypt Santa Coloma, 1898-1914,
To look upon the surface image exclusively
architect: Antonio Gaudi
as on the unity of material and form. In analogy in terms of its importance as a dynamic effect 1.1.38 Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, study for country
with musical composition, the masonry bonds of functional internal references is simply the house in brick construction, 1923
and unit projections were to emphasize and logical continuation of the fragmenting building 1.1.39 Sulphuric acid treatment plant in Luban,
illustrate the functional relationship of the walls. 1911-12, architect: Hans Poelzig
analysis. New structural possibilities opened
1.1.40 De Dageraad housing complex, Amsterdam,
Fritz Höger is a master of this art of illustration up with the bracing of masonry by means of a 1921-23, architect: Pieter Lodewijk Kramer
in engineering bricks. He transforms the ex- surrounding steel structure, which nevertheless
terior image of building through projections maintained the massive character of the
and recesses, dog-toothing and inventive vari- masonry.
1.1.39 1.1.40
27
1.1.41 Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad,

India, 1962-74, architect: Louis I. Kahn
1.1.42 "Morris Gift Shop", San Francisco, USA,
1948-49, architect: Frank Lloyd Wright
1.1.43 St Peter's, Klippan, 1963-66,
architect: Sigurd Lewerentz
1.1.44 Saynatsalo town hall, 1949-52,
architect: Alvar Aalto
materials is the direct expression of a complex

structural analysis. The buildings gain an
abstract internal tension by means of the para-
doxical manner in which the materiality is inten-
sified and simultaneously dematerialized,
reducing the masonry to its basic conditions.
The planning laws and building regulations of

today are lasting symbols of the analytical
autonomy of individual aspects of living. At the
dawn of the 21 st century a new autonomous
component has been added, that of environ-
1.1.41
System rationality and structural analysis The basic premise of the autonomy of each in-
dividual element became an independent sys-
Based on the aforementioned tenets of the tem itself. In the work of Herman Hertzberger,
Bauhaus and Expressionism, extraordinary for example, buildings answer to the require-
new exponents of architecture were developed ments of use; but the latter are held captive in
by the succeeding generations, although they the structural scheme of the building.
remained true to the fundamental theories of
the 18th century, which we have discussed in The architectural language of Louis Kahn is
detail. characterized by a demonstrative play with the
structural conditions of building, above all the
Its artistic variety notwithstanding, Frank Lloyd compression and tensile forces. Kahn invites
Wright's architecture is always firmly grounded the viewer to experience the elemental forces
in working with primary geometries. In one of of masonry. Two examples in particular illus- 1.1.42
his later works, the "Morris Gift Ship" in San trate this approach: the segmental arches at
Francisco (1948-49), a circular matrix and a lin- the Indian Institute for Management at Ahmed-
ear, dynamic matrix overlap (fig. 1.1.42). The abad (fig. 1.1.41), where the shear is visibly
Roman brickwork, which Wright had already absorbed between the springings with the help
employed in Windsor House (1893) and Robie of a concrete tension anchor, and the circular
House (1909), supports the basic geometric- walls cut open with spherical vaults in the gov-
dynamic idea. ernment buildings in Dhaka, Bangladesh (fig.
1.1.116). Each of these examples is achieved
Alvar Aalto's buildings are a continuation of the independently of the relevant building task.
formal canon of the Bauhaus (fig. 1.1.44). Kahn views masonry as independent of history,
Here, the division of volume is more original discovering the truth of building in this basic
than the expression of the plan, which once premise.
again traces the plot in the interior. This is a different kind of demand for truth than
the retrospective moral imperative of the
As architecture continued to evolve in the sub- masons' guild and the Werkbund. It also incor-
sequent decades, it began to divide the city porates the demand that traces of production
into individual sections for living, work, recre- should remain visible - and not hidden, as had
ation and traffic. The mid-20th century saw the been an unspoken rule in the history of build-
rise to prominence of an abstract, performance- ing. In this regard, Kahn's structural approach
oriented order that strove to address the pur- is not unlike Le Corbusier's. Both architects
pose of building. The rational approach of show the simple and hence elemental condi-
exploring the function of each purpose and to tions of building.
create strategic alternatives as a self-referential
system, now culminated in a structural analysis The late brick buildings by Lewerentz are
that would have an impact on the subsequent designed with an archaic flavour (fig. 1.1.43).
development of masonry. The seemingly simple combination of sparse
1.1.43
28
mental protection, opening up new design con-

siderations in a planning approach that is
increasingly characterized by fragmentation.
In recent decades there has been no let-up in
the development of a unifying building con-
cept. Post-modernism and deconstruction, for
example, are terms borrowed from literature
and philosophy, to provide a theoretical under-
pinning for the new architecture. It is difficult to
imagine, however, which kinds of architectural
postulates could be derived from Paul de
Man's textual concepts. The term architectural
minimalism - borrowed from the visual arts in
this instance - is simply a new name for design
in the tradition of Mies van der Rohe. These
attempts at theoretical adaptation by means of
literary catchwords are still caught up in the
tradition of historicism and do not reveal any
traces of change in masonry. What remains
today is the need to explore the ideas of the
Werkbund, which have become stale and
hackneyed, in more depth and with less obe-
dience to the "bogged-down scheme" (Ernst
Bloch), to confront them with the problem of
modern incrustations. Only then can we
answer the question of what is masonry in the
full knowledge of our current situation.
We should remember that the functional
method of rationalization has permeated all
areas of human activity. New construction
methods with materials such as steel and rein-
forced concrete, developed for increased per-
formance, relegated masonry to the secondary
role of facework and infill over the course of the
20th century. Moreover, the same develop-
ments in masonry itself meant that the wall
structure was divided into individual functions
to reduce material consumption and construc-
tion effort. With few exceptions, this develop-
ment no longer allowed for the homogeneous
treatment of masonry, which in turn has result-
ed in great uncertainty in design. The common
reaction is to quote, with much bravado and
little thought, the typical argument of the trade
that masonry - which is usually a curtain wall
today - should show what it is. Conventional
arguments of honesty etc. are dragged out as
justifications, a stance that is as phlegmatic as
it is bigoted.
The situation hasn't changed, but the condi-

tions have. However, this too is no novelty.
Design doesn't end at this point; it's just be-
ginning.
1.1.44
29
Design
Basics
Design has less and less to do with realizing

ideas, sketching out concepts and defining
details. The division between the abstract
world of drawings, numbers, measurements
and the subsequent implementation activities
all the way to the construction site, has been
lamented for some time.
By now, the division has become so great that
the profession is at risk of being degraded to
mere draughtsmanship. Some may regard this
as an advantage, a lightening of the workload.
But it has had a profound impact on the built
results, making them less diverse, levelling out
differences. Consequently, many feel a grow-
ing need to re-establish contact with the con-
struction site, to return to the real, material
problems of building in order to achieve
authenticity in design and accountability in exe-
1.1.45 1.1.46
cution. The masonry unit - natural stone, con-
crete blocks, calcium silicate units and espe- units and the abundance of applications go Design must re-create the link between designer
cially clay bricks - is an effective tool to beyond such a simplistic definition. Like all and observer. Conversely, the observer, too, is
achieve this goal. simple devices or tools, the masonry unit is an called upon to "design" by looking, recognizing
ingenious element of everyday life. Its typology and drawing conclusions, and by his observa-
The ease with which elements are substituted is deeply rooted inside us and has grown tion make the building what it is.
in today's progressive architecture, the relent- impervious to misuse.
less search for equivalencies in material and One example of extraordinary refinement in
construction, leads us to remember the forma- Let us introduce another vital relationship that design is Jean Nouvel's idea of copying the
tive, real power of material resistance. To use is particularly evident in masonry buildings: the image of the facade, itself an image, and trans-
the trade jargon: when you work with masonry, link between design and observation. Observa- ferring it back onto the facade, making, as it
you've always got one foot on the construction tion, the act of looking, is always an act of deci- were, the copy into an image of the copy,
site. Masonry makes us aware of the chal- phering, recognizing and interpreting contexts which in turn is a copy of an image. In this
lenges of the material; we can feel its weight and connections. We are only able to look instance, the tectonic is lost in itself.
and design for it. Masonry is by its very nature because we are taught to do so from birth and
equipped to age. This is expressed in the fact we practise this ability until it becomes a rou- When designing and building with masonry,
that when materiality and purpose grow apart, tine of which we are no longer even aware. this intellectual-aesthetic link is inescapable
as they inevitably will, a kind of objectivity that Whenever we want to understand a building or because it has come to define architecture,
is independent of purpose gradually evolves in architecture through looking, our mental reper- design and the fine arts. But not only that.
the relationship between materiality and work- toire of deciphering is automatically set in Today, it also means exploring the idea that the
ability, which ultimately produces material motion. By applying this knowledge "in the light surface, the exterior world of masonry, has its
waste. of theory" as Karl Popper put it, we learn what own interior world, whose fascinating qualities
lies behind the surface by looking at the sur- it communicates to the observer so that he may
The rigidity of masonry, the limited design face: we know how to decipher the core by reconstruct the logic, tectonic, imagery and
range imposed by the units, course depths looking at the skin. Yet this is a highly complex mimesis (the "as if") in his own mind. Unlike
and spans, constantly force the designer into a process, in which looking and being looked most building methods, masonry is suited to
tight corner. It is a struggle against the con- upon merge into a single event. By covering meet this demand not least of all because it
straints of the material, its limited ability to fulfil and uncovering connections between outside has an inherent power that calls for simplicity.
the purposes of construction, use, manufactur- and inside, exposing the invisible, the
ing requirements and many other factors. observed object is transformed into a mirror of
Yet anyone who has noted these conditions the observer. The observer deciphers a build- Manufacture
has also praised the abundance of design ing in much the same manner he applies to
options that arise from this difficulty. The cre- himself. The manufacture of masonry has changed fun-
ative secret lies in overcoming these con- damentally as a result of technical develop-
straints in an assured manner and in the The design of the wall surface, which is difficult ment. Nevertheless, it can still be carried out
lessons of simplicity to be learned from pro- to grasp as matter, its structural, plastic, mate- by hand at any time and without great effort
cessing masonry materials. The limitations of rial, colour and tactile characteristics, each (fig. 1.1.45-47). In the meantime, the entire
the material are a defining aesthetic criterion. shed light on another relationship with the wall process from digging clay or other materials to
The success of masonry across the millennia is - t h e design relationship. The surface reflects firing has become a fully automated process in
founded in its ability to offer stunningly simple these relationships in ever-new connections or all industrial countries, as we have already
solutions for a number of individual problems. is cleverly self-referential, a topic that has been described.
It would be unjust to describe masonry units as explored in detail in the historical section. To
prefabricated units. The workability of these design means to develop this relationship.
30
Design
a unit is the combined effect of colour and sur-

face texture with the colour, surface and
design of the joints, a point we shall return to in
more detail.
When it comes to evaluating the cubic, plastic

and rhythmical disposition of the building com-
ponents and the building volume, the quality of
architectural design is evident without taking
material into consideration. On the contrary, it
would even impede our judgement. However,
this is not true of brickwork buildings. In these
buildings, the quality of the architectural
design is inextricably linked to the material
used to build them. It would be impossible to
imagine the one without the other. Anyone
designing with this material must be willing to
get involved with it. The quality of the masonry
is less distinctively expressed when the sur-
face is treated with colour. A white or red coat
of colour moderates the moulding without eras-
1.1.47 ing it. To a lesser degree, the same rules apply
to calcium silicate units, although the colour
Formats so. The buildings on the Place des Vosges in scale in these units is more or less limited to
Paris, built in 1612, feature walls of large bricks the natural colour of the material in a few varia-
Clay bricks come in a wide variety of formats of monumental appearance on the facades tions of grey. The similarity with the various
and shapes. There are shell-shaped, irregular, overlooking the square. The formats of the grey hues of concrete and the interaction with
compacted bricks made to fit into courses. units in the cross-vaults in the colonnades sur- it can achieve a subtle iridescent effect that
They are always dimensioned to be gripped in rounding the square are adapted to the scale transforms the oft-maligned coldness of
one hand. The manufacture and processing of of the space and the detail work in the span- exposed concrete into a velvety warmth. This
sun-dried clay or earth bricks is the most an- drels. iridescence, a changing atmospheric veil,
cient building method still practised today. The Apart from units in large formats, which are comes together in front of the observer's eye
problem of vulnerability to rain is addressed in unsuitable for facing masonry, the selection of out of a series of elements: first, the unit sur-
a number of ways. In the early Mesopotamian standard formats is fairly limited today. On the face - its colours created by fire, shine, cinder
cultures (4000-2000 BC) panels of woven reed, other hand, the industry offers and uses a holes, blisters, tears and grooves; next, the
fabric or skins were suspended from fired tremendous variety of moulded bricks. But it is joint - its width, colour, surface and relief; and
ceramic rods in front of the wall, presumably as a mistake to try and improve masonry with finally the bond - its horizontal, vertical and
rain protection. Clay brick was also used as moulded bricks. diagonal relationships and interactions as
backing for exterior leaves built from fired visible reminders of invisible deeds.
brick. In northern Europe, clay or earth walls
were erected beneath wide roof overhangs Colours and surfaces
and protected with a neat lime wash that was
renewed each year. This method was also In contrast to formats, the selection of colours
common to Asia. In Africa (Mali) the structural and surface treatments is quite manageable.
timber members of floors and bracing were Brick colour is influenced by the composition of
pushed through the wall like a scaffolding to the clay and the firing method and tempera-
facilitate any repairs in case of washout (see ture. Two colour scales are predominant: the
fig. 1.1.4). Until very recently, the rule of thumb red scale, from dark purple through all shades
that each masonry unit should be of a size and of red to orange; and the yellow scale, from
format that could be lifted and laid with one dark leather brown to red-brown, yellow-brown,
hand also applied to bricks, calcium silicate ochre, light yellow-pink, sienna, beige and yel-
units and concrete units. One historical excep- low. But nearly all other colours are available
tion is Roman bricks, which, as we described as well: from black through all shades of grey,
in the historical chapter, were manufactured as and from blue to white. The surface of the brick
flat elements and laid in alternating straight is the other important feature of appearance.
and diagonal courses, There is the grainy surface of hand-moulded
brick, the various horizontal and vertical
In Catalonia, Roman bricks are used to this grooves and notches created by the nozzle of
day. In addition to the Roman/Catalan bricks the extrusion press, the sintering traces from
there may be other unique regional formats, the firing process and plastic characteristics
which are, however, not fundamentally different from firing, slag marks, surfaces smooth as tile
and still comply with the aforementioned basic and sand coatings in a variety of hues. 1.1.45 Tomb model of brick production,
requirement of the "one-hand lift", Inexpensive units are often treated with an imi- Egyptian wood sculpture, circa 2000 BC,
Berlin State Museums
We are used to seeing a single format in one tation grain to simulate the fine surfaces of
1.1.46 Brick production in Pakistan, 1999
building. In the past, this was not necessarily expensive units. A decisive factor in selecting 1.1.47 Building site in Mali, 1999
31
The bond this narrow range of expression - which we

have called "resistance" - harbours an abun-
In masonry, the bond is the most important dant reservoir of invention, which stirs receptiv-
means of design in two regards: first, it has no ity in a most unusual manner.
model in nature, but is entirely based on In the following, we shall present and describe
abstract calculation. It is a system of rules for the most common bonds among the great vari-
the creation of a readable, but largely invisible ety of systems in use today. Each has its own
composition, of which the observer is constant- unique effect, which is important for the quality
ly reminded. And second, while its function of the design, since a carefully planned build-
today is to guarantee the stability of a wall, it is ing will offer an attractive visual image from any
Header bond 1.1.48 also a representation of a world order, a fetter, distance. The scale seen from a distance
a constraint imposed by a system, as indeed should be harmoniously reflected and logically
the word "bond" intimates. Any keen observer interpreted in each intermediate scale from dis-
of masonry that has been laid and jointed with tant to close-up, where the character of the
expertise will experience this captivating tension. material, the surface texture and the bond are
The unique beauty of Cistercian masonry is in the foreground. A bond must always adhere
widely appreciated and has been the topic of to a distinct precision and yet appear perfectly
much praise. The Cistercian Order was found- natural and without artifice.
ed on a philosophy of fulfilling the promise of
salvation in the Christian faith by serving the
community in practical ways. Walls were raised, Header bond (fig. 1.1.48)
English bond 1.1.49 as they still are today, in accordance with a Header bond derives its name from the fact
basic system, the bond. The profane, func- that it reveals only the headers or end faces of
tional character is replaced by a metaphorical the units. Structurally, it is rather a poor solution
reference to the overriding logic in the geo- because the load distribution is compromised
metric plan of the universe. Herein lies the core in the longitudinal direction of the wall. It's
of the forces at work: exposing the invisible. adaptability is chiefly exploited in curved walls
The same forces are still felt today when know- and arches. From the very beginning another
ledgeable observers stand in front of a building common application of this bond has been to
with an expert bond and make an effort to create patterns with polychrome or glazed
reconstruct this discriminating rapport, an bricks. Plain brickwork surfaces (see St Mary's
effort that requires a great amount of system- in Stralsund, fig. 1.1.56) can be enriched with
English cross bond/St Andrew's bond 1.1.50
atic thought, spatial vision, concentration, diamond patterns. The facing masonry has
imagination and experience. Yet the natural- been integrated into the backing as an incrus-
ness, simplicity and clarity are convincing in tation. Header bonds were widely used during
their own right, even without the aforemen- the Grunderzeit at the end of the 19th century,
tioned references. Small movements, projec- an era of rapid industrial growth. The principal
tions and recesses of no more than 10 to rationale was its efficiency. The visible external
20 mm are sufficient to produce significant surface consisted of quarter and half bats, fre-
architectonic effects. This is because the eye quently even of quarter and face slips made of
measures the wall in units of bricks and since high-precision extruded elements, similar to
today's split-faced units. With these elements,
the effect of expensive, fine facing masonry
Gothic bond 1.1.51 could be simulated cheaply. The result, how-
ever, is a surface that is obtrusively perfect and
without tension or interest.
The Faguswerk in Alfeld, Germany, on the
other hand, designed and executed by Walter
Gropius and Adolf Meyer beginning in 1911
and well into the 1920s (fig. 1.1.35), is a subtle
play with contradictions. It is a brick masonry
building, although the glass curtain facade
would have us believe otherwise. It para-
phrases the monumentality of Behrens's
Gothic bond - variation 1.1.52 Turbine factory into a parody. As Julius
Posener comments, Gropius contradicts the
"natural" relationship between support and
load. The result comes as a shock to the
observer. The choice of header bond, known
for its low loadbearing capacity as mentioned
above, is another case in point. Used, for
example, at the point of highest stress, the
junction between the angled masonry column
and the tympanum, it is a clever device to cre-
ate an effect of extreme fragility. The cubist
Flying bond 1.1.53 1.1.54
32
Design
residential block design by architects Kahlfeldt

(see example 20 in part 4 "Details of built
examples") is intended to provide a stark con-
trast to the frame structures in the courtyard.
To achieve such cool neutrality, the half-brick
masonry facing is executed in header bond. It
comes alive above all through the firing marks
on the bricks.
English bond (fig. 1.1.49)

English bond is the most sober and powerful
masonry bond, which can, however, achieve
remarkable effects in the hands of an expert
precisely because of the simplicity of its
arrangement. The extremely sparse and sober
volume of the Catholic Church in Güstrow,
designed by Paul Korff-Laage with masonry in
English bond (fig, 1.1.57), is distinguished by
its impressive lighting strategy. A large west
window illuminates the church interior and two
choir windows allow light to fall onto the altar
from the north and south sides. Only a narrow
slit between the column and the wall behind it
illuminates the vestibule.
In the former provincial bank of Pomerania in
1.1.55
Stralsund (fig. 1.1.54) shallow projections and
recesses of no more than 10 mm between the English cross bond (fig. 1.1.50) variety (by projecting and recessing individual
stretcher and header courses give the volume The technical quality of English cross bond is headers).
an effortless, layered monumentality. The only evident in masonry depths greater than
English bond on the Meyer warehouse building 365 mm, because this thickness allows for both Gothic bond (figs. 1.1.51 and 1.1.52)
designed by Hans Poelzig (fig. 1.1.55) is the longitudinal and the transverse bond to be Gothic bond is often called Flemish bond
structured by two narrow stepped projections, staggered, which alternates the joint pattern on (especially in North America and the UK). Both
one in front of the other, whose vertical edges both external surfaces by one course each. By bonds illustrated above were used as early as
produce a four-course-high zigzag pattern set shifting the stretcher course by one half brick the German Backsteingotik. Apart from flying
off from the regular bond. The windows dimin- length, a diamond pattern develops on the ex- bond, most monumental buildings of that time
ish imperceptibly in width from storey to storey. ternal surface, more or less visible depending are executed in Gothic bond. The dogmatic
Towards the cornice, the stepped reliefs grow upon the angle of the light and the precision or severity we usually apply to bonds was still
increasingly dense. The reliefs frame the build- clarity of the joints. Fritz Höger mastered this unknown then. It was not unusual to see flying
ing at the top and yet maintain a measure of diagonal cross pattern with its changing, bond alternate with Gothic bond in different
openness. A surface with a vibrating tension atmospheric moods - especially apparent components of the same building. This may be
has been created on this building with efficient, when bricks of iridescent colours and a glossy explained by the duration of the building
deliberated discipline. surface are employed - w i t h tremendous phase, spanning several generations or even
1.1.54 Former provincial bank of Pomerania,

Stralsund 1930, architect: Adolf Theßmacher
1.1.55 Meyer warehouse building, Hannover 1921-22,
architect: Hans Poelzig
1.1.56 St Mary's, Stralsund, 15th century,
west facade detail
1.1.57 Catholic Church, Güstrow 1929,
architect: Paul Korff-Laage
1.1.56 1.1.57
33
Flying bond - variation 1.1.58
Silesian bond 1.1.59 1.1.64
centuries. Irregularities in the hand-moulded diminished, resulting in a rather stolid overall

monastery brick format also imposed changes appearance.
on bond design. Projections, recesses and Fritz Hoger proves his mastery of working with
perforations in a church courtyard wall in facing bricks in the church on Hohenzollern-
Prague perfectly illustrate the tremendous platz in Berlin (fig. 1.1.65). The gilded headers
opportunities for variety in working with this glow softly in the dark brown brick fabric of the
bond (see fig. 1.1.115). nave. Despite the expressive sequential dispo-
The large side wall to the nave of the Sacred sition of vertical wall components, the volume
Silesian bond - variation 1.1.60 Heart Church in Prague, designed by Josef is characterized by a hermetic and disciplined
Pleonik (fig. 1.1,64), is faced with bluish-purple cohesion,
engineering bricks in Gothic bond. The plastic-
ity of projecting concrete bricks in the never- Silesian bond (figs. 1.1.59 and 1.1.60)
ending pattern register adds a second scale to An artful variation of the Silesian bond, also
the surface, which flares outward at the top, called Flemish garden wall bond, and similar
changing the value of the concrete units from to the Flemish bond in the diagonal cross
bas-relief to spatial components - a highly pattern, features one header in each course
unusual and inventive design. Mies van der alternating with three stretchers and a register
Rohe preferred thin formats for his brick homes of 12 courses.
in the 1920s because of the precision in scale
Flemish bond 1.1.61 they offer. One of his most beautiful designs, Flemish bond (fig. 1.1.61)
Villa Wolf in Guben on the Neisse River, is real- Flemish bond is also called Dutch bond or
ized with carefully proportioned, expansive English cross bond. It derives its lively charac-
brick masonry walls in Gothic bond (fig. ter from a loose, seemingly random diagonal
1.1.67). The captivating texture, terminating in arrangement of five stepped headers per pat-
soldier courses set into the bond, is almost tern segment. The result is a slightly hyperac-
painfully incised with openings without lintels, tive image that is shown to best advantage on
no doubt a horror to naïve purists of brickwork. large surfaces (fig. 1.1.66).
Flying bond (fig. 1.1.53 and 1.1.58) American bond (fig. 1.1.62)
Flying bond, also called monk's bond or York- American bond, also called English garden
American bond 1.1.62 shire bond, is an ancient bond like Gothic wall bond, is a modified English bond in which
bond; these two bonds dominate the image of three or usually five courses of stretchers are
medieval buildings in northern Europe. The laid in half-brick overlap between two header
oldest brickwork church building, the Jerichow courses on the face of the wall. It is largely
monastery church (1114 AD) is largely execut- unknown in Europe. The classic brick architec-
ed in flying bond. Influences from northern Italy ture on the East Coast of the United States, in
in many details may also indicate that the bond Boston, New York or Philadelphia for example,
originated in Lombardy. Flying bond does not as well as Thomas Jefferson's famous estate at
have the same two-dimensional tension as Monticello, Virginia, do not feature this system,
Gothic bond. By doubling the stretcher com- but the bonds described above. Due to the
ponent in each course, the tension is slightly high component of stretcher courses, this bond
Stretcher bond - half-brick overlap 1.1.63
34
Design
1.1.64 Church of the Sacred Heart, Prague, 1921-32,

architect: Josef Plecnik
1.1.65 Church on Hohenzollernplatz, Berlin 1929,
architect: Fritz Hbger
1.1.66 Flemish bond on Deutsches Technikmuseum,
Berlin, 2000, architects: Titz, Wolff, Breune
1.1.67 Villa Wolf, Guben 1925-26,
architect: Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
1.1.65 1.1.66
offers little stability. The simplicity of the pat- through-bonded to form an indivisible whole: different ways throughout the long history of
tern, transparent even at a brief, casual glance, the masonry structure. Developments in build- architecture, as we have shown in the pre-
lacks the discriminating sophistication of the ing science and scientific studies on wall com- ceding section. In the functional context of
"European" bonds. position have separated these components building science in multilayered wall composi-
into independent parts according to the task tion, masonry is simply "suspended", usually in
Stretcher bonds they need to fulfil. The principal tasks are load- half-brick, in front of the other layers for rea-
In masonry, we always differentiate between an bearing, insulating, blocking and cladding. sons of economy. Since the connection to the
external, visible, weatherproof and attractive Each is now represented in an independent rear is achieved with the help of wall ties and
layer and the material behind it, consisting of wall layer. What may seem a simple and logical storey-high brackets supporting, the technical
backfilling (in hollow masonry), unfired bricks, step had far-reaching consequences for the task of this facing is reduced to one of integrat-
backing clay bricks, natural stone, concrete, aesthetic of the whole. This may come as a ing the longitudinal forces. And, as was ex-
reinforced concrete, steel cores, etc. Until very surprise at first glance, since the basic theoret- plained at the beginning, it is a common and
recently, however, this facing masonry was ical problems of this new concept of wall com- generally ignored misconception that the
integrated with the internal part of the wall or position have always been considered in many design task is simply limited to fulfilling this
function.
Stretcher bond - half-brick overlap (fig. 1.1.63)

Stretcher bond with half-brick overlap (raking
stretcher bond) as a curtain wall of clay or cal-
cium silicate units is a very popular and wide-
spread application. Owing to its even scale it
is, however, quite banal and even boring,
especially in surfaces that stretch across large
areas. Justifying its use by referring to the hon-
est, sober and functional quality of the bond
merely reveals a poor understanding of the
true quality in the design of a masonry surface.
Honesty cannot be experienced as an abstract
value; it must find concrete expression and is,
moreover, too superficial a basis for aesthetic
judgement. It does not reflect the complexity at
work in the perception and evaluation of visual
phenomena. This process of evaluation is
always informed by the observer's own con-
scious and unconscious concepts, beside
which morality can only play a secondary role.
Moreover, truthfulness in design can also con-
tradict the structural or engineering truth. And
which "truth" would then be valid?
The claim to truthfulness can thus only be
regarded as an attempt at justification. It can
1.1.67
35
Stretcher bond - quarter-brick overlap 1.1.68
Stretcher bond - variation 1.1.69
Stretcher bond - variation 1.1.70 1.1.73
never equal the elemental power of aesthetic lies in the discreet colour difference between
conviction. Truth in design as an artful lie has stretchers and headers. The observer is pre-
always been stronger in the history of building sented with a changing image hovering between
than other forces. This is equally true for tunc- confusion and clarity. A masterful tour de
tional justifications, since functionality is an force!
aesthetic term in origin; that is, it belongs to the In the trade, these bonds are now commonly,
same category. and erroneously, referred to as "ornamental
bonds". To interpret bonds as ornament, as
Stretcher bond - quarter-brick overlap mere decoration, is in direct contradiction with
Stretcher bond - variation 1.1.71 (fig. 1.1.68). The simple, quarter-brick stretcher the tectonic quality of these bonds. However,
bond (also known as raking stretcher bond) beyond tectonics, masonry has also found
demonstrates a variety of compositions with expression in a wealth of embellishments since
ease, which create a rhythm in the vertical joint the very beginning. One possibility of enriching
disposition that guides the eye (from one joint the bond is to use coloured or colour-glazed
to another) and stimulates the visual imagina- brick patterns on the surface, The round choir
tion. It is reminiscent of a repetitive rhyming columns of the main aisle in St Gotthard's in
scheme - a tercet, for example - making the Brandenburg (fig. 1.1.72) feature green glazed
logic and wit of the scheme readily accessible. headers staggered into a spiral in Gothic bond.
In a variation of this bond, the horizontal weight Expressionist architecture of the 20th century
of the predominant stretcher courses is con- favoured relief styles with projecting and
trasted with a vertical course and diagonal recessed bonds in engineering bricks. Another
"cross-knots" (fig. 1.1.69). The vertical pattern possibility of treating masonry as an "ornamen-
in the bond shown in fig. 1.1.70 has the rhythm tal bond" is to abandon the usual practice of
of four-four time in music, with alternating laying bricks as headers and stretchers, but to
accentuated and non-accentuated measures. place them on vertically and diagonally. This
The half-brick facing on a bridge abutment design form has been employed throughout
shown in fig. 1.1.71 is visually grounded by history in endless variations. During the 19th
means of slightly darker headers. The continu- century in particular to decorate verges and
ous register of stretchers is transformed into a gables.
finite and defined surface through the contra- The dovecote in Varangeville-sur-Mer, Nor-
puntal grid of the headers. The aesthetic here mandy (fig. 1.1.73), demonstrates the playful
1.1.72
36
Design
abundance of materials, colours and relief in Some examples follow to illustrate this principle.
the horizontal bands of masonry whose plastic- Crystalline plutonic rocks, such as granite,
ity increases as the colours grow more subtle result in a block-like, stocky image in the
towards the cornice. Here is an example of masonry (fig. 1.1.74). A geological exception
bond as ornament. is the boulder (also called erratic block), a
granite polished into a round shape by the
movement of glaciers in the last great ice age
Natural stone and transported across vast distances in the
process. In earlier times, boulders were used
Magnificent buildings have been erected in in their original shape for foundations and
natural stone by all advanced civilizations battlements, as in this example in Rheinsberg
around the world. Today, this material is used (fig. 1.1.75). It takes great skill to erect high
chiefly for cladding and - with the exception of walls with these rounded rocks. When boulders
repairs to old buildings and historic reconstruc- are split into natural shapes, they can be joined
tions - it no longer plays an important role in into powerful random rubble masonry with
building. Still, it is important to mention several spauled joints (fig. 1.1.76). In contrast to ran-
design characteristics. dom crystalline primary rock, slate - which can
Three types of natural stone are used in build- be split easily along its natural layers - should
ing construction: be used in masonry that shows these layers to
Primary rock (plutonic and igneous rock) the best effect. Owing to its natural horizontal
such as granite, porphyry, diorite, diabase, supporting surfaces, slate can be used for dry
basalt. They all have a random crystalline walling that is stable even without mortar. It can 1.1.74
structure, are extremely hard with high com- also be set vertically without a batter (fig. 1.1.77).
pressive strength and are difficult to process. These highly different parameters for working
Stratified rock with stone have evolved into rules on how to
(in flinty, limy or argillaceaous compositions) build walls, which have been followed in tradi-
such as sandstone, calcite or limestone, shell tional masonry ever since Vitruvius's drawings
lime, calcareous sediment, Jurassic limestone, and definitions from the 1st century AD. The
marble, quartzite and slate. Owing to their geo- unspoken rule in all these traditions is that the
logical origin in consolidated sediment they artistic quality in natural stone masonry is in
have a layered structure, subjected to addition- direct proportion to erasing any traces of con- 1.1.68 Stretcher bond, quarter-brick overlap
al geological pressure in some cases, e.g. in struction. This evaluation, beginning with 1.1.69 Stretcher bond with interspersed
coursed random rubble masonry, culminated flying bond I
slate. The layered structure must be taken into 1.1.70 Stretcher bond with interspersed
consideration when processing stratified rock in the polished surface without (visible) joints.
flying bond II
or using any of these rocks in walls. Even when architecture began to focus on 1.1.71 Bond pattern in bridge abutment in Hannover,
Conglomerates human activities in the 18th century, increas- 1995-96, architect: Kai-Michael Koch
ingly making them the topic of building, an- 1.1.72 Choir pier, St Gotthard's, Brandenburg
such as calcareous tufa and nagelfluh. The 1.1.73 Dovecote, Varangeville-sur-Mer, Normandy,
other 150 years would pass before the same
structure of conglomerates is amorphous and Manoir d'Ango
principle was reflected in how buildings them- 1.1.74 Romanesque portal, St Gotthard's,
random in character, making them suitable for
selves were executed. Whenever possible, Brandenburg, 12th century
many applications.
any trace of how a stone was lifted, laid and 1.1.75 Medieval city wall at Rheinsberg Castle
Natural stones must be processed and com- 1.1.76 Monastery wall, Chorin, 1827
fastened was hidden in the finished wall.
bined into masonry according to their origin. 1.1.77 Dry walling with slate, Pyrenees
1.1.75 1.1.76 1.1.77
37
Le Corbusier was the first to draw the observer's

eye deliberately to signs of the building pro-
cess, the work itself. The manufacture of ashlar
stone and processing the stone into the most
challenging architectural components was and
is a crowning cultural achievement. In all this,
the disposition of the joints, the joint layout, is
of prime importance. Bed joints must always
be arranged perpendicular to the compressive
load; perpends between ashlar stones must
never occur in an angle, coving or corner of
the volume, but always at inconspicuous ortho-
gonal positions. This attitude towards joints is
directed at reshaping tooled pieces and com-
bining them artfully in the masonry (fig. 1.1.78).
It is fundamentally different from the bonding
rules of clay brickwork. Only terracotta relief is
divided according to ashlar stone rules. One of
the astonishing and alarming facts in the histo-
ry of building is that the knowledge of working
with ashlar stone has become nearly obsolete
within just two generations after millennia of
expertise and practice. Today, the upright joint
in ashlar jambs is (horribile dictu) often set into
the window sill slab. Depending upon hard-
ness and composition, natural stone surfaces
can be processed from the natural cleft (or
quarry-faced) condition by sawing, bossage, 1.1.78
pointing, bush hammering, charring, smooth-
ing, grinding and polishing. Nearly all these In facing masonry with clay, calcium silicate discernible upon closer inspection.
processing steps can be machine-tooled today. and concrete bricks, the aesthetic and tech- A certain liveliness or, in the most successful
nical importance of the joint is often under- cases, an iridescent tension is, however, not
estimated. It is even more important here than merely a product of attuning the differences in
The joint in natural stone masonry. The joints cover the colour between unit and joint. The scale, which
surface like a dense mesh and give it scale. In is defined by the network of joints, is just as
The joint characterizes the masonry, it is an the case of masonry units, the width of the joint important. It is also influenced by creating a
enduring testament to the intelligent and artis- is dependent on the format of the unit. harmony between the size of the unit and the
tic achievement of building, that is of "jointing", By accentuating or downplaying the import- width of the joint, and for this reason we must
the wall. In Old High German the word "Fuge" ance of the joint, the designer can influence deviate briefly to the topic of format. The rela-
(joint) signified both the place where two the tone, liveliness and character of the surface tionship between joint and unit is harmonious
pieces were joined as well as the dexterity and to a great degree, even so far as to reverse its with the formats commonly used today, the
skill in making the joint; originating as a term in effect completely. The colour repertoire ranges standard format or the thin format. In facing
this trade, it gradually took on a figurative from pure black to dark blue, red, muted greys masonry with 2 DF formats, the joints are
meaning in many other areas of life. The joint and yellow to pure white. One rule of thumb is already out of balance. This is one of the rea-
reveals how the pieces are linked: it defines that the colour of the stone is intensified the sons why 2 DF masonry is never truly satisfac-
the bond. It has always sparked theoretical darker the colour is in the joint. A pure white tory from an aesthetic point of view. In the past
debate in architecture, e.g. the "joint dressing" joint tends to appear clumsy and bleaches there were a number of larger and smaller for-
metaphor in the Semperian theory of cladding. colour from the units. It pushes itself into the mats, always appropriate in size for manual
The treatment of joints is invariably an indicator foreground, becoming too dominant in the handling. This was chiefly a result of the tech-
of the architectonic stance. Hence, it plays an overall image and thereby violates another nology then available, but also because of the
important role in the design. rule: namely, that the joint design must never quality of the clay and other practical reasons.
become the primary feature, but always sup- The medieval monumental buildings of the
port the overall visual intention in as inconspic- Hanseatic Gothic were constructed with bricks
uous a manner as possible. Creative solutions in monastery format with an approximate joint
such as tinting the mortar - for example, in width of 15 mm. The decisive factor in these
order to emphasize the horizontal in the structures was the greater elasticity offered by
masonry by tinting the perpends in stone pure lime mortar with coarse aggregates com-
colours or moving them closer together, while pared with brittle masonry units. At the same
executing the bed joints in the usual m a n n e r - time, consideration was given to the lower
were applied in many different ways in the loadbearing capacity of mortar. But the overall
1920s. Today, these solutions have almost fall- effect in colour and tectonics of these expan-
en into obscurity. Colour effects in joints are at sive walls, as well as the treatment of the joint
their best when the difference in colour network to scale, is also in harmony with the
between joint and unit is imperceptible in the large formats. One basic rule is that the scale
overall appearance of the surface and is only of the building and its subdivisions should
1.1.79
38
Design
establish a specific, deliberate relationship with

the scale of the joints. Smaller formats, such as
the Dutch or the Oldenburg format, can easily
tempt one towards a more decorative treatment
of joints with widths ranging from 15 to 20 mm
- especially in the case of fine Dutch hand-
moulded bricks. The tectonic context is lost.
The units float in a mass of joints because the
intention is not to integrate them into the overall
context of the masonry but to highlight them as
individual features.
The manner in which the joint surface is pro-
duced is important for both the durability and
the (visual) effect of the joint. The joint material
is always less durable than the adjoining
masonry unit. The simplest and most cost-
efficient manner of creating a durable joint is
"flush pointing", that is filling the joints of brick-
work or blockwork with wet mortar and striking
excess mortar off flush with a trowel. Any sub-
sequent working of the joint with jointers, or
even better with a piece of hose or a sliver of
wood, has the sole purpose of matching the
roughness of the joint surface to that of the sur-
rounding stone. In that case, the entire mass of
joint mortar must be premixed in the desired
joint colour.
The common method, however, is to rake out 1.1.80 1.1.81
the joint to 10 to 20 mm depth during the bed-
ding process and to fill in (point) the joints later, The lime-bonded grit is especially easy to re- veins on an anaemic, thin-skinned body. At the
thus gaining more control over achieving the cognize. Catalan masonry of prefabricated time of Ludwig I, the Munich school promoted
desired visual effect. This methods allows for brick elements, 200 x 420 x 40 mm, similar to a style of masonry in which the joints were ele-
colour differentiation in the joints, projecting or Roman bricks, such as Antonio Gaudi used in gantly and artfully reduced to a millimetre-thin
recessing the joints, plastic rendering of the his buildings in Barcelona, have been used. minimum. This is achieved with facing bricks
joint, scoring the joint, embossing, pressing Sintered units required cement additives. The which diminish into wedges towards the interior
gravel, porcelain or similar materials into the surface of the joint must never be "ironed out" of the wall or by creating an approx. 20-mm-
joint. When joints between hard-fired units are with the jointer because this will concentrate wide bearing area for both the bed joint and
recessed, the resulting shadow lines articulate the binding agent on the surface of the joint; the perpend, behind which the brick is reduced
the masonry surface in a particularly impres- this results in fine fissures whose capillary in width and height.
sive manner. effect "draws" rainwater into the joint. The As in Friedrich Gartner's saltworks administra-
Again, there are a number of rules to be con- "clinker disease" (masonry saturated with mois- tion building in Munich, the joints are often
sidered. Thus, the roughness of the joint should ture on the inside), dreaded in the 1920s, was almost invisible in the buildings designed by
match the degree of roughness of the unit's partly due to such erroneous joint design. his students (fig. 1.1.81). Specials were manu-
surface. The same is true of the hardness of Irregular units, e.g. hand-moulded bricks, factured to achieve the interior angle at the
the joint, which also should correspond to the should have flush joints whenever possible. projecting pilaster. The beauty of this solution
hardness of the unit. A soft facing unit should The following four historic examples illustrate lies in the enchanting interaction of colours on
be jointed with pure lime mortar and siliceous, different approaches and interpretations of the planar, delicately stretched brick surfaces.
gritty aggregates. working with joints: The world-renowned curtain wall of the Fagus-
Fig. 1.1.79 shows a carefully executed battle- The masonry of the Friedrichswerder Church werk is one example of a group of brickwork
ment wall, which has already been subjected (fig. 1.1.80) is stretched like a membrane. The buildings in which fragility and extreme tension
to weather abrasion. joints project in pronounced half-rounds, like became the thematic focus of the design in a
1.1.78 Notre-Dame de I'Epine, Champagne,

1400-1527 AD
1.1.79 Self-supporting battlement wall of a fortress,
Collioure, Pyrenees, end of 17th century
1.1.80 Friedrichswerder Kirche, Berlin, 1824,
architect: Friedrich Schinkel
1.1.81 Kunstmuseum Hannover, 1852-56,
architect: Conrad Wilhelm Hase
1.1.83 Madsack House, Hannover, 1972,
architect: Fritz Hoger
1.1.82 1.1.83
39
masonry and the stone treatment increases Conversely, three-dimensional divisions in a

proportionately to the delicacy and restraint in cubist spirit can look back on a tradition that is
the joint design. There are few opportunities just as long and continues to this day.
today to revel in the organizing power of stone The west facade of the Chorin monastery (fig.
in quite the same manner, since natural stone 1.1.87) is the most compelling historic valida-
is rarely used as masonry, but most commonly tion of the plastic spirit in masonry. Since the
as mere stone facing in panels with open slits. monastic rule forbade any excess, the spiritual
The material appeal of natural stone is lost. power of the design is expressed precisely in
Without the importance of the joints, the stone its ascetic restraint.
is deprived of its authenticity, its true self. It
can only deteriorate into a "natural" veneer. Another dogma prescribes that masonry must
always be divided in the vertical direction be-
cause the material allows only for limited span
Division in masonry widths. Once again, there are convincing built
examples that support this rule and equally
In the first third of the 20th century there was a convincing examples that argue against it.
heated argument about whether division in
masonry should be flush or three-dimensional. Figures 1.1.85 and 1.1.86 demonstrate that the
Various schools of thought formed which schools of thought we have discussed are both
defended their claim to representing the only true and false. The first building is just as con-
valid dogma with arguments based on theory vincing and differentiated in its plastic division
1.1.84 and examples drawn from the history of build- as the second is by means of its rigorous pla-
ing. With the perspective of time, it is perhaps nar tension. What both buildings have in com-
fascinating manner. The pure header course difficult to comprehend fully how passionate mon is the rhythmic tripartite division and the
masonry in third grade bricks features careful the disagreement was at that time, for con- additive facade development, bordered by
jointing by means of undercutting at the brick vincing examples exist in support of both very simple and sparse means on the left and
edge and pencil-thin beads of mortar in a well- principles. right sides. In the Bewag base in Berlin, the
balanced, graceful harmony (fig. 1.1.82). narrow plinth and the five-storey-high half-brick
Fritz Hoger's masonry surfaces are designed In northern Europe, where climate conditions muntins, which are flush with the face and pro-
with true virtuosity, both optically and aesthetic- are harsh, it was common to create smooth jecting by one full brick, are brilliantly conceived.
ally. In a private house, designed in a Cubist external masonry with flush window frames.
spirit, the angular projecting bed joints provide The timber frame and the window casement Mies van der Rohe (fig. 1.1.88) shows that
the sole optical division, carried throughout the are flush with the external surface. The case- such doctrines invite contradiction, that design
wall with great consistency (fig. 1.1.83). The ments open outwards, and the prevailing is more than the mere effort to satisfy a certain
entire house has a reserved, solid presence strong winds press them firmly into the rebate. dogma, that good architecture cannot be
achieved primarily by the simple expedient of The graceful appearance of Dutch or Danish restricted by such narrow, superficial rules. He
the divisions created by the joint design. homes in facing masonry is the product of a demonstratively dispenses with window sills,
small-scale texture consistently combined with negates that there might be any limitation to
The joint in natural stone masonry flush window frames. Even upscale bourgeois spans in masonry and offers a contrapuntal
The ashlar masonry of antiquity - especially in homes in Lubeck or Danzig (today Gdansk) response to the narrow, theoretical attitude of
ancient Greece - is characterized by a degree were characterized by fairly discreet and purists "who would like to diminish all architec-
of precision in the joint design that surpasses sparse divisions. ture to prose" (Goethe). He cuts masonry
the mere necessity of scale and takes on a
monumentality of its own. The aesthetic goal is
to create a visible reference of the independent
value of masonry as a designed volume - a
piece of nature reassembled by human hands
through the technical perfection in the visible
trace of this "assembly", that is in the joints
(fig. 1.1.84).
This philosophy sheds light on the contradic-
tion that the tension in the appearance of the
1.1.84 Fortifications at Messene, Greece,

4th century BC
1.1.85 Hohere Webeschule (Weaving College), Berlin,
1909-14, architect: Ludwig Hoffmann
1.1.86 Bewag base, Berlin-Neukolln, 1926-27,
architect: Hans Heinrich Muller
1.1.87 West facade of Chorin monastery church,
13th century, gable of south aisle
1.1.85 1.1.86
40
Design
1.1.87
41
1.1.88
surfaces open to reveal the dynamic of the joint bricks into an arch in such a manner that they tion, naturally, of historic reconstructions. One
in a new light: the fluctuating ambivalence would fall were it not for the support provided highly efficient 19th-century vaulting technique,
between outside and inside. This approach by other, similarly arranged bricks. This the "Prussian Cap", in which segmental arched
interprets structural analysis as a design com- dynamic is even echoed to some degree in the sections are spanned between steel columns,
ponent, which is optically enhanced, one might terminology used in the trade for the most is still used from time to time. Prussian caps
say, in order to develop a heightened spatial important components of such a construction: generate enormous horizontal thrust in the
connection through the negation and to portray the bearing point of the vault is called the direction of the vault, which must be resisted by
it as a contradiction. "springing", the last and decisive brick, which horizontal edge masonry or by a buttress set in
produces the retaining thrust, is the keystone. front of the wall or (as in the shallow tunnel
The achievements in vaulting, which were dis- vaults in Le Corbusier's Jaoul Houses, fig.
Vaults cussed in detail in the historical section, are a 1.1.89) by means of ties. From the perspective
testimony to breathtaking struggles against the of design, the demise of the vaulting technique
Masonry units can bridge openings horizontal- force of gravity. One famous example is is regrettable since it represents the highlight
ly, or nearly horizontally, but not areas. One Balthasar Neumann's nearly horizontal vaulting in the art of masonry.
simple form of creating the ceiling is the blind in the staircase of the Bishop's Residence at
vault in which the bricks are corbelled by Wurzburg.
degrees and piled towards the apex. In south- Volumes on the history of vaulting techniques Openings and lintels
ern Italy this method is still in use. fill entire bookshelves. Yet very few masonry
A more sophisticated solution is to arrange the vaults are constructed today, with the excep- Anyone who has read the account of how Rat
Krespel built his house and went about creat-
ing the wall openings, will understand the plan-
ning challenge this procedure poses, E.T.A.
Hoffmann's eccentric storytelling style notwith-
standing. Throughout the history of building,
the relation of wall to opening, the design of the
wall penetration, has provided the answer to
the question of what is a wall. It also reflects
how the architect, and the era, view the rela-
tionship between outside and inside, separa-
tion and connection, corporeality and space,
shelter and danger - ultimately, how they view
the world.
A Baroque "ceil de boeuf" speaks volumes on
this issue when contrasted with a diaphanous
tracery rosette.
The technical problems of how to span open-
ings are identical to those encountered in
vaulting. Small windows can be spanned with
cantilevered stones, as the following four
examples demonstrate.
Fig. 1.1.90 shows a window composed of
monastery brick formats in a bond with bricks
1.1.89
42
Design
placed on end as window reveals. This solution

is stunningly simple and natural. The window in
fig. 1.1.91 is set into the bond and is covered
by two projecting stretcher faces, supporting
one stretcher which serves as a keystone and
is braced with chamfered joints, an idea that is
as ingenious as it is convincing. The window in
fig. 1.1.92 is set into the bond and features a
semicircular arch of stretchers, continued as a
vertical jamb, which in turn is interlaced with
the bond. The lintel with stepped, cantilevered
headers in the English cross bond wall in fig.
1.1.93 exudes a reserved naturalness. Such
stepped solutions were used for windows twice
the width of the example shown in this figure
(approx. 750 mm).
For wider window openings, considerable

spans can be achieved with the vaulting tech-
nique. For reasons of expediency, however,
most masonry is simply used as facing over
arches constructed from other loadbearing 1.1.90 1.1.91
materials, although the lintel stones used for
this purpose tend to part into wide gaps along
the top of the vault. A good solution to this
problem is to create two or more arches one
above the other, a technique that was already
used in Roman masonry (see also fig. 1.1.13).
During the last third of the 19th century, the

aforementioned Grunderzeit in Germany, the
rapid expansion in the number of building
tasks led to the predominant use of the seg-
mental arch since it offered the best loadbear-
ing capacity.
When repeated in one and the same building,
the segmental arch can appear uninteresting
and undecided. The nearly horizontal, so-
called cambered arch offered a solution to this
problem. (figs. 1.1.55 and 1.1.94) As a building
form, the cambered arch had been familiar for
centuries and it was frequently used for lintels
in bourgeois homes in northern Europe. In the
past, it was constructed across spans of up to 1.1.92 1.1.93
2.5 m without any difficulties or technical aids.
To achieve this construction, there are, howev-
er, several prerequisites. It should always be
carefully bricked up with full joints. It should be
formed with a barely visible rise of several mil-
limetres. In the past, this rise was created by
applying a fine layer of sand onto the center-
ing. Moreover, it should not exceed a span of
1.1.88 Esters House and Lange House, Krefeld 1928-

30, architect: Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
1.1.89 Brick vaulting in Jaoul Houses, Le Corbusier,
Neuiliy-sur-Seine, 1952-56
1.1.90 Chorin monastery, 13th century,
sexpartite window in brewery
1.1.91 as in fig. 1.1.90, window in brewery
1.1.92 as in fig. 1.1.90, window in west facade
1.1.93 Barn window, Hannover, 19th century
1.1.94 Stables on estate in Neustrelitz, 1870,
architect: Friedrich Wilhelm Buttel
1.1.95 Faguswerk, Alfeld, smithy, 1911-14
1.1.94 1.1.95
43
1.1.96 1.1.97
2m - especially in half-brick leaves. In the Hanseatic regions on the North and the relieved by a lintel stone set above it. The joint
The cambered arches in the brilliantly con- Baltic Seas, frames set into the windows, so- between lintel and beam is left open to avoid
ceived masonry of the smithy in the Faguswerk called sash frames, were used to span larger load transfer. The joint between the window sill
(fig. 1.1.95) were processed from extruded wall openings, additionally braced with centre slab and the ashlar stone beneath it is open for
material and subsequently installed as indivi- muntins and wooden transoms in openings the same reason, to prevent the window sill
dual moulded units, fitted into the lintel bond with even greater dimensions. The sash frames from bending upwards and breaking as a
across five courses. did double duty as falsework. This continues to result of the stress exerted by the weight of the
Even in the era dominated by the Werkbund be a frequent method in building with masonry reveals in the rigid vertical joints.
spirit, which held that masonry should only be in the Netherlands.
constructed with genuine masonry materials,
leading architects such as Fritz Schumacher The next two examples serve to illustrate spe- Columns and piers
and Fritz Höger took the liberty of resorting to cific problems in creating lintels with masonry.
auxiliary means to solve the problems that The Jurassic lime door jamb illustrated in fig. Next to vaulting, erecting columns from mason-
arise in spanning openings. 1.1.98 features corbel bricks on the top of the ry has always been a high art. This is where the
The horizontal cambered arches composed of opening on which one-third of the ashlar lintel architect demonstrated his expertise. One need
specials in the entrance pavilion to the Kunst- rests on either side. The profiles in the corbel only remember the monumental order by Claude
gewerbeschule (fig. 1.1.96) are suspended bricks are harmonized with the beam width to Perrault on the east facade of the Louvre.
from the steel beams of the loadbearing struc- achieve a natural and attractive ornamental These columns could only be loadbearing due
ture. This solution in no way diminishes the head to the opening. to their iron cores, a sensational solution at the
aesthetic quality of the arches because the The community hall is carefully executed with time. Since Vitruvius, ideas on proportion in the
observer perceives the entire band of masonry pebbled sandstone in regular courses. The order of columns have filled the prototype
beneath the cupola as a loadbearing compo- design of the window in fig. 1.1.99 is a text- books of nearly every generation of architects.
nent. All the elements are effortlessly subordi- book example of correct ashlar treatment. The The confusing, albeit structurally logical,
nated to the conviction of the design concept. sandstone lintel beam bridging the opening is design of Gothic multiple rib pillars was breath-
1.1.98 1.1.99 1.1.100
44
Design
takingly artful in execution. In modern design

practice, masonry columns no longer play a role.
For free-standing masonry columns, we must
consider that, for the context of the masonry in
the whole building volume, 240 mm columns
can only be constructed with a half-brick over-
lap. For 365 mm columns, the choice lies
between half-brick overlap and quarter-brick
bond, which requires a large number of cut
units. Moreover, the scale in such a column
can no longer be harmonized with brick-on-
edge or soldier courses.
To achieve a continuous soldier course in the
column surround shown in fig. 1.1.97, the
remainder is recessed as a slit and empha-
sized with a fluorescent orange colour.
Plinths and ramps
Plinths have the practical function of protecting

a wall from dampness, splashing water, moss
and dirt. They mark the boundary between
building and ground and emphasize the stab-
ility of the foundation. Until the 18th century,
people believed that the ground was home to
mysterious, terrifying forces, that harmful rays
emanated from the soil and dangerous spirits
dwelled in the earth. Accordingly, plinth walls
were often engraved with symbols, presumably
to repel such evil spirits.
To give the storeys rising above the base a

more significant and refined air, fortresses,
castles and palaces often featured storey-high
plinths in rusticated masonry. Another method
was to create emphasis by means of an
inclined or angled wall, a ramp. It, too, had the
task of underscoring the massiveness of the
base in contrast to the living areas above.
The motif of the ramp continued well into the
20th century. Peter Behrens employed it in
several of his buildings.
1.1.96 Entrance to kunstgewerbeschule Hamburg,

1911-13, architect: Fritz Schumacher
1.1.97 Anderten clubhouse, Hannover, 1991,
architect: Rolf Ramcke
1.1.98 Stables at Chateau de Nieuil, Perigord, France,
17th/18th century
1.1.99 Buchau community hall, Upper Franconia, 1879
1.1.100 Transformer station, Berlin-Neukolln, 1927,
1.1.101 Rectifier substation, Berlin-Zehlendorf, 1928,
1.1.101
45
The monumental buildings of the Hanseatic

Gothic show only a frugal use of the plinth
motif. The granite plinths constructed of rough-
hewn boulders were at most 300 to 500 mm
high. Many large and smaller buildings rose
straight from the ground without a plinth.
While rendered buildings require a waterproof

plinth of at least 300 mm height for protection
against splashing rainwater, faced brickwork
buildings appear at their most natural without a
plinth or only with a slight gesture in that direc-
tion, e.g. a brick-on-edge or soldier course,
which is flush with the street front as shown in
the industrial building in fig. 1.1.100. In this
building, a brick-on-edge course projects by
one half-course depth, sufficient to "carry" the
five-storey building.
1.1.102 1.1.103
Terminations and junctions upper cornice. The slight increase in the pro-
jection of each course completes the masonry
Flat roof terminations wall in a harmonious manner. This clever device
Owing to roofing guidelines, which stipulate more or less leads to a natural termination of
that horizontal edges of the coping must have the wall: it simply cannot go any further.
a min. 50 mm overlap, the proportional balance
of facing masonry is considerably compro- In the pumping station shown in fig. 1.1.102,
mised because this is a dimension that does the roof and parapet rest on cantilevered piers
not fit into its natural scale. at the corner of the wraparound walls. Like the
Many older buildings are ruined by the clumsi- lintels in the bond, the soffits are integrated into
ness of the new termination when the roof edge the floor formwork. The soldier course beneath
is repaired. The argument that rainwater is the window sill is continued as facing on the
driven behind the roof covering by wind and external wall.
saturates the wall with moisture is erroneous.
On the contrary, rainwater is virtually drawn up The continuous dividing scheme with recessed
by the negative pressure that exists in the lee- courses on the Faguswerk (fig. 1.1.104) also
side cavities within the sheet metal capping. provides the final motif at the top of the build-
A simple solution to this problem is to seal the ing. The only difference is that the brick-on-
upper wall areas with bitumen or PVC sheeting, edge course is projected by the same dimen-
which also makes it possible to minimize the sion used for the recessed courses; this doub-
overlap to the ideal optical dimension of 10 to ling enhances the shadow cast in this area. It
15 mm. If the surround is constructed from should be noted, however, that this construc-
hard-fired units, calcium silicate or concrete tion required the use of steel flats at the corners,
units, roofing felt welded flush to the wall will
suffice, the only prerequisite being that the In all these examples, the zinc plate enclosure
joints are flush and that the entire horizontal is rolled (a stable sheet metal edge, easily
area is carefully bonded. manufactured on a folding press).
Ornamentation and decorative profiles in the The pavilion of the university canteen in Eich-
coping have become a thing of the past. The statt (fig. 1.1.105) features a highly successful
powerful cantilevers are reduced to minimum surround on the rendered parapet. The razor-
measures. sharp edge consists of galvanized sheet iron,
bolted to the wall surface with a 20 mm projec-
The sober facade of the industrial building in tion. The butt joints have a sheet metal lining to
fig. 1.1.101 is realized in flying bond. The the expansion joints.
closed surfaces are divided by diagonal oriels,
supported by stepped, cantilevered courses. Verges
The building terminates in stepped, projecting The transition between roof and wall at the
headers. This design achieves a powerful verge of a steep roof invariably inspires some
impact with a few simple means. The only area interesting design solutions. Some may look to
where the otherwise smooth wall surfaces take historic predecessors, such as traditional Black
on a three-dimensional expression is in this Forest houses or alpine styles for inspiration.
1.1.104
46
Design
It is important to reiterate that the quality of unchallenged although it is false. Before sheet
masonry lies in simplicity. zinc ever existed, structures were built that
Two examples demonstrate this admirably. were the technical equivalent of modern solu-
In fig, 1.1.106, roof and wall are constructed tions and far superior in design. The chimney
from the same limestone. The roof slabs are junction was usually realized by thrusting the
pushed from below and from the sides under- roofing tile underneath the chimney base at the
neath the cantilevered stones of the tower wall sides and at the bottom (see also "Construction
rising above. The verge unabashedly reveals details", fig. 3.10.2). The joint was filled with
the roof construction above the carefully exe- fibre-reinforced mortar. This type of junction is
cuted courses of ashlar masonry. easy to execute and many examples built in
The masonry in fig. 1.1.103 is expertly "tumbled- this manner remain in immaculate condition
in" perpendicular to the roof slope. The roofing after many decades.
tiles are laid in mortar and project only slightly
beyond the gable.
Steep roof junctions

One of the issues in creating junctions to steep
roofs is the junction between chimney and roof,
The rule that chimney and roof junctions must
be equipped with zinc flashings remains widely
1.1.105
1.1.102 Pumping station, Hannover, 1996-96,

1.1.103 Kozal estate, Cologne, 19th century
1.1.105 Eichstatt college canteen, 1988,
architect: Karljosef Schattner
1.1.106 Former priory church at Ougy, Burgundy,
first half of 12th century
1.1.106
47
1.1.107 1.1.108
Sills ing should pose few problems, many deficien- pends are filled with mortar and do not normal-
cies in this area occur in building practice. The ly crack across standard spans. The example
Prior to the invention of zinc sheeting, one design of the sill is generally a good indicator in fig. 1.1.111 illustrates how the problem at the
major problem was how to conduct water away of the quality of detail in the overall planning. three critical junctions can be solved. The ren-
from the facade, and handling this difficulty The recently restored 19th century building in dered reveal is undercut to prevent water from
required great experience, know-how and fig. 1.1.109 demontrates that rendered sur- penetrating into the joint between reveal and
imagination. Medieval buildings treated this faces without sheet coverings can also be a sill. The sill consists of galvanized sheet metal
problem in an almost playful manner. Gothic sustainable solution. Upkeep and a new sur- and features a recessed drip edge finished
churches, especially, are often covered in face coat are necessary every two to three with a riveted steel angle. The rear edge is slid
winding gutters on flying buttresses with canal years, although this is a small price to pay in beneath the window frame profile.
ducts through column projections, re-routed view of the clean profile of render without sheet In masonry of fired bricks, the tried-and-tested
into sloping open and closed gutters through coverings. method of forming the sill is to lay a brick-on-
which water was conducted to the gargoyles Calcium silicate units are hard and dirt-repel- edge course which is pushed beneath the win-
from whose mouths it was spewed clear of the lent. A drip detail is therefore not required, and dow frame and projects by 10 to 20 mm
building. Sills serve to drain water away from the concrete sill can finish flush with the wall beyond the faced of the wall at a slight angle.
windows, from the reveals and the external sur- (fig. 1.1.110). If, as in this example, the sill has Flush joints and carefully executed joints in the
faces of window sills. They are a rather incon- the same surface density and dimension as the brick-on-edge course are essential. (See also
spicuous wall detail. Although one might pre- adjacent masonry unit, it will fit inconspicuously "Construction details", pp. 224, 226.)
sume that conducting water away from a build- into the surrounding surface. The lateral per-
1.1.109 1.1.110 1.1.111
48
Design
Framework
One of the many applications of versatile

masonry units is to use them as infilling
between other structures built with timber, steel
and reinforced concrete. In this case, the unit
is non-loadbearing.
One of the most widespread combinations in

the past was the half-timbered framework with
infill masonry panels (bricknogging). It was
used nearly everywhere because it was such
an economic building method. In these con-
structions the masonry unit demonstrates its
property as an infill element in a variety of orna-
mental bonds, usually just a half-brick thick. As
illustrated in the northern German 18th-century
warehouse in fig. 1.1.107, the infill panels and
windows are always flush with the exterior to
offer a minimal corroding surface exposed to
the effects of wind and weather.
The industrial buildings of the 20th century,

especially in regions with heavy industries
such as iron and coal, proved that masonry
units can also be combined with steel frame-
work construction, which gives them an entirely
new, streamlined, "engineered" appearance.
Early examples are the water tower in Posen
designed by Poelzig, as well as the industrial
buildings by Hertlein and Behrens. Large steel
mills in Germany's industrial Ruhr region, such
as the Zollverein Colliery (fig. 1.1.112), took
advantage of this economic and structurally
sound construction method, adding a new,
sinewy character to the landscape. Today, this
method is no longer used in industrial building
due to the problems of insulation in the steel
construction.
Mies van der Rohe's campus buildings at the

Illinois Institute of Technology (fig. 1.1.108) are
reduced to scale, number and proportion.
Steel framework and English bond masonry
infill express an elemental simplicity in which
even the smallest part is significant and defin-
ing. This invests the image in its entirety with
an inimitable universality.
1.1.107 Half-timbered wool warehouse, Gustrow,

18th century
1.1.108 Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, 1952,
architect: Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
1.1.109 Town house, Brandenburg,
first quarter of 19th century
1.1.110 Kindergarten, Hannover, 1967,
1.1.111 Eichstatt college canteen, 1988,
architect: Karljosef Schattner
1.1.112 Zollverein Colliery, Essen, south entrance 12/1/2,
1928-32, architects: Fritz Schupp and
Martin Kremmer
1.1.112
49
Free-standing walls
External walls follow their own building rules.

Apart from their role as a boundary, they must
also be impervious to decay. The walls can
easily be protected from dampness rising from
the ground, an aspect that must not be over-
looked. Protection against frost and rain is
more important, however. Frost protection is
guaranteed primarily by selecting frost-resis-
tant units. This is especially true for fired clay
bricks. Calcium silicate and concrete units are
inherently frost-proof. Joints fully filled with
mortar are equally vital, for water penetrates
more easily into cavities in the masonry of a
free-standing wall, which leads to frost-induced
cracks. Rendered walls require an overhang-
ing coping with lateral drip edges. This require-
ment is often overdone for walls with facing
masonry. What is necessary is to achieve a
workmanlike joint surface, not completely
1.1.113 "ironed out" or smooth.
The ancient and massive wall in fig. 1.1.113,
which serves as a flood barrier for the church,
is able to withstand the rough climate on the
North Sea coast without any special coping.
Driving rain and gusty winds in the Pyrenees

have eroded, but not destroyed, the masonry
and joints of the wall coping in fig. 1.1.114.
The perforated facing masonry, shown in fig.
1.1.115 in Gothic bond, remains without a cop-
ing, while the plaster pillars are protected by
flared pagoda roofs.
The retaining wall in fig. 1.1.117 in the flood

plain along the River Leine is constructed from
Oldenburg bricks. The column and lintel at the
end of the wall form an open window that
frames the changing views of the river.
1.1.114
1.1.113 Churchyard wall in Katwijk, The Netherlands

1.1.114 Battlement parapet wall at Fort Collioure,
France, 18th century
1.1.115 Church wall, Prague, 1920s
1.1.116 Parliamentarians building, Dhaka, Bangladesh,
1962-74, architect: Louis I. Kahn
1.1.117 Retaining wall on the bank of the River Leine,
Hannover, 1993, architect: Rolf Ramcke
1.1.115
50
Design
Masonry - today and tomorrow
When we look at the plastic treatment of walls

across several millennia, we are astonished by
the technical continuity in a building method
that continues to express what building has
always signified by means of simple layering
and jointing. Manufactured units still fulfil their
loadbearing and aesthetic task in much the
same manner. Thus, the high thermal storage
capacity of masonry is superior to other meth-
ods of thermal resistance. No insulating materi-
al, no matter how advanced, can equal the
advantages of thermal storage. The concept of
slowing thermal transmittance by means of
insulation is not a sustainable method of
energy conservation per se.
Since time immemorial, masonry as a building

envelope has fulfilled a full range of tasks, both
in terms of structure and building science. With
a plaster finish it was shaped into panels and
rough-hewn ashlar, or helped to create subtle,
artistic effects such as in the Hofbibliothek in
Vienna. If Erich Mendelssohn had used mason-
ry for his Einstein Tower instead of a mix of
materials with concrete, he would have been
able to avoid building deficiencies. Regardless
of the differences in how the internal structure
of the wall is designed, natural stone or fired
clay brick produce a surrounding shell. Thus,
in the Oldenburg method it provided protection
from wind and driving rain in the form of an
1.1.116
external envelope set off from the actual wall
by a cavity, long before such demands were Incrustations will develop into design elements an integral and inseparable whole, which must
made by the requirements of building science. in their own right; this is a simple fact in the his- also be treated as such from the perspective of
We can only admire the variety and inventive- tory of building. It was, however, heatedly refut- design. Yet what we see beneath the skin, the
ness with which masonry has adapted to new ed towards the end of historicism, because in- surface, is not pure building, naked reality, as
demands and resisted misuse without compro- crustation had degenerated into routine decor- had been the desired aim of this new design
mising its own intrinsic character over the ation. What the debate ignored was the en- philosophy, but simply another surface with all
course of the history of building. What has closing function, which had always existed, and the familiar properties we had hoped to leave
remained of this constancy in the contempo- whose aesthetic challenges had inspired spe- behind.
rary debate on architecture? cific solutions as an autonomous design task.
Moreover, the action-oriented attitude of build-
This is why we still use the metaphor of ing also results in a logical dilemma. Actions
cladding, that is "a cloak" around the structure, are but fleeting temporal sequences and can
for the skin, a term that originated with Gottfried therefore not be transformed into a sustainable
Semper's cladding symbolism. Semper viewed built substance. Purpose seems to offer the
the building as an unformed mass across which key to solving this dilemma. Purpose is to give
symbolic, referencing design characteristics permanence to the action. Even this approach
are cast in the design process much like a is doomed to fail, however, for purposes are
cloak is thrown around a body. This view also subject to change. Hence, in the course of
betrays its roots in historicism. While it is a step the 20th century purpose has been transposed
on the road towards considering external char- into an enduring system rationale. Purpose is
acteristics in relation to internal context, the integrated with strategic equivalents of action
symbolism limits the goal to one of meaning by posing the question as to the function of
rather than function. each purpose.
The action-related challenges of designing,
which have become the dominant develop- Conversely, experience has shown that historic
ment in architecture since the beginning of the buildings, which do not adhere to a logical pur-
20th century, cannot be addressed with the pose rationale, retain a material "surplus" and
help of this theory. are thus equipped to age. Such buildings can
accommodate new purposes even when their
The premise of this new focus in building is framework no longer supports the original
that envelope and core, skin and structure, are vision of the function/purpose relationship.
1.1.117
51
1.1.118 Museum of Roman Art, Merida, Spain, 1985,

architect: Jose Rafael Moneo
that has been trapped in the world of things is

liberated, transformed and awakened to new
life.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, inside

and outside, load and loadbearing, and hence
our interpretation of masonry, have undergone
fundamental changes as a result of qualifying
spatial relationships. Now, we are called upon
to do justice to these changes with our percep-
tion. The analogy of the human body, which
had been our unconscious emotional reference
point, no longer applies. The definition of the
skin, that is, to be a barrier between outside
and inside, has ceased to be an appropriate
metaphor for building.
The impending danger is that the image may

no longer reflect reality, but become an
autonomous entity itself without making refer-
ence to reality. Masonry is no longer presented
as the impenetrable mass it is, but as an image
1.1.118 of solidity assembled and presented with a
noncommittal, superficial attitude. This under-
These buildings derive material resistance from Yet these approaches cannot fulfil the design mines the need for authenticity, believability
the masonry quality, The perceived inaccessibil- tasks and the new problems they need to and reliability. It cannot be regained by resort-
ity creates a sense of alienation, which can address; Novalis expressed it thus: "The exteri- ing to building methods that clearly display a
metamorphose into familiarity with new uses. or is elevated to become a secret expression nostalgic yearning for the past, nor can it be
Such buildings become "places to be". of the interior." The open-minded observer who bridged by a design philosophy whose build-
believes that he has long since grasped all the ing forms express an ironic distance.
Even masonry conceived as an envelope for relationships and denies the existence of any
reasons of rationalization has a specific rela- secret, is taken aback and yet stimulated to In Gothic buildings we experience massive,
tionship to the building, which is reflected in tear himself away from everyday perceptions, suspended weight precisely because of their
the design. This relationship must go beyond The pictorial transformation of things - the inte- antithetical treatment of stone. In the Renais-
simulated symptoms of a fictitious building rior transformed into secret expression on the sance, the full force of the masonry in the
function or tectonic. The demand for honesty, exterior - is the aesthetic domain. Seen in this palazzi is wrested from incompatible elements.
for baring the purpose of the building, has light, the contradiction between aesthetic effect In the Baroque, weight was the product of a
seduced architects into decorating or enrich- and functional reflection, which we set forth at cycle of meanings, investing the stone with
ing buildings with visual facade symbols of the outset, no longer exists. What we have more meaning than it had before in an im-
functions that do not exist inside the building. instead is the outer world of the inner world. material manner.
Thus, a multistorey apartment building can be And this is a perfect illustration of the position
made to appear like a shed-like structure by which perception occupies in design. All three examples prove that authenticity is not
linking the window fronts across two or three a problem of the material, the masonry materi-
storeys. We have to look closely to distinguish Through the approach of alienation we are al, but an intellectual and spiritual achievement
the divisions and to uncover the simulated confronted with a manner of perception from of accepting the challenge of what we are
function. It is even easier to simulate building the outside, from a type of perspective that given and transforming it. The chapter "Built
tectonics. Buildings that feature an ornamental compromises and destroys contexts that examples in detail" presents a selection of
blend of functional and tectonic props have the seemed familiar. This is the case, for example, current examples to explore this very same
noncommittal character of cinematic scenarios, when cultural developments are explained by topic: namely that the "inner idea", the design
made even more complete through the use of economic conditions, unleashing a new per- stamped upon the mass of exterior matter, is
architectonic illusions. ception of the same developments. The spirit the essence of masonry construction.
52
Part 2 • Fundamentals
Material Natural stone masonry Junctions with intersecting walls

Design • Consolidation of natural stone Bonded junctions • Butt-jointed junctions
Masonry units masonry Chases and recesses
Clay bricks • Calcium silicate units • Auto- Reinforced masonry Building and cleaning facing masonry
claved aerated concrete units • Concrete Materials for reinforced masonry Protecting Construction principles • Cleaning facing
and lightweight concrete units • Granulated reinforcement against corrosion • Structural masonry
slag aggregate units • The designation of reinforced masonry • Non-structural rein- Jointing
masonry units • New types of masonry units • forcement • Shallow lintels • Prestressed Flush and "bucket handle" joints • Pointing
Testing the mechanical properties of mason- masonry Joint design
ry units Prefabricated masonry elements Types of joints • The sealing of joints •
Natural stone units Materials • Production • Design • The spacing and width of joints
Mortar for masonry Safety during transport and erection Gauged brickwork
Forms of production and supply • Types of Masonry in earthquake zones Mechanical fixings in masonry
mortar • The properties of mortar and the Anchors • Nail anchors
requirements it has to meet • Mortars for Rationalization measures
natural stone masonry New types of mortar Masonry details Building to save space and costs •
Plasters Rational laying techniques • Rational
Plastering mixes • Coating materials • Plas- External walls working with large-format masonry units •
ters and plastering systems - applications Single-leaf external walls • Twin-leaf external Modular masonry
and requirements • The application of plaster walls • Non-loadbearing external walls •
Gable walls
Internal walls Building science
Masonry bonds Loadbearing internal walls • Non-loadbear-
ing internal walls Thermal insulation
General Columns and free-standing masonry walls Heat transfer, thermal insulation parameters,
Formats and specials Columns • Free-standing masonry walls terms • Thermal conductivity of building
Historical formats • Standard formats • Party walls materials • Thermal insulation provided by
Large-format elements • Special formats, External basement walls layers of air • Determination of design values
special units Stability of external masonry basement walls for thermal conductivity • Thermal perfor-
The relationship between dimensional • Waterproofing mance of external walls • Windows •
coordination and unit format Natural stone masonry Translucent thermal insulation (Tl) • Solar
Dimensional coordination in buildings • Mod- Openings in walls gains of opaque external walls •
ular coordination in buildings • Dimensional Arching action over openings • Heat storage • Thermal bridges • Airtight-
tolerances and permissible deviations Beam-type lintels • Shallow lintels with ness • Requirements for thermal insulation •
The rules of bonding masonry above • Masonry lintels and Energy-savings Act • Method of calculation •
Masonry wall bonds arches Thermal comfort • Thermal insulation in
Wall bonds • End bonds • Column bonds Vaulting and arch floors summer
Vaults • Masonry arch floors between beams Climate-related moisture control
Point loads Humidity • Hygroscopic moisture • Capillarity
Structural masonry Connections • Water vapour diffusion • Calculating the
Connecting walls to floors and roof frames • quantity of condensation within components
The loadbearing behaviour of masonry Ring beams and capping beams • Moisture behaviour of masonry • Water
Compression • Tension and tensile bending vapour convection • Protection against
• Shear stresses driving rain
The principles of masonry design The building of masonry Sound insulation
The evolution of European and national stan- Terms and definitions • Requirements •
dards • Method of analysis • Safety concept Mixing and using mortar on site Sound insulation against internal noise •
• Determining the cross-sections from the Mixing mortar • Using mortar Sound insulation against external noise •
loads • Three-dimensional stability • Analysis Protecting masonry against moisture Single-leaf walls • Twin-leaf party walls •
of concentric and eccentric compression • Laying during cold weather Flanking components • External walls
Analysis of safety against buckling • Analysis Suitability and quality tests Fire protection
of tension and bending tension • Analysis of Quality control of prescribed masonry (RM) • Building material classes • Fire resistance
shear Quality control of masonry according to suit- classes • Types and functions of walls •
Deformation and crack formation ability test (EM) Requirements • Fire walls • Complex party
Deformations in masonry • Cracks in Perpends and bed joints walls • Classification of proven components
masonry • Causes and prevention of Laying with mortar to the perpends • External walls with thermal insulation
cracks in masonry Laying without mortar to the perpends Units and symbols for building science
54
Material
Masonry should be considered as a composite and also by the percentage and arrangement absorption are decisive factors in the choice of
building material consisting of masonry units of any perforations (circular, rectangular, cellu- materials for facing work subjected to frost and
and mortar. The minimum requirements regard- lar, slotted). Furthermore, there are differences driving rain.
ing mechanical properties, quality and quality in strengths, deformation behaviour, building Thermal conductivity values for the most im-
control of the units and the mortar are covered science properties and surface finishes. The portant masonry materials are specified in
by numerous standards. Quality control is different properties are the result of the various EN 1745 in relation to the gross density. The
divided into the manufacturer's own measures raw materials used or the method of production. values given in the tables are statistical evalua-
during production and those of outside cen- In geometric terms, the man-made masonry tions of large numbers of test results from sev-
tres. In the factory, quality control is carried out units are divided into bricks, blocks and ele- eral European countries. As an example of the
by the manufacturer of the material indepen- ments. In terms of perforations, they are classi- various masonry materials, fig. 2.1.1 shows the
dently at specified intervals. Monitoring of the fied as solid (max. 15% perforations) or perfor- results of 446 separate tests on aerated con-
production by acknowledged test and certifi- ated (hollow block, horizontally perforated, crete samples with their mean value and upper
cation centres is carried out unannounced at vertically perforated). The perforations are and lower tolerances. The figures specify the
regular intervals. Products for walls that owing introduced either to provide a better grip for thermal conductivity values for the dry state as
to their technological innovation are not yet in the bricklayer or to improve the building mean value and upper tolerance with 90% cer-
general use and not fully proven in practice, or science properties. And finally, man-made tainty for a 90% confidence coefficient. These
cannot be standardized because of their par- bricks can be distinguished by the type of values serve as the basis for calculating the
ticular properties, are covered by temporary mortar bedding (thin-, medium- or thick-bed thermal conductivity of a masonry construction.
general building authority certificates. Such masonry) and the form of the perpends (with For building work in Germany the thermal con-
certificates are issued by the Deutsche Institut or without mortar). Units for thin-bed masonry ductivity design value for calculating the ther-
fur Bautechnik (DIBt - German Building Tech- are described as precision or gauged units; mal insulation of a construction is based on
nology Institute) in Berlin. The quality control these differ from standard units in that they are moisture content equilibrium at 23°C and 80%
of these materials is again guaranteed by the subject to tighter tolerances regarding their relative humidity.
manufacturer's own measures during produc- height and length. The header faces of units
tion, backed up by those of independent can be arranged in such a way that during
centres. construction either the complete perpend or Clay bricks
only part of it is provided with mortar (thin- or There is verifiable evidence that fired clay
thick-bed) or that the units are simply butted bricks have been used for about 5000 years.
Masonry units together. This type of perpend is increasingly In Mohenjo-Daro on the River Indus, part of
used to satisfy building science requirements present-day Pakistan, great quantities of these
Masonry units are divided into man-made units and for rationalization. were used in walls, floors and canal building
and natural stone units. The man-made units In masonry the choice of unit is primarily de- instead of the air-dried bricks used hitherto
are in turn divided into clay, calcium silicate, pendent on the structural and building science [59]. Therefore, clay bricks are the oldest and
autoclaved aerated concrete, normal-weight specifications for the particular wall to be built. best-known man-made masonry units. They
concrete, lightweight concrete and granulated The criterion for the structural requirement is are produced from the natural materials clay
slag aggregate units, depending on their raw the strength of the masonry units; the building and loam, or mixtures of the two. Preparing the
materials. The natural stone units, which these science aspect is influenced by the dry gross materials for production involves passing them
days are primarily used for the repair of stone density. Masonry units with high strengths through a feeding unit, which achieves the best
masonry and rarely for new building work, exhibit a high dry gross density and hence consistency of the mixture. In doing so, addi-
include all naturally found types of rock that good sound insulation characteristics as well. tives such as sawdust or polystyrene beads
exhibit adequate minimum compressive strength On the other hand, masonry units with good are frequently introduced; these are completely
without structural and weather-induced dam- thermal insulation properties have a low dry destroyed during the firing process to leave
age. While the natural stone units are all gross density and usually a low compressive behind innumerable tiny pores. The pores re-
covered by the German masonry design code strength. Further aspects to be considered duce the gross density and hence the weight
.DIN 1053 part 1, the man-made masonry units when choosing a type of masonry unit are of the brick. This in turn decreases the thermal
are dealt with in various standards according resistance to freeze-thaw cycles and water conductivity of the brick, which results in better
to their raw materials. absorption, as well as economic issues such thermal insulation properties. Preparation of the
In terms of geometry, the man-made masonry as cost of materials and rational workability. raw material includes passing the mixture
units are distinguished both by their dimensions The resistance to freeze-thaw cycles and water through a mill, where it is both crushed and
55
Material
2.1.1 Thermal conductivity of aerated concrete in relation to gross density torn apart. This is necessary because the raw
materials often include impurities of stone,
slate or wood, whose influence is eliminated by
the crushing process. Apart from that, this
brings about a homogenization of the mixture.
An ageing process concludes the preparation
of the raw materials. This involves adding water
to improve both the plasticity and the bonding
power, and hence the overall quality of the
clay. The prepared clay is fed to a worm
extruder fitted with interchangeable dies. The
mixture (evacuated and heated by steam to
30-40°C) is forced through the die at a pres-
sure of about 13 bar. This produces a continu-
ous ribbon, which is then cut by means of tight-
ly stretched steel wires into individual "green"
bricks. These stable units are dried at tempera-
tures of up to about 100°C to remove the mix-
ing water used in preparing the clay. This
process is necessary to prevent the formation
of steam during the firing process, which would
otherwise burst the clay. Following the drying
phase, which lasts between 90 minutes and
190 hours, the "green" bricks are fired at tem-
peratures of between 900 and 1100°C. In
doing so, the fine raw material particles are
irreversibly fused to form a stable unit. In addi-
tion, the clay loses the chemically bonded
water. After 10 to 48 hours the fired clay brick
leaves the kiln. It now possesses its final prop-
erties and can be used immediately after cool-
ing down (see fig. 2.1.3). The colour of the clay
brick mainly depends on the percentage of
metal oxides in the raw materials, as well as on
the air surrounding the "green" brick during the
firing process. Red bricks owe their colour to a
certain iron oxide content and to an oxygen-rich
kiln atmosphere. A lower iron oxide content
leads to a yellow colouring of the brick, and an
oxygen-starved kiln atmosphere results in a
darker colour [39, 7 1 , 207, 216],
2.1.2 Compressive strength classes, gross density classes and formats avail able The standard types of clay brick are given in
Type of clay brick Abbreviation Gross density class Strength class Formats table 2.1.4. These bricks, with the exception of
Vertically perforated brick HLzA 1.2-1.6 4-28 NF-16 DF moulded and hand-moulded varieties, must
DIN 105, part 1 HLzB have a cuboid shape. The header faces of
Vertically perforated facing VHLzA 1.4-1.6 12-28 NF-3 DF
bricks with formats á 8 DF may be provided
brick, DIN 105, part 1 VHLzB
with mortar keys. To improve the adhesion of
Solid brick Mz 1.6-2.0 (2.2) 12-28 NF-5 DF
Solid facing brick VMz plasters, grooves or similar keys are permiss-
DIN 105, part 1 ible on the stretcher faces. In the case of light-
Vertically perforated KHLzA á1.9 28 NF-3 DF weight horizontally perforated bricks and
engineering brick KHLzB bricks for use in prefabricated brick elements,
DIN 105, part 1
Solid engineering brick KMz á1.9 28 NF, DF additional recesses may be provided on the
DIN 105, part 1 bed faces to permit the introduction of
Lightweight vertically HLzA 0.7-1.0 4-12 2 DF-16 DF
perforated brick HLzB
DIN 105, part 2 HLzW
Brick element HLzT 0.8-1.0 6-28 8 DF-24 DF
DIN 105, part 2
Solid brick Mz/VMz 1.2-2.2 36-60 NF-5 DF
Vertically perforated brick HLz/VHLz
Solid engineering brick KMz
Vertically perforated KHLz
engineering brick
DIN 105, part 3
Solid engineering brick KK 1.6-2.2 60 NF-2 DF
Vertically perforated high- KHK
strength engineering brick
DIN 105, part 4
56
Masonry units
reinforcement. Non-standard clay bricks are mean gross density of at least 2000 kg/m 3 and 2.1.3 The production of clay bricks
described in the section "New types of mason must reach at least compressive strength
ry units" [81]. class 60. The abrasion hardness of the surface
must be at least 5 according to the Mohs
Solid bricks scale, and these bricks must be resistant to
may exhibit max. 15% perforations perpendic hydrofluoric acid. Owing to these require
ular to the bed face. ments, high-strength engineering bricks are
primarily used in facades as well as wherever
Vertically perforated and lightweight vertically high resistance to aggressive substances and
perforated bricks mechanical damage is required.
are bricks provided with holes perpendicular to
the bed face. According to DIN 105 parts 1 Lightweight horizontally perforated bricks and
and 2, the total cross-sectional area of the prefabricated brick elements
holes may be between 15 and 50% of the area are mainly used in the construction of internal
of the bed face. For vertically perforated bricks walls. When used in this way, lightweight hori
to DIN 105 part 3, the cross-sectional area of zontally perforated bricks may be used for both
the holes is restricted to max. 3 5 % of the area loadbearing and non-loadbearing masonry, but
of the bed face. Vertically perforated bricks lightweight horizontally perforated prefabri
according to parts 1 and 3 should have a gross cated brick elements only for non-loadbearing
density exceeding 1000 kg/m 3 , lightweight ver walls. The holes in this type of brick run parallel
tically perforated bricks according to part 2 to the bed face. The bulk density is limited to
must exhibit a bulk density < 1000 kg/m 3 . max. 1000 kg/m 3 .
These bricks are characterized by better ther
mal insulation properties and are therefore Moulded bricks and hand-moulded bricks 2.1.4 Standard types of clay brick
particularly suitable for the building of external are bricks with an irregular surface whose DIN 105, Mz Solid brick
walls. part 1 HLz Vertically perforated brick
shape may deviate slightly from the prismatic
HLzT Brick element
form. VMz Solid facing brick
Brick elements and lightweight brick elements VHLz Vertically pert, facing brick
are large-format vertically perforated units with The formats available as well as the gross den KMz Solid engineering brick
KHLz Vertically pert, engineering brick
hole arrangements that form continuous verti sities and compressive strength classes are
Moulded brick
cal ducts after being laid. Reinforcement is listed in table 2.1.2 for each type of brick. The Hand-moulded brick
passed through these ducts and grouted in with thermal conductivity of the brick material is DIN 105, HLz Ltwt vertically perforated brick
mortar. These are used for producing prefabri given in relation to the gross density in table part 2 HLzT Lightweight brick element
cated brickwork elements to DIN 1053 part 4. 2.1.5. These are average values, 90% fractiles VHLz Lightweight vertically
and design values based on the 90% fractiles perforated facing brick
Lightweight moulded brick
Solid, vertically perforated and lightweight and moisture content equilibrium at 23°C and
DIN 105, Mz Solid brick
vertically perforated facing bricks 9 0 % relative humidity. The splitting tensile HLz
part 3 Vertically perforated brick
are bricks characterized by good frost resis strengthβ S Z of clay bricks lies between 2 and HLzT Brick element
tance. This is verified according to DIN 52252 9% of the compressive strength, the tensile VMz Solid facing brick
part 1. The surfaces of these bricks may have strength β Z along the brick in the case of a VHLz Vertically pert, facing brick
KMz Solid engineering brick
a textured finish. solid brick is between 1 and 8%, for vertically
KHLz Vertically pert. eng. brick
perforated bricks between 1 and 4%, and for Moulded brick
Solid and vertically perforated engineering lightweight vertically perforated bricks between DIN 105, KK Solid high-strength eng. brick
bricks 0.2 and 1% of the compressive strength [189]. part 4 KHK Vertically perforated high-
are frost-resistant bricks whose surfaces have Clay bricks can swell up to 0.3‰ and shrink strength engineering brick
up to 0.2‰. The final creep figure φ ∞ reaches Moulded high-strength
been vitrified and whose mean gross density is engineering brick
at least 1900 kg/m 3 . Water absorption is max. values between 0.5 and 1.5 [57, 180, 182, 185],
DIN 105, LLz Lightweight horiz. pert, brick
7% by weight. The surfaces of these bricks part 5 LLp Lightweight horizontally per
may have a textured finish. Engineering bricks forated prefab, brick element
to DIN 105 part 1 must achieve at least com- Calcium silicate units
pressive strength class 28, those to DIN 105 Calcium silicate units are currently covered
2.1.5 Thermal conductivity of clay units in relation to
part 3 at least class 36. Owing to their high by DIN 106. The non-fired, binding agent- their gross density. Dry values for 50% and 90%
compressive strength, these bricks are partic bonded units are produced according to a fractiles as well as design values for ambient con
ularly suitable for heavily loaded masonry. method developed in Germany by Michaelis ditions y 23,80 and 90% fractiles.
and patented in 1880. This method involves Moisture content Ψ23,80 = 0,012
Solid and vertically perforated high-strength curing a mixture of naturally moist lime and Moisture correction factorr fΨ =10
engineering bricks sand under high pressure in a saturated steam Gross Thermal conductivity λ (W/mK)
are bricks manufactured from high-quality, atmosphere, which results in a very hardwear- density
kg/m3 dry moist
densely burning clays. They are frost-resistant ing material strong in compression. The sand
Ψ23,80
and exhibit a water absorption of max. 6%. used should comply with DIN 4226 parts 1 or p = 50% p = 90% p = 90%
Solid high-strength engineering bricks may 2; generally, silica sand with particle sizes 1000 0.184 0.254 0.287
have max. 15% perforations perpendicular to 0-4 mm should be used. Colouring agents and 1200 0.260 0.329 0.371
the bed face, vertically perforated high-strength other additives may be introduced provided 1400 0.336 0.405 0.456
1600 0.412 0.481 0.542
engineering bricks max. 3 5 % perforations. that the properties of the units are not impaired.
1800 0.488 0.557 1.628
High-strength engineering bricks must have a The binding agent used in the production of 2000 0.564 1.634 1.715
57
Material
2.1.6 The production of calcium silicate units calcium silicate bricks is usually quicklime with groove system and are laid in thin-bed mortar,
a calcium oxide content exceeding 90%; this is The perpends are always provided with mortar.
obtained by firing limestone at about 900°C.
Afterwards, the quicklime is ground to form fine Calcium silicate facing bricks
white lime. Before adding water, the quicklime are intended for facing brickwork exposed to
is thoroughly mixed 1:12 with the sand. The the weather. They are used for both load-
naturally moist mixture is buffered in reaction bearing and non-loadbearing masonry. Their
vessels. Here, the quicklime slakes to form the surface may be plain or have a textured finish.
actual hydrated lime binding agent in an These are frost-resistant units (25 freeze-thaw
exothermic process. cycles) of strength class ≥ 12 but are also
available in a better quality (50 freeze-thaw
The standard calcium silicate units currently cycles) of strength class ≥ 20. In addition to
available are listed in 2.1.7. Non-standard cal these requirements, these calcium silicate units
cium silicate units are described in the section are subject to stricter dimensional tolerances
"New types of masonry units" [81 ]. and must be supplied free from detrimental
influences or substances which might later
Solid calcium silicate bricks lead to spelling, microstructure defects, efflo
are masonry units with a height < 113 mm rescence or discoloration [25, 9 1 , 143].
whose cross-section through the perforations
perpendicular to the bed face may be reduced Calcium silicate solid and perforated bricks
by up to 15%. and calcium silicate facing bricks are pro
duced in the NF and DF (up to 6 DF) formats,
Perforated calcium silicate bricks calcium silicate gauged bricks in the custom
are masonry units with a height < 113 mm ary 4 DF to 20 DF formats. The calcium silicate
closed on five sides - apart from continuous R-units are available in formats 4 DF to 12 DF.
grip openings - w h o s e reduction in cross- Calcium silicate prefabricated brick elements
section through the perforations perpendicular with a wall thickness of 70 mm are designated
2.1.7 Standard calcium silicate units
Solid brick/block to the bed face may exceed 15%. KS-P7 elements (see "Masonry bonds").
DIN 106, KS
part 1 KS L Perforated/hollow block Table 2.1.8 shows the thermal conductivity
KS (P), Gauged brick Calcium silicate blocks values in relation to the gross density for vari
KS L (P) ous statistical confidence coefficients and
are masonry units with a height > 113 mm
KS-R, Tongue and groove system for
closed on five sides - apart from continuous moisture contents of the calcium silicate.
KS L-R solid brick/block, perforated/
KS-R (P) hollow block, gauged brick grip openings - whose cross-section through Calcium silicate masonry units are divided into
KS L-R (P) the perforations perpendicular to the bed face compressive strength classes from 4 to 60 and
KS P Prefabricated brick element may be reduced by up to 15%, gross density classes from 0.6 to 2.2. Solid
DIN 106, KS Vm Facing brick, solid brick bricks and blocks are allocated to gross den
part 2 KS Vm L Facing brick, perforated brick
Hollow calcium silicate blocks sity classes ≥ 1.6, perforated and hollow units
KS Vb Facing brick, solid brick
KS Vb L Facing brick, perforated brick are masonry units with a height > 113 mm to bulk density classes ≤ 1.6. Compressive
closed on five sides - apart from continuous strength classes 12, 20 and 28 are the ones
grip openings - whose reduction in cross- most frequently used in practice (see 2.1.9).
section through the perforations perpendicular For calcium silicate facing bricks to be classed
2.1.8 Thermal conductivity of calcium silicate units in
relation to their gross density. Dry values for 50% to the bed face may exceed 15%. as frost-resistant, they must withstand the pre
and 90% fractiles as well as design values for scribed number of freeze-thaw cycles without
ambient conditions Ψ 2 3 8 0 and 90% fractiles. damage but also suffer no more than a 20%
Calcium silicate gauged bricks
Moisture content Ψ 2380 = 0.024 are solid, perforated and hollow bricks and reduction in their compressive strength com
Moisture correction factor fΨ =10 pared to their original strength. The splitting
blocks designed for laying in thin-bed mortar.
Gross Thermal conductivity λ [W/mK] Consequently, the height tolerances of the tensile strength β sz of calcium silicate units lies
density dry moist masonry units are subject to more stringent between 3 and 10% of the compressive
kg/m3 strength, the longitudinal tensile strength β 2
requirements.
Ψ23,80 between 3 and 8% of the compressive strength
p = 50% p = 90% p = 90% [189]. The shrinkage ε η∞ of calcium silicate
1000 0.237 0.299 0.380 Calcium silicate R-units
are bricks and blocks with a tongue and units lies in the range -0.1‰ to -0.3‰, the final
1200 0.297 0.359 0.456
1400 0.402 0.565 0.590 groove system as well as grip openings. These creep figure φ ∞ reaches values between 1.0
1600 0.551 0.613 0.779 have been designed according to ergonomic and 2.0 [57, 180, 182, 185].
1800 0.745 0.805 1.024
2000 0.983 1.045 1.328
criteria and hence simplify the handling of the
bricks during bricklaying. The perpends are
not provided with mortar. Calcium silicate R- Autoclaved aerated concrete units
2.1.9 Gross density and strength classes for calcium units are available as solid, perforated and Autoclaved aerated concrete units are covered
silicate units hollow bricks and blocks as well as gauged by the standards DIN 4165 and 4166. The
Type of unit Gross density class Strength class bricks. development of aerated concrete stems from
KS, KS (P) 1.6-2.2 4-60 Hoffmann's patent of 1889, which describes
KS-R, KS-R (P) Calcium silicate prefabricated brick elements the reaction of diluted hydrochloric acid with
KS L, KS L (P) 0.6-1.6 4-60
are solid elements for non-loadbearing mason limestone dust in order to produce cement and
KS L-R, KS L-R (P)
KS Vm, KS Vm L 1.0-2.2 12-60 ry with a thickness < 115 mm. Prefabricated gypsum mortars with air pores. In 1914 Ayls-
KS Vb, KS Vb L 1.0-2.2 20-60 brick elements have a peripheral tongue and worth and Dyer developed a method involving
58
Masonry units
a reaction between lime, water and a metal Autoclaved aerated concrete blocks and 2.1.10 Production of autoclaved aerated concrete units
powder (aluminium or zinc). This reaction liber gauged bricks
ates the hydrogen gas, which then makes the are large-format, cuboid solid units. The
mortar rise. The first aerated concrete was pro header faces of these units may either have a
duced by Eriksson between 1924 and 1927 by mortar key or tongue and groove system.
combining the Aylsworth/Dyer method with cur Blocks are laid in normal-weight or lightweight
ing in an autoclave. A mixture of silica sand mortar; the height tolerance of the block may
and lime is made to rise with the addition of a be max. ±3.0 mm in this case. Gauged bricks,
metal powder. After it has set it is cured in on the other hand, are laid in thin-bed mortar;
steam at high pressure. A method for the mass the height tolerance in this case is only
production of aerated concrete units was in ±1.0 mm.
vented in 1945; this involves cutting the stable
material by means of tightly stretched steel Autoclaved aerated concrete prefabricated
wires prior to autoclaving. brick elements and gauged bricks
The raw materials for the production of auto are used for non-loadbearing walls and to
claved aerated concrete units these days are improve thermal insulation. They are either laid
sand containing silica, binding agent, expand in normal-weight or lightweight mortar (pre
ing agent, water and, if necessary, additives. fabricated brick elements) or in thin-bed mortar
The sand must be essentially free from im (gauged bricks). The header faces may be
purities and comply with the requirements of plain, or be provided with a mortar key or
DIN 4226 parts 1 or 2. tongue and groove system. The bed faces may
Pulverized fuel ash (PFA) may be used instead also be tongued and grooved. The dimensional
of sand containing silica. The sand is ground in accuracy requirements are identical to those
large mills to form a fine powder or slurry. for aerated concrete blocks and gauged
Quicklime (see "Calcium silicate units") and/or bricks. As these units are only used for non-
cement is used as the binding agent. In addi loadbearing walls, they are not divided into
2.1.11 Standard autoclaved aerated concrete units
tion, small amounts of gypsum or anhydrite can strength classes.
DIN 4165 PB Block
be mixed in. Aluminium in the form of powder PP Gauged brick
or finely grained paste is employed as the Sizes of autoclaved aerated concrete units and DIN 4166 Ppl Prefabricated
expanding agent. The composition of the mix prefabricated brick elements are specified by brick element
depends on the desired properties of the aer their length, width and height. The maximum PPpI Prefabricated
ated concrete and the method of production. common dimensions are currently 615 x 365 x gauged brick panel
The raw materials are metered in and mixed 240 mm for autoclaved aerated concrete units,
to form an aqueous suspension. Besides the and 615 x 150 x 240 mm for gauged bricks.
primary raw materials, the mix also contains The gross density of autoclaved aerated con
aerated concrete recycled from the production crete units lies between 300 and 1000 kg/m 3 ;
process, and sorted, finely ground recycled the corresponding subdivision into gross den
material. After filling the moulds with the raw sity classes ranges from 0.35 to 0.70 in steps
material mixture, the water slakes the lime of 0.05, and from 0.70 to 1.00 in steps of 0.10.
under the action of heat. The aluminium reacts The gross density, which depends on the vol
with the calcium hydroxide, liberating the ume of pores and the solids content, is con
hydrogen. This forms the pores and immedi trolled during production by the careful addi
ately afterwards escapes completely from the tion of expanding and binding agents. For
expanded aerated concrete. The macropores example, autoclaved aerated concrete with a
reach a diameter of about 0.5 to 1.5 mm. The gross density of 500 kg/m 3 requires a solids
stable "green" unit after expansion is cut both content of 2 0 % and pore volume of 80%.
horizontally and vertically to form bricks/blocks Table 2.1.12 shows the thermal conductivity in
prior to autoclaving. In the autoclave the units relation to the gross density. The format is irrel
2.1.12 Thermal conductivity of autoclaved aerated con
are subjected to a saturated steam atmosphere evant here. crete units in relation to their gross density. Dry
(190°C and 12 bar) for about 6-12 hours. During Autoclaved aerated concrete units to DIN 4165 values for 50% and 90% fractiles as well as
this time the silicon oxide of the ground silica are divided into compressive strength classes design values for ambient conditions u 23,80 and
sand reacts with the help of calcium hydroxide 90% fractiles.
2 to 8. Autoclaved aerated concrete prefabri
and water. Autoclaved aerated concrete with a cated brick elements to DIN 4166 are not Moisture content u 23,80 = 0.045
high compressive strength is formed from the divided into strength classes because they are Moisture correction factor fu = 4
hydrated calcium silicate, corresponding to the only used for non-loadbearing walls (see fig. Gross Thermal conductivity λ (W/mK)
natural mineral tobermorite. After cooling, the 2.1.13) [211]. The splitting tensile strength β SZ density
aerated concrete bricks possess their final of autoclaved aerated concrete units lies kg/m3 dry value design value
properties (see fig. 2.1.10) [27, 75]. between 5 and 14% of the compressive
The standard and currently available aerated u = 0.045
strength [189], the tensile bending strength βBZ p = 50% p = 90% p = 90%
concrete units are listed in table 2.1.11. Non- of prefabricated brick elements reaches values 300 0.077 0.089 0.11
standard aerated concrete units are dealt with between 0.5 and 2.0 N/mm 2 . The modulus of 400 0.100 0.113 0.14
in the section "New types of masonry units" elasticity of autoclaved aerated concrete units 500 0.124 0.136 0.16
[81]. depends on the respective gross density and 600 0.147 0.160 0.19
700 0.171 0.183 0.22
lies between 1200 and 2500 N/mm2. 800 0.194 0.207 0.25
900 0.218 0.230 0.28
59
Material
2.1.13 Gross density and strength classes for aerated The moisture movement ε η∞ fluctuates between "New types of masonry units" [81 ].
concrete units 0.1 ‰ (swelling) and -0.3‰ (shrinkage). The
Type of unit Gross density class Strength class final creep φ ∞ lies between 1.0 and 2.5 and Hollow wall elements and wall elements of
PB, PP 0.35-0.50 2 hence reaches similar figures to calcium sili lightweight concrete
0.50-0.80 4
cate units [180]. are suitable for building non-loadbearing walls
0.65-0.80 6
0.80-1.00 8 according to DIN 4103. The header and bed
Ppl, PPpI 0.35-1.00 - faces are either plain or provided with grooves
Concrete and lightweight concrete units or a tongue and groove system. The gross
The requirements for (normal-weight) concrete density of the elements lies between 800 and
2.1.14 Standard concrete and lightweight concrete units are covered by DIN 18153, those for light 1400 kg/m 3 . Wall elements must have an
units weight concrete units by DIN 18151 and average tensile bending strength of at least
DIN 18148 Hpl Hollow wall elements of light 18152, and wall elements of lightweight con 1.0 N/mm2; hollow wall elements must exhibit
weight concrete crete by DIN 18148 and 18162. While concrete an average minimum compressive strength of
DIN 18151 Hbl Hollow blocks of lightweight units of dense normal-weight concrete employ 2.5 N/mm2 after 28 days.
concrete
mineral aggregates to DIN 4226 part 1 or 2,
DIN 18152 V Solid bricks of lightweight
concrete
and binding agents, e.g. cement, to DIN 1164 Hollow blocks of lightweight concrete
Vbl Solid blocks of lightweight or pulverized fuel ash to DIN EN 450, the pro are large-format masonry units with cells per
concrete duction of lightweight concrete units may em pendicular to the bed face. They are used for
VbI S Solid blocks of lightweight ploy only lightweight aggregates with a porous loadbearing and non-loadbearing masonry to
concrete with slots
microstructure to DIN 4226 part 2 (pumice, DIN 1053. Block formats 8 DF to 24 DF for wall
Vbl S-W Solid blocks of lightweight
concrete with slots and special foamed slag, foamed lava, tuff, expanded clay, thicknesses from 175 to 490 mm are available
thermal insulation properties expanded shale, sintered pulverized fuel ash with one to six cells. The length and width of
DIN 18153 Hbn Hollow concrete blocks or brick chippings) besides the hydraulic bind the blocks is limited to 490 mm, the height to
Vbn Solid concrete blocks ing agents. The addition of aggregates with a 238 mm.
Vn Solid concrete bricks
Tbn Hollow blocks
dense microstructure to DIN 4226 part 1 are
Vm Concrete facing bricks permitted up to a volume of max. 15% of the Solid bricks and blocks, solid S and S-W
Vmb Concrete facing blocksn compacted concrete. However, this rule is not blocks of lightweight concrete
DIN 18162 Wpl Wall elements of lightweight very important in practice. Solid blocks of light are masonry units for loadbearing and non-
concrete, non-reinforced weight concrete with slots and special thermal loadbearing masonry to DIN 1053 using light
properties may make use of just pumice or weight aggregates to DIN 4226 part 2. Solid
2.1.15 Thermal conductivity of pumice concrete units in
expanded clay, or a mixture of the two, in order S-W blocks may employ only aggregates of
relation to their gross density. Dry values for to achieve the required thermal insulation. The pumice or expanded clay, or a mixture of the
50% and 90% fractiles as well as design values only additives which may be used are building two. Solid bricks are units without cells with a
for ambient conditions Ψ 23,80 and 90% fractiles. lime to DIN 1060 part 1, stone dust to DIN 4226 maximum brick height of 115 mm; solid blocks,
Moisture content Ψ23,80 = 0.035 part 1, trass to DIN 51043 and concrete addi on the other hand, may be up to 238 mm high.
Moisture correction factor fΨ = 4 tives to DIN 1045. The same principle is Solid S blocks have slots and solid S-W blocks
Gross Thermal conductivity λ [W/mK] applied for the production of both concrete have special thermal insulation properties in
density and lightweight concrete units. The measured addition to the slots. The slots of solid S-W
kg/m3 raw materials (binding agent, aggregates, blocks must always be closed off. Solid bricks
dry value design value
water) are thoroughly mixed. The shaping of and blocks may have grip openings. The pre
Ψ = 0.035 the concrete and lightweight concrete units is ferred formats of solid bricks range from DF to
p = 50% p = 90% p = 90% carried out on modern casting beds. Here, the 10 DF, with the intermediate formats 1.7 DF,
500 0.114 0.138 0.16 mixture is poured into vibratory casting ma
600 0.135 0.158 0.18 3.1 DF and 6.8 DF also being widely used. The
chines. The vibration and application of a sur
700 0.160 0.183 0.21 large-format solid blocks are produced in the
charge causes the mixture to be compacted
800 0.190 0.212 0.24 preferred formats of 8 DF to 24 DF for wall
900 0.223 0.245 0.28 such that after striking the moulds, the fresh,
thicknesses from 175 to 490 mm. The length
1000 0.260 0.282 0.33 "green" units are stable. After brushing to
and width of the blocks is limited to 490 mm,
remove loose particles and burrs, they are pro
the height to 238 mm. The thermal conductivity
2.1.16 Thermal conductivity of gas concrete units in cured by storing them in racks protected from
of lightweight concrete units is influenced by
relation to their gross density. Dry values for the weather. During the warm months of the
the type of aggregate. As 2.1.15 and 2.1.16
50% and 90% fractiles as well as design values year the ambient heat serves to pre-cure the
for ambient conditions Ψ23,80 and 90% fractiles. show, pumice aggregates achieve slightly bet
units, during colder periods the heat of hydra-
Moisture content Ψ23,80 = 0.03
ter values than expanded clay aggregates.
tion of the cement. No additional heating is
Moisture correction factor fy = 2.6 required. Following the pre-curing process,
Gross Thermal conductivity λ [W/mK] Masonry units of normal-weight concrete
which can take between 24 hours and three
density are used for loadbearing and non-loadbearing
days depending on the weather, the units are
kg/m3 masonry to DIN 1053. Hollow blocks are large-
dry value design value turned and stacked with their voids down
format masonry units (8 DF to 20 DF) with cells
wards, Therefore, the units are already in the
perpendicular to the bed face and a height of,
u = 0.03 correct position for bricklaying on site. The final
p = 50% p = 90% p = 90% preferably, 238 mm. Solid blocks are masonry
curing to reach the necessary nominal strength
400 0.099 0.117 0.13 units without voids measuring 175 or 238 mm
takes place in the open air [8, 19]. The various
500 0.137 0.155 0.17 high and with a maximum length and width of
600 0.176 0.193 0.21 standard types of concrete and lightweight
490 mm. The cross-sectional area may be
700 0.214 0.231 0.25 concrete masonry units are shown in table
800 0.252 0.269 0.30
reduced by up to 15% by grip openings. They
2.1.14. Non-standard concrete and lightweight
900 0.290 0.308 0.35 are produced in formats from 8 DF to 24 DF for
concrete units are dealt with in the section
1000 0.328 0.346 0.39 wall thicknesses from 175 to 490 mm. Solid
60
Masonry units
bricks are similar to solid blocks but their exceeding 25%. The holes must be evenly 2.1.17 Gross density and strength classes for normal-
height is limited to 115 mm. These are manu distributed over the bed face in at least three weight and lightweight concrete units
rows. The arrangement of grip openings is the Type of unit Gross density class Strength class
factured in the preferred formats of DF to
Hbl 0.5-1.4 2-8
10 DF. Facing blocks are masonry units with same as that for solid granulated slag aggre
V, Vbl, Vbl S 0.5-2.0 2-12
the cells closed off at the top and smooth or gate bricks. At present, the formats 2 DF to Vbl S-W 0.5-0.8 2-12
"split" finish exposed faces. The height of such 5 DF are generally available. Hbn 0.9-2.0 2-12
units lies between 175 and 238 mm. Facing Vbn, Vn 1.4-2.4 4-28
Vm, Vmb 1.6-2.4 6-48
bricks are masonry units with smooth, "split" or Hollow granulated slag aggregate blocks
rugged finish exposed faces. The bricks are are large-format masonry units closed on five
formed without cells but with grip openings, sides with voids perpendicular to the bed face.
and are between 52 and 238 mm high. Facing The voids for blocks 300 mm wide are in at
bricks and blocks are intended for masonry least five rows, those of 240 mm blocks at least
exposed to the weather. four, and those of 175 mm blocks at least
three, in each case evenly distributed over the
The header faces of hollow blocks, solid blocks length and the width. Owing to the size of
and solid bricks of lightweight concrete as well these hollow blocks, grip openings should be
as masonry units of normal-weight concrete included. The dimensions of the large-format 2.1.18 Standard granulated slag aggregate units
may be smooth, provided with a groove on one blocks are specified by the wall thickness 30 DIN 398 HSV Solid granulated slag
or both header faces, or have a tongue and (= 300 mm), 24 (= 240 mm), 17.5 (= 175 mm) aggregate bricks
groove system. The division of lightweight con and the height (a = 238 mm, b = 175 mm). This HSL Perforated granulated slag
aggregate bricks
crete and normal-weight concrete units into the results in the formats 30 a, 30 b, 24 a, 24 b and HHbl Hollow granulated slag
customary gross density and strength classes 17.5. aggregate blocks
is summarised in 2.1.17. The splitting tensile
strength βsz of concrete and lightweight con Granulated slag aggregate units are divided
crete units lies between 7 and 18% of the com- into gross density classes 1.0 to 2.0 in steps of
pressive strength, the longitudinal tensile 0.2 as well as strength classes 6, 12, 20 and
strength βz between 4 and 21 % of the com- 28. In order to use granulated slag aggregate
pressive strength. Lightweight concrete units units for facing work, they must reach at least
shrink between 0.2 and 0.5‰, normal-weight strength class 12 (see table 2.1.19). Owing to a
concrete units between 0.1 and 0.3‰. The lack of statistical data for the thermal conduc 2.1.19 Gross density and strength classes for
granulated slag aggregate units
creep behaviour of concrete and lightweight tivity, no mean values and 9 0 % fractiles can be
Type of unit Bulk density class Strength class
concrete units is similar to that of aerated con given here. The thermal conductivity values
HSV 1.6-2.0 12-28
crete units, with the final creep value φ∞ lying given in 2.1.20 should be understood as values HSL 1.2-1.6 6-12
between 1.5 and 2.5 [57, 180, 182], "on the safe side" applicable for all types of HHbl 1.0-1.6 6-12
aggregates.
Granulated slag aggregate units

Granulated slag aggregate units are covered The designation of masonry units
by DIN 398. They are manufactured from artifi Clay, calcium silicate, lightweight concrete and
cially recovered aggregates, mostly granulated normal-weight concrete units are designated
blastfurnace slag, and hydraulic binding with a system which employs DIN standard
agents like cement or lime. After metering the number, abbreviation, compressive strength
raw materials and mixing with water, the units class, gross density class and format code,
are formed in steel moulds and compacted by e.g.:
pressing or vibrating. After striking the moulds,
the stable "green" units are cured in air, in DIN 105 Mz 12-1.8-2 DF
steam, or in gases containing carbonic acid. DIN 106 KS 12-1.6-2 DF
Standard granulated slag aggregate units to DIN 18151 3 K Hbl 2-0.7-20 DF
DIN 398 are listed in 2.1.18. DIN 18152 V 6-1.2-2 DF
DIN 18153 Vn 12-1.8-6 DF
Solid granulated slag aggregate bricks 2.1.20 Thermal conductivity of concrete units with any
are masonry units whose cross-section may be If different unit widths are possible within the type of aggregate in relation to their gross
density
reduced by up to 25% by holes perpendicular same format code, then the width of the unit is
Moisture content Ψ23,80 = 0.05
to the bed face. Formats up to 2 DF may be given in millimetres following the format code, Moisture correction factor fΨ = 4
provided with grip openings and those above e.g.: Gross density Thermal conductivity λ [W/mK]
this size must be provided with such openings. kg/m3
Solid granulated slag aggregate bricks are DIN 105 HLzW 6-0.7-10 DF (300) dry value design value
usually manufactured in the formats DF to 5 DF. DIN 18152 Vbl S 2-0.7-16 DF (240) Ψ = 0.05
500 0.24 0.29
600 0.27 0.33
Perforated granulated slag aggregate bricks Granulated slag aggregate units are desig 700 0.30 0.37
are masonry units closed on five sides with nated with abbreviation, gross density, com 800 0.33 0.40
perforations perpendicular to the bed face pressive strength class, format code and 900 0.37 0.45
1000 0.41 0.50
1200 0.52 0.63
1400 0.66 0.81
1600 0.83 1.01
61
Material
2.1.21 Shape factor for compressive strength classifi DIN standard number, e.g.: into and further development of the load-
cation of bricks bearing behaviour of masonry.
HSL 1.6-15-2 DF DIN 398. A distinction should be made between the test
ing necessary within the scope of standards
Aerated concrete units are designated with and certificates or for an individual situation,
DIN standard number, abbreviation, com and additional tests outside the standards.
pressive strength class, bulk density class and For such tests there is usually no uniform
dimensions in millimetres (length x width x method of testing. The main standard and non-
height), e.g.: standard tests to establish properties are
explained in the following.
DIN 4165 PP 2 - 0.4-499 x 300 x 249
Compressive strength βST
The testing of compressive strength is an in
βs, = βPR x f New types of masonry units trinsic part of the various standards covering
βPR : Test result New types of units are those which are not masonry units.
f: Shape factor
h < 175 mm - > f = 1.0 covered by corresponding standards. General Six test samples are generally required.
175 mm ≤ h < 238 mm - > f = 1.1 building authority certificates, as issued by the Masonry units of low height (DF, NF) are cut
h ≥ 238 mm - > f = 1.2 Deutsche Institut fur Bautechnik, are required halfway along the stretcher face and put to
for brick strength class 2 - > f = 1.0
for these units. These masonry units deviate gether for testing. For all other heights, a single
from the standard requirements for the follow masonry unit serves as the test sample. These
ing reasons: test samples with their bed faces levelled up
• Dimensions and shapes deviating from those using cement mortar or gypsum are loaded to
laid down in the standards are being continu failure perpendicular to the bed face. The test
ally developed by the masonry industry. The value βPR determined from the maximum load
reasons for this lie in the desire to develop and the area of the bed face is multiplied by
units offering optimized thermal properties the shape factor f (see fig. 2.1.21). Therefore,
(e.g. units with integral thermal insulation, the influence of the platen through which the
small frogs or tongue and groove interlocks test load is applied and which hinders lateral
on the header faces) as well as improved movement is taken into account in relation to
methods of manufacture and new methods of the height of the unit.
construction (e.g. clay gauged bricks in thin- For the compressive strength of the masonry
bed mortar, dry masonry, filled units). unit to be allocated to a strength class, the test
• Dimensions deviating from the standards may results must comply with the requirements for
also be necessary to meet the needs of more mean value and lowest individual result as laid
rational construction and the larger-format down in the appropriate standard. The nominal
units which need to be manufactured for this strength (compressive strength class) corre
(e.g. calcium silicate and aerated concrete sponds to the 5% tractile of the compressive
precision elements). strength of the units. This is equivalent to the
• Other strengths are achieved in addition to lowest permissible individual value.
the standard strength classes. This is fre The current scatter regarding raw materials,
quently associated with different gross den production processes etc. means that the 5%
sities. fractile is about 20% lower than the mean
• Finally, the certificates also deal with units value.
available on a regional basis which, for
example, traditionally have different dimen Unit gross density, dry gross density ρST
sions and hence lead to wall thicknesses The standardized unit gross density test is
which differ from those laid down in DIN 1053 generally carried out on six test samples. For
(units employing the decimetre system). this, the dry mass md of the dried masonry
According to the type of construction, the new units is to be determined at 105°C up to con
types of units with their associated certificates stant mass. The unit gross density is calculated
are allocated to thin-, medium- or thick-bed by dividing the dry mass by the volume of the
masonry, to grouted masonry, to prefabricated unit including any voids, grip openings and
wall elements and to dry masonry of man- frogs present. To be allocated to a unit gross
made units. The certificates are grouped density class, the mean value of the test results
according to materials within these types of must lie between the limits stipulated in the
construction. A summary of the certificates cur respective standard. Individual results may not
rently valid is given in [79] and [84]. lie more than 100 kg/m 3 above or below the
2.1.22 Relationship between longitudinal tensile
strength βz and compressive strength βST [3] class limits.
Type of brick βz
N/mm2 Testing the mechanical properties of masonry units Net density ρsch
Calcium silicate 0.051 βST The testing of the mechanical properties is This requirement applies to clay bricks to DIN
Clay 0.026 βST crucial for the classification and identification 105 parts 1 to 4 and to thermally insulating
Lightweight concrete 0.086 βST
Aerated concrete:
of masonry units. Apart from that, it forms the lightweight concrete units for verifying the ther
strength class 2 0.182 βST basis for designing masonry, for analysing mal conductivity. Again, the test is carried out
strength classes 4, 6, 8 0.092 βST cases of damage and for carrying out research on six samples. The net density is calculated
62
Natural stone units
from the quotients of the dry mass determined shear-carrying capacity of masonry. However, rocks (e.g. sandstone, limestone, tuff). The
at 105°C and the volume. The volume of the as the testing of tensile strength is relatively stages of working the stone range from the
unit is made up of the overall volume minus complicated and the results difficult to repro lightly worked rubble stone without a regular
volumes of voids, frogs and grip openings. duce (and hence not so reliable), tests for ten geometric form to the square rubble stone with
This should be measured underwater and in sile strength have not been incorporated in a natural surface finish right up to the carefully
the case of solid engineering bricks without testing standard up to now. The approximate worked ashlar stone with high-quality surface
voids by subtracting the volume of the per relationship between tensile strength along the finish. The masonry bonds which can be pro
forations. The requirement is that the mean net unit and compressive strength perpendicular duced using such stones are described in
density as well as the lowest individual results to the bed face is shown in 2.1.22 [189]. "Masonry details". Only good-quality stones
of the test must be higher than the lower without structural or weather damage may be
threshold. Lateral secant modulus Eq used for natural stone masonry. When required
The lateral secant modulus is determined from for exposed work, they must be sufficiently
Frost resistance the quotients of one third of the compressive resistant to the influences of the weather, e.g.
This test is critical for facing masonry units and strength of the unit perpendicular to the bed freeze-thaw cycles, changes in temperature,
engineering bricks. The frost resistance test is face and the appropriate longitudinal e q,l or changes in humidity. Slate is ideal for this
carried out on units soaked in water, which are lateral e q,b strain. The lateral secant modulus, because of its durability, high frost resistance
then subjected to multiple freeze-thaw cycles. both that of the masonry unit and that of the and low water absorption. The length of natural
Units are said to be frost-resistant when, mortar, influences the compressive strength of stone units should be at least equal to their
following these freeze-thaw cycles, they exhibit the masonry as a whole. It is helpful if the height but not more than four to five times the
no significant damage, e.g. bulging of the lateral secant modulus of the unit is equal to, height.
stretcher faces, larger cavities and spalling or larger or slightly less than that of the mortar. Natural stone units should exhibit a certain
a clear reduction in the stability of the arris. The value is determined from a masonry unit minimum compressive strength depending on
bonded on its bed face. The method of testing the type of stone in order to be used in natural
Content of expanding particles and is at present not standardized; guidance fig stone masonry to DIN 1053 part 1. The com
efflorescent salts ures for the lateral secant modulus of masonry pressive strength βD is determined according
The requirements here only apply to clay units can be found in [180]. to DIN EN 1926.
bricks. These must be free from damaging, External walls of natural stone have only low
expanding particles, e.g. lime, which could Testing the thermal insulation properties thermal insulation values and will usually need
impair the usability of the unit. This is checked When using the generally recognized design additional thermal insulation. The thermal con
using the steam test, which should result in no values for thermal conductivity (from tables), ductivity values of natural stone (see 2.1.24)
damage to the microstructure or only a limited no tests of actual performance are necessary. are of only minor importance.
amount of spalling. Furthermore, clay bricks Different, better design values for standard
must be free from damaging salts which like masonry units or units covered by building
wise could lead to damage to the microstruc authority certificates can be determined by
ture of the unit or the plaster. Facing and engi measuring the unit itself or by measurement
neering bricks must also be free from salts of the material of the unit and subsequent
which lead to a efflorescence and hence per calculation, taking into account the voids [3],
manently impair the appearance of exposed Tests are carried out using a plate apparatus
masonry. In the test for damaging salts, the according to DIN EN 12664, with conversion to
proportion of magnesium sulphate in clay reference and design conditions being carried
bricks should not exceed 0.12% by weight, out to DIN EN ISO 10456.
and for facing or engineering bricks the pro
portion of sodium sulphate, potassium sulphate
and magnesium sulphate determined at the Natural stone units
same time may not exceed 0.08% by weight in
each case. Natural stone units include igneous (volcanic)
rocks, sedimentation rocks and metamorphic
Longitudinal βD,l and lateral βD,b compressive rocks. The igneous rocks can be subdivided
strength into plutonite, effusive rock and gangue mate
Knowledge of the longitudinal and lateral com rial (e.g. granite, diorite, gabbro, basalt and
pressive strength is necessary above all when tuff). The sedimentation rocks are subdivided
certain areas are loaded perpendicular to the into fragmental sediments, the rocks of chemi
plane of the wall, for horizontal thrust in the cal precipitation and biogenetic sediments
plane of the wall and for cases of bending and (e.g. sandstone, graywacke, limestone, dolo
cambering. Testing methods and available mite and flinty slate). The metamorphic rocks
results are given in [58, 190, 191]. are classified according to the pressure and
temperature during their formation; examples
Tensile strength βz are crystalline slate, gneiss and marble.
The tensile strength - both longitudinal and In order to be able to use natural stone as
lateral - of masonry units is, as a rule, the deci masonry units, it must be prepared either by
sive parameter for the compressive strength of hand or by machine. The ease of workability -
the member being designed in the case of the from easy to difficult - allows us to subdivide
compressive loading of masonry perpendicular the types of stone further into light hard rocks
to the bed joints. Furthermore, it is also impor (e.g. granite, gneiss, rhyolite), dark hard rocks
tant for the tension-, flexural tension- and (e.g. diorite, gabbro, lamprophyre) and soft
63
Material
2.1.23 Material parameters of natural stone types [3] Mortar f o r masonry "prescribed mixes" can be produced on site;
Natural stone βD βBz EDx103 εs, εq the mixing ratios given in 2.1.25 should be
N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2
Mortar is a mixture of sand, binding agent(s) adhered to. In the case of "prescribed mixes"
Granite, 160-240 10-20 40-60 0-0.2 and water, plus admixtures and additives if without quality control, it is assumed that the
syenite
10-22 0-0.2
required. For the sand, the largest particle size mortar will satisfy the necessary requirements,
Diorite, 170-300 100-120
gabbro should be 4 mm, for a thin-bed mortar 1 mm. Consequently, deviations from the mix (e.g.
Porphyres 180-300 15-20 20-160 0-0.2 Only mortar conforming to the stipulations of different mixing ratios or the addition of ad
Basalt 250-400 15-25 50-100 0.4 appendix A of DIN 1053 part 1 may be used mixtures/additives) require tests to be carried
Basaltic lava 80-150 8-12 - 0.4 for masonry to DIN 1053. The sand used must out to determine the suitability of the on-site
Diabase 180-250 15-25 60-120 0-0.2 comply with DIN 4226, consisting of natural or mix.
Quarzite, 150-300 13-25 50-80 0-0.1 artificial, dense or porous mineral substances Mortars produced in the factory or under factory
graywacke in crushed or uncrushed form. It should exhibit like conditions will have a composition and
Quartzitic 120-200 12-20 20-70 0.3-0.7
a range of particle sizes and must not contain consistency much more accurate than is
sandstone
any constituents, e.g. large amounts of settle- possible with site mixing. Furthermore, factory-
Other 30-180 3-15 5-30 0.3-0.7
sandstones able solids of clay or other organic materials, produced mortars must be constantly mon
Dolomites, 80-180 6-15 60-90 which could damage the mortar or the mason itored to DIN 18557 during production, which
dense lime ry. The binding agent is usually lime to DIN guarantees constant properties and monitored
stones, 1060 part 1, cement to DIN 1164 part 1 and/or optimization of the mortar for the respective
marble
plaster and masonry cement to DIN 4 2 1 1 ; application. The result of this is that over 90%
Other 20-90 5-8 40-70 0.1-0.2
limestones
other binding agents require a building author of the mortars used today are of the premixed
ity certificate. The lime used may be hydraulic, variety. On site the premixed mortar only needs
Travertine 20-60 4-10 20-60 -
Volcanic 5-25 1-4 4-10 0.2-0.6 semi- or non-hydraulic, or Roman lime; the to be mixed with the required amount of water
tuffaceous rock cement used should be ordinary portland, port- - or in the case of "coarse stuff" the necessary
Gneisses, 160-280 13-25 30-80 - land granulated slag, portland blastfurnace or amount of cement as well - but no aggregates
granulite Portland pozzolanic. or additives/admixtures. Premixed mortar can
Serpentine 140-250 25-35 - 0.1-0.2
Admixtures are finally distributed additions be supplied in the following forms [3]:
which have a favourable influence on the prop
erties of the mortar (adhesion to the masonry Premixed dry mortar
unit, workability, frost resistance) and are is a finished mixture of the raw materials sup
added in larger quantities. The only admixtures plied from a silo or in plastic-lined sacks. The
that may be used are building limes to mixture must be prepared on the building site
DIN 1060 part 1, stone dust to DIN 4226 part 1, in a mixer by adding water in order to achieve
trass to DIN 51043, and certified concrete a workable consistency.
additives and pigments. Examples of additives
are air entrainers, plasticizers, waterproofers, Ready-mixed mortar
accelerators, retarders and adhesion agents. is supplied ready to use in a workable consis
These change the properties of the mortar by tency ("trowel-ready" mortar). The use of a
way of chemical and physical processes and retarder means that it generally remains work
may only be added in small amounts. Further, able for 36 hours; longer or shorter periods
they must not lead to damage to the mortar or must be specified on the delivery note.
the masonry or accelerate corrosion of rein
forcement or fixings. The effects of additives Coarse stuff
must always be established by way of tests is widely used in northern Germany in particu
prior to their use. Mortars for masonry can be lar and consists of a mixture of sand and lime
categorized according to their strength, the as well as other additives/admixtures if neces
admixtures used and the resulting building sary. The mortar is prepared in a mixer by
science properties as well as with respect to adding cement and water.
their applications in masonry and their
methods of production and supply. Multi-chamber silo mortar
describes a mortar whose raw materials are
stored in separate chambers in one silo. They
Forms of production and supply are measured out and mixed with water so
Mortar can be produced both on the building that a ready-to-use mortar is available at the
2.1.24 Thermal conductivity of natural stone types site (site-mixed mortar) and in a special factory outlet of the mixer attached to the silo. Multi-
Material Gross density Thermal
conductivity (premixed mortar). The raw materials for site- chamber silo mortar must be supplied with a
kg/m3 W/mK mixed mortar must be stored in dry conditions preprogrammed mixing ratio which cannot be
Basalt 2700-3000 3.5 protected from the weather. Site-mixed mortar altered on site.
Gneiss 2400-2700 3.5 is mixed either by hand or by machine.
Granite 2500-2700 2.8
Machine mixing is based on proportions by
Marble 2800 3.5
Slate 2000-2800 2.2 weight or by volume; mixing by hand is sens
Sandstone 2600 2.3 ible only in exceptional circumstances when
Limestone 1600 0.85 very small amounts of mortar are required.
1800 1.1 The raw materials are mixed until a workable
2000 1.4
2200 1.7 consistency has been reached, which can be
2600 2.3 easily used by the bricklayer. As a rule, only
64
Mortars for masonry
Types of mortar 2.1.25 Prescribed mixes for (normal-weight) mortar, mixing ratios by volume
Mortars for masonry are subdivided as follows Mortar group Non-hydrated lime Hydraulic Hyd. lime (HL5), Cement Sand from
according to the thickness of the mortar joint, MG lime (HL2) plaster binder natural rock
Lime putty Hydrated lime and masonry
the threshold value of the dry gross density
cement (MC5)
and the associated building science properties
I 1 - - - - 4
as well as with respect to the raw materials - 1 - - - 3
used: - - 1 - - 3
- - - 1 - 4.5
Normal-weight mortars II 1.5 - - - 1 8
- 2 - - 1 8
are mixed on site or in a factory using aggre
- - 2 - 1 8
gates with a dense microstructure according to - - - 1 - 3
DIN 4226 part 1 and a dry gross density lla - 1 - - 1 6
ρD≥ 1500 kg/m 3 . Using sand as the aggregate, - - - 2 1 8
normal-weight mortar can be produced as a III - - - - 1 4
Ilia - - - - 1 4
"prescribed mix" (without admixtures/additives)
according to table 2.1.25. Owing to the consid
erable experience with this "prescribed mix"
mortar, fewer requirements need to be tested.
Normal-weight mortars are divided into groups
I, II, II a, III and III a according to ascending
minimum compressive strength. Only cement
may be used as the binding agent for groups
III and III a. The necessary strength for group
IlI a mortars is achieved by using suitable
sands.
The thickness of the bed joint is 12 mm for
normal-weight mortar. This permits a height-
of-unit tolerance of ±5 mm for clay bricks and
±4 mm for all other types of masonry unit. The
recommended applications as well as limits for
normal-weight mortar according to DIN 1053
part 1 are given in table 2.1.26.
Lightweight mortars
are factory-mixed dry or factory-produced
ready-mixed mortars which exhibit a dry bulk
density ρD < 1500 kg/m 3 . This is usually
achieved by using lightweight aggregates (e.g. 2.1.26 Recommended and non-permissible applications of mortars for masonry
expanded clay, expanded shale, pumice, per- Component Normal-wt mortar Lightweight mortar Thin-bed mortar
lite, foamed glass, bottom ash). The composi MG
tion of the mix is determined by means of tests. I II / III /
ll a III a
Lightweight mortar is classified according to its
External single-leaf without weather protection + 0
calculated thermal conductivity λR as belong walls (facing brickwork)
ing to group LM 21 (λR = 0.21 W/mK) or group with weather protection - to+ 0 to+ 0 to +
LM 36 (λR = 0.36 W/mK). The two groups are (e.g. rendering)
further distinguished by the dry bulk density twin-leaf outer leaf + 0
(ρD < 700 kg/m3 and pD ≤ 1.0 kg/dm 3 respec (cavity) (facing brickwork)
inner leaf + + + - to + 0 to +
tively) and lateral secant modulus (E > 7500
Internal acoustic insulation + + + 0 +
N/mm2 and Eq > 15 000 N/mm2 respectively). walls thermal insulation 0 to - +
+
The requirements concerning the necessary high strength + +
thickness of the bed joint as well as the permis Vaulting N(3) N N
sible height tolerance of the masonry units are Basement masonry N(3)
identical to those for normal-weight mortar. The > 2 full storeys N
recommended applications as well as limits Wall thickness > 240 m m " N
are given in table 2.1.26. Non-loadbearing outer leaf of twin-leaf
external walls
• facing brickwork N N(2) N
• rendered facing bricks N N(2)
Facing brickwork, with flush joints externally N N
Unfavourable weather conditions N
(precipitation, low temperatures)
Masonry units with height tolerance ≥ 1.0 mm N
Masonry after test to assess suitability N
(1) In the case of twin-leaf walls with or without continuous air cavity: wall thickness = thickness of inner leaf.
(2) Apart from subsequent pointing and for areas of reinforced masonry.
(3) Application permitted for the repair of natural stone masonry using MG I.
+ recommended, 0 possible, - not recommended, N not permitted
65
Material
2.1.27 Requirements for mortar (excluding p r e s c r i b e d mixes 1 1 ) a c c o r d i n g to D I N 1053 part 1, tested at 28 d a y s Thin-bed mortars
Test parameter Abbre T e s t to N o r m a l - w e i g h t mortar Lightweight Thin- are premixed dry mortars consisting of aggre
viation assess mortar bed
LM21 LM36 mortar
gates with a dense microstructure according to
Test standard grade I II ll a III III a
DIN 4226 part 1, standard cement and addi
Mortar mix - EP compulsory tives/admixtures. The composition is based on
Comp. strength βD EP ≥3.5(2) ≥7(2) ≥14(2) ≥25(2) ≥7(2) ≥7(2) ≥14(2) suitable tests. Thin-bed mortars are used for
DIN 18 555 part 3 N/mm 2 GP - ≥2.5 ≥5 ≥10 ≥20 >5 ≥5 ≥10
gauged bricks with a permissible height toler
Comp. strength, βDf EP - ≥1.25 ≥2.5 ≥5.0 ≥10.0 >2.5 ≥2.5 -
joint ance of ±1 mm (see "Masonry bonds"). Owing
Draft guidelines 31 N/mm 2 EP - ≥2.5 ≥5.0 ≥ 10.0 ≥20.0 ≥5.0 ≥5.0 - to the bed joint thickness of 1 -3 mm, the maxi
Comp, strength βDf EP - - - - - - - ≥ 70% mum particle size of the aggregate is limited to
humid storage N/mm 2 GP from
1.0 mm. The dry gross density ρD usually
conditions actual
(DIN 18 555 part 3) value βD exceeds 1500 kg/m 3 . Thin-bed mortars are
Adhesive shear EP - ≥0.10 ≥0.20 ≥0.25 ≥0.30 ≥0.20 ≥0.20 ≥0.5
allocated to group III; their applications are
β HS
strength summarised in 2.1.26.
DIN 18 555 part 5
Dry gross density ρd EP ≥ 1.5 ≥1.5 ≥1.5 ≥1.5 ≥1.5 ≤0.7 <1.0 -
Medium-bed mortars
DIN 18 555 part 3 kg/dm3 GP m a x . deviation
+ 10% are currently not covered by DIN 1053 but a
from actual v a l u e number of building authority certificates have
Lateral secant Eq EP - - - - - > 7 5 0 0 > 15000 - already been issued. The medium-bed mortars
modulus
- - - - - (4) (4) -
approved so far correspond to the composition
DIN 18 555 part 4 N/mm-' GP
Long.secant EI EP - - - - - >2000 >3000 - of normal-weight and lightweight mortars. They
modulus are generally produced as premixed dry mor
DIN 18 555 part 4 N/mm 2 GP - - - - - - - - tars with the addition of fibres and must comply
Thermal conductivity λ10,tr EP - - - - - < 0 . 1 8 ( 5 ) ≤ 0.27 ( 5 ) -
with the requirements regarding volume stabil
DIN 18 555 part 1 W/mK
Workability time EP - - - - - - - ≥4 ity, compressive strength (βD ≥ 5 N/mm2), dry
tv
DIN 18 555 part 8 h gross density (ρD ≤ 1000 kg/m3) and adhesive
Correction time tk EP - - - - - - - ≥7 shear strength (βHS ≥ 0.20 N/mm2). The differ
DIN 18 555 part 8 min
( 1 ) T h e requirements are d e e m e d to be m e t for these.
ence between these and the normal-weight
( 2 ) Guide value for p r e m i x e d mortar. and lightweight mortars lies in the thickness of
( 3 ) Requirements for c u b e c o m p r e s s i v e strength (upper line) a n d plate loading test (lower line); the bed joints, which at 5-7 mm are consider
one of the t w o tests m a y be c h o s e n . ably thinner than those of normal-weight and
( 4 ) Dry bulk density as substitute test.
( 5 ) Deemed to be satisfied w h e n maintaining the threshold for ρ d in GP.

lightweight mortars. However, there are no
medium-sized perpends and, as a result, a
change in the longitudinal dimensions of the
masonry units. The construction of walls using
the medium-bed method presupposes unit
dimensions with a height tolerance of ±2 mm in
2.1.28 Tests required for mortar to assess suitability
order to avoid the occurrence of tension peaks
Test to assess suitability is n e c e s s a r y for: Mortar
NM LM DM and the considerable reduction in loadbearing
determining mortar mix, apart f r o m p r e s c r i b e d mortars X X X capacity associated with this. The background
normal-weight mortar of group Ilia, also p r e s c r i b e d mortars X to the current development of medium-bed
verification of usability of a g g r e g a t e X X X mortar is that a reduction in the thickness of the
use of > 1 5 % by vol. a d m i x t u r e s , related to sand c o m p o n e n t X bed joints with units having a low transverse
use of admixtures and additives X X X tensile strength increases the compressive
structures with > 6 full storeys of masonry X X X strength of the masonry. This applies, above
significant c h a n g e of mortar r a w materials or mortar mix X X X all, to vertically perforated bricks, which require
expensive and elaborate means (e.g. grinding)
in order to achieve the necessary even sur
faces and dimensional accuracy for thin-bed
masonry. In order to minimize this work and the
costs, but at the same time increase the com
pressive strength of the masonry, a compro
mise - medium-bed mortar - is currently
undergoing development. The reliable con
2.1.29 R e c o m m e n d e d mortar m i x e s for natural stone m a s o n r y struction of medium-bed horizontal joints
Application Mortar group Trass cement H y d r a t e d lime T r a s s lime, Aggregate requires the use of special equipment and
h y d r a t e d lime [mm] techniques [3, 89].
Natural stone masonry II - - - -
(random coursing) II 1 2 3 8 (0/4)
II a - - - - Mortar for facing work
ll a 1 1 - 6 (0/4) This term is not included in DIN 1053. As this
Natural stone masonry II - - - -
type of mortar is used in conjunction with fac
(regular coursing) II - 1 3 8 (0/4)
lla - - - - ing bricks and blocks, it is referred to as mortar
lla 1 2 - 8 (0/4) for facing work by mortar manufacturers. It is
III 1 - - 4 (0/4) specially formulated to meet the requirements
Pointing of nat. stone masonry ll a - - 1 2.5 (0/4) of facing work with regard to weather resis-
66
Plasters
tance and appearance. Mortar for facing work decisive influence on the compressive strength Plasters
is always supplied premixed. For facing work it of the masonry, the lateral secant modulus E q
meets the requirements of mortar groups II or must be determined. This is the secant modu Plaster is a surface finish that achieves its final
II a, for single-leaf facing work the requirements lus obtained at one third of the mortar strength properties only after being applied to a build
of mortar groups II to III a, and as a pointing and the associated lateral strain determined ing element. It is applied to walls and soffits in
mortar for subsequent work on joints the from mortar prisms measuring 100 x 100 mm one or more coats of a certain thickness. Ter
requirements of mortar groups III and Ilia (see or 95 x 95 mm in plan and 200 mm high. The minology and requirements are covered by
"The building of masonry"). longitudinal secant modulus EI is also deter DIN 18550 parts 1 to 4 (see table 2.1.30). The
mined during this test. The smaller the E q tasks of plasters can be divided into their use
value, the larger is the transverse deformability as a surface finish and their use to help attain
The properties of mortar and the requirements it has of the lightweight mortar and the lower is the required building science properties. As a sur
to meet compressive strength of the masonry. The face finish, plasters create a flat and accurately
Mortar parameters and specifications for mor workability time tv and the correction time t k aligned surface, which can remain exposed
tars for masonry are contained in DIN 1053 only need to be determined for thin-bed mor (e.g. textured, coloured) or serve as the base
part 1 appendix A. Quality control makes use tars. A workability time of min. 4 h is necessary for paint, wallpaper or other finishes. Their
of DIN 18555 and 18557 in addition. The most because the quantity of mortar usually mixed building science tasks include protection
important parameters for mortar used in mason can only be used very slowly owing to the thin against the weather and moisture (rain) by use
ry are its compressive strength βD, adhesive bed joints. A correction time of min. 7 min is of water-resistant and water-repellent plasters,
shear strength βHS, dry gross density ρD, lateral necessary in order to be able to adjust the thermal insulation by the use of lightweight or
secant modulus E longitudinal secant modu position of a masonry unit already laid. thermally insulating plasters, improvement to
lus EI, and in the case of thin-bed mortar the sound insulation and fire protection (plaster as
workability time tv and correction time t k . The a fire protection cladding) as well as the cre
requirements for these are given in table 2.1.27, Mortars for natural stone masonry ation of a temporary means of storage for
the requirements for testing mortar in table As a rule, normal-weight mortars of groups II excessive internal moisture (interior wall and
2.1.28. and ll a to DIN 1053 part 1 appendix A or lime ceiling plasters in kitchens, bathrooms etc.). In
The compressive strength βD of mortar is a mortar containing trass or trass-cement-lime addition, plasters can satisfy requirements for
critical parameter for the compressive strength mortar are to be recommended. However, it mechanical strength or abrasion resistance
of the masonry. Besides the compressive may also be necessary to develop special (plaster to plinths and basement walls) and
strength, in the case of normal-weight and mortar mixes for natural stone masonry [105]. increased absorption of radiation.
lightweight mortar the joint compressive In particular, certain types of marble may be A distinction must be made between plasters
strength βD,F of the bed joints is to be deter sensitive to discoloration by lime. In such containing mineral binding agents, which make
mined according to DIN 18555 part 9. A cal cases lime must be never be added to the use of plastering mixes, and those with organic
cium silicate reference brick, which is classed mortar, and special trass and rapid-hardening binding agents (artificial resin plasters), which
as particularly poor owing to its absorption cement should be used. Table 2.1.29 shows are produced from coating materials.
behaviour and surface properties, is used for the recommended mortar mixes for natural
the test to determine the compressive strength stone masonry.
of the mortar; this is intended to show the influ Plastering mixes
ence of the unit-mortar interface and take into A plastering mix is a mixture of one or more
account the water absorption behaviour of the New types of mortar binding agents, aggregate with the particle
masonry unit. New types of mortar are currently undergoing size mainly lying between 0.25 and 4 mm, and
The adhesive shear strength βHS has to be development for the medium-bed and light water as well as additives if necessary. In spe
determined for normal-weight mortar - with the weight categories. In both cases the aim is to cial cases plastering mixes for finish coats may
exception of prescribed mixes - as well as for optimize the thermal insulation behaviour contain a large proportion of particles exceed
lightweight and thin-bed mortars. To produce a through the use of particularly lightweight ing 4 mm. The aggregate may be omitted from
composite panel, all masonry units of formats aggregates. The newly developed lightweight plastering mixes made from calcined gypsum
DF, NF and 2 DF may be used. However, as mortars are currently still subject to building and anhydrite binders. Plastering mixes are
calcium silicate units deliver the most un authority certification because non-standard divided into groups P I to P V. Besides lime
favourable test results, the test for adhesive requirements (mix, instructions for mixing with and cement, gypsum and anhydrite may be
shear strength is usually carried out on a cal other aggregates, safety issues concerning used as a binding agent. Plastering mix
cium silicate reference unit (DIN 1 0 6 - K S 12- residues) have been placed on the special groups P I to P III correspond, in terms of com
2.0-NF). The adhesive shear strength is critical lightweight aggregates in order to be able to position, to mortar groups MG I to MG III. When
for the tensile, tensile bending and shear classify them as lightweight mortars to DIN plastering mixes are produced according to
strength as well as the durability (watertight- 1053 part 1. The lightweight aggregates requir the mixing ratios in DIN 18550 part 2 table 3,
ness against driving rain) of the masonry. ing certificates include expanded mica, ex then they can be treated like prescribed mortar
The dry gross density ρD is required for light panded perlite, pulverized fuel ash, foamed mixes. These generally fulfil the requirements
weight mortar. This serves to distinguish glass and polystyrene beads. The newly of
normal-weight mortars from lightweight mortars developed lightweight mortars are dealt with in DIN 18550 part 2 table 2 (see 2.1.31) and can
and to determine to which category - LM 21 or [79], therefore be used for the plastering systems
LM 36 - the mortar belongs. The dry gross given in tables 3 to 6 of DIN 18550 part 1.
density is necessary in order to assess the Tests to assess suitability must be carried out
building science properties and self-weight of in the case of a mix which deviates from the
the masonry. As lightweight mortars in masonry prescribed ratio. Plastering mixes are further
deform relatively severely in the transverse classified as "green" or hardened depending
direction upon application of a load owing to on their state and according to their production
the lightweight aggregates and hence have a either on site or in the factory.
67
Material
2.1.30 Basic terminology for plasters Coating materials

Term Explanation Coating materials consist of organic binding
Plastering system The coats of plaster which, in their entirety and in conjunction with the background, agents in the form of dispersions or solutions
fulfil the requirements placed on the plaster. Even a single-coat plaster can be called a and fillers/aggregates with the majority of par
plastering system.
ticles > 0.25 mm. Coating materials fall into
Coat A layer of plaster which is applied in one operation. Lower coats are called "undercoats",
two groups: P Org 1 and P Org 2 (see 2.1.31).
the uppermost coat "final coat" or "finish coat".
A coat of plaster can also be applied in several "plies", wet on wet and generally
per lift of scaffolding.
Undercoat The bottom coat(s) of a multi-coat plastering system. Plasters and plastering systems -
Finish/final coat The uppermost coat of a multi-coat plastering system. applications and requirements
Second plaster undercoat A coat of plaster applied to a first plaster undercoat and necessary for The various types of plaster are primarily clas
certain thin finish coats.
sified according to their place of use on the
Water-resistant plastering Plastering systems are classed as water-resistant when the water absorption
system coefficient is < 2.0 kg/(m2 x h0,5). structure and the associated conditions to
Water-repellent plastering Plastering systems are classed as water-repellent when the water absorption which they will be subjected. Plastering systems
system coefficient is < 1.0 kg/(m2h0,5) after 28 days. are frequently used to achieve the require
ments placed on the plaster. These comprise
several coats, sometimes of different plastering
mix groups and/or coating materials.
Rendering
is a form of plaster applied to the external sur
faces of structures. It is divided into different
2.1.31 Mortar groups for plastering mixes and coating materials
types according to degree of exposure and
Plastering mix group, Type of binding agent use above, near or below ground level for walls
βD,mean (after 28 d)
type of coating material or type of mortar [N/mm2] and soffits. As the main task of rendering is to
PI a Non-hydraulic limes no requirement permanently protect the structure from the
b Semi-hydaulic limes no requirement weather and other environmental influences, it
c Hydraulic limes 1.0 is an important component in the external wall
Pll a Hydraulic limes, plasters and masonry cement 2.5 construction. The rendering should resist the
b Lime-cement 2.5 effects of moisture, better still the effects of
Pill a Cement and hydrated lime admixture 10.0 rainwater or driving rain and the associated
b Cement 10.0 saturation of the rendering, in order to prevent
PIV a Gypsum mortar 2.0
impairment of the building science properties
b Gypsum-sand mortar 2.0
of the complete wall. To do this, the rendering
c Gypsum-lime mortar 2.0
must possess water-resistant or even water-
d Lime-gypsum mortar no requirement
repellent properties. On the other hand, the
PV a Anhydrite mortar 2.0
rendering must exhibit good water vapour per
b Anhydrite-lime mortar 2.0
POrg 1 Coating materials with organic binding agents for rendering
meability in order to prevent a build-up of mois
and internal plasters no requirement ture in the wall through interstitial condensa
P0rg2 Coating materials with organic binding agents for tion. The rendering is also responsible for the
internal plasters no requirement visual appearance of the facade (textured,
coloured) and for improving the thermal insula
tion. In this case the rendering is of the thermal
insulation variety or is provided as part of a
thermal insulation composite system.
Rendering which serves as a background for
organic coatings or which is subjected to
severe mechanical loads (compression, abra
2.1.32 Examples of rendering systems to DIN 18550 part 1 sion) must have a minimum compressive
Requirement or Plastering mix group or coating material for strength of 2.5 N/mm2. Apart from that, the
rendering application undercoat finish coat mechanical compatibility (strength, stiffness)
1 Water-resistant PI P with the substrate must be taken into account.
2 - PIc
The outside faces of basement walls below
3 - P II
ground level may be rendered before applying
4 P II PI
5 P ll P ll the waterproof tanking. This rendering should
6 Water-repellent PIc PI be made from mortars with hydraulic binding
7 P II P agents. They must reach a minimum compres
8 - PIc
sive strength of 10 N/mm2, which is guaranteed
9 - P II
10 P ll P ll by using rendering of group P III. However, for
11 Enhanced strength - P ll masonry made from units of compressive
12 P II P ll strength class 6 and less, it is advisable not to
13 P ll P Org 1 exceed a strength of 10 N/mm2 too much
14 Basement wall rendering - P Ill owing to the compatibility between rendering
15 Rendering near ground level - P Ill
and substrate.
16 (water-repellent) P ll P Ill
17 P Ill P Org 1 Rendering suitable for the external faces of
68
Plasters
plinths must extend at least 300 mm above for lightweight rendering must be water- Renovation plasters
ground level. Such rendering must be suffi repellent [3]. are used to plaster over damp masonry and/or
ciently firm, should exhibit low water absorption masonry containing salts. Efflorescence is
and be resistant to the effects of moisture Thermal insulation plasters and thermal avoided by capturing the damaging salts in the
(splashing water and snow) as well as frost. insulation plastering systems plaster and hence keeping them away from the
When using mixes with mineral binding agents, are employed to improve the thermal insulation surface of the plaster. A plaster with a high
the minimum compressive strength must be properties of single-leaf external walls on new water vapour permeability at the same time
10 N/mm2. For a substrate of masonry units of buildings and in the refurbishment of existing helps to allow the masonry to dry out. Renova
compressive strength class 6 and less, water- buildings. Owing to the low requirements tion plasters make use of plastering mixes
repellent mortar with hydraulic binding agents placed on the substrate, they are also used to which in the hardened state exhibit high poros
and a minimum compressive strength of even out larger irregularities in the external ity and water vapour permeability with, at the
5 N/mm2 may also be used. walls as well as for less stable substrates such same time, considerably reduced capillary
Possible systems that satisfy the respective as lightweight masonry. Thermal insulation action. Renovation plasters are mainly em
requirements for rendering are given in table plasters are produced from premixed mortars ployed when refurbishing old buildings and
2.1.32. with aggregates of low bulk density. They are historic monuments. At present they are not
designated as such when the calculated ther covered by a standard but are dealt with in
Internal plasters mal conductivity λ R < 0.2 W/mK. This is gener great detail in [165].
are those applied to the internal surfaces of ally achieved with a dry bulk density of the
structures. They are divided into different types hardened mortar ρtr ≤ 0.6 kg/dm 3 .
according to their uses on walls or ceilings in Thermal insulation plastering systems consist The application of plaster
rooms of normal or high humidity. Internal plas of a 20-100 mm thick thermal insulation plaster Substrate, background, reinforcement
ters serve both to produce flat, accurately undercoat with an expanded polystyrene The substrate must guarantee a stable and
aligned surfaces, and also to act as a tempo aggregate plus a compatible 8-15 mm thick permanent bond for the plaster. Therefore, the
rary means of storage for excessive internal water-repellent finish coat consisting of mineral properties of the substrate are critical for the
moisture. Internal plasters also contribute to binding agents and mineral aggregate. Thin properties of the plaster itself. If the substrate
improving sound insulation and fire protection. finish coats should only be applied to a level is sufficiently stable, consistent, even, not too
When internal plasters are used as a base for ling coat of plaster at least 6 mm thick. After smooth, not too absorbent, clean, dry and free
paint and wallpaper, and hence must transfer completing the thermal insulation undercoat, a from frost, then treatment prior to applying the
additional stresses to these, the plastering period of at least seven days should elapse plaster is not necessary; the first coat of plaster
mixes employed must exhibit a minimum com before the finish coat is applied; with thicker can be applied directly to the substrate. How
pressive strength of 1.0 N/mm2. undercoats the minimum waiting period should ever, if the requirements on the substrate are
Plasters with increased abrasion resistance are be one day per 10 mm thickness. The waiting not fulfilled, then this must be treated first. This
necessary for internal wall surfaces which are times should be increased in the case of includes prewetting of the substrate, a com
subject to mechanical loads (e.g. adjacent adverse weather (high humidity and low tem plete or partial "splatterdash" covering to pro
stairs and in the corridors of public buildings peratures). Besides the standard plastering vide a key, bonding agents and primers based
and schools). The requirements for the abra systems with polystyrene aggregates as speci on organic binding agents as well as making
sion resistance of the finish coat are satisfied fied in DIN 18550 part 3, there are also thermal good irregularities in the masonry.
by plastering mixes of groups P II to P V. insulation plastering systems based on inor Highly absorbent substrates should be pre-
Plasters containing calcined gypsum and/or ganic lightweight aggregates and covered by wetted or given a complete splatterdash cover
anhydrite as the binding agents may not be building authority serviceability certificates. ing. Substrates consisting of different materials
used for internal walls and ceilings which must Owing to their low strength, thermal insulation should also be given a complete splattedash
resist the long-term effects of moisture (e.g. plastering systems are not suitable for either covering. This mixture consists of a mortar with
commercial or public sanitary facilities and lightly or heavily loaded external wall plinth coarse aggregate thrown on to form a thick
kitchens). Plasters which are intended to act as areas. They are divided into thermal conduct coat which completely covers the substrate.
a base for ceramic finishes (tiles) must exhibit ivity groups 060, 070, 080, 090 and 100, with A partial splatterdash covering improves ad
a minimum compressive strength of 2.5 N/mm2 group 070 being the one most frequently used hesion of the plaster in the case of substrates
and may not be worked with a trowel or sponge. (070 means that the calculated thermal con with low absorption. In this case, the mortar
Plastering systems for internal applications are ductivity λ R = 0.070 W/mK). (with coarse aggregate) is only applied in a
given in table 2.1.33. thin layer so that the substrate is still visible
Thermal insulation composite systems through it. With both full and partial coverings,
Lightweight plasters consist primarily of three layers: bonding mor the splatterdash is not treated any further.
are, in terms of their strength and deformation tar, thermal insulation (hard polystyrene foam Making good irregularities in the masonry is
characteristics, suited to masonry with high or mineral wool) and plaster (composed of re mainly necessary in the case of perpends with
thermal insulation properties and low strength. inforcing and finish coats). Depending on their out mortar where the open joints are more than
In contrast to other types plastering mixes both composition and the underlying construction, 5 mm wide, and to close off chases for pipes
upper (≤ 5.0 N/mm2) and lower (> 2.5 N/mm2) the systems can be attached by means of and cables. Such irregularities should be
limits for the strength of lightweight plaster bonding, dowelling or rails. The mortars used flushed up. This also applies to tongue and
have been defined. Lightweight plasters exhibit (bonding mortar, reinforcing and finish coats) groove faces or mortar keys exposed at cor
a particularly high "degree of decoupling", i.e. may be dispersion-, silicate- or also cement- ners and jambs as well as to holes for securing
they "decouple" the finish coat from the under bound varieties. These systems are currently scaffolding and missing fragments of clay
coat and hence make a decisive contribution still regulated by building authority certificates. bricks. These irregularities must be made good
to the prevention of cracks. They may be used Thermal insulation composite systems are at least four weeks prior to plastering. As a
for both finish coat and undercoat. Lightweight used for new buildings with single-leaf mason rule, lightweight mortar is used [164],
plastering mixes for use as a finish coat may ry but also for improving the thermal insulation A background is attached to cover the surface
not contain any organic aggregates. Systems properties of existing masonry. and also to improve the bond between the
69
Material
plaster and the substrate. A background is undercoat by an intermediate layer as soft as Application, subsequent treatment
employed as a substitute substrate in cases possible. The reason for this is the thermal In order to avoid flaws in the plaster (cracks,
where this is inadequate or discontinuous (e.g. insulation properties of the masonry units, detached finish coat etc.), the influences of the
timber or steel frames). This essentially means which can be achieved only by reducing the weather should be considered when plaster-
a decoupling of the plaster from the supporting dry gross density and thereby increasing the ing. During frosty weather, rendering may only
construction. If individual elements - unsuitable deformability of the units. To achieve a com- be applied when the area to be rendered is
for use as a plaster substrate - are bridged patible plastering system these units need an completely protected from the influence of the
over with a background, then this must overlap elastic undercoat in order to reduce cracking. outside temperature and this covered area is
the surrounding (suitable) substrate by at least heated until the plaster is sufficiently hard.
100 mm on all sides and be fixed to this. Back- Thickness of plaster Further, areas of rendering should be pro-
grounds can be made from metal, plasterboard, Plaster thicknesses depend on the type of tected against rain as well as accelerated dry-
ightweight wood wallboards, multi-ply light- mortar and the purpose of the plaster, as ing caused by strong sunshine, wind or
weight boards, wire mesh and cane mats. Back- defined in DIN 18550 part 2 (see table 2.1.34). draughts. Internal plastering may only carried
grounds must be able to transfer the loads act- In order to satisfy the general requirements, the out at internal temperatures of +5°C or higher.
ing on the plaster skin (self-weight, wind pres- average plaster thickness must be 20 mm for In the case of multi-coat plastering systems, an
sure/suction) to the loadbearing construction. external work and 15 mm internally; 10 mm is adequate waiting time must be allowed
Reinforcement of metal, mineral fibres and syn- sufficient for one-coat internal plasters made between applying the individual coats of plas-
thetic fibres are integrated in the plaster in from premixed dry mortar. The permissible ter. A subsequent coat may be applied only
order to improve adhesion and minimize crack- minimum thickness at individual places must when the preceding coat is stable, sufficiently
ing in tension zones. However, this assumes not be less than 5 mm. "Thin-coat plasters", dry and provides an adequate bond. Adequate
that the stiffness and strength of the reinforce- sometimes used for internal applications, do drying time is necessary to guarantee that the
ment are compatible with the properties of the not comply with the requirements of DIN 18550. inevitable shrinkage of the preceding coat has
plaster and that the reinforcement is incorpor- stopped. Applying a subsequent coat before
ated properly. This includes minimizing contact Surface finishes shrinkage of the preceding coat has stopped
between the plaster reinforcement and the The finish coat may be worked in various ways leads to excessive stresses and cracks in the
substrate in order to avoid transferring un- to provide different appearances and textures. subsequent coat. This has resulted in the plas-
necessary stresses from the substrate to the A plaster is finished with a sponge or metal terer's rule of "one day waiting time per milli-
reinforcement. The reinforcement must overlap trowel to produce the desired surface finish. metre of undercoat" for normal plasters and
by at least 100 mm (see table 2.1.35). The action of finely rubbing, felting or smooth- "one day waiting time per 10 mm of undercoat,
ing the plaster may enrich the concentration of but at least seven days" for thermal insulation
Compatible plastering systems binding agents at the surface, which then pro- plastering systems. The first coat of plaster
Plasters can be applied in one or more coats. motes the formation of shrinkage cracks and, applied over splatterdash may only be applied
A coat of plaster is the application of a mortar in the case of non-hydraulic lime, hinders the after the mortar has hardened sufficiently, but
or coating material to form one layer in one setting of the undercoat(s). at the earliest after 12 hours. Before applying
operation. Splatterdash applied to prepare the Plaster with a float finish is known by many the subsequent coat, the preceding coat must
substrate is not classed as a coat of plaster. names according to the tool used (i.e. wooden be roughened to form a key and prewetted if
The total number of coats of plaster, which as a float). necessary.
whole together with the substrate fulfil the Plaster thrown on from a float is given its Subsequent treatment of plasters should be
requirements placed on the plaster, is termed texture by the action of throwing the mortar. carried out above all for groups P I, P II and
the plastering system. As such, even a single Generally, a coarse aggregate of up to about P III. In doing so, the plasters should be pro-
coat of plaster could be termed a plastering 10 mm is used. tected to prevent them drying out too quickly
system. The bottom layers of a plastering sys- Trowelled plaster is applied by means of a and, if necessary, should be kept moist.
tem are called undercoats, the uppermost trowel or float to create panels or scales.
layer the finish or final coat. Thermal stresses in Sprayed plaster is produced by spraying on
an external wall decrease from the outside to two or more coats of a fine-grain, fluid mortar
the inside. Consequently, the finish coat is sub- from a special machine.
jected to the greatest temperature-induced A scraped finish is achieved with combs, saw
deformations and so must exhibit great elastici- blades, cabinet scrapers or similar tools. This
ty. Accordingly, the coats of plaster should removes the binding agents and, as a result,
increase in elasticity from the inside to the out- the highly stressed surface of the finish coat.
side, expressed by the plasterer's rule "soft on The projecting aggregate gives the plaster its
hard". The plastering systems listed in DIN characteristic texture. The right timing for the
18550 part 1 are based on this rule. However, scraping depends on the progress of the set-
in order to guarantee the thermal insulation ting of the plaster. The time is right w h i n the
advantages and properties for the thermal aggregate springs out upon scraping but does
insulation plasters and thermal insulation com- not become attached to the scraping tool.
posite systems, the plasterer's rule must be A scraped finish should not be classed as
reversed for such systems. Soft undercoats or inadequate when individual pieces of aggre-
soft thermal insulation materials are given a gate become detached when rubbing the sur-
hard, water-repellent finish coat. However, this face with the hand.
makes it necessary to decouple the coats by Scrubbed plaster is given its texture by wash-
introducing an intermediate layer in order to ing the surface to remove the binding agent
minimize the risk of cracks [218]. The case is slurry which has not yet hardened. It requires
similar with lightweight plaster, where once selected coarse aggregates as well as an
again the finish coat is decoupled from the undercoat corresponding to mortar group III.
70
Plasters
Controlling cracking 2.1.33 Examples of internal plastering systems to DIN 18550 part 1
Plaster, and rendering in particular, shrinks by Requirement or Plastering mix group or coating material for
losing water. After the plaster has reached an plaster application undercoat finish coat
adequate initial strength, this shrinkage is hin 1 Only light loads P I a, b P I a, b
2 P ll P I a, b; P lV d
dered by the substrate, which generally does
3 P IV P I a, b; P lV d
not suffer from problems of shrinkage or at
4 Normal loads PIc PIc
least not to the same extent. When the tensile 5 (including light loads) - P ll
stresses which ensue in the plaster exceed the 6 P ll P I c; P II; P IV a, b, c; P V; P Org 1; P Org 2
low tensile strength of the plaster, then cracks 7
- P Ill
8 P Ill P I c; P ll; P Ill; P Org 1;P Org 2
appear. Further expansion of the masonry (e.g.
due to temperature, chemical sources in clay
9 - P IV a, b, c
10 P IV a, b, c P IV a, b, c; P Org 1; P Org 2
bricks) and simultaneous shrinkage of the plas 11 P V P V; P Org 1; P Org 2
ter increases the risk of cracks. However, the 12
- P Org 1; P Org 2
formation of cracks in plaster may be due to 13 Damp conditions PI P I
14 (not including domestic kitchens - P ll
flaws in the substrate (inconsistent substrate
15 and bathrooms) P ll P I; P ll; P Org 1
with changes of material, weak points in the 16
- P Ill
substrate, varying deformation behaviour of the 17 P ll P ll; P Ill; POrg 1
substrate) or inadequate workmanship (insuffi 18 - P Org 1
cient pretreatment and post-treatment, time
between coats too short, individual coats
applied too thick, incompatible plastering sys
tem, varying thickness of plaster). Basically, a
surface without any cracks is not possible, or
at least requires a great deal of effort. There
fore, the aim is to achieve a compatible plas
tering system (observe plasterer's rules)
applied correctly to prevent the formation of
wider cracks at large spacings because other
2.1.34 Plaster thicknesses required
wise moisture can penetrate the plaster and
Plastering system Average plaster
from there possibly penetrate the substrate,
thickness
which in turn leads to damage (spalling Rendering (undercoat(s) + finish coat for multi-coat rendering) ≥20mm
caused by frost, impairment of the building Single-coat water-repellent premixed rendering ≥ 15 mm
science properties of the masonry). A limited Internal plaster (undercoat(s) + finish coat for multi-coat internal plaster) ≥ 15 mm
number of finely distributed, hairline cracks up Single-coat dry premixed internal plaster ≥ 10 mm
to about 0.2 mm wide are not regarded as a Thermal insulation plastering system undercoat ≥ 20 mm,
problem because they do not impair the func ≤ 100 mm
tion of the plaster. Although these cracks might second plaster undercoat ~ 10 mm
(if required) ≥6mm
allow more water to be absorbed under certain
circumstances, this water quickly and easily
evaporates again. The finely distributed hairline
cracks in the finish coat of thermal insulation
composite systems have no influence on the
moisture content of the insulation, or on the
thermal insulation properties of the system,
because the insulation materials normally used
(hard polystyrene and mineral wool) are neither
hygroscopic nor have active capillaries.
2.1.35 Flaws in substrates and remedial measures

Flaw Remedial measure
Substrate with areas of low strength, stability Background, reinforcement, with adequate overlaps
Large cracks Make good cracks or bridge over with background/
reinforcement
Wide joints > 5 mm Fill joints with mortar to DIN 1053 part 1
Uneven substrate, depressions, projections Dubbing out plaster coat
Changes of material Splatterdash, background
Inconsistent, low surface roughness Splatterdash
Inconsistent absorption Prewetting
Soiled substrate, dust, loose sections Clean substrate, remove loose sections,
apply dubbing out plaster coat locally
Saturated, frozen substrate Dry out, protect plastering surface from influences
of weather, heat enclosed area
Substrate subjected to shrinkage, Leave substrate for long time before plastering
swelling, creep
Unacceptable reaction between substrate and plaster Choose plastering mix to suit reactive materials
71
Masonry bonds
Masonry Bonds
Konrad Zilch, Martin Schatz w i t h Christina Radlbeck
2.2.1 Historical formats General Standard formats

Designation Length Width Height The various dimensions of the masonry units
I b h A bond is the regular interlocking arrangement used in Germany are today almost exclusively
[mm] [mm] [mm]
of masonry units in courses to form a wall con- determined by the "octametric" system of dimen-
Imperial 250 120 65
struction. sional coordination according to DIN 4172 (see
Modified imperial 250 115 65
The task of a bond is to enhance the strength "The relationship between dimensional coordi-
Oldenburg 220 105 52
of the masonry construction as well as its nation and unit format"). Based on the dimen-
Dutch 200 100 40
215 105 40 resistance to the formation of cracks and the sion 1/8 m = 125 mm, the thin format DF (240 x
Hamburg 220 105 55 influences of the weather. In addition, the bond 115 x 52 mm) and the normal format NF (240 x
220 105 65 distributes the loads and forces evenly within 115 x 71 mm) form the basic modules for brick
Waal 215 105 54 the masonry. The tasks of the mortar are to dis- and block dimensions. These two formats are
Vecht 215 105 42 tribute the loads uniformly and to compensate also known as small formats. All larger formats
Old Bavarian 295 145 65 for varying dimensions. are made up of these basic modules taking
320 155 70
into account the joint thickness. It should be
340 165 70
320 120 50 noted that depending on the combination of
Formats and specials
Historical formats
The introduction of a useful standard size of 2.2.3 Sub-formats with their
identification symbols
masonry unit was originally influenced by the for course plans
"one-hand hold", which allows a brick to be
comfortably handled with one hand. This span
is on average 120 mm and determines the
width of a masonry unit. In 1852 the German Whole brick
Customs Authority defined the "imperial" format
- 250 mm long and 120 mm wide. The height
of 65 mm resulted from the fact that a round
2.2.2 Dimensions of standard formats DF to 20 DF figure of 400 bricks, including the inevitable
Format Length Width Height wastage, produced exactly 1 m 3 of brickwork.
designation I b h However, the disadvantage of this brick size is
[mm] [mm] [mm]
that two courses plus one joint do not equal the
DF 240 115 52 Three-quarter bat
width of a brick on edge. Therefore, the final
NF 240 115 71
2 DF = 1.5 NF 240 115 113
brick always had to be cut lengthwise, a time-
3 DF = 2.5 NF 240 175 113 consuming and difficult process. The size of
3.20 DF 145 300 113 the header face also represented an aesthetic
3.75 DF 300 (308) 175 113 problem. The dimension of 130 mm (width of
4 DF 240 (248) 115 238 (249) brick + joint) is difficult to incorporate in the
4 DF 240 (248) 240 113 (124) decimal system and results in awkward multi-
5 DF 300 (308) 115 238 (249) ples. For facing masonry (i.e. units left ex-
Half bat
5 DF 300 (308) 240 113 (124) posed), the imperial format appeared too long
6 DF 365 (373) 115 238 (249) for its height and so could not be used for
6 DF 365 (373) 240 113(124) decorative areas of masonry. With the "Baden"
6 DF 490 (498) 175 113(124) format of 270 x 130 x 65 mm and the Bavarian
7.5 DF 300 (308) 175 238 (249) "royal brick", measuring 290 x 140 x 65 mm,
8 DF 240 (248) 240 238 (249) the height is calculated from (brick width -1 x
8 DF 490 (498) 115 238 (249)
bed joint) 4 2.
8 DF 490 (498) 240 113 (124) Quarter bat
9 DF 365 (373) 175 238 (249) If one joint of 10 mm is added to each of the
10 DF 240 (248) 300 238 (249) brick dimensions (280 x 140 x 70 mm and 300
12 DF 365 (373) 240 238 (249) x 150 x 75 mm), then the resulting length to
12 DF 490 (498) 175 238 (249) width to height ratio of 4:2:1 makes possible
14 DF 240 (248) 425 238 (249) the wide use of bricks. Other historical brick
15 DF 365 (373) 300 238 (249) formats are listed in table 2.2.1. Today, the
16 DF 490 (498) 240 238 (249) historical formats are only produced for special Queen closer
20 DF 490 (498) 300 238 (249) purposes.
72
basic modules, various masonry unit dimen- Large-format elements produced in wall thicknesses from 115 to 365
sions - length, width and height - can be Owing to the need to produce masonry inex- mm, in lengths from 248 to 498 mm, and in
described with one format designation (see fig. pensively and rationally, larger formats have heights of 498 or 623 mm.
2.2.4). The possible masonry unit dimensions been in use for a number of years (see also
for the formats DF to 20 DF are shown in table "Rationalization measures"). Calcium silicate gauged elements
2.2.2. The lengths in brackets apply to mason- The use of large-format elements results in the were developed as complete wall building
ry units without mortar to the perpends (brick to faster erection of masonry than when using kits. The wall thickness is 100 mm for non-load-
brick), or those with interlocking header faces small- and medium-format units. Above all, the bearing internal walls, otherwise 115-300 mm.
(tongue and groove system); the heights in calcium silicate and aerated concrete indus- With a length of 998 mm and heights of 498 or
brackets apply to gauged units for building tries have promoted the development of large- 623 mm, these elements also fit into the "octa-
masonry with thin-bed mortar. The formats 2 format elements. metric" system of dimensional coordination.
DF and 3 DF are called medium formats, those In combination with masonry materials with
from 3.2 DF to 20 DF large formats. good thermal insulation properties, the mortar Autoclaved aerated concrete units or gauged
Besides defining the unit dimensions from the joint - even when using lightweight mortars - units and autoclaved aerated concrete pre-
multitude of thin and normal formats, there are represents a zone of higher thermal trans- fabricated brick elements or gauged brick
also subformats resulting from the division of a mission. Compared to standard formats, the elements
whole brick into three-quarter bat, half bat, use of large-format elements achieves a better have thicknesses ranging from 175 to 365 mm
quarter bat or queen closer (see fig. 2.2.3). result in terms of thermal insulation. (units) or 50 to 150 mm (panels) and a maxi-
These units complement the standard formats mum length x height of 615 (624) x 240 (249)
and enable the masonry to be better adapted The calcium silicate "quadro" system mm. The figures in brackets apply to gauged
to particular building dimensions, thus avoiding consists of solid units laid with mechanical bricks and panels.
costly on-site cutting of the units. fixings on a 125 mm module. The units are
2.2.4 Unit formats (cm) resulting from multiples of thin formats according to [83]
73
Masonry bonds
2.2.5 Special formats and special components Autoclaved aerated concrete gauged elements
are available with a maximum length x width x
Bullnose bricks height of 999 x 365 x 623 mm, similar to the
calcium silicate gauged elements.
Hollow wall and wall elements of lightweight

concrete
are produced in the sizes (length x width x
height) 490 x 95 or 100 x 240 mm and 990 x 50
to 70 x 320 mm.
The only large-format units produced in clay

are the brick elements and lightweight brick
elements. The maximum format available here
is 24 DF (497 x 365 x 238 mm). This format is
King closer or squint
also the largest common format for hollow and
solid blocks of lightweight concrete as well as
solid (normal-weight) concrete blocks.
Special formats, special units

Special formats and special units are produced
in all standard types of masonry material,
These complement the standard formats and
Radial or arch bricks Cownose bricks units to produce a complete wall system. This
helps rationalize the masonry construction
operation and enables both consistent building
science properties and a consistent substrate
for plastering.
Specials
are units that deviate from the standard cuboid
geometry and were developed to simplify the
construction of certain masonry details.
Cownose bricks, radial and arch bricks to
DIN 1057 part 1 and bullnose bricks were
developed for round masonry details. King
closers or squints are used to simplify the
Adjustable brick
corners of projecting bays. Dog-leg bricks with
Special for angled window reveals
an angled stretcher face are used for window
reveals, stop bricks (with or without angled
faces) are used to simplify the incorporation of
window and door openings. The dimensions of
specials mainly correspond to the "octametric"
system of dimensional coordination and so are
readily incorporated in a masonry bond (see
figs. 2.2.5 and 2.2.6).
Adjustable bricks
are two-part units whose length along the
Acoustic bricks
wall can be adjusted between about 100 and
250 mm through a system of telescoping
internal webs. These avoid the need for
supplementary formats or the need to cut
large-format units on site. Adjustable bricks
can be employed in the length of a wall, at
corners and adjacent openings (see fig. 2,2.5).
Adjustable bricks may only be used in masonry
of vertically perforated units or lightweight
vertically perforated units to DIN 105 part 1 or
2, or in accordance with a building authority
certificate.
The wall value applies as the design value for
thermal conductivity. The actual thermal con-
ductivity of the adjustable brick does not need
74
to be taken into account. However, these Shallow lintel units 2.2.6 Special formats and special components
adjustable units may only be used in walls with are prefabricated elements which - w i t h steel
λ R >0.18W/mK. tension reinforcement - normally act as the ten Service duct block Hollow block for grouting
sion flange of a construction to span over door
Brick slips and window openings as well as recesses for
are primarily used for cladding spandrel pan radiators. Channel-shaped units made from the
els and reinforced concrete elements, e.g. same material as the surrounding masonry are
floor beams. This creates a uniform substrate employed as permanent formwork. This cre
for plastering across the whole wall. The ates a uniform substrate for plastering. Shallow
lengths of the slips are based on the 1/8 m lintel units achieve their loadbearing capacity
module, the height and thickness on the ele by acting in conjunction with the compression
ment to be clad. zone comprising of the overlying brickwork or
Channel or lintel blocks
concrete of a beam or floor slab. They are
Acoustic bricks based on a module of 250 mm and are avail
are employed to absorb noise both in external able in lengths up to 3 m. Lintel widths of 115-
applications, e.g. noise barriers adjacent to 175 mm mean that openings in walls up to
busy roads, and internal applications, e.g. rail 490 mm thick can be accommodated. Lintel
way stations, machine shops, sports facilities. depths are 71 or 113 mm so that they can be
Acoustic bricks are provided with continuous incorporated in the 1/8 m wall module (see fig.
horizontal or downward-sloping perforations 2.2.6).
perpendicular to the plane of the wall. Their Shallow lintel units
dimensions are based on the "octametric" sys L-units
tem of dimensional coordination and they are simplify the cladding of slabs and hence
available in widths from 52 to 140 mm. Noise- speed up progress on site. The dimensions of
absorbing acoustic walls are built like walls of the units are the same as those for channel
facing masonry. Improved noise absorption is blocks. With a bottom leg of 60 to
achieved by incorporating acoustic insulation 80 mm, slab depths of up to 180 mm can be
and an air cavity (see fig. 2.2.5). clad with these units. An integral hard foam
core improves the thermal insulation properties
Hollow blocks for grouting of masonry in the region of the support (see
are large-format clay or lightweight concrete fig.2.2.6).
units with large voids which, after laying, are
filled with mortar, grout or in-situ concrete Service duct and pre-chased units
either course by course or storey by storey. in the customary "octametric" dimensions sim
Therefore, these blocks act as permanent plify the construction of vertical and horizontal L-units Roller-blind box
formwork. The filling makes these blocks par ducts and chases for building services. When
ticularly suitable for producing noise barriers. incorporated into bonded masonry, the service
They are available in widths from 115 to duct units enable vertical shafts up to 145 mm
365 mm up to a maximum length of 1000 mm diameter to be formed without having to build
(see fig. 2.2.6). the masonry around the shaft. Besides being
For external walls systems are available in suitable for building services, the ducts formed
which these hollow blocks are delivered to site in this way can also incorporate steel reinforce
with an integral layer of thermal insulation. This ment for reinforced masonry. The pre-chased
insulation is placed within the outer skin of the units mean that subsequent cutting of slots for
block, Therefore, the unit with integral insula cables and pockets for junction boxes and
tion does not present any problems with regard switches is no longer necessary (see fig. 2.2.6).
to the build-up of condensation caused by dif
fusion of water vapour. Roller-blind boxes of clay, concrete or light Door and window stop bricks
weight concrete
Channel or lintel blocks are self-supporting or structural prefabricated
are used as permanent formwork for the pro elements with integral components for roller-
duction of horizontally reinforced masonry, blind operation as well as, in some cases, inte
beams, window and door lintels as well as ver gral thermal insulation. Roller-blind boxes are
tical slots, columns etc. Their dimensions are manufactured in widths from 300 to 490 mm
based on the "octametric" system of dimen and lengths up to 6.5 m based on a module of
sional coordination; maximum wall thicknesses 250 mm. Besides the standard shapes, corner
of 365 mm are possible. Clay channel blocks boxes with up to four corners and curved
over 300 mm wide are also produced with an boxes are also possible. The use of roller-blind
integral hard foam core to improve the thermal boxes made from the same material as the sur
insulation. rounding masonry creates a uniform substrate
Channel blocks are used for plastered mason for plastering. An accessory available is the
ry and for facing work - in which case they standard-size roller-blind belt winder which is
have the same colour and texture as the facing built into the masonry bond. Therefore, the belt
or engineering bricks used for the rest of the winder is incorporated without the need to cut
wall. any additional chases.
75
Masonry bonds
2.2.7 Relationship between nominal Adequate thermal insulation at roller-blind

measurements and reference sizes boxes is verified either experimentally in lab-
oratory tests or by calculation according to the
stipulations of the building code. Special atten-
tion should be given to ensuring air tightness
on the inside (see fig. 2.2.6).
The relationship between dimensional

coordination and unit format
A system of dimensional coordination is

employed to simplify the design and construc-
tion of masonry. Within this system, the sizes of
components are specified based on a basic
dimension as well as multiples of that dimen-
sion. Adhering to this system of dimensional
coordination ensures that components such as
walls, projections, doors, windows etc. all
match in terms of their dimensions. This system
makes it unnecessary to adjust the length of a
wall to account for the progressive assembly of
small masonry units and simplifies the inclusion
of prefabricated items, e.g. doors and win-
dows, which are also manufactured according
to this system of dimensional coordination. In
addition, adhering to the system means that
the products and building systems of various
manufacturers are interchangeable and com-
patible, which in turn leads to economy thanks
to mass production, and a reduction in the
number of products. At present there are two
different systems in use in Germany:
DIN 4172 "Modular coordination in building
construction" and DIN 18000 "Modular
coordination in building".
Dimensional coordination in buildings

2.2.8 Vertical nominal measurements and heights of units DIN 4172 was introduced in 1955. The basic
dimension for all masonry work is based on the
"octametric" system of 1/8 m = 125 mm. This
basic module serves for the geometric deter-
mination of nominal measurements, which in
the first place - as theoretical measurements -
are even multiples of this module. Therefore, as
grid or centre line dimensions, the nominal
measurements form the basis for the coordin-
ating sizes that occur in practice.
The reference size is the dimension with which
the components and elements must comply,
and is the dimension stated on the drawings
(work size). It is made up of the nominal meas-
urements taking into account the appropriate
number of joints. With regard to the work size,
we must distinguish between the external
dimension (with joints subtracted from the
nominal measurement), the opening size (with
NM NM NM DM NM DM DM joints added to the nominal measurement) and
the projection dimension (in which joints are
Height of unit (mm) 52 71 113 123 238 248 499
not considered) (see fig. 2.2.7). The heights of
Thickness of bed joint (mm) 10.5 12.3 12 1-3 12 1-3 1-3
components are also coordinated within the
Height of course (mm) 62.5 83.3 125 125 250 250 500 "octametric" system (see fig. 2.2.8).
Example of format DF NF 1.5 NF = 2DF 4DF gauged unit In traditional masonry bonds with a perpend
NM = normal mortar DM = thin-bed mortar thickness of 10 mm and bed joint thickness of
76
The relationship between dimensional coordination and unit format
12 mm, the basic modules are therefore 115 + However, as the "octametric" system is the best 2.2.9 Reference points for nominal measurements
10 mm for the length and 113 + 12 mm for the one for the materials used, "decimetric" modular for wall openings
height. Accordingly, the relationship between coordination has not become established for
nominal measurement and reference size is as masonry.
follows:
Work size Nominal measurement Reference size Dimensional tolerances and permissible deviations
Ext. dimension (A) x-12.5 x-12.5-1
Inaccuracies during production and erection
Opening (0) x-12.5 x-12.5 + 1
Projection (V) x-12.5 x-12.5 inevitably lead to components and structures
Height (H) x-12.5 x-12.5-1.2 with lengths, heights and angles that deviate
from those laid down on the drawings. This is
As the "octametric" system of dimensional particularly true for masonry construction,
coordination has remained unchanged despite which in contrast to automated production in a
recent developments in masonry construction, factory, is erected on site by manual labour.
improved types of joint have given rise to new The deviations here are primarily length and
unit dimensions rather than new work sizes. For planar discrepancies, out-of-plumb and out-of-
example, the omission of mortar in the perpends line problems. Dimensional inaccuracies are
for gauged or tongue and groove units has led frequently simply accepted because more
to masonry units increasing in length from 240 stringent requirements are normally associated
mm to, for example, 247 mm, and the bedding with considerably more technical input and
of units in thin-bed mortar has resulted in units hence also higher production costs [141].
increasing in height from 238 to 249 mm. The permissible values for deviations (toler
ances) from the intended dimension are speci
The desire for rationalization means that the fied in DIN 18201 and 18202. The terms relat
preferred sizes of openings for doors in ing to dimensional tolerances are defined in
DIN 18100 being matched to the dimensional DIN 18201 (see fig. 2.2.10):
coordination requirements. The following toler The reference size is a dimension which is
specified to designate the size, arrangement 2.2.10 Definitions of terms for dimensional coordination
ances are assumed:
and position of a component or structure and is
width + 10 mm entered on the drawings.
height + 10/-5 mm The actual size is a dimension established by
measurement.
These measurements are illustrated in fig. 2.2.9. The actual deviation is the difference between
The reference sizes are related to the level FFL reference size and actual size.
(finished floor level), which must be taking into The maximum size is the largest permissible
account by the designer on the working draw dimension and the minimum size the smallest
ings and in the tender documents. permissible dimension.
The limit deviation is the difference between
maximum size and reference size or between
Modular coordination in buildings minimum size and reference size.
It is mainly in other countries that basic length The tolerance is the difference between the
2.2.11 Permissible tolerances to DIN 18202
units for components and structures are based maximum and minimum sizes.
Reference Limit deviations in mm
on metric dimensions. DIN 18000 was intro The flatness tolerance is the range for deter
for reference sizes in m
duced in order to incorporate these internation mining the permissible deviation of a surface ≤3 3< 6< 15< >30
al agreements. The basic dimension, as the from a plane. x≤6 x≤15 x≤30
smallest planning dimension in this "deci- DIN 18202 defines the permissible tolerances Dimensions o n plan, ± 12 ± 16 ±20 ±24 ±30
metric" system of modular coordination, is the for buildings (limit deviations, angular and pla e.g. lengths,
w i d t h s , centre and
basic module M = 100 mm. Other basic dimen nar tolerances). The limit deviations apply to grid lines
sions in this system are the multimodules lengths, widths and heights as well as to grid Dimensions in eleva ± 16 ± 16 ±20 ±30 ±30
3 M = 300 mm, 6 M = 600 mm and 12 M = and centre line dimensions, and openings (see tion, e.g. storey
1200 mm, the preferred multiples of the basic table 2.2.11). They represent the accuracy heights, landing levels,
module, and the submodules (whole-number achievable within the scope of normal working distances from
contact f a c e s
divisions of the basic module) plus the com practices. Higher demands on accuracy must and corbels
plementary dimensions 25, 50 and 75 mm, be specially agreed in the specifications and Clear dimensions on ± 16 ±20 ±24 ± 30
which are smaller than the basic module but contractual documents. plan, e.g. dimensions
are combined to form modular dimensions. The permissible tolerances are maintained in b e t w e e n columns
In practice on the building site, e.g. during the a n d piers
masonry by limiting the material-related dimen
Clear dimensions in + 20 ±20 ±30
construction of masonry, it is the preferred sional deviations of the units. These values are
elevation,
sizes and multimodules which are most rele specified in the individual standards covering e.g. beneath
vant, and these too are components in the different types of units (see tables 2.2.13 and slabs and b e a m s
dimensional coordination to DIN 4172, e.g. 2.2.14). Furthermore, in traditional masonry O p e n i n g s , e.g. for ± 12 ± 16
5 x 3 M = 15 M = 1500 mm = 1 2 x 1 2 5 mm bonds the mortar joints permit adjustments in w i n d o w s , doors and
built-in elements
and consequently the order of 2-3 mm; this means about 10 mm
Openings as above ± 10 ± 12
15 M, 30 M, 45 M on plan, and adjustment for every 1 m of wall length. In
but with finished
5M, 10 M, 15 M etc. in elevation. terms of visual appearance, it is advisable to reveals
77
Masonry bonds
2.2.12 Applying the bonding rule along the length "compress" the perpends but they should not The rules of bonding
of a wall be less than 8 mm thick in order to remain
impervious. A masonry bond is the regular assembly of
masonry units in vertical and horizontal align
The task of a masonry bond is to distribute the ment in order to form a masonry construction.
loads acting on the masonry uniformly within For loadbearing masonry, units may be laid in
the masonry. To do this, the perpends (vertical stretcher courses (side faces in the plane of
joints) and bed joints of adjacent courses in the the wall); header courses (end faces in the
plane of the wall must be offset by the bonding plane of the wall); brick-on-edge courses (end
dimension u. According to DIN 1053 part 1 faces in the plane of the wall but turned
clause 9.3, u ≥ 0.4 x h ≥ 45 mm, where through 90°); or soldier courses (side faces in
h = height of unit (work size). This requirement the plane of the wall but turned through 90°).
applies to the masonry bond both along the "Dog-toothing" (projecting and recessed)
length of the wall and across the thickness of involves laying header and brick-on-edge
the wall (see fig. 2.2.12). courses at an angle; "leaning" soldier courses
With medium- or thin-bed masonry as well as are also possible (see 2.2.15).
perpends without mortar and dry walling, this Maintaining the minimum bonding dimension
adjustment by means of the joints is no longer prevents the masonry bond from being easily
possible, or at best limited. This is why tighter disrupted and, as a result, prevents a reduc
tolerances are stipulated in the appropriate tion in the tensile and shear strength of the
standards covering the masonry units. masonry. Therefore, to improve the bonding
effect, maximum, i.e. centric, bonding is
desirable.
2.2.13 Permissible deviations from intended dimensions (work sizes) for calcium silicate, aerated concrete, concrete, lightweight concrete and granulated slag aggregate units [mm]
Calcium silicate units Aerated conc. units Concrete, lightweight concrete units Gran. slag agg. units
Designation of KS KS(P) KS Vm KS Vb gauged Hbl, Hbn V, Vn Vm HSV HHbl
type of unit KS L KS L (P) units PB PP Vbl, Vbn Vmb HSL
Ppl PPpI VbL S,
Format ≤NF > NF ≤NF >NF Tbn ≤NF >NF ≤NF >NF
Length, width
• individ. value ±3 ±3 ±3 ±3 ±3 ±2 ±3 ±3 ± 1.5 ±3 ±3 ±3 ±3 +4 ±4
• mean value ±2 ±2 ±2 ±3 ±3 ±1 ±2 ±3 ±3
Height B, H(2)
• individ. value ±3 ±4 ±1 ±3 ±4 ±2 ±1 ±3 ±1 ±4 ±3 ±2 ±3 ±3 ±4
~ average value ±2 ±3 ±2 ±3 ±1 ±2 ±3
(1)L = length of granulated slag aggregate units ≤ NF (2) B = width of granulated slag aggregate units ≤ NF, H = height of granulated slag aggregate units ≤ NF
2.2.14 Permissible deviations and dimensional spreads' 1 for clay bricks

DIN 105, p a r t i DIN 105, part 3 DIN 105, part 4 DIN 105, parts DIN 105, part 6
DIN 105, part 2 Lightwt horiz. pert, units
Reference size min. max dim. min. max. dim. min. max. dim. min. max. dim. min. max. dim.
dim. dim. spread dim. dim. spread dim. dim. spread dim. dim. spread dim. dim. spread
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]
Length, width 90 85 95 5 - - - - - - - - - 85 95 5
115 110 120 6 112 118 5 112 118 4 110 120 6 110 120 6
145 139 148 7 141 148 6 - - - - - - 139 148 7
150 - - - - - - - - - - - 145 155 7
175 168 178 8 170 178 7 - - - 168 178 8 168 178 8
240 230 245 10 233 245 10 235 245 8 230 245 10 230 245 10
247(2) - - - - - - - - - 237 252 10
300 290 308 12 293 308 12 290 308 12 290 308 12
307(2) - - - - - - 297 315 12
365 355 373 12 355 373 12 355 373 12
372(2) - - - - - - 362 380 12
425 415 434 12 - - - 415 434 12
432 (2) - - - - - - 422 441 12
490 480 498 12 480 498 15 480 498 12
497(2) 487 505 12
Height 52 / 66(3) 50 54 3 50 54 3 50 54 2 - - - 65 67 2
71 / 82(3) 68 74 4 69 73 3 69 73 3 68 74 4 81 83 2
113/123 ( 3 )
108 118 4 110 116 4 110 116 4 108 118 4 122 125 2
155/166 ( 3 ) 150 160 5 - - - - - - 165 167 2
175 170 180 5 - - - - - - 174 176 2
198(3) - - - - - - - - 197 200 2
238 / 248(3) 233 243 6 233 243 6 233 243 6 247 250 2
(1) Dimensional spread is the permissible difference between the size of the largest and smallest brick within a delivery to a building site.
(2) Reference length for gauged bricks to DIN 105 part 6
(3) Reference height for gauged bricks to DIN 105 part 6
78
Wall bonds
The bonding dimension also specifies the dis- • At corners, wall intersections and abutting 2.2.15 Course of bricks/blocks for use in masonry
tance between the perpends of intersecting walls, the stretcher courses always pass bonds
walls and internal corners. Only one perpend in through, while the header courses abut.
every course may be set out from an internal • As many whole units as possible should be
corner, i.e. the perpends of adjacent courses used to minimize the proportion of joints and
must be offset (see 2.2.16). hence increase the bonding dimension and
compressive strength of the masonry.
The following bonding rules should also be • Parallel walls should be constructed with the
observed: same sequences of courses.
•The units in a course should have the same

height in order to prevent the wall exhibiting Masonry w a l l bonds
varying deformation behaviour as result of a
varying number of bed joints, and - We distinguish between wall bonds, end bonds
consequently - to prevent areas of the wall and column bonds depending on the masonry
with a greater number of bed joints shedding element under construction.
any load placed on them as result of their
increased deformability. However, an addi-
tional bed joint is permissible in alternate Wall bonds
courses at the ends of walls and beneath lin- This type of bond is used between two corners
tels in order to adjust height and length when or junctions. Four types are taught and gener-
the contact area of the units is min. 115 mm ally used, characterized by a defined alter-
long and units and mortar exhibit a strength nation between stretcher and header courses.
at least equal to that of the surrounding
masonry (see fig. 2.2.17). Stretcher bond
• If within a course, several units are laid ad- All the courses consist exclusively of stretch-
jacent each other in order to create a wall ers, with each course being offset by half the
with the desired thickness, the bonding rule length of a unit (centric bonding) or by one
also applies across the thickness of the wall third to one quarter of the length of a unit
and the height of a unit may not be greater (raking stretcher bond). Owing to the generous
than its width. This also applies accordingly bonding dimension, employing this bond
to piers and short walls. This ensures ade- results in masonry with good compressive and
quate bonding in the transverse direction and tensile strength. Stretcher bond is used for
prevents the wall splitting apart as a result of walls just half a brick thick, e.g. thin internal
splitting tensile forces caused by yielding of walls, the outer (facing) leaf of twin-leaf walls,
the bed joints under load. An exception to chimneys. It is also used for large-format
this rule is units with a contact area min. 115 masonry units in order to rationalize the con-
mm wide. In this case the height of the units struction. In these cases the thickness of the
may be max. 240 mm (see fig. 2.2.18). wall is equal to the width of the unit. Therefore,
• When laying units of different heights simul- large-format units in stretcher bond can be
taneously in a continuous and stiffening wall, employed to construct one-brick walls in the
the heights of the courses must be main- thicknesses 240, 300, 365 and 490 mm.
tained exactly in order to ensure that the units
are properly bonded in. Header bond
This bond is only suitable for walls one brick
The masonry bonds commonly taught and thick where all the courses consist exclusively
used in practice all satisfy the requirements of headers, with each course offset by half the
with respect to the bonding rule. When using width of a unit. Compared to stretcher bond,
these bonds, which in a consistent arrange- header bond has a reduced loadbearing
ment achieve a more attractive pattern of joints capacity owing to the shorter bonding dimen-
in the wall than walls produced using the mini- sion. As this fact is not considered when
mum bonding rule, the following supplementary designing masonry, this type of bond should
bonding rules should also be observed [32, be avoided with heavily loaded walls. Apart
141,161]: from that, owing to the steep racking back of
• Every course must be horizontal and pene- one quarter of the length of a unit, header bond
trate the complete masonry construction. tends to develop diagonal cracks.
• Single-leaf external walls employing facing Header bond is used for single-leaf facing
bricks/blocks must consist of at least two work, for curved masonry with a tight radius
courses. and for large-format units when constructing 1 Header face
• In header courses only the header faces are one-brick walls in the thicknesses 240-490 mm. 2 Stretcher face
visible. At the ends of walls each stretcher 3 Header
4 Mortar bed
course should begin with as many three- English bond
5 Wall joint
quarter bats as there are header faces in the This bond consists of alternate courses of 6 Cross joint
thickness of the construction (special formats stretchers and headers. The overlap is one 7 Perpend
must be used in the case of blocks). quarter of the length of a unit, but the perpends 8 Bed joint
79
Masonry bonds
2.2.16 Bonding dimensions at corners 2.2.17 Inefficient bonding 2.2.19 Detail of bonding at obtuse corners of masonry walls
and intersections (plan views) owing to different num
bers of bed joints within
a course. Not permitted
because it leads to
severe compression at
concentrations of bed
joints. Additional bed
joints at ends of walls
and beneath lintels are
permissible in alternate
courses.
2.2.18 Non-permissible bond

ing owing to unit height-
to-width ratio > 1.
Joint cannot be fully
closed with mortar.
Splitting tension effect
due to yielding of joint;
h > b not permitted Spacing of joints in header Spacing of joints in header
(exception: b ≥ 115 mm courses set out from outer courses set out from inner
and h ≤ 240 mm). corner (no cut faces left corner (some cut faces left
exposed). exposed, otherwise specials
required).
of all stretcher and all header courses are avoids having to cut units to be able to fit them allowed when the dimensions are small, e.g.
aligned vertically. Owing to the shallow racking into the wall. This is important when using for pipes and cables. In the case of recesses
back, i.e. alternating between one quarter and medium- and large-format units in particular and slots, the remaining continuous wall must
three quarters of the length of a unit, this pro because as the units get larger so the adapta be at least half a brick thick.
duces a particularly good longitudinal bond. tion options decrease.
This type of bond is used for wall thicknesses
> 240 mm. Acute corners in masonry Column bonds
are built by building the outer row of stretchers Square columns employ the same bond in
English cross bond (St Andrew's bond) in one wall right up to the corner. The other wall each course but with each course offset by
In this bond there is a regular alternation is then built up to this row of stretchers as a 90°. Square, one-brick-thick columns consist
between stretcher and header courses. How header course. The three-quarter bat at the entirely of whole units. Each course of a
ever, they are offset in such a way that they apex must be cut in such a way that its outer square, 1½ - brick column consists of six three-
repeat only every four courses. The first and stretcher face is longer than the diagonal nar quarter bats. To observe the bonding rules,
second courses are laid like English bond, and row side by one quarter brick. there is much wastage with 2- and 3-brick
the third course like the first one. In the fourth square columns because of the large number
course (stretchers) the first unit (three-quarter Obtuse corners in masonry of three-quarter bats required.
bat) is followed by a header before laying the are bonded according to the size of the corner The two narrow sides of rectangular columns
first stretcher. Therefore the perpends in the angle. For angles > 135° the joints in the header are treated like the ends of a wall. These con
header courses are aligned vertically but those course are set out from the outer corner. This tain as many three-quarter bats as the narrow
of the stretcher courses are offset by half the avoids cut surfaces being left exposed. For side has headers, with the remaining inter
length of a unit. This results in the characteris angles ≤ 135° the joints in the header course mediate space being filled with whole or half
tic pattern of English cross bond. Racking are set out from the inner corner. This means bricks.
back is at one quarter the length of a unit. This that cut surfaces are left exposed in some
bond is vulnerable to diagonal cracks. On the courses (see fig. 2.2.19) [141].
other hand, the risk of longitudinal cracks is rel
atively low thanks to the good toothing. Masonry piers
In both English bond and English cross bond are projections which serve to stiffen continu
we speak of bonded masonry as opposed to ous walls or support larger concentrated loads
one-brick masonry because several units are from beams etc. In piers the headers cantilever
laid adjacent each other in every course or out, while the stretchers are laid parallel with
every second course. the plane of the wall.
Recesses and slots in masonry

End bonds As these decrease the thickness of the wall,
are formed at the ends of walls, at corners, at they must be taken into account when design
junctions and intersections with other walls ing loadbearing masonry. Recesses may not
and at projections and recesses. It is recom be cut into a loadbearing wall. They must be
mended to establish the arrangement of inter constructed in a proper bond and are usually
sections, corners etc. before starting construc required to accommodate radiators, built-in
tion. This guarantees proper bonding and cupboards etc. The cutting of chases is
80
Types of bonds
External corner Bonding-in of return wall
Stretcher bond
Wall thickness (½ brick)
115 mm
Header bond
Wall thickness (1 brick)
240 mm
Junction between
stretcher and header bonds
81
Bonds
Through-bonding Obtuse external corner Acute external corner
82
Fundamentals
English bond
Bonding at end of wall External corner Bonding-in of return wall
83
84
Bonds
Piers
(shown here for English cross bond - English bond similar)
125 x 240 mm 125 x 490 mm 250 x 490 mm
125 x 240 mm 125 x 490 mm 250 x 490 mm
125 x 490 mm 250 x 490 mm
85
Fundamentals
English cross bond
Bonding at end of wall External corner Bonding-in of return wall
86
87
Bonds
Recesses
(shown here for English cross bond - English bond similar)
125 x 135 mm 125 x 210 mm
125 x 260 mm 250 x 510mm
Column bonds
240 x 240 mm 365 x 365 mm 490 x 490 mm 240 x 365 mm 365 x 490 mm 490 x 615 mm
88
Fundamentals
Large-format masonry unit
Bonding at end of wall External corner External corner

walls of same thickness walls of different thicknesses
12 DF x 240mm 12 DF x 240mm 12 DF x 365 mm

and 12 DF x 240 mm
20 DF x 300 mm 20 DF x 300 mm 12 DF x 365mm

and 20 DF x 300 mm
12 D F x 3 6 5 mm 12 DF x 365 mm 16 DF x 490 mm
and 12 DF x 365 mm
16 DF x 490 mm 16 DF x 490 mm
89
Bonding-in of return wall, Bonding-in of return wall, Bonding-in of return wall,
240 mm thick 300 mm thick 365 mm thick
12 DF x 240 mm
12 DF x 240mm
and 20 DF x 300 mm 20 DF x 300 mm
12 DF x 240mm 20 DF x 300 mm
and 12 DF x 365 mm and 12 DF x 365 mm 12 DF x 365 mm
12 DF x 240 mm 20 DF x 300 mm 12 DF x 365 mm

and 16 DF x 490 mm and 16 DF x 490 mm and 16 DF x 490 mm
90
Bonds
Through-bonding Through-bonding Through-bonding

walls of same thickness walls of different thicknesses walls of different thicknesses
12 DF x 240 mm
16 DF x 240mm
20 DF x 330 mm and 20 DF x 300 mm
12 DF x 240 mm
and 12 DF x 365 mm 20 DF x 300 mm
and 12 DF x 365 mm
12 DF x 240 mm 12 DF x 365 mm
16DFx490mm and 16 DF x 490 mm and 16 DF x 490 mm
91
Structural masonry
Structural masonry
2.3.1 Stress condition of masonry subjected to com The loadbearing behaviour of masonry Compression
pression Stress conditions, failure mechanism and
Masonry walls are subjected to loads in the influences on the compressive strength of
plane of the wall (as plates) and perpendicular masonry
to the plane of the wall (as slabs). Loads in the In a masonry element loaded in compression
plane of the wall may be vertical loads, e.g. perpendicular to the bed joints, compressive
self-weight or imposed loads, and horizontal stresses build up in the direction of the load.
loads, e.g. out-of-plumb problems or wind As with the customary combinations of mason
loads in the case of shear walls. As a slab, a ry units and mortar, the mortar exhibits a
masonry wall may be subjected to loads per greater transverse deformability than the
pendicular to the plane of the wall, e.g. wind masonry units, and tries to deform more in the
loads or earth pressures on external walls. transverse direction than do the units. This
Uniaxial compression on masonry unit and mortar As a result, the masonry is subjected to com differential transverse deformation is hindered
pression, shear, tension or bending stresses by the bond between masonry unit and mortar,
and combinations of these. As the compres- which sets up transverse tensile stresses in the
sive strength of masonry is considerably higher masonry units and transverse compressive
than its tensile or tensile bending strength, it is stresses in the mortar. A triaxial stress condi
primarily used for components subjected to tion arises in the units and the mortar. A further
compression. increase in the vertical load leads to the trans
Owing to the different geometries and material verse tensile strength of the units being
properties of masonry units and mortars (shape exceeded and the appearance of vertical
of unit, dimensions of unit, perforations, ratio of cracks in the units. Increasing the load still
unit height to bed joint thickness, strengths and further finally leads to failure of the masonry
moduli of elasticity of raw materials etc.), element. Incomplete bed joints give rise to
masonry is an anisotropic composite material. stress concentrations which can lead to failure
Therefore, when describing the loadbearing of the masonry under relatively light loads (see
behaviour of masonry we must always take into fig. 2.3.1) [77]. Therefore, the main criterion for
Unrestrained transverse deformation of masonry unit and account the interaction of masonry unit and the compressive strength of masonry is the
mortar with a slip plane mortar. This composite action of masonry is transverse tensile strength of the masonry units
made possible through the masonry bond. The and the decrease in the vertical compressive
bond helps to ensure that horizontal forces strength of the units brought about by trans
between unit and mortar are transferred by verse tensile stresses. The low compressive
means of adhesion and/or friction, and that strength of the mortar is not critical because it
vertical forces are transferred uniformly over is increased by the triaxial stress condition.
the height of the component. The uniform However, as the transverse tensile strength of
distribution of the loads is also assisted by the the units is very difficult to determine and
mortar in the bed joints because this compen reproduce in tests, the compressive strengths
sates for deviations in the sizes of the masonry of units and mortars are used as the character
units and hence prevents stress concentrations. istic parameters for describing the compres
Stress condition of composite body as a result of hinder In principle, the modes of failure in masonry sive strength of masonry. As the compressive
ing differential transverse deformation between masonry strength of a masonry unit increases, so does
unit and mortar Py way of bonding construction are: failure of the masonry unit,
failure of the mortar and failure of the bond the compressive strength of a masonry con
between unit and mortar. struction, but at a shallower gradient. As the
The strength of masonry is determined by the compressive strength of the mortar increases,
properties of both the units and the mortar. The so the compressive strength of a masonry con
strength, geometry, dimensional accuracy, struction increases at a similar rate. The gradi
proportion and arrangement of perforations, as ent is steeper for high-strength units than for
well as suction rate and moisture content of the those with a lower compressive strength.
units are just as crucial as the strength, joint The type of joint affects the compressive strength
thickness and type, water retention and plastic of the masonry because the transverse deform
ity of the mortar. Other parameters influencing ability of the mortar is a major influencing fac
the strength of masonry are type of loading tor, and so a thicker joint leads to a lower com
and rate of application, bond, quality of pro pressive strength for the masonry. Conse
Isometric presentation of triaxial stress condition in duction and standard of workmanship [10]. quently, considerably higher compressive
masonry unit and mortar
92
The loadbearing behaviour of masonry
strengths have been achieved with medium- failure of the masonry. 2.3.2 Stress condition and failure cases for tension per
bed mortar (joint thickness 5-7 mm) and thin- pendicular to bed joints
bed mortar (joint thickness 1-3 mm) than with Tension and tensile bending
thick-bed mortar (normal mortar with a joint The tensile loading of masonry perpendicular
thickness of approx. 12 mm). With thin-bed and parallel to the bed joints is primarily impor
mortar, which in terms of compressive strength tant for elements without any significant vertical
is comparable to normal mortar of mortar load. In such cases, hindering deformation
group III, the masonry compressive strengths (shrinkage, cooling) can lead to tensile stress
possible are assisted by the high dimensional es which are not "neutralized" because of the
accuracy of the units and the high adhesion lack of vertical load. Cracks are the result of
between units and mortar. the tensile strength of the masonry being
In contrast, lightweight mortars reduce the exceeded. Tensile bending stresses are mainly
compressive strength of masonry. Compared due to horizontal loads, e.g. earth pressures on
to normal mortars with the same compressive basement walls, infill panels, cladding, free Failure of contact between masonry units and mortar
strength, the lightweight aggregates used lead standing walls.
to a higher transverse deformability and there
fore increase the transverse tension on the Tensile and tensile bending stresses
units. This adverse effect which lightweight perpendicular to the bed joints
mortar has on the compressive strength of the Masonry can accommodate only very low ten
masonry worsens as the compressive strength sile and tensile bending stresses perpendicu
of the units increases because then the differ lar to the bed joints. This is mainly influenced
ential transverse deformation between mortar by the adhesive tensile strength between unit
and units increases. Therefore, it is necessary and mortar. In most cases, failure takes place
to harmonize the deformation characteristics of at the interface between unit and mortar. Ten
masonry unit and mortar in order to achieve the sile failure of the unit itself only takes place in
maximum and most economical loadbearing the case of a high adhesive tensile strength
capacity for the masonry. Combinations of (e.g. thin-bed mortar) in conjunction with a low Tension failure of masonry units
high-strength units with low-grade mortars or tensile strength in the unit (in the height direc
low-strength units with high-grade mortars are tion) (see fig. 2.3.2).
not recommended. The adhesive tensile strength, which is subject
The suction rate and moisture content of the to very severe scatter, is influenced both by the
masonry units during laying can have a consid properties of the unit (e.g. surface roughness,
erable influence on the compressive strength suction rate, moisture content) and those of the
of the finished masonry. Units with a high suc mortar (e.g. mix, proportion of sand, moisture
tion rate absorb water (needed for the hydra- content, water retention capacity), as well as
tion process) from the mortar and hence by the construction of the masonry itself (e.g.
reduce the compressive strength of the mortar vibration during the during process, sub
and the adhesion between units and mortar. sequent treatment).
Both lead to a reduction in the compressive
strength of the masonry. On the other hand, Tensile stresses parallel to the bed joints
units with a high moisture content cause too With masonry stressed in tension parallel to the
much water to remain in the mortar, which bed joints, the tensile stresses are not trans
again reduces the compressive strength of the ferred from unit to unit via the perpends but
mortar and, as result, that of the masonry too. rather by means of shear resistance via the
For clay bricks, maximum masonry compres bed joints (see fig. 2.3.3).
sive strength is achieved when the bricks are The reason for this is that the perpends cannot
used as dry walling (i.e. without mortar), and transfer any, at best only very low, tension,
when used with mortar by wetting the units just which is afflicted by a very large scatter. This
prior to laying [133]. is, above all, the case for perpends without
The compressive strength of masonry is lower mortar (tongue and groove system) or per
for long-term compressive loads than for short- pends not completely filled with mortar (brick
term loads. This is due to the formation of micro- to brick with grooves filled with mortar).
cracks in the composite microstructure of the However, even using perpends with a com 2.3.3 Flow of forces in masonry subjected to tension
mortar as a result of creep under long-term plete filling of normal or lightweight mortar we parallel to bed joints
loading; these reduce the strength of the mor can assume that inadequate workmanship
tar. The strength under long-term loading is combined with shrinkage of the mortar and the
about 80-90% of the short-term strength. associated separation of the mortar from the
Cyclic compressive loads on masonry also unit means that the adhesive tensile strength in
lead to a reduction in the compressive strength. the perpends is so low that tensile forces can
This is attributed to the fact that with repeated not be transferred. Only in the case of thin-bed
application and removal of the loads the trans mortar and filled perpends can we assume a
verse tensile stresses in the units caused by certain adhesive tensile strength in the per
the transverse deformation of the mortar do not pends.
decay completely and so accumulate over The nature of the flow of forces means that the
time. This process finally leads to premature masonry can fail because the shear strength in
93
Structural masonry
2.3.4 Stress condition and failure cases for tension the bed joints between units and mortar or the perpends. Upon failure of the bond, the bend
parallel to bed joints tensile strength of the unit parallel to the bed ing moment causes twisting of the unit, which
joint is exceeded (see fig. 2.3.4). activates both the adhesive shear strength of
Failure of the bed joint corresponds to a sliding the bed joint and the shear resistance in the
of the bed joint in which the masonry bond perpend. If the bed joints do not fail, a com
breaks down owing to a zigzag fracture through pression zone can develop over the full height
perpends and bed joints. of the component, while the tensile stress is
The shear strength between unit and bed joint accommodated only in every second course.
is determined by the adhesion between unit Owing to the distribution of stresses according
and mortar or the cohesion within the mortar to the geometry of a T-beam, there is a theoret
and the degree of friction in relation to the ical increase in the bending strength of the
compressive stress perpendicular to the bed masonry element compared to one with per
joint. pends without mortar [122], The magnitude of
Adhesion plus cohesion is designated adhesive the tensile bending strength depends on the
Failure of bed joint: 2 τ R u = 2 h s t σ z
shear strength. Like adhesive tensile strength, shear strength between unit and mortar, but
this too is subject to parameters affected by mainly on the tensile bending strength of the
the materials and the production (e.g. surface unit and the longitudinal compressive strength
roughness, arrangement of perforations, mortar of the unit. The longitudinal compressive
mix, workmanship, subsequent treatment of the strength of, in particular, blocks with a high
masonry), with the interface between unit and percentage of perforations can be so low that
mortar playing a critical role. Generally, the in these cases failure of the unit is the main
adhesive shear strength rises as the compres factor determining the tensile bending strength
sive strength of the mortar increases, although of the masonry.
the different surface finishes of different types
of masonry unit give rise to differences in the
adhesion properties. Shear stresses
Owing to their good adhesion, vertically perfo Masonry walls can be loaded by horizontal
Tension failure of masonry units: h β St z,St = 2h St σ z rated clay bricks exhibit excellent adhesive loads, e.g. wind, earth pressure and earth
shear strength values, whereas the values for quakes, both in the plane of the wall (as a
calcium silicate and aerated concrete units are plate) and perpendicular to the plane of the
rather lower [47]. wall (as a slab). The plate shear resistance of
The friction component in the shear strength masonry walls is mainly utilized to aid the later
depends not only on the coefficient of friction al stability of a structure (shear walls).
but, above all, on the vertical loading perpen
dicular to the bed joints. The friction increases Stress conditions and modes of failure for
2.3.5 Transition from failure of joints to failure of in proportion to the load. If the load is sufficient shear stresses in the plane of the wall
masonry units in relation to vertical loading to prevent the friction resistance being exceed In this condition the masonry wall is subjected
ed in the bed joints and if the units themselves to the aforementioned horizontal loads and, in
have a low tensile strength, failure is character addition, vertical loads in the plane of the wall.
ized by a vertical tearing of the units (see figs. This biaxial plate effect is simplified for design
2.3.4 and 2.3.5), whereby the adhesive tensile purposes by assuming a vertical loading uni
strength in the perpends is neglected. Failure formly distributed along the length of the wall
occurs when the tensile stress σ z from two and a resultant horizontal load acting at the top
courses exceeds the tensile strength of a unit. of the wall. The following modes of failure may
The transition from one type of failure to anoth then occur: friction failure with horizontal shear
er is also influenced by the masonry bond ing along one bed joint; tension failure in the
employed and by the ratio of bonding dimen bottom bed joint caused by a moment; com
sion to height of unit. The tensile strengths of pression failure of the masonry at the base of
the individual types of masonry units vary con the wall as a result of the transverse tensile
siderably depending on the proportion and strength of the unit being exceeded (see
arrangement of perforations as well as the ten "Compression"); and shear failure (see fig.
2.3.6 Failure modes of masonry wall subjected to
sile strength of the material of the unit itself. 2.3.6). In the case of shear failure, the combi
biaxial plate loading nation of primary compressive and tensile
Tensile bending stresses parallel to the bed forces leads to diagonal cracks in the wall. Thi
joints mode of failure can be divided into failure of
Both tensile and compressive stresses in the the bed joint and tension failure of the unit.
direction of the bed joint are present in bend With a low vertical load and low adhesive shea
ing stresses parallel to the bed joint. Masonry strength, diagonal cracks form along the per
with no mortar or incomplete mortar in the per pends and bed joints (stair cracks). With a high
pends can accommodate neither tension nor vertical load and units of low tensile strength,
compression via the perpends. The stresses the diagonal cracks pass through the units and
must be transferred like pure tensile stresses along the perpends. This latter mode can also
via the available shear stresses in the bed joint. be called brittle failure and brings about a
Perpends with a complete mortar filling can marked reduction in the stiffness of the mason
transfer compressive bending stresses via the ry. On the other hand, failure of the joint is a
94
The loadbearing behaviour of masonry
ductile failure because even after the stair good tensile strength. It leads to a stair-like diag 2.3.7 Stress distribution after Mann/Müller for plate
cracks have formed, horizontal forces can still onal crack along the perpends and bed joints. shear
be accommodated by way of friction. This
property is exploited in the seismic design of 3. Unit tension failure
masonry walls [47]. This type of failure takes place with a larger
vertical load and units with lower tensile
Shear failure theory after Mann/Muller for shear strength. Here, the shear strength in the bed
in the plane of the wall joint is increased owing to the better friction
The failure theory devised by Mann/Muller for resistance. The units must transfer shear
masonry stressed in the plane of the wall forces from two courses because it is not pos
assumes that no, or at best negligible, shear sible to transfer vertical shear stresses in the
stresses are transferred by the perpends. The perpends. Together with the perpendicular
main cause of this is that owing to the lack of compressive stresses, this leads to diagonal
horizontal compressive stresses, no shear primary tensile stresses in the unit. If the tensile
stresses in the perpends can be activated by strength of the unit is exceeded, then shallow
friction. In addition, perpends which should be diagonal cracks appear in the units and con
completely filled with mortar are often not prop tinue through the perpends.
erly filled in practice, which can lead to the
edges of the mortar becoming detached from 4. Compressive failure of masonry
the masonry units as the mortar shrinks. This Very high vertical loads cause the masonry to
means the bond strength between unit and fail as a result of diagonal primary compressive
mortar is so severely reduced that no signifi stresses when the larger axial stress acting on
cant shear stresses can be transferred. This the individual unit exceeds the compressive
relationship is aggravated when the perpends strength βMW of the masonry.
are designed without mortar or with partial mor
tar (tongue and groove system). The transfer of Accordingly, the shear strength of masonry
shear stresses is even reduced completely to acting as a plate depends, above all, on the
zero when the units are laid brick to brick or 2.3.8 Failure envelope with failure cases after
magnitude of the vertical load, the shear
Mann/Müller τ x σx
without any contact at all. The lack of a path for strength that can be assumed in the bed joints
the shear stresses across the perpends means (adhesive shear strength and friction compo
that a unit, in order to achieve equilibrium with nent), the tensile strength of the units and the
in the masonry element, has to accommodate compressive strength of the masonry. In addi
the shear stresses from two courses in the ver tion, the standard of workmanship and type of
tical direction (see fig. 2.3.7). Furthermore, the bond have to be considered. The model devel
shear stresses acting in the bed joints create a oped by Mann/Müller. was based on stretcher
torsion moment acting on the individual unit. bond with the bonding dimension approximate
To achieve equilibrium of moments, the axial ly equal to half the length of a unit.
stress is distributed around the upper and The model is only approximate for bonds with a
lower sides of the unit, The distribution of com lower shear area (e.g. English bond) [126, 127,
pressive stress, represented (simplified) by a 187].
stair-like progression in the model, was verified
by tests [127,136] (see fig. 2.3.7). Using this Stress conditions for shear stresses 2.3.9 Failure modes for masonry subjected to plate
model, Mann/Muller developed a failure en perpendicular to the plane of the wall
shear
velope (see fig. 2.3.8) for the allowable shear Shear stresses also occur when a masonry wall
stresses in relation to the size of the vertical acts as a slab, e.g. due to earth pressure or
axial stress, Failure takes place above this wind loads perpendicular to the plane of the
curve. The four associated modes of failure are wall. However, the shear stresses in this case
as follows (fig. 2.3.9): do not assume tearing of the units but rather
only a friction failure in the bed joints when the
1. Adhesive tensile failure between masonry shear strength - made up of adhesive shear
unit and bed joint mortar strength and friction resistance components
If the compressive stresses perpendicular to ike for shear stresses in the plane of the wall -
the bed joint are very small because of the is exceeded. In this case the splitting zone of
low loading, then the smaller axial stress in the the bed joint may not be used because here
region of an individual unit becomes a tensile the adhesive shear strength drops to zero.
stress. If the adhesive tensile strength βHZ is
exceeded, then the bed joint splits apart.
2. Joint failure
Friction failure in the bed joint happens when
the shear strength - as the sum of adhesive
shear strength βHS and friction resistance μ x σ2
-is exceeded in the region of the less heavily
loaded half of the unit. This type of failure
occurs with a low load σx and with units having
95
Structural masonry
The principles of masonry design well as those assessed by suitability tests (EM) by applying limits and rules appertaining to the
and contains both the simplified and the more construction. However, the use of the simplifiec
The evolution of European and national standards accurate methods of analysis. method is subject to certain restrictions which
The development of standards for masonry DIN 1053 part 2 merely regulates the classifi guarantee that the result of the design is al
construction is being pursued in two directions cation of masonry into strength classes based ways on the safe side but, at the same time,
by German engineers. On the one hand, the on suitability tests and is hence purely a testing not too uneconomical and not too different frorr
Eurocode for masonry (EC 6) is being updated standard without information on design and the result of a more accurate examination (see
and revised, while on the other, the national construction. table 2.3.10).
standard DIN 1053 continues to be developed.
EC 6 part 1-1 "General rules for buildings - Originally, this state of development should More accurate method of analysis
rules for reinforced and unreinforced masonry" have been maintained until DIN 1053 was If the application falls outside the limits for the
was adopted in June 1994. replaced by EC 6. Fundamental new concepts simplified method of analysis or if the stability
Following editorial work, translation and the like the new safety concepts with partial safety of a whole structure, individual storeys or com
drafting of the National Application Document factors, the incorporation of parabolic or rec ponents is to be verified more accurately, then
(NAD), EC 6 was introduced for a trial period tangular-parabolic stress distributions instead the more accurate method of analysis accord
with building authorities in a number of federal of linear stress distributions or a more accurate ing to DIN 1053 part 1 section 7 should be
states in Germany as draft standard DIN V analysis to check buckling stability would have used. When using this method to analyse an
1996 part 1 - 1 , December 1996 edition. Since first appeared with the introduction of EC 6. individual component or storey, other compo
then, masonry in those federal states may be However, as the construction industry could no nents may still be designed by means of the
built to DIN 1053 part 1 or DIN V 1996 part 1-1 longer wait for the introduction of the Eurocode simplified and hence shorter method, provided
supplemented by the NAD. This rule applies as programme, above all for reinforced concrete, they comply with the requirements for that
long as the trial period for EC 6 continues. it was decided to develop a new generation of method.
Following surveys in 1997 and 1998 in the standards - the DIN 100 series. These are cur Basically, the more accurate method of analy
member states concerning how to proceed rently being drawn up on the basis of the prin sis is necessary in order to derive the rules for
with the European draft standards, the majority ciples of the existing editions of the Eurocodes the simplified method and to guarantee that the
of the member states decided in favour of and are intended to bridge over the period safety of the components checked using the
updating EC 6 with a view to introducing this before introduction of the Eurocodes, or even simplified method is not less than that which
as the definitive European standard. This to replace them. This decision forces the would result from using an accurate method.
means that after the introduction of EC 6, the masonry industry to adapt DIN 1053 to suit the
national standard would be withdrawn after a fundamental changes in the draft European
certain period, whereupon only EC 6 would standards because it does not appear sensible Safety concept
then be valid. to design the individual elements of a structure Analysis of stability
As design according to EC 6 part 1-1 appears according to different safety concepts and According to DIN 1053, stability is analysed by
very complicated, a simplified method of analy methods of analysis. way of permissible stresses for the service
sis - EC 6 part 3 "Simplified structural design" At the moment only a draft copy of the new ability state or for the ultimate load at failure.
- is currently being drawn up. Basically, this DIN 1053 part 100 is available; this will very In the new generation of standards, EC 6 and
method of analysis uses the simplified method soon be developed into a masonry standard DIN 1053 part 100, analysis is carried out by
of DIN 1053 part 1. Although EC 6 part 1-1 [24,88, 101, 120, 121, 123], way of partial safety factors.
should the adopted as the European standard Plain (i.e. unreinforced) masonry in Germany is
by 2002 and, together with part 3, as the Ger currently covered by DIN 1053 parts 1 and 2 The simplified method of analysis according to
man version of the European standard by (November 1996 editions) and so only these DIN 1053 part 1 makes use of the condition
2004, this timetable should be seen rather as two standards are referred to in the following
an aspiration than as a realistic target. The sections. exist σ ≤ perm σ
work on the European standards is taking such
a long time that in recent years a certain resig for verifying stability. Here, the existing stress
nation has been evident. The outcome is that at Method of analysis es have to be determined for the serviceability
present we cannot predict when the European Simplified method of analysis state. The permissible stresses defined in DIN
codes might replace the national standards. In certain situations masonry components may 1053 part 1 already contain the necessary mar
This never-ending development of the be designed according to the simplified gin of safety with regard to loading capacity.
Eurocode programme has the effect that at method of analysis (DIN 1053 part 1 section 6). The more accurate method of analysis uses th<
national level important sections of DIN 1053 Simplified in this case means that the assump condition
are revised at regular intervals and adapted to tions and the design itself is more straight
meet new findings. The last revision of DIN forward than the more accurate method. This γxS<Rk(fk)
1053 parts 1 and 2 took place in November is made possible through a simpler treatment
1996 and resulted in a better breakdown of of the design equations in which the margin of in order to prove that g x serviceability loads
tasks between the individual standards. Up safety is not explicitly expressed but instead can be carried by the characteristic strength
until then, the more accurate method of analy is already incorporated in the permissible values at failure.
sis was contained in DIN 1053 part 2, although stresses. In addition, certain complicated In the future generation of standards, partial
it was also applicable to prescribed masonry forces acting on the masonry, e.g. bending safety factors for loading and loading capacity
designs. The misunderstandings which moments from built-in floor slabs, unintended will be introduced in order to be able to assess
occurred in practice have been rectified by the eccentricities when checking buckling, or wind the circumstances more accurately. In doing
new edition as follows: loads on external walls, do not have to be so, the condition to be verified
DIN 1053 part 1 is the basic standard for the taken into account during the design because
design and construction of masonry. It applies they are already allowed for in the margin of Sd(γfxS)≤Rd(fk/γM)
to both prescribed masonry designs (RM) as safety, by reducing the permissible stresses or
96
The principles of masonry design
will be used to increase the serviceability loads 2.3.10 Conditions for the application of the simplified method of analysis
by way of partial safety factors to a design Component Wall t h i c k n e s s Clear Imposed load No. of storeys/ Spacing of
value Sd for loading effects, and to reduce the storey height on floor Height of stiffening trans
d hS p(3) building verse walls e
loading capacity by the partial safety factor γM
[cm] [m] [kN/m 2 ] [m] [m]
covering material properties to the design
1 Internal w a l l s ≥ 11.5 ≤2.75 ≤5.0 ≤20(1) not
value Rd for material strength. Therefore, the <24.0 required
level of analysis lies between the loading and 2 ≥24.0 no
loading capacity sides (see fig. 2.3.11). limit
3 Single-leaf ≥ 11.5 ≤2.75 (2)
external w a l l s < 17.5

Safety factors 4 ≥17.5 ≤20(1)
The safety factors for the more accurate <24.0
method of analysis are based on a defined and 5 ≥24.0 ≤12 x d
proven margin of safety of approx. 3.0 between 6 Loadbearing ≥ 11.5 ≤2.75 ≤ 3.0 including ≤ 2 full eη≤4.5
leaves of twin-leaf < 17.5 party wall storeys + Edge distance
the characteristic value βR and the average
external walls surcharge attic storey from an
value for the masonry's compressive strength and opening
determined in short-term laboratory tests. The twin-leaf e≤2.0
characteristic value β R is defined here as the 7 party w a l l s ≥17.5 ≤5.0 ≤20(1) not
5% fractile value and also takes into account <24.0 required
8 ≥24.0 ≤ 12xd
the influence of the long-term strength (85% of (1) For p i t c h e d roofs: halfway b e t w e e n level of e a v e s a n d level of ridge.
the short-term strength). The ratio between ( 2 ) Only for single-storey g a r a g e s and similar structures not permanently o c c u p i e d by persons.
fractile value and average value of approx. ( 3 ) Floor s p a n I ≤ 6.0 m, p r o v i d e d the b e n d i n g m o m e n t s from the angular rotation of the floor are not limited by non-
0.80 is hence used to determine the safety fac structural m e a n s (e.g. centering b e a r i n g ) . For t w o - w a y - s p a n n i n g floors I is the shorter of the two spans.
tor for walls under long-term loading:
γw = 3.0 x 0.85 x 0.80 = 2.04 ≈ 2.0
Besides walls with a cross-sectional area

> 1000 cm2, this safety factor also applies to
"short walls", or columns with a cross-sectional
area < 1000 cm 2 consisting of either one or
several whole units or non-whole units with a
proportion of perforations < 3 5 % and without
any recesses or chases. For all other "short
walls" or columns of non-whole units with a pro
portion of perforations > 3 5 % or consisting of
cross-sections with chases or recesses, the
higher safety factor γp = 2.5 should be used.
Differentiating the safety factors for walls and
"short walls" or columns depending on the
cross-sectional area was decided upon
because irregularities have a greater effect on
smaller cross-sections (e.g. half bats, the lack
of a strengthened edge zone in non-whole
units with a high proportion of perforations,
chases etc.) than they do on larger cross-
sections and hence lead to a greater risk of
failure. This is taken into account by the higher
2.3.11 Safety concepts according to DIN 1053 and EC 6
safety factor γp.
In the simplified method of analysis the margin
of safety is not explicitly expressed by a safety
factor but rather implicitly included in the per
missible stresses (see "Analysis for concentric
and eccentric compression").
97
Structural masonry
Determining the cross-sections from the loads creep behaviour of the wall and the slab, which wall e > d/3 from the resultant load of the slab
A wall can be loaded by vertical loads made can only be described very approximately by and storeys above should be limited to one
up of self-weight, floor loads and roof loads. the creep coefficients. In the simplified method third of the thickness of the wall. In this case,
The horizontal loads on a wall result from the of analysis the fixity of the slab and the bend non-structural measures (e.g. joints, centering
action of the wind, the inclination of the struc ing moments resulting from this to do not need bearing, edge groove etc.) are necessary in
ture, earth pressures and other, sometimes to be explicitly calculated because their influ order to prevent cracks in the masonry and
extraordinary, loads like earthquakes or ence is taken into account in factor k 3 by limit plaster.
impacts. All the loads have to be transferred ing the spans and by reducing the permissible
via the masonry element to the storeys or the stress (see "Analysis for concentric and eccen Wind loads
subsoil below. The special features of masonry tric compression"). Wind loads at right angles to the plane of the
construction are explained in the following with In contrast, the more accurate method of wall may be neglected in the simplified method
regard to the cross-sections resulting from the analysis takes account of the influence of the of analysis, provided they have sufficient hori
loads. slab-support angle of rotation on the eccentric zontal support in the form of, for example,
transfer of the load into the walls. For slab slabs acting as plates or structural capping
Support reactions from floors and roofs imposed loads p < 5.0 kN/rm2 this can be cal beams. When using the more accurate method,
The support reactions for continuous, one-way- culated by using a simplified equation for the wind loads at right angles to the plane of the
spanning floors and beams supported on walls moment at this node, otherwise by treating it as wall are generally neglected up to height of
are to be determined as follows: a frame. 20 m above the ground, provided wall thick
• End support reactions ignoring the effects of The simplified method for calculating the node nesses d ≥ 240 mm and clear storey heights
continuity. moment reduces the amount of design effort hs≤3.0m.
• Support reactions at the first internal wall/ required by replacing the slab restraint Both methods of analysis should ensure that
column adjacent the end support always moment by an eccentric application of the sup wind loads in the plane of the wall can be
taking into account the effects of continuity. port reaction A for the slab. For roof slabs the accommodated by way of the three-
• Support reactions at the remaining internal restraint moment A D x e D is transferred com dimensional stability of the building.
walls/columns only allowing for the continuity pletely to the top of the wall. For intermediate
effect when the ratio of neighbouring spans is floors the restraint moment A z x e z is distrib
<0.7. uted roughly equally between the top of the Three-dimensional stability
Otherwise the support reactions may be calcu wall and the base of the wall, with the axial Bracing the building
lated without taking the effects of continuity into forces N 0 from the storeys above being applied The reason for bracing the building is to ensure
account but assuming that the beam/floor is concentrically. The eccentricities e D and e z that horizontal forces (e.g. wind, horizontal
simply supported on internal supports and free can be taken as 5% of the difference between eccentricity, earth pressures, seismic loads,
to rotate at all of them. adjacent floor spans for internal walls and 5% vibration etc.) can be accommodated and
For loadbearing walls below one-way-spanning of the adjacent floor span for external walls. transferred to the subsoil; and to limit horizontal
floors which run parallel to the direction of the Two-way-spanning slabs with span ratios up to deformations. To do this, both the stability of
span of the floor, the design loads are taken to 1:2 may use two thirds of the shorter side as the entire building and the stability of individual
be those from a strip of floor of appropriate the span for determining the eccentricity e D or masonry walls must be guaranteed. Structures
width in order to take account of possible load e z . The node moment may be determined by which consist of several parts separated by
transfer from the floor in the transverse direc way of a frame analysis using a subsystem joints must be designed in such a way that
tion. As a rule, we assume that the wall is around the node under consideration, with an each part is stable and braced in itself. This
affected by a strip of the floor one metre wide. estimate of the points of contraflexure in the ris also applies, for example, to houses in the
The support reactions from two-way-spanning ing walls, normally at half the story height. The middle of a terrace, which must be designed
floors and roofs are determined from the influ rigidity of the walls and slabs may be simplified to remain stable should they ever find them
encing areas of the slab. These depend on the by assuming an uncracked section and deter selves standing alone with wind loads perpen
type of support (unsupported, pinned, fixed) mined using elastic theory. The modulus of dicular to their gables! Overall stability is cru
and are illustrated in DIN 1045 fig. 46. elasticity of masonry may be assumed to be cial and must be checked and guaranteed at
Emw = 3000 x σ0 in this case. As the node the start of designing a structure. A braced
Moments from wall-slab junctions moments are usually not necessary for the construction is accomplished with two ele
The junction points between walls and slabs equilibrium of the supporting elements and ments: horizontal plates to accommodate hori
form rigid corners due to the loads from walls hence are only restraint moments, it would zontal loads, vertical plates to support the hori
above and so normally represent a statically appear sensible not to assume the most zontal ones and hence transfer both horizontal
indeterminate framework with a high degree of unfavourable arrangement of imposed loads in and vertical forces to the subsoil.
indeterminacy. An accurate analysis of this each bay when calculating these but rather to Horizontal plates are provided in the form of
framework is only justified in exceptional cases replace this by half the imposed load as a per floors, horizontal frameworks or - for short
owing to the great effort this requires. In addi manent load. Apart from that, in cases in which spans between vertical plates - by capping
tion, the great number of mechanical and the calculated node moment is not called upon beams designed for bending and shear. The
material inaccuracies in the system mean that to relieve the adjoining bays of the slab, may floors may consist of, for example, reinforced
excessively accurate calculations do not pro be reduced to two thirds of its value upon concrete slabs with continuous reinforcement
duce a significantly more exact outcome. The analysing the wall. The reason for this is that or precast floors with shear connectors
inaccuracies are primarily caused by including the node failure does not represent a rigid between the precast components and peri
the stiffness of slab in the transition from condi restraint owing to the formation of cracks in the pheral ring anchors. Even timber joist floors
tion I to condition II, by determining the stiff masonry, so the frame analysis based on a can be turned into horizontal plates by includ
ness of the wall in relation to the scatter of rigid node supplies restraint moments which ing diagonal bracing nailed on or floorboards
moduli of elasticity of the wall and by cracked are too large [121]. Irrespective of the method providing a rigid floor in conjunction with peri
zones in the wall, the influence of transverse of analysis for the node moment, a (possibly) pheral ring anchors.
walls on the stiffness of the wall as well as the theoretical eccentricity at the top or base of the
98
2.3.12 Arrangement of vertical shear walls
Minimum Good Unstable - system lines intersect

at infinity
Unstable - system lines intersect Very poor Not recommended
2.3.13 Determination of effective plate forces resulting from horizontal loads
Vertical plates are provided in the form of eccentric layout leads to unnecessarily large proportion to the cross-sections of the plates,
frameworks, portal frame constructions or, moments - and hence rotations - generated by whereby equilibrium against rotation must
better, by way of solid walls of reinforced con the horizontal forces. An unrestrained arrange also be considered. It is assumed here that the
crete or masonry. If in exceptional cases it is ment of the vertical plates means that shrink floor plate is infinitely stiff and all bracing ele
not possible to carry the full strength of the age and thermal movements of the floors are ments and the structure itself undergo the
plates into the subsoil (e.g. because of open not hindered and cracks in the walls which same deformation (see fig. 2.3.13). According
ings), transfer structures are necessary. How result from such restraint are avoided (see fig. to DIN 1053 part 1 an analysis of stability is not
ever, care must be taken with such structures 2.3.12). compulsory for either method of analysis,
to ensure a clear flow of forces, a consistent The horizontal forces acting on the individual provided that the floors are constructed as stiff
transfer of bending moments and shear forces, vertical plates are determined from the equilib plates and there is an adequate number of
and adequate stiffness. rium of forces and moments. If there is only sufficiently long shear walls both along and
A compression-, tension- and shear-resistant one plate in the direction of loading, the two across the building which continue to the foun
connection between the horizontal and vertical plates in the other loading direction must dations without being weakened (e.g. by open
plates is essential for the effectiveness of the establish equilibrium against rotation. Two ings, recesses) and without changes in geom
bracing. A minimum of three wall plates togeth- plates in the direction of loading means that etry. If the three-dimensional stability of a struc
erwith one floor plate in an appropriate the plate forces can be calculated from the ture is not readily apparent, horizontal forces
arrangement are necessary to create a stable equilibrium conditions of a statically determi from a skewed position of the building also
three-dimensional cell and hence stable equi nate system. More than two vertical plates in must be taken into account in an appropriate
librium. The lines of action of the wall plates one loading direction gives us a statically inde analysis.
should not intersect at a single point because terminate system in which the plates act like
otherwise there is no equilibrium against rota springs. The spring stiffness c for tall, non-rigid
tion about this point. The lever arm between plates is calculated from the bending stiffness
the plates should be as large as possible in El, for stocky plates from the shear stiffness
order to minimize the forces for accommodat GA. Plates made from the same material - with
ing torsion moments. In addition, the wall the same moduli of elasticity and rigidity - dis
plates should be distributed as evenly as pos tribute the loads in the first case in proportion
sible and placed symmetrically because an to the moments of inertia, in the second case in
99
Structural masonry
2.3.14 Requirements to be met by return walls Lateral restraint to walls Support to walls
A wall is very thin in comparison to its length We distinguish between walls with their edges
and height and so must be considered as a held immovably at right angles to the plane of
two-dimensional element susceptible to lateral the wall on two, three and four sides as well as
overturning. In order to prevent this and also free-standing walls.
guarantee the necessary stability of the build Free-standing walls supported only at their
ing in conjunction with the floors, it is neces base are reserved for less critical situations
sary to stabilize the wall, i.e. provide lateral (e.g. garden walls) because their buckling
restraint. This can be provided by the horizon length is too large and there is a risk of over
tal plates (e.g. slabs, beams), and by including turning due to horizontal wind or impact loads.
System: return walls or piers. In most situations a wall is supported on two
1 Loadbearing wall
(to be braced) In order to be able to consider walls as bracing sides by horizontal plates top and bottom. The
2 Transverse wall Min. dimensions for elements, they must exhibit adequate stiffness loads are then carried uniaxially in the vertical
(bracing wall) bracing wall
and fix the position of the wall to be restrained direction.
at right angles. Adequate stiffness is guaran If the loadbearing wall is additionally restrained
teed when the necessary length of the wall is laterally by means of return walls or piers, we
equal to at least 1/5 of the clear storey height speak of walls supported on three or four
hs and the required wall thickness is 1/3 of the sides. This can result in loads being carried
thickness of the wall to be restrained, however, biaxially. This effect is lost if the return walls
at least 115 mm. exceed a certain spacing. We must also con
If the return wall is interrupted by openings, the sider that the horizontal loads generate trans
necessary wall length is to be at least 1/5 of the verse bending moments, which unreinforced
average clear height of the openings. The masonry can accommodate only to a certain
restraint provided by the return wall can be extent. In order to take these conditions into
achieved by building the walls simultaneously account in the design, in DIN 1053 part 1 the
using a suitable bond, by providing return distance b between return walls for support on
Support to loadbearing wall Support provided by trans walls to both sides butt-jointed to the face of four sides is limited to b ≤ 30d and for support
provided by bonding in verse walls butt-jointed on
transverse wall on one side both sides the wall, or by means of connections using on three sides to b ≤ 15d, where d = thickness
steel flats, masonry anchors or similar fixings to of wall to be stiffened. If these limits are
provide a tension- and compression-resistant exceeded, the walls should be considered as
connection. When building the walls simultane supported on only two sides. Openings in the
ously using a suitable bond, return walls on wall to be stiffened can also impair the biaxial
one side only can be assumed to provide ade loadbearing capacity. Such walls are divided
quate support only if approximately equal de into sections supported on two and three sides
formation of the two wall materials, in particular (see fig. 2.3.15).
similar shrinkage, is to be expected. The pur
pose of this is to prevent the walls becoming Buckling lengths of walls
detached because the shear strength of the The type of support to the wall to be designed
Support provided by tensic connection is exceeded as a result of different
and compression-resistant is taken into account when checking the com-
fixings between loadbearin longitudinal deformations. Walls placed on pressive strength by way of a reduction in the
and transverse walls
both sides may be considered as through- buckling length of the wall. Walls supported on
walls when they are offset by no more than one side are free-standing and must be fully
three times the thickness of the wall to be fixed at their base conforming to Euler case I.
braced (see fig. 2.3.14). For the boundary condition No = 0 (e.g. garden
Stiffening piers can be included in long load- wall), h k = 1.15h s . However, owing to the large
bearing walls when no stiffening return walls buckling length, such "soft" systems should be
are possible. These can be built from vertically avoided whenever possible.
reinforced masonry employing specials (e.g. Walls supported on two sides can always be
channel blocks), reinforced concrete columns considered simply as Euler case II, using the
or steel sections. When employing such piers, clear storey height h s as the buckling length.
it must be ensured that the bending strength of This buckling length is primarily encountered
the stiffening pier is at least equal to that for a with timber joist floors owing to the lack of fixity
return wall of minimum dimensions. Further they provide. In-situ and precast concrete floors
more, it should be noted that a stiffening pier with an adequate bearing on the wall reduce
can only ever be a substitute for a return wall, the buckling length to h k = β x h s thanks to the
and can lead to substantial problems in certain favourable elastic fixity effect of the wall-floor
circumstances with regard to the building of node. The buckling length lies between the lim
the wall (e.g. interruption of wall construction, its of Euler case II (b = 1.0) and IV (b = 0.5)
connection between wall and pier, subsequent depending on the ratio of the bending strengths
grouting of the connection), as well as affect of floor and wall. With normal forms of con
the mechanical and building science proper struction, assuming a buckling length of
ties (different deformation and crack behaviour hk = 0.75 x hs is on the safe side.
under load, thermal and acoustic bridges). Walls supported on three and four sides may
Min. length of bracing wall
interrupted by openings
100
take into account the favourable influence of and no recesses or slots. For all other "short 2.3.15 Providing support to walls
the restraint by again reducing the buckling walls" or columns k 1 = 0.8. Masonry cross-
length to hk = β x h s (see2.3.16). sections with an area < 400 cm 2 may not be
used as loadbearing components.
Analysis of concentric and eccentric compression Factor k 2 takes into account the reduction in
According to DIN 1053 part 1, it is assumed loadbearing capacity because of the risk of
that concentric compression brings about an buckling.
even stress distribution within the cross- Factor k 3 takes into account the reduction in
section. In the case of eccentric compression, loadbearing capacity brought about by the
a linear stress distribution - with no tension - is angle of rotation of the floor at end supports.
assumed. This stress distribution is based on For intermediate floors we assume Wall supported on three sides
the assumption that the cross-section remains
plane (Bernoulli hypothesis) and that stress kg = 1.0 for I ≤ 4.20 m
and strain are in direct proportion to each other k3 = 1.7 to I/6 for 4.20 m < I ≤ 6.00 m
(Hooke's law). Hence, cracks in joints appear
above an eccentricity e > d/6. In order to guar where I = floor span [m].
antee a factor of safety against overturning of For floors above the ground floor storey
1.5 in this case as well, the permissible eccen k3 = 0.5 for all values of I.
tricity is restricted to e = d/3, which corresponds
to a permissible cracked joint reaching to the If the reduction in loadbearing capacity as a
middle of the wall. When calculating the stress, result of the angle of rotation of the floor is pre
assuming a linear distribution results in two vented by constructional measures (e.g. cen
sections having to be considered: tering bearing), then k3 = 1.0.
Wall with three supported and one unsupported edge
the uncracked cross-section for 0 ≤ e ≤ d/6 and When checking the stresses according to the
the cracked cross-section for d/6 ≤ e ≤ d/3. more accurate method of analysis, at failure
the average compressive stress
The equations for determining the stresses in
the extreme fibres are illustrated in 2.3.17. γ X σ const = γ x N/A ≤ β R
In the simplified method of analysis, the com
pressive stresses for the serviceability state are and the compressive stress in the extreme fibres
calculated using
γ x σ m a x = γ x σ e d g e ≤ 1.33 x βR
σ const =N/A ≤ perm σ D = k x σ 0
may not be exceeded. The value β R [MN/m 2 ]
The assumption of a constant distribution of for the characteristic strength of the masonry
stresses over the cross-section is generally can in this case be determined either by con
Wall supported on four sides
possible because in the simplified method lin verting the basic values σ 0 in the table for pre
ear stress distributions as a result of intended scribed masonry, or from the results of a suit
eccentricities arising from, for example, floor ability test (see "Characteristic strength of
restraint moments or wind on external walls, or masonry").
those caused by unintended eccentricities do
not need to be taken into account when check Prescribed masonry (RM)
ing buckling. These aspects are already Prescribed masonry is masonry whose basic
included in the margin of safety on which the values for permissible compressive stress σ 0
permissible stresses are based using the are determined depending on strength classes
reduction factors k i ,or by design rules and for masonry units, type of mortar and mortar
limits. groups, and are tabulated accordingly (see
The basic value σ0 [MN/m2] for permissible 2.3.19). Inadvisable unit/mortar combinations
compressive stress as a characteristic para (see "Stress conditions, failure mechanism and
meter for masonry can be found from tables for influences on the compressive strength of Wall with four supported edges
prescribed masonry or from the results of suit masonry") are not taken into account in these
ability tests (see "Characteristic strength of and the maximum permissible basic stress is
masonry"). The reduction factor k is calculated restricted to 5.0 MN/m 2 .
from k = k1 x k2 for walls acting as intermediate The σ 0 values are determined based on the
supports and from k = k1 x k2 or k1 x k3 for simultaneous inclusion of all standard masonry
walls acting as one-sided end supports, with units without distinguishing them according to
the smaller value being used. The factor k1 type, grade and arrangement of perforations.
takes into account the different safety factors This omission is only possible when the most
for walls and "short walls". k1 = 1.0 applies to unfavourable unit/mortar combination is used
walls and "short walls" or columns with a cross- to define an individual σ 0 value in each case.
sectional area < 1000 cm 2 , constructed from The outcome of this is that for some unit/mortar
either one or several whole units or divided combinations, high reserves of compressive
units with a proportion of perforations < 3 5 % strength remain unused. Wall with openings
101
Structural masonry
2.3.16 Buckling lengths of walls In relation to type of Masonry according to suitability test (EM)
support Here, the compressive strength of the masonry
Cantilever (free-standing) wall Wall supported on two sides for a certain unit/mortar combination is deter
mined by way of tests according to DIN 1053
part 2 from which the basic value σ 0 for the
permissible compressive stress or the charac
teristic value βR for compressive strength is
derived via a conversion factor. As the suit
ability test reveals any potential high reserves
of compressive strength over and above the σ0
value for prescribed masonry (which can be
exploited in the design), the use of masonry
according to the suitability test is particularly
interesting in economic terms for those unit/
mortar combinations for which experience has
shown that higher σ 0 values are to be expectec
than for prescribed masonry (see table 2.3.18).
Characteristic strength of masonry

Having obtained the basic value σ 0 as the
characteristic strength for the masonry, design
according to the simplified method is now car
ried out. The σ 0 value the relates to a masonry
slenderness ratio λ = 10 as well as the service
loads. The basic value σ 0 for prescribed
masonry is taken from table 2.3.19.
For masonry according to a suitability test,

the basic value σ0 is determined based on the
hK = hs (in general) nominal strength of the masonry β M [MN/m2]
hK = β x hs (more acurate method of analysis) to DIN 1053 part 2 as follows:
σ 0 = 0.35 x βM for 1.0 ≤ βM ≤ 9.0

σ 0 = 0.32 x βM for 11.0 ≤ βM ≤ 13.0
Emw, Eb = Modulus of elasticity of masonry or concrete σ 0 = 0.30 x βM for 16.0 ≤ βM ≤ 25.0
l m w , lb = 2nd moment of area of masonry wall or con
crete floor
It should be noted that the classification may
l 1 ,l 2 = Spans of adjoining floor bays; for external
walls use only be up to 50% higher than it would be for
corresponding prescribed masonry to
DIN 1053 part 1.
If the design is carried out according to the
more accurate method, the characteristic value
Wall supported on three sides Wall supported on four sides β R should be used for the compressive
strength. This relates to the theoretical slender
ness ration 0 for masonry and the failure condi
tion. The characteristic value can be deter
mined either from the σ 0 values by using the
equation
b = Distance of unsupported edge from centre of return
wall or centre-to-centre spacing of return walls βR = 2.0 x 1.333 x σ0 = 2.67 x σ0
β = As for walls supported on two sides
or from the nominal strength βM of the masonry
according to a suitability test. When establish
ing the σ 0 values, the factor 1.333 correspond;
to the buckling reduction as a result of the
slenderness ratio λ = h/d = 10 applicable for σ0
compared to the theoretical slenderness ratio 0
for βR; the factor 2.0 is the safety factor γw for
walls and hence represents an adjustment of
the margin of safety between serviceability and
failure conditions.
When determining β R from the nominal strength
βM, the influence of long-term loads compared
to the short-term test is taken into account with
the factor 0.85; furthermore, conversion of the
102
slenderness from the Rilem body to the theo 2.3.17 Stress distribution resulting from concentric and eccentric axial force
retical slenderness ratio 0 is allowed for by
using the factor 1.1. For masonry with strengths
βM ≥ 11.0 MN/m2, an additional safety factor of
10-15% should be included because of the
lack of experience with such strengths. There
fore, the characteristic value βR determined
from the suitability test is [121]:
βR = 0.93 x βM for 1.0 ≤ βM ≤ 9.0 N/mm2

βR = 0.85 x βM for 11.0 ≤ βM ≤ 13.0 N/mm2
βR = 0.80 x βM for 16.0 ≤ βM ≤ 25.0 N/mm2
Analysis of safety against buckling

In the simplified method of analysis, checking
buckling as a result of unintended eccentricity
and deformation according to second order 2.3.18 Classification of masonry according to suitability test (EM) to DIN 1053 part 2
theory is taken into account in the permissible Masonry Nominal strength Min. compressive strength Min. compressive strength
strength class of masonry Lowest individual value Average value
compressive stresses σD via the reduction fac M
tor k2, i.e. an explicit analysis does not need to βM(1) N/mm2 βMN N/mm2 βMS N/mm
be carried out. It is assumed that at half storey 1 1.0 1.0 1.2
height the only bending moments that occur 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.4
are those from node moments at the top and 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.6
bottom of the wall, plus those from wind load. 1.7 1.7 1.7 2.0
In the case of larger horizontal loads, an analy 2 2.0 2.0 2.4
sis of buckling, and hence of the compressive 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.9
stresses, should be carried out according to 3 3.0 3.0 3.5
3.5 3.5 3.5 4.1
the more accurate method of analysis. As the
4 4.0 4.0 4.7
basic values σ0 are related to a slenderness
4.5 4.5 4.5 5.3
ratio hk/d = 10, this reduction is necessary only
5 5.0 5.0 5.9
for larger slenderness ratios. A slenderness
5.5 5.5 5.5 6.5
ratio hk/d = 25 is the maximum permitted for
6 6.0 6.0 7.0
buckling using the k2 factor. 7 7.0 7.0 8.2
In the more accurate method of analysis the 9 9.0 9.0 10.6
eccentricities f1 from imperfections in the con 11 11.0 11.0 12.9
struction of the wall and f2 from second order 13 13.0 13.0 15.3
theory are established separately and added 16 16.0 16.0 18.8
to the intended load-related eccentricity 20 20.0 20.0 23.5
e = moment/axial force at half storey height. 25 25.0 25.0 29.4
The value for e results from the bending moments (1) The nominal strength is based on the 5% percentile of the populations
at half storey height caused by wind, earth

pressure and floor restraint. As possible cracked
joints and hence changing cross-sectional stiff 2.3.19 Basic values s0 for permissible compressive stress for masonry to DIN 1053 part 1
nesses complicate the determination of addi Masonry Normal mortar Thin-bed Lightweight
unit strength Mortar group mortar(2) mortar
tional eccentricities, the simplified equation class I II Il a Ill IlI a LM21 LM36
MN/m2 MN/m2 MN/m2 MN/m2 MN/m2 MN/m2 MN/m2 MN/m2
f = f 1 +f 2 = hk/d x (1 +m)/1800 x hk 2 0.3 0.5 0.5(1) - - 0.6 0.5(3) 0.5(3)(5)
4 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.9 - 1.1 0.7(4) 0.8(6)
6 0.5 0.9 1.0 1.2 - 1.5 0.7 0.9
may be employed for the additional eccentri 8 0.6 1.0 1.2 1.4 - 2.0 0.8 1.0
city. Here, hk is the buckling length of the wall 12 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.2 0.9 1.1
and m = 6(e/d) is the related intended eccen 20 1.0 1.6 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.2 0.9 1.1
28 - 1.8 2.3 3.0 3.5 3.7 0.9 1.1
tricity at half storey height. Slenderness ratios
36 - - - 3.5 4.0 - - -
hk / d > 25 are not permitted. This simplification 48 - - - 4.0 4.5 - - -
allows for the unintended eccentricity caused 60 - - - 4.5 5.0 - - -
by construction imperfections f1 = hk/300 and (1) s0 = 0.6 MN/m 2 for external walls with thickness ≥ 300 mm. However, this increase does not apply to the analysis for
an allowance for the effects of creep. The total bearing at supports.

(2) Only use for aerated concrete gauged units to DIN 4165 and for calcium silicate gauged units. The values for the
eccentricity at half storey height is calculated
other types of masonry are covered by the respective general building authority certificates. The values apply to
from the intended eccentricity e and the addi solid units. For perforated calcium silicate units and hollow calcium silicate blocks to DIN 106 part 1 use the corre
tional eccentricity f to give sponding values for normal mortars of mortar group III up to masonry unit strength class 20.
(3) s0 = 0.4 MN/m2 for masonry using clay bricks to DIN 105 parts 1-4.
(4) s0 = 0.5 MN/m2 for calcium silicate units to DIN 106 part 1 of bulk density class ≥ 0.9 and for clay bricks to DIN 105
em = e + f
parts 1 -4.
(5) s0 = 0,6 MN/m 2 for external walls with thickness ≥ 300 mm. However, this increase does not apply to the case given
The linear stress distribution across the thick in footnote 3) nor to the analysis for bearing at supports.
(6) s0 = 0.7 MN/m 2 for masonry using the masonry units stated in footnote ">.
ness of the wall at half storey height is
103
Structural masonry
2.3.20 Distribution of shear stresses in masonry plates
determined from the total eccentricity e m and exist σ = N/A + M/W ≤ perm σz parabolic with c = 1.5; in approximately square
the vertical load N, and the analysis of concen walls with H ≤ L the shear stress is almost con
tric or eccentric compression according to the to check this for the serviceability condition. stant and c = 1.0. Linear interpolation may be
more accurate method of analysis. The tensile strength parallel to the bed joints employed between these two figures.
which may be assumed is given in DIN 1053 In the case of slab shear, owing to the low wall
part 1 and is based on the adhesive shear thickness we once again assume a beam-like
Analysis of tension and bending tension strength, the friction component (from load and component with c = 1.5.
Check perpendicular to the bed joints friction coefficient), the ratio of bonding dimen Both methods of analysis should use the equa
The tensile strength of the masonry perpendic sion to height of unit and the characteristic tion
ular to the bed joints may not be used when value for the tensile strength of the units.
assessing the stability of loadbearing walls. It exist τ ≤ perm τ
is very low and, in particular, is subject to very
severe scatter. Although laboratory tests have Analysis of shear to check for shear in the serviceability state.
proved a certain tensile strength in the bed An analysis of shear stresses is usually only The shear strength of masonry also depends
joints, this cannot be transferred to site condi necessary when three-dimensional stiffness is on the axial stress s acting at the same time
tions (quality of workmanship, subsequent not available (see "Three-dimensional stiff but not usually constant over the cross-section
treatment of the masonry, moisture content of ness"). This is mainly the case with tall struc and so several positions within the cross-sec
the units etc.). On the other hand, infill panels tures and structures with only a few shear tion should be analysed in order to determine
that carry only wind loads but no vertical loads walls. The distribution of shear stress is deter the worst case. However, for rectangular cross-
can make use of design rules which assume a mined according to simple bending theory or sections only the position of maximum shear
certain tensile strength in the bed joints (see plate theory. In doing so, it should be noted stress needs to be checked because this is
"Non-loadbearing walls"). The reason for this is that cracked cross-sectional areas resulting in sufficiently accurate.
that in contrast to loadbearing walls, failure of cracked joints may not be used because shear In compound cross-sections (e.g. T-, I-sec-
these walls does not lead to the complete stresses cannot be transferred across a crack tions) an analysis of the shear should also be
structure collapsing or becoming totally unsta (see fig. 2.3.20). carried out at the junctions between the differ
ble. The equation for rectangular cross-sections ent parts of the compound section in order to
(not compound cross-sections) is guarantee the distribution of stress in the
Check parallel to the bed joints flanges.
We can assume a low tensile strength parallel exist τ = c x Q/A We distinguish between plate shear and slab
to the bed joints so that in a horizontal direction shear when determining the theoretical shear
tensile or tensile bending stresses can be where A = uncracked cross-sectional area, strength τ.
accommodated by the masonry. The distribu and c = factor to allow for distribution of shear
tion of stresses is assumed to be linear accord stress over the cross-section. Characteristic strength for plate shear
ing to simple bending theory. Both the simpli DIN 1053 part 1 requires two checks to be car
fied and the more accurate method of analysis In tall, beam-like walls with H > 2L the distribu ried out in both the simplified and the more
should use the equation tion of shear stress over the cross-section is accurate method of analysis.
104
Deformation and crack formation
The first relates to failure of the bed joints, the Deformation and crack f o r m a t i o n 2.3.21 σ-τ diagram as multi-part envelope of shear
second to tensile failure of the units. capacity to DIN 1053 part 1 for the simplified
and more accurate methods of analysis
An adhesive tensile strength failure between Owing to the constant advancements in
masonry unit and bed joint mortar as a result of masonry construction with regard to method of
low vertical loading is taken into account by construction (compound construction using
assessing the shear strength (joint failure). materials with different deformation behaviour),
Compressive failure of the masonry is generally the reduction in size of components (slimmer
accounted for in the analysis of concentric or walls to increase usable floor space) and the
eccentric compression. more accurate modelling of the loadbearing
This approach is based on the fact that this behaviour of masonry (good use of material),
type of failure is only critical in exceptional design work must increasingly take account of
cases because the maximum values from material deformations and the risk of cracking
shear and vertical stresses cannot normally under service loads and not just examine load-
occur for the same loading case and not at the bearing capacity. Ignoring the different defor
same position. mation behaviour of materials or components
When checking for joint failure, a reduced fric can lead to cracks if the material strengths are
tion coefficient μ is defined to simplify the cal exceeded. Such cracks do not normally impair
culation of the constant compressive stress s the stability of the structure but can influence
due to imposed loads occurring simultaneous its serviceability (thermal and acoustic insula
ly. The average friction stress μ x σ in the bed tion, moisture control, appearance). Cracks
joints is taken into account in the Mann/Muller can be avoided if the deformation behaviour of
model by assuming that the simultaneous com the materials and components is taken into
pressive stress has a stepped progression account during the planning phase and the
within the individual units. appropriate consequences derived from this
In the simplified method of analysis the check work for the design.
for tensile failure of the units is made simpler Suitable approximate methods and the wealth
(compared to the more accurate method) by of knowledge about the deformation parame
just assuming a constant value max. t for the ters are available to assess the deformation 2.3.22 Deformation of masonry
tensile failure mechanism of the units. This is behaviour and hence also the risk of cracking
certainly on the safe side. This characteristic [184].
value is determined similarly to the tensile
strength of the unit βRZ depending on the com
pressive strength of the unit βNst and the Deformations in masonry
arrangement of perforations (see fig. 2.3.21). Masonry is similar to concrete in terms of forms
of deformation. In addition, clay bricks can also
Characteristic strength for slab shear be affected by irreversible chemical swelling.
Only failure of the joints has to be taken into An overview of the possible deformations in
account when checking slab shear, and so in masonry is shown in fig. 2.3.22.
DIN 1053 part 1 the characteristic strength for
the more accurate method of analysis is Load-related deformations
defined as occur as a result of self-weight, other per
manent loads and imposed loads. The strains
perm τ ≤ 1 /γ x (β RHS + μ σ) that these cause can be divided into those
resulting from short-term loading effects and
and for the simplified method of analysis as those from long-term loading effects.
The strain brought about by short-term loading
perm τ ≤ σ 0HS + 0.3 σ Dm . is called elastic strain e el . The elastic strain is
calculated from the stress s and the modulus
of elasticity of the masonry E mw :
εel = exist σ/E m w [mm/m or ‰] 2.3.23 Definition of modulus of elasticity for masonry
The modulus of elasticity E m w is defined as the

secant modulus at 1/3 of the maximum com
pressive stress with associated total elongation
tote from a single application of the load:
E m w = max σ/(3 tot ε) (see 2.3.23)
Owing to the single application of the load,

the modulus of elasticity E m w includes a small
component of permanent elongation and is
therefore slightly smaller than the modulus of
elasticity resulting from purely elastic strain.
The modulus of elasticity depends on the
105
Structural masonry
2.3.24 Crack formation due to shrinkage at the edge of compressive strength of the units and the mor the effects of all deformations resulting from
masonry units and mortar tar, on the type and grade of unit, and the type chemical and physical processes.
of mortar. As a rule, it is determined by tests on Thermal strain εT is the change in length result
a Rilem body according to DIN 18554 part 1. ing from the influence of heat or temperature
For approximate calculations changes. It is determined from the temperature
change Δ τ and the coefficient of thermal
E m w = 1000 βmw expansion α τ specific to the material:
can be assumed, although fluctuations ε τ = Δ τ x ατ [mm/m or ‰].
500 βmw ≤ E m w ≤ 1500 βmw The coefficient α τ must be determined from

tests; it can be assumed to be constant for the
must be taken into account. βmw is the com temperature range -20 to +80°C. The value of
pressive strength of the masonry determined α τ . depends on the type of masonry unit and
from suitability tests according to DIN 1053 the mortar as well as the moisture content of
2.3.25 Relationship between shrinkage strain εs and part 2. the masonry element, α τ increases as the
moisture content hv (sketch of principle) moisture content rises. The range of values
Alternatively, DIN 1053 part 1 table 2 specifies
values for the modulus of elasticity for individ and the characteristic value for the coefficient
ual types of masonry unit depending on the of thermal expansion are given in DIN 1053
basic value τ 0 for permissible compressive part 1 table 2 related to type of masonry unit
stress (see "Deformation values"). (see "Deformation values").
The elastic strain εel is not very significant for the The generally high level of thermal insulation to
assessment of safety against cracking of mason wall components means that thermal strain
ry because εel is comparatively small and occurs plays only a minor role when assessing possi
during construction without causing cracks. εel is ble cracking of masonry.
normally ignored when assessing the risk of The possible moisture strains resulting from
cracking. Shortening in the direction of the load physical processes are called shrinkage and
as a result of long-term loading effects is called swelling. Shrinkage is a contraction caused by
creep. Creep strain is defined as loss of moisture or drying out; swelling is an
expansion caused by moisture absorption.
εk,t = φt x ε e l , [mm/m or ‰]. Both processes are reversible to some extent.
The final values for shrinkage ε S∞ and swelling
The creep coefficient φ is approximately con εq∞ are determined from the results of tests by
stant for the range of service stresses and mathematical extrapolation. An adequate
hence not related to stress. Creep strains are approximation is to check the masonry units
predominantly irreversible, but their severity without taking into account the mortar.
2.3.26 Relationship between E mw and βmw or βst
gradually decreases. The final creep strain
[18, 19,21, 22]
Masonry Mortar Equation Scatter
ε k∞ or final creep coefficient φ ∞ are determined The magnitude of the shrinkage is influenced
unit from experimental creep strain tests by way of by the type of unit, to a certain extent also by
Calcium Normal mortar E m w = 600 βmw ± 50% mathematical extrapolation. Under roughly the type of mortar, by the extent of preparatory
silicate Thin-bed mortar constant ambient conditions, creep comes to a work carried out on the units prior to laying anc
Ltwt Ltwt mortar Emw = 1240β m w 0 , 7 7 ± 20% halt after about 3-5 years. The main influences hence their moisture content upon laying, and
concrete Normal mortar E mw = 1040β m w ± 20%
± 50%
on the progression and final value of creep are by the drying conditions (relative humidity,
Autoclaved Normal mortar E mw = 520 βmw
aerated Emw = 570 βst0,69 ± 50% the type of masonry, the initial moisture content movement of the air) and hence the final mois
concrete Thin-bed Emw = 540 βmw ± 20% of the component, the size of the component, ture content of the component. Shrinkage
mortar Emw = 320 βst ± 20% the creep stress (if higher than the service increases with increasing initial and decreas
Ltwt Ltwt mortar Emw = 1480β m w ± 50%
stress) and the proportion of masonry units to ing final moisture content as well as with
vertically Normal mortar E mw = 1200β m w ± 50%
± 50% mortar. The duration of the load plays only a decreasing relative humidity. The time span of
perforated Thin-bed E mw = 1330β m w
mortar E mw = 420 βst ± 50% minor role because the masonry's properties the shrinkage process is accelerated by units
generally change only very slightly after appli drying out rapidly, lower relative humidity,
cation of the load. Characteristic values for the stronger movements of the air and thin compo
final creep coefficient φ ∞ of masonry nents. A drying-out process which is too rapid
are listed in DIN 1053 part 1 table 2 (see and just involves the surface at the unit/joint
"Deformation values"). They are only specified interface can lead to cracks between masonry
in relation to masonry units because test results unit and mortar (tearing of the joint) in extreme
up to now have not shown type and strength of cases (see fig. 2.3.24). In roughly constant
mortar to have a significant and quantifiable ambient conditions shrinkage is essentially
2.3.27 Modulus of elasticity E mw to DIN 1053 parti
influence. complete after about 3-5 years.
Masonry unit Characteristic Range
value of values Generally, creep is significant for the cracking
Clay 3500 σ0 3000-4000 σ 0 of masonry. However, it can either increase or Preventing shrinkage leads to tensile stresses.
reduce the stress. These bring with them a high risk of cracking
Calcium silicate 3000 σ0 2500-4000 σ0
owing to the low tensile strength of masonry
Lightweight concrete 5000 σ0 4000-5500 σ0
Deformations not related to load materials. Therefore, shrinkage is considerably
Concrete 7500 σ0 6500-8500 σ0
are divided into thermal strain ε T and moisture more important than swelling in terms of crack
Aerated concrete 2500 σ0 2000-3000 σ0 strain εh. Moisture strain is a term that includes formation, particularly as the compressive
106
stresses caused by preventing swelling can 2.3.28 Modulus of elasticity E mw of masonry [x 103 N/mm2] for compression perpendicular to the bed joints [19-22]
generally be accommodated without cracking
owing to the high compressive strength of ma Masonry unit Mortar
Strength Normal mortar, group Lightweight Thin-bed
sonry. The relationship between shrinkage and
Type of unit DIN class II Il a Ill IlI a mortar mortar
moisture content is useful in assessing the risk
of cracking due to shrinkage (see fig. 2.3.25).
HLz 105 4 - - - - 2.5 4.0
6 - - - - 4.0 4.5
Shrinkage strains for various initial and equilib 8 - - - - 5.0 5.5
rium moisture contents can be determined 12 3.5 5.0 6.0 8.0 6.5 -
20 5.0 6.5 8.5 11.0 - -
from this. In addition, consequences for reduc
28 6.5 8.5 10.5 13.5 - -
ing shrinkage can be deduced, e.g. lowering 36 - - 12.5 16.0 - -
the moisture content of masonry units during 48 - - 15.0 19.0 - -
manufacture or avoiding excessive saturation 60 - - 18.0 22.5 - -
Light- 105 pt 2 4 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.5 3.0 3.5
of the masonry units prior to laying.
weight and 6 2.5 3.5 4.5 6.0 4.0 4.5
Chemical swelling εcq is the increase in volume vertically certificate 8 3.0 4.0 5.5 7.5 5.0 5.5
as a result of molecular water bonding perforated 12 4.5 6.0 8.0 10 6.5 7.5
(chemisorption). This can occur in clay bricks 20 7.0 9.0 12.0 15 9.0 -
and begins immediately after completion of the KS 106 4 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.9 - -
6 2.6 3.0 3.4 4 - -
firing process. This process can only be
8 3.2 3.7 4.2 4.9 - -
reversed at very high temperatures (approx. 5.7 6.6
12 4.3 5.0 - 8.0
650°C). The magnitude of chemical swelling 20 6.3 7.2 8.4 9.7 - 10.0
depends on the constituents of the clay brick 28 8.1 9.3 10.7 12.4 - -
36 9.7 11.2 12.9 15 - -
and the proportion of clay bricks to mortar in
48 12.0 13.9 16.0 18.5 - -
the masonry. A higher lime content can have a 60 14.2 16.4 18.9 21.8
positive influence on chemical swelling in
- -
KSL 106 12 3.2 3.7 4.2 4.9 - -
terms of speeding up the process and reduc 20 5.0 5.8 6.6 7.7 - -
ing the final value. Likewise, chemical swelling 28 6.1 7.0 8.0 9.3 - -
of the masonry can be reduced by increasing Hbl 18 151 2 2.2 2.2 2.3 - 2.2 2.0
4 3.5 3.6 3.8 - 3.0 -
the proportion of mortar and hence the degree 5.0
of mortar shrinkage. The swelling process can
6 4.6 4.8 - 3.6 -
8 5.6 5.9 6.1 - 4.1 -
take place very rapidly but also very slowly V, Vbl 18 152 2 2.2 2.4 2.5 - 2.0 2.0
over a period of several years, and the firing 4 3.7 3.9 4.1 - 3.0 3.5
conditions of the clay bricks can either acceler 6 4.9 5.2 5.6 - 3.7 5.0
8 6.0 6.4 6.8 - 4.3 -
ate or slow down the process. If chemical
swelling takes place very quickly and is soon
Hbn 18 153 4 4.5 5.8 7.6 - - -
6 5.8 7.5 9.8 - - -
over, then this type of moisture strain is 8 6.9 9.0 11.7 15.2 - -
insignificant in practical terms because subse 12 8.8 11.5 15.0 19.5 - -
quent swelling of the clay brick within the PB, PP 4165 2 - - 1.1 - - 1.0
4 - - 1.8 - - 1.8
masonry construction is unlikely or, at worst,
only very low. Chemical swelling becomes criti
6 - - 2.4 - - 2.5
8 - - 3.0 - - 3.1
cal and dangerous when it continues after the
wall has been built. In conjunction with con
tracting components in particular, it can pro
mote the formation of cracks.
DIN 1053 part 1 table 2 lists characteristic val
ues and ranges of values for shrinkage and
chemical swelling related to type of masonry
unit (see "Deformation values").
Deformation values
In Germany deformation values for masonry
are updated each year in the Mauerwerk-
Kalendar ("Masonry Yearbook") [181 ].
This lists final values, characteristic values and 2.3.29 Final values for moisture strain εh∞, final creep coefficient φ ∞ , coefficient of thermal expansion αT [18, 23-25]
ranges of values, and includes minimum and Masonry unit εh∞ φ∞ αT
maximum values as well as statistical para
DIN Char, Range of Char, Range of Char. Range
meters (average values, percentile values, value values(2) value values value values
numbers of tests etc.) in tables. An overview of mm/m mm/m mm/m mm/m 10-6/K 10-6/K
the values for compressive modulus of elastici Clay 105 0 + 0.3 to - 0.2(3) 1.0 0.5 to 1.5 6 5 to 7
ty Emw, final creep coefficient φ ∞ , coefficient of Calcium silicate 106 -0.2 - 0.1 to - 0 . 3 1.5 1.0 to 2.0 8 7 to 9
Lightweight 18 151 -0.4 - 0.2 t o - 0 . 5 2.0 1.5 to 2.5 10;8 (4) 8 to 12
thermal expansion αT and moisture strain εh is concrete 18 152
given in the following. Concrete 18 153 -0.2 - 0.1 to - 0 . 3 1.0 - 10 8 to 12
The modulus of elasticity values E m w for Aerated concrete 4165 -0.2 + 0.1 to - 0 . 3 1.5 1.0 to 2.5 8 7 to 9
(1) minus sign = shrinkage; plus sign = swelling; swelling for clay = chemical swelling
masonry made from normal, lightweight and (2) Range of customary values
thin-bed mortar based on the latest findings (3) For masonry of small-format units ((<2 DF), otherwise -0.1.
are given in table 2.3.28. (4) For lightweight concrete units with mainly expanded clay as aggregate.
107
Structural masonry
2.3.30 Internal stresses across wall thickness resulting The relationship between modulus of elasticity time at constant strain. This decrease in stress
from differential drying; restraint stresses [17] E m w and compressive strength of the masonry is mainly due to slow deformation processes
βmw according to suitability test or compressive (shrinkage, long-term temperature changes,
strength of the unit βst as given by these find creep). Cracks occur when the stresses
ings are shown in table 2.3.26. exceed the strength or the strains exceed the
The modulus of elasticity values E m w depend failure strain. Tension and shear stresses are
ing on the basic value σ 0 of permissible com critical and particularly liable to cause cracks
pressive stress are given in table 2.3.27. These because the tensile and shear strengths of
values correspond to those of DIN 1053 part 1 masonry are comparatively low [184].
table 2. Vertical, horizontal and diagonal cracks are the
The mathematical final values for moisture basic forms that can occur in masonry. Vertical
strain ε h∞ (shrinkage, swelling, chemical cracks either pass alternately through the bed
swelling) and creep φ ∞ as well as the coeffi joints and the masonry units or zigzag along
cient of thermal expansion α T are specified as the perpends and bed joints. Horizontal cracks
characteristic values in 2.3.29. These are rep mainly occur in the bed joints owing to the low
resentative "average" values. The ranges of adhesive pull strength between masonry unit
values also listed indicate possible limits. The and mortar. Only in the case of thin-bed mortar
characteristic values and ranges of values in conjunction with units whose vertical tensile
have also been included in DIN 1053 part 1 strength is lower than the adhesive tensile
table 2. They apply to masonry constructed strength do the horizontal cracks pass through
using normal mortar but are approximately cor the masonry units. Diagonal cracks usually
rect for masonry using lightweight and thin-bed take the form of steps along the perpends and
mortar as well as for masonry with approved bed joints. However, with units of low tensile
units (e.g. large-format units). The ε h∞ and α T strength combined with good shear strength
values can be used both perpendicular and between unit and mortar, cracks can also run
parallel to the bed joints. On the other hand, along the perpends and pass through the
the φ ∞ values apply only to compression per masonry units (see fig. 2.3.32).
pendicular to the bed joints.
The significance of cracks
In many cases avoiding cracks at all costs is
Cracks in masonry simply not economic. It is also not necessary,
Deformations which are allowed to take place provided they do not cause any damage to the
without being restrained do not cause any structure or component. Therefore, the signifi
stresses. A homogenous body supported with cance of cracks is related to their affect on the
out friction and subjected to uniform strain can stability, serviceability and appearance of the
deform completely free from stress. In practice, individual component, and is influenced by the
however, a masonry component is not usually position, width, depth and length of the individ
free to deform without restraint because it is ual cracks as well as the extent of cracking,
joined to neighbouring components. If the two While larger cracks can seriously impair the
connected components deform differently as a building science properties of external compo
result of, for example, deformations of different nents (thermal and acoustic insulation, mois
2.3.31 Diagonal cracks in internal walls due to more magnitudes or at different times, stresses ture control) and internal components (acoustic
pronounced shortening of internal wall com
ensue. If the deformations are prevented by insulation), individual hairline cracks up to 0.2
pared to external wall
external forces (restraint), then the stresses mm wide are not detrimental to either the func
thereby caused are designated external or tion of the component nor its appearance. The
restraint stresses. degree to which the building science proper
However, stresses in a component can also ties are impaired depends on the size and
ensue without the need for external forces, e.g. number of cracks as well as their effect on the
if different parts of a component are heated component (position, depth, location of com
differently or if it dries out unevenly (the outside ponent). The aesthetic effect of cracks is deter
more than the inside). The stresses thereby mined by their size and extent as well as the
caused are then termed internal or residual surface finish and the distance of the observer
stresses. In masonry this occurs when, for from the wall. For instance, relatively small
example, units laid with a high moisture con cracks in internal walls of facing brickwork can
tent subsequently dry out. The uneven drying represent a flaw in aesthetic terms, while the
over the cross-section causes internal stress same cracks in heavily textured, inaccessible
es: tensile in the outer, drier zones and com external wall surfaces will probably not be
pressive towards the middle of the unit (see fig. noticeable.
2.3.30). Consequently, the significance of cracks is
The magnitude of the stresses that arise is always to be considered in relation to the com
essentially influenced by the magnitude of the ponent and their effect. However, cracks which
deformations, the degree of restraint and fixity, have a significant adverse effect on service
the ratios of the stiffnesses of the connected ability should always be avoided [184].
components and the magnitude of the relax
ation - t h e decrease in the initial stress over
108
Causes and prevention of cracks in masonry 2.3.32 Fundamental forms of

As at present many of the critical variables cracking in masonry
walls
which influence the formation of cracks cannot
be measured sufficiently accurately, any analy
sis of the risk of cracking or factor of safety
against cracking in masonry is very limited and
only approximate. However, with a certain
understanding of the relationships in crack for
mation, the frequent occurrence of damaging
cracks in individual masonry constructions can
be avoided.
Cracks in facing work as a result of shrinkage

and, possibly, cooling
2.3.33 Cracks adjacent to openings
These vertical non-loadbearing (or notionally
non-loadbearing) components try to shorten as
a result of shrinkage and/or falling tempera
tures. Their deformation is hindered by their
connections to other components. This gives
rise to tensile stresses which cannot be "neu
tralized" by compressive stresses owing to the
lack of vertical imposed load. The cracks run
vertically the full height of the wall owing to the
virtually horizontal tensile stresses.
Cracks can be avoided by reducing the defor
mation of the masonry (masonry units with
more favourable shrinkage strain, good condi
tions while constructing the walls), by providing
less resistance to deformation at the supports
(intermediate pads of card or foil), and by
including movement joints and non-structural
2.3.34 Cracks in facing masonry as a result of shrinkage 2.3.35 Horizontal cracks in external walls due to more
bed joint reinforcement to distribute the cracks
pronounced shortening of external wall com
or limit their width [186] (see fig. 2.3.34). pared to internal wall
Cracks in spandrel panels

are caused by excessive horizontal tensile
stresses at the upper edge of the panel as a
result of a "spreading" of the vertical compres
sion trajectories below the opening as well as
lintel support reactions introduced eccentrical
ly. In addition, higher shrinkage tension often
occurs in spandrel panels owing to the
reduced cross-section and this amplifies the
risk of cracking in this area. Cracks can be
109
Structural masonry
2.3.36 Cracks in external masonry walls below concrete floor/roof slabs
avoided by providing movement joints on one accommodate deformation, by employing a materials better able to accommodate defor
or both sides to separate the spandrel panel favourable stiffness ratio between the walls mation, by employing a favourable stiffness
from the rest of the wall or adjacent piers. And (stiff internal wall, soft external wall), by adding ratio between the walls (soft internal wall, stiff
bed joint reinforcement included in the top of more load to the wall at risk of cracking and by external wall), by adding more load to the
the spandrel panel helps to distribute the butt-jointing (i.e. not bonding) the walls to external wall vulnerable to cracking or by butt-
cracks more evenly and limit their width (fig. gether. This last technique in particular is a jointing the walls together.
2.3.33). good way of considerably easing the restriction
to deformation - and hence the stresses - Cracks in external masonry walls below
Diagonal cracks in an internal wall connected between external and internal walls. concrete roof slabs
to an external wall Differential deformation between roof slabs anc
Differential vertical deformation can ensue Horizontal cracks in an external wall connected the masonry walls or floor slabs below gives
between interconnected internal and external to an internal wall rise to restraint stresses which can cause
walls as a result of different loads or the differ For a connection that resists deformation cracks in the masonry walls. Differential defor
ent deformation properties of the respective between internal and external walls it is now mation arises mainly through the shrinkage of
masonry. As a rule, however, independent and the internal wall which barely shrinks (or possi the concrete slab, possibly through additional
unrestricted deformation is not possible owing bly even swells) and exhibits little creep. The swelling of the masonry, and through differen
to the connection between the two walls. external wall on the other hand is severely tial thermal expansion. However, the very well
Restricting the deformation between internal affected by shrinkage, and contracts as a thermally insulated roof slabs common these
and external walls leads to tensile and shear result of cooling. The severe shortening of the days mean that larger temperature differences
stresses in the wall which wishes to shorten external wall leads to a transfer of load to the are only to be expected during construction
with respect to the other wall. Internal walls internal wall. before the thermal insulation is installed. If the
exhibiting severe shrinkage and creep, as well The external wall "hangs" on the internal wall. If roof slab shortens with respect to the external
as external walls which shrink little or indeed in the external wall the adhesive pull strength in masonry walls as a result of shrinkage, then
swell, exhibit little creep and probably expand the bed joints between units and mortar or the horizontal forces occur where the roof slab is
as the temperature rises lead to differential tensile strength of the masonry units is exceed supported on the top of the masonry wall.
deformation between internal and external wall ed, horizontal cracks occur. These are finally These cause shear stresses in the masonry
and hence to cracks in the internal wall. These distributed around the junction with the internal and lead to horizontal cracks. With a good con
run diagonally upwards from the external wall. wall; as we move further away from the internal nection between roof slab and masonry, these
The largest cracks appear in the internal walls wall the number of cracks decreases but at the cracks usually first appear in the second or
of the topmost storey, while the lower storeys same time their width increases. They tend to third bed joint below the roof slab.
exhibit fewer and fewer cracks as the load occur at places where the cross-section is If the roof slab expands with respect to the
increases (see fig. 2.3.31). weakened, often near openings (see fig. external wall as a result of rising temperature,
External walls of lightweight clay bricks and 2.3.35). diagonal primary tensile stresses build up in
internal walls of calcium silicate or lightweight External walls of lightweight or autoclaved the masonry, meaning a high risk of cracking
concrete units represent an increased risk of aerated concrete units and internal walls of owing to the low tensile strength of the mason
cracking. The cracking can be reduced by clay bricks increase the risk of cracking. The ry. This risk must be taken into account, above
using masonry materials better able to cracking can be reduced by using masonry all during construction (see fig. 2.3.36).
2.3.37 Cracks in external masonry walls between concrete floor slabs
Shortening of slabs compared to wall
110
The risk of temperature-related deformation in Cracks in external masonry walls as a result of 2.3.38 Horizontal cracks in external masonry walls due
this area can be avoided by providing good shrinkage of ring beams to deflection of floor/roof
thermal insulation to the roof slab and by intro Cracks in masonry caused by ring beam
ducing a sliding bearing between roof slab and deformations are more likely to be caused by
wall [151,152]. greater shrinkage of the beam compared to the
masonry below than by temperature changes
Cracks in external masonry walls between in today's well-insulated buildings. The defor
concrete floor slabs mations brought about by shrinkage of the ring
Large differences in the horizontal deforma beam lead to shear stresses in the masonry
tions between concrete slabs all deforming and, if the low shear strength of the masonry is
equally and the walls in between lead to cracks exceeded, to horizontal cracks, which usually
in the masonry because the deformation is start in the corners of the wall owing to the
restricted at the top and bottom of the wall.If shortening of the beam on two sides. However,
the floor slabs shorten with respect to the wall as the cross-section of the capping beam is
as a result of shrinkage and, possibly, the wall smaller than that of a reinforced concrete slab,
simultaneously expanding as a result of a tem the effects are usually less apparent.
perature rise or chemical swelling, horizontal
cracks appear at half storey height in the exter Cracks in lightweight partitions
nal wall at the corners of the building, starting Cracks in lightweight partitions can be caused
at the corner and running along both sides of by shrinkage of the masonry in the horizontal
the building, gradually tapering to zero. Such direction or by floor slab deflection. Excessive
cracks can be avoided either by separating the deflection of a floor slab below a stiff partition
masonry from the floor slabs at the corners by leads to cracking as the wall tries to adapt to
way of joints (which can subsequently be the changing boundary conditions: horizontal
masked) or by employing reinforced concrete cracks at the base between wall and slab (sep
tie columns to link the floor slabs together at aration), vertical and diagonal cracks in the
the corners of the building. If the wall shortens body of the masonry wall. The cracking can be
with respect to the floor slabs, vertical cracks reduced by minimizing the deflection of the
form over the full height of the storey. These slab (limiting the slenderness, cutting shrink
can be avoided by introducing vertical move age and creep); separating the base of the
ment joints in the wall at a spacing of approxi wall from the slab to force and fix the horizontal
mately twice the height of the wall (see fig. separation; providing adequate deformation
2.3.37). opportunities at the top of the wall in order to
avoid the wall being unintentionally loaded by
Horizontal cracks in external masonry walls as the floor above; or by providing bed joint rein
a result of floor slab deflection forcement, primarily at the bottom of the wall
Vertical loads cause the deflection of cement- (see fig. 2.3.39).
bound concrete slabs as well as shrinkage and
creep. A correspondingly large deflection can Diagonal cracks in infill panels
cause the slab to lift and twist, thereby loading The infill masonry panels within a reinforced
the masonry eccentrically. If the vertical tensile concrete frame can exhibit diagonal cracking if
strength of the masonry is exceeded at the there is a fixed connection between frame and
same time as the vertical load on the wall is masonry. This is caused by differential defor
relieved, horizontal cracks in the outer face of mation of the components (shrinkage, chemi 2.3.39 Formation of cracks in lightweight partitions due
the wall occur immediately below the floor slab, cal swelling of the masonry, heating and cool to deflection of floor slab
or perhaps first in the courses of masonry ing of the frame). Separating the masonry from
below this, according to the connection the reinforced concrete provides adequate
between slab and masonry. Owing to the lower opportunities for both to deform independently,
load, this risk of cracking is prevalent beneath and thus avoids cracking.
roof slabs and the floor slabs of the uppermost
floors. At the corners of a building this pattern
of horizontal cracks can also occur as a result
of the lifting effect of torsionally stiff slabs. The
width of the cracks decreases towards the
middle of each wall. Cracks can be avoided by
reducing the deflection of the slabs (limiting
theslenderness ratio, cutting shrinkage and
creep); increasing the depth of support for the
slab on the wall; developing a better detail for
the slab support (by centering the load trans
fer; or by separating the slab from the mason
ry), or by anchoring the slab to the slab below
via a vertical tie (see fig.2.3.38).
111
Structural masonry
2.3.40 Requirements to be met by perpends and bed Natural stone masonry • The bonding dimension (overlap) for perpends
joints in natural stone masonry must be at least 100 mm for coursed mason
In designing natural stone masonry we make a ry, at least 150 mm for ashlar masonry.
fundamental distinction between new building • The largest stones - if necessary two courses
work and the repair or analysis of existing nat high - should be incorporated at the corners.
ural stone masonry. When analysing existing
natural stone masonry we often find that the If voids within the masonry cannot be avoided,
components cannot be verified according to then these should be filled with pieces of stone
today's standards. The reason for this is that surrounded by mortar. If the mortar joints are
our knowledge of the loadbearing and failure not finished flush, facing work should be point
behaviour of natural stone masonry is still not ed afterwards. Such pointed joints in faces
very extensive, which results in information exposed to the weather must be complete and
relating to permissible design variables lying the depth of the joint should be at least equal
well on the safe side. One example of this is to the thickness of the joint. However, a depth
the restriction placed on the slenderness of of twice the thickness but not less than 20 mm
natural stone masonry: h k /d ≤ 20 according to is recommended.
DIN 1053 part 1. However, numerous late
Gothic churches were erected with slender Classification
ness ratios up to h k /d = 34! This means that Apart from the compressive strength of the
when analysing the safety of existing natural units themselves, the compressive strength of
stone structures we have to go well beyond the the masonry depends essentially on the thick
design codes and employ engineering intuition ness of the joint in relation to the height of the
with respect to the structural systems and load- unit, the inclination of the bed joint and the
bearing behaviour of the existing constructions stress transfer faces between two natural
and the reserves of strength that may be acti stones bonded one above the other. These
vated. geometric parameters describe the standard of
2.3.41 Geometric parameters for describing the stan workmanship for natural stone masonry (see
dard of workmanship of natural stone masonry
Design fig. 2.3.41).
The design of natural stone masonry is current DIN 1053 part 1 table 13 (see table 2.3.42) spe
ly regulated by DIN 1053 part 1 section 12. cifies reference values as average values for the
According to this, only "healthy" stone may be geometric parameters. These allow natural
used for natural stone masonry. Masonry stone masonry to be classified in classes N1 to
exposed to the elements without protection N4. As a rule, the types of natural stone masonry
must be weather-resistant. Courses of natural given in table 2.3.42 correspond to the classes
stone are to be incorporated in the structure in N1 to N4. Classifying natural stone masonry in
such a way that this corresponds to their natur this way is the basis for determining the basic
al stratification, with the direction of force values σ 0 for the permissible stresses.
always at right angles to the stratification. The
length of a stone should not be less than its Compressive strength of natural stones
height but not exceed 4-5 times its height. Only However, stone for masonry of class N4 need
normal mortars of mortar groups I, II, I lI a and III only have a minimum compressive strength of
may be used. The minimum wall thickness for 5 or 10 N/mm2. Tests according to DIN EN
loadbearing walls is 240 mm, the minimum 1926 are used to determine the compressive
cross-sectional area is 1000 cm 2 . strengths βst of units. "Healthy" natural stones
can also be used without being tested for com
Bonding rules pressive strength if they can be clearly
The various types of natural stone masonry assigned to the types of rock listed in DIN 1053
(e.g. dry walling, rubble, squared rubble, ash part 1 table 12 (see table 2.3.45). In that case
lar) are described in detail in "Masonry details". the empirical values for minimum compressive
The following rules apply to all types of natural strength given in table 2.3.45 should be used
stone masonry in order to ensure a workable for the compressive strength β st of units.
bond:
2.3.42 Reference values for classifying natural stone • No more than three joints should coincide on
masonry (based on 2.3.41) the front and rear faces.
Class Description Joint Inclination Transfer
• A perpend may not pass through more than
height/ of bed factor
Stone joint two courses (see fig. 2.3.40).
length h/l tan α η • There should be at least one header for
N1 Uncoursed ≤ 0.25 ≤ 0.30 ≥ 0.5 every two stretchers, or header and stretcher
random courses should alternate.
N2 Hammer- ≤ 0.20 ≤ 0.15 ≥ 0.65 • The thickness (depth) of a header must be
dressed
N3 Coursed - ≤ 0.13 ≤ 0.10 ≥ 0.75
about 1.5 times the height of the course but
square at least 300 mm; the thickness (depth) of a
N4 Ashlar ≤ 0.07 ≤ 0.05 ≥ 0.85 stretcher is roughly equal to the height of the
masonry course.
112
Reinforced masonry
Consolidation of natural stone masonry Grouting of voids in natural stone masonry 2.3.43 Needling of rubble-filled masonry wall
The aim of consolidation is the re-establish The injection of grout into voids within the
ment or safeguarding of the loadbearing capa cross-section of the wall is carried out to
city and durability of natural stone masonry. ncrease the loadbearing capacity of the natur
This assumes a very careful procedure in con al stone masonry. When doing this it should be
junction with the appropriate specialists [29, ensured that the strength of the grout is not
30,35], Besides the partial replacement or significantly higher than the surrounding
rebuilding of components, consolidation mainly masonry in order to avoid unfavourable load
involves the following measures: concentrations. The grouts used are either syn
thetic resin (epoxy resin) or a cement suspen
Pointing of natural stone masonry sion with fine sand. The high cost of synthetic
is carried out in order to ensure the load trans resin means that it is economic only when the
fer or loadbearing capacity of the masonry and voids are small. The cement suspension is a
to prevent water penetrating the masonry. The thoroughly blended water-cement mix (mixed
strength of the pointing mortar used should not by propeller), which is much easier to pump
be significantly higher than that of the existing and inject than normal cement mortar. In addi
mortar in order to prevent load concentrations. tion, it hardly mixes with water. In masonry con
Furthermore, a low-shrinkage mortar should be taining gypsum the risk of swelling phenomena
2.3.44 Diagram of tie rod with tie plates to both ends
used, which adheres well to the natural stone is avoided by using cement with a high sul
and exhibits similar deformation properties phate resistance.
(modulus of elasticity, coefficient of thermal
expansion αT to those of the stone used. The
pointing mortar should not exhibit efflorescence Reinforced masonry
during alternating cycles of wetting and drying,
and must also have a good resistance to frost. Like concrete, masonry can accommodate
The pointing should not create a waterproof high compressive forces but little tension. How
shell because this traps water in the wall and ever, the tensile strength can be increased by
causes the build-up of hydrostatic pressure. incorporating reinforcing bars. Therefore, rein
forced masonry is a form of construction which
Needling of natural stone masonry combines conventional, traditional masonry
Needles are incorporated as transverse rein with vertical or horizontal reinforcement.
forcement, particularly in rubble-filled masonry Besides its use to control cracking in masonry,
walls in order to create a loadbearing connec reinforcement is also included to provide a
tion between the two skins of masonry (see fig. structurally effective means of increasing the
2.3.43). This enables the transfer of tension bending strength of masonry. In doing so, the
and shear. The needles used are made from reinforcement resists the tension and the
reinforcing bars, prestressing rods or stainless masonry the compression. For example, hori
steel rods, normally 12-16 mm diameter with a zontal bed joint reinforcement is suitable for
rough surface to achieve a good key and resisting loads perpendicular to the plane of
hence transfer of forces. The needles are the wall as a result of wind or earth pressures,
inserted into drilled holes. Grout is injected even in the case of little or no vertical load (e.g.
afterwards to fill any cavities within the wall. a basement wall subject to earth pressure
below an outdoor terrace). Ring beams may
Tying natural stone masonry with anchors also be provided by way of bed joint reinforce
The tying of masonry by means of anchors is ment. Instead of bed joint reinforcement, verti
carried out to accommodate unbalanced hori cal reinforcement can accommodate tensile
zontal forces (e.g. from vaulting) and hence to stresses perpendicular to the bed joints. How
avoid large deformations and crack formation. ever, vertical reinforcement requires the use of
Only high-quality prestressing or stainless steel specials with voids to enable the reinforcement 2.3.45 Empirical values for the minimum compressive
rods are suitable for accommodating the nec to be inserted. The inclusion of reinforcement strength of rock types
essary tensile forces. These are then anchored also improves the ductility of the masonry, and Type of rock Min. compressive
hence its resistance to cracking, by increasing strength
in the masonry using reinforced concrete or MN/m2
needling with anchor plates to spread the load the deformation capacity of the component.
Limestone, travertine, 20
and avoid a concentrated transfer of load into This means that cracks appear later but are voicanic tuffaceous rock
the natural stone masonry and hence damage then more finely distributed and narrower. And Soft sandstones 30
to the microstructure in the area of the anchor finally, reinforcement improves the damping (with argillaceous material)
capacity of the masonry; this gives it a higher and similar
age (see fig. 2.3.44). Care should be taken to
resistance to surge-like, horizontal loads, e.g. Dense (firm) limestones 50
ensure that the tension anchors are positioned
and dolomites (including
not only so that the anchorage is acceptable, seismic loads. This leads to a considerable
marble), basaltic lava
but also so that the anchors have adequate increase in the margin of safety for masonry and similar
protection against corrosion. Ties should be constructions subjected to extraordinary load Quartzitic sandstones 80
either concealed, e.g. above suspended ceil ing effects. However, it should be pointed out (with siliceous material),
that reinforced masonry alone is not sufficient graywacke and similar
ings, or, if left exposed, given appropriate
to guarantee the stability of a structure during Granite, syenite, diorite, 120
architectural treatment. quartz porphyry, melaphyre,
an earthquake. A series of non-structural diabase and similar
113
Structural masonry
2.3.46 Reinforcement systems for structurally rein boundary conditions must be maintained. In Apart from shape and weight, the properties of
forced masonry to DIN 1053 part 3 [32] regions of major seismic activity (Southern specials must conform to the standards for
System Designation Applications Europe, America, Japan), the use of reinforced masonry units. Specials used in conjunction
(schematic) according masonry is much more widespread than in with vertical reinforcement are divided into
to certifi
Germany, where its use is mainly limited to those with "small" and those with "large" open
cate(1)
controlling cracking. Nevertheless, a separate ings. Small openings must measure at least
Murfor Reinforce code - DIN 1053 part 3 "Reinforced masonry" 60 mm in every direction, large openings at
reinforcing ment - w a s introduced in February 1990 to cover least 135 mm. In specials for horizontal rein
element with according this form of construction. This standard applies forcement the height of the opening may be
duplex to structural
coating
to loadbearing components made from rein reduced to 45 mm owing to the addition of the
analysis
forced masonry and areas of masonry that bed joint mortar.
include reinforcement. Individual sections of a In Germany masonry units suitable for rein
Murfor Reinforce building or component that require reinforce forced masonry must be identified on the
stainless ment ment for structural reasons may employ this delivery slip using the designation BM.
steel according
to structural
form of construction without the remaining
reinforcing
element analysis areas of masonry having to be designed and Mortar
constructed according to DIN 1053 part 3. Only normal mortar of mortar groups III and
ELMCO-Ripp Lintels in The use of reinforcement to distribute cracking Ilia, i.e. cement mortar with aggregates having
reinforcing facing or limit the size of cracks is not reinforced
masonry
a dense microstructure, may be used for the
system
masonry in the sense of DIN 1053 part 3 mortar surrounding the reinforcement. The rea
because the reinforcement is not taken into son for this restriction is to ensure an adequate
account in the structural analysis. However, anchorage for the reinforcement and not to
MOSO Lintels in even for such "non-structural" reinforcement, guarantee adequate protection against corro
perforated facing following the requirements of the standard, in
strip masonry
sion. The use of normal mortar of mortar group
particular with regard to protecting the rein ll a and lightweight mortar LM 36 is technically
forcement against corrosion, is to be recom possible but at present still requires a building
mended. One special case is the design and authority certificate. The sections of masonry
(1) See also provisions of certificate construction of lintels made from reinforced which do not contain any reinforcement may
masonry. After many years of positive experi make use any of the mortars in DIN 1053 part 1
ence with the guidelines for designing and except normal mortar of mortar group I.
using shallow lintels [35], both these guidelines
and the provisions of DIN 1053 part 3 may be Concrete for filling openings and voids
used. This is possible because the guidelines If the openings and voids provided for the rein
more or less agree with the provisions of DIN forcement are to be filled with concrete, the
1053 part 3. However, the difference between concrete used must be at least class B 15 to
the two methods lies in the actual construction DIN 1045, provided that the level of corrosion
of the lintel. While the shallow lintel guidelines protection required does not demand a higher
make use of a prefabricated tension flange - strength class. The largest aggregates used
the shallow lintel itself - which acts in conjunc should be retained by an 8 mm sieve.
2.3.47 Reinforcement systems without building
tion with a compression zone of masonry
authority certificate [32] and/or concrete, according to DIN 1053 part 3
Reinforcement, reinforcement systems
Product Description the tension flange is built from masonry units
According to DIN 1053 part 3 only ribbed rein
Brictec Ladder-type, plain stainless steel bars. (e.g. hollow blocks for grouting), reinforcement
Longitudinal bars ds = 3.65 mm, element forcing bars to DIN 488 part 1 may be used to
and mortar or concrete in situ; prefabrication is
width 28 mm. Intended for use in lintel obtain adequate anchorage and control crack
zones of facing masonry in conjunction not intended here.
widths. Plain and profiled bars must always
with special supporting section. Certificate
include end hooks; their use requires a build
applied for.
FIXOVER Ladder-type, reinforcing system of flat ing authority certificate.
tened plain stainless steel bars, cross-sec Materials for reinforced masonry The minimum diameter for individual bars is
tion of longitudinal bars corresponds to Masonry units ds = 6 mm. Bars with a smaller diameter may
ds = 4.0 mm. Element length 2700 mm, only be used in reinforcement systems, and
Only standard units or standard specials with a
available in various widths. Can be used
according to product information - as percentage of perforations ≤ 3 5 % may be then only as approved by the building author
structural reinforcement(1) as well as non- used. The webs between non-round perfora ity. The maximum bar diameter depends on the
structural reinforcement. tions along the length of the wall may not be application and must be chosen to ensure that
GRIPPRIPP Reinforcing fabric of aramide fibres with a there is sufficient mortar or concrete cover to
offset with respect to each other. In addition,
mesh size of 15 x 15 mm, available in vari
ous widths. Can be used - according to approved vertically perforated clay bricks with the bar (see "Structural reinforced masonry").
product information - as structural rein- up to 50% perforations may be used provided Reinforcement systems are prefabricated rein
forcementl) as well as non-structural rein the webs in these bricks are not offset along forcing elements that differ from the ribbed
forcement. individual bars of DIN 488 part 1 (e.g. smaller
the length of the wall and provided the bricks
Murinox Reinforcing system comprising two longi
tudinal bars with projecting studs, con exhibit a minimum compressive strength of diameter, plain or profiled surface, mat- or lat
nected by diagonal wires. Various cross- β D l, St ≥ 3.5 N/mm2 parallel to the bed joint. tice-like arrangements, materials other than
sections and widths available. Intended for These requirements are necessary to guaran steel). Such reinforcement systems must be
use as structural reinforcement as well as covered by a building authority certificate if
tee adequate compressive strength in the
non-structural reinforcement. Certificate
applied for. direction of the axis of the wall. However, these they are to be used for loadbearing reinforced
(1) Not permitted without appropriate building authority requirements do not apply to ring anchors masonry. However, when used merely to con
certificate! since the element acts as a tension member. trol cracking, a certificate is not required
114
Reinforced masonry
because at present there are no regulations achieved by using reinforcement made from 2.3.48 Positioning of reinforcement with min. dimen
covering this type of use and so, in principle, stainless steel or other materials, e.g. glass, sions in millimetres according to DIN 1053 part 3
any type of reinforcement may be employed. carbon and aramide fibres. Stainless steel is
The reinforcement systems covered by build very expensive - about three times the cost of
ing authority certificates are shown in fig. 2.3.46, galvanized reinforcement. However, it provides
those without certificates in table 2.3.47. guaranteed protection against corrosion, even
For detailed descriptions of the systems, in aggressive environments. Fibres are usually
please refer to [60]. used as a composite material, i.e. embedded
in a matrix. Up until failure they exhibit a par
ticularly linear load deformation behaviour and
Protecting reinforcement against corrosion their strength is clearly superior to that of steel.
Studies of masonry components have estab The moduli of elasticity of glass and aramide
lished that the mortar carbonates considerably fibres reach about 4 0 % that of steel, while car
faster than concrete. The causes of this are to bon fibres have a modulus of elasticity com
be found in the larger pore volume brought parable to that of steel. Their use is, however,
about by the higher water/cement ratio (w/c still at the development stage and, in particu
ratio), which increases the permeability; the lar, their long-term behaviour in conjunction
fact that mortar is not compacted as thoroughly with concrete and mortar must be investigated.
as concrete; and the lack of subsequent treat
ment. All this gives the mortar a porous struc
ture. The high w/c ratio is a consequence of Structural reinforced masonry
the plastic to soft or fluid consistency of the Position of reinforcement and design
mortar necessary for bricklaying. Carbonation The design and construction of reinforced
means the loss of the mortar's alkali protection masonry must follow very closely the tech
for the reinforcement. The reinforcement will niques for erecting conventional masonry in
then corrode in the presence of moisture and order to achieve adequate economy for this
oxygen. type of construction. First, we must consider
For this reason, unprotected reinforcement how the reinforcement is to be placed. Accord
may be included only in the mortar joints of ing to DIN 1053 part 3, horizontal reinforce
components permanently subjected to a dry ment may be laid in the bed joint, in specials or
atmosphere, e.g. internal walls of houses. In all in trough-shaped specials; vertical reinforce
other cases the steel must either be embedded ment may be inserted into specials with large
in concrete - in which case the rules for corro or small openings and into cavities or voids
sion protection in reinforced concrete struc enclosed by masonry. Continuous cavities
tures must be adhered to - or must be protect require the leaves of masonry to be tied togeth
ed by some other suitable measure. This might er with wall ties or similar. Possible reinforce
be the use of galvanized reinforcement and/or ment arrangements are shown in fig. 2.3.48.
protective organic coatings. Electrogalvanizing These illustrations also contain details of the
or hot-dip galvanizing may be employed, the mortar, concrete and reinforcement used.
latter being more common for reinforcing bars. To ease erection, masonry units with recesses
However, this produces a very brittle layer of in the sides are preferred because they can be
iron-zinc alloy which can flake off when the bar placed around the reinforcement. Voids within
is bent; so galvanized reinforcement may not the masonry unit mean that the units have to be
be bent after galvanizing and must be protect threaded onto the vertical reinforcement. Long
ed against damage prior to being built in. And reinforcing bars slow down the erection of
as hot-dip galvanized reinforcement is not masonry. The size of the void or cavity has an
resistant to sulphates and chlorides, the mor effect on the filling with concrete or mortar.
tars and masonry units used should include With small openings having side lengths
only limited amounts of these constituents, between 60 and 135 mm, the filling and com
which attack zinc. If sulphates and chlorides pacting must be carried out for every course,
are expected in the ambient atmosphere of the while larger openings must be filled after every
masonry, hot-dip galvanized reinforcement is 1 m of wall height.The design and construction
not permitted. of reinforced masonry should also take into
The protective organic coatings employed are account the following points:
mainly epoxy resin-bound systems. Reinforce
ment with duplex systems is also available in • Walls for reinforced masonry must be
which the corrosion protection is achieved by ≥ 115 mm thick.
galvanizing the steel and subsequently apply • Bed joints must always be filled completely
ing an epoxy resin coating. Such systems with mortar. Likewise perpends when the wall
require a building authority certificate. The and the reinforcement spans horizontally.
advantage of properly applied epoxy resin Brick to brick and perpends without mortar
coatings compared to galvanizing is the per are permitted when the wall and the rein
manent corrosion protection that they offer, forcement spans vertically.
even in the presence of aggressive ions. • Bed joints containing reinforcement may be
Alternatively, resistance to corrosion can be up to 20 mm thick in order to achieve good
115
Structural masonry
2.3.49 Requirements for and restrictions on reinforced masonry to DIN 1053 part 3
Horizontal reinforcement Vertical reinforcement
in in in specials in specials with large
bed joints specials with small openings or in voids/cavities
openings between masonry
Filling material Mortars of Mortars of Concrete Mortars of Mortars of Concrete ≥ B 15
groups III groups III ≥ B 15 groups III groups III
or IlI a or IlI a or IlI a or IlI a
Filling to in every at least after every
vertical course 1 m of wall height
openings
Max. bar 8 14 14 14 14 to DIN 488 pt 1
diameter
Cover ≥ 30 mm ≥ 2d s to to ≥ 2d s to all sides to
to face of all sides DIN 1045 ≥ 30 mm to face of wall DIN 1045
wall
≥ 30 mm
to face of
wall
Corro- in perman- No special requirements No special requirements

sion ently dry
protec- conditions
tion in al Hot-dip galvanizing or to Hot-dip galvanizing or to
other other permanent DIN 1045 other permanent DIN 1045
conditions measures(1) measures(1)
Min. thickness of 115
reinforced
masonry [mm]
(1) Serviceability is to be verified by, for example, a general building authority certificate.
embedment of the reinforcement. As a guide The design of reinforced masonry to

line, bed joint thickness should be twice the DIN 1053 part 3
bar diameter. The design of reinforced masonry to resist
• Bars up to 8 mm diameter may be laid in bed bending, and bending combined with axial
joints, up to 14 mm diameter in recesses and forces is similar to the design of reinforced
voids. This restriction is determined by the concrete to DIN 1045. The reinforcement
possible anchorage effect within the mortar. placed in the tension zone resists the tensile
Diameters > 14 mm are permitted only in stresses, which are in equilibrium with the com-
voids and recesses filled with concrete. pressive stresses in the compression zone.
• The concrete cover to unprotected reinforce The stress distribution in the compression zone
ment in voids and recesses filled with con is assumed to be parabolic-rectangular - any
crete should be at least equal to that recom tensile strength available in the masonry is
mended for reinforced concrete construction. ignored. In contrast to reinforced concrete
• The distance between the surface of a rein design, the maximum compressive strain of the
forcing bar and the face of the wall must be masonry is |εmw| ≤ 2.0‰, and maximum strain
> 30 mm in order to guarantee adequate in the reinforcement εs ≤ 5.0‰.
anchorage. The slenderness ratio l/d of members subject
• The mortar cover to reinforcement in specials ed to bending may not be greater than 20 in
must be twice the diameter of the bar on all order to limit deflection. In the case of wall-like
sides. (i.e. deep) beams, the useful structural height
• Reinforcement to a bay is to be laid over the must be h < 0.5 I, where I = span, otherwise it
full span and not staggered. must be designed as a plate.
• Reinforcement that crosses may only be max. The cross-section for design is the loadbearing
5 mm diameter, otherwise special measures masonry including voids and recesses filled
(e.g. specials) are necessary. with mortar or concrete. The characteristic
• Walls reinforced horizontally require at least value β R for determining the compressive
four reinforcing bars per metre of wall height bending force that can be carried by the rein
with at least every second bed joint being forced masonry is to be determined according
reinforced. to DIN 1053 part 1 or 2. β R is used in the direc
The requirements and restrictions concerning tion of the perforations, but reduced by 50%
reinforced masonry are outlined in table 2.3.49. perpendicular to the perforations (along the
length of the wall) for perforated solid units and
other perforated units to allow for the aniso-
tropy and hence the considerably lower com
pressive strength in this direction.
116
Reinforced masonry
However, βR is not reduced for solid units. In the direction of the stress - over the full height. 2.3.50 Permissible basic values for bond stress perm τ1
case of filled voids and recesses, the smallest An analysis of buckling only has to be carried for ribbed reinforcing bars to DIN 488 part 1
characteristic value - βR of masonry or filling - out in the case of compression members. The Mortar group Basic value of τ1
in bed joint in specials
is to be used for the entire cross-section: slenderness ratio λ = hk/d is determined and
according to the simplified or more accurate openings
• filling of MG III: βR = 4.5 N/mm2 method of analysis in DIN 1053 part 1. MN/m2 MN/m2
• filling of MG IlI a: βR = 10.5 N/mm2 The buckling analysis does not need to be car III 0.35 1.0
III a 0.70 1.4
• filling of concrete: βR to D I N 1 0 4 5 ried out for stocky members with slenderness
ratios λ ≤ 5.75. An analysis of the stress is car
Concrete above the masonry may also be ried out in the middle third of the buckling
incorporated but the smaller βR value must length without taking into account additional 2.3.51 Minimum reinforcement to DIN 1053 part 3 for
always be applied in the analysis. On the other eccentricity. pure loading and reinforcing steels BSt 420 S
hand, masonry on top of concrete may not be Compression members with moderate slender and BSt 500 S
Position of main Min. reinforcement, related
used to help resist the compression. ness ratios (5.75 < λ ≤ 20) must take into reinforcement to total cross-section
[Aids for designing reinforced masonry to resist account the risk of buckling due to unintention main bars transverse bars
bending, taking into account the requirements al eccentricity and deflection according to sec min μ H min μ Q
outlined here, are given in [40] and [128]. ond order theory using the additional eccen Horizontal, in at least
The anchorage of the reinforcement is to be tricity f = hk / 46 - d/6 when analysing the stress bed joints 4 No. 6 mm dia.
or openings bars per m
checked according to DIN 1045. However, in the middle third of the buckling length.
Vertical, in 0.1% if μ H < 0.5%
the permissible basic values for bond stress Buckling must be checked according to DIN openings of then μQ = 0
perm τ, given in 2.3.50 apply to reinforcing 1045 for compression members with large specials and in Interpolate inter
bars laid in mortar. slenderness ratios (20 < λ ≤ 25). Slenderness voids within mediate values
ratios λ > 25 are not permitted. masonry if μ H > 0.6%
When designing reinforced masonry to resist
then μQ = 0.2 μH
shear forces, we must distinguish between
In continuous 0.1% 0.2 μH
loads in the plane of the wall (plate shear) and Minimum reinforcement cavities
those perpendicular to the plane of the wall To avoid wide cracks, minimum amounts of between masonry
(slab shear). The existing shear stress is reinforcement are necessary. The required
determined from minimum amounts of reinforcement - related to
the total cross-section - purely for loading are
given in table 2.3.51. 2.3.52 Examples of applications for non-structural
exist t = Q s /(b x z)
reinforcement in masonry
Cracking without Position of reinforcement
where Qs = critical shear force applied at reinforcement to suit possible cracking
0.5 x h (useful height of beam) from edge of Non-structural reinforcement
support, and z = inner lever arm. Reinforcement may be used in masonry con
struction purely to control crack widths. In con
For plate shear on a compressed cross-section trast to reinforced concrete construction, this
it is sufficient to examine the position of maxi reinforcement does not play a loadbearing or
mum shear stress, but for cracked cross- structural role. Therefore, DIN 1053 part 3 does
sections an analysis must be carried out at the not deal with this type of reinforcement. It is
height of the neutral axis in condition II. In both important to point out that freedom from cracks
cases it must be ensured that the existing in masonry is achieved only by including suit
shear stress exist t ≤ perm t. ably designed and adequately spaced move
The value for perm τ is determined according ment joints. Non-structural reinforcement does
to the more accurate method of analysis in not prevent the formation of cracks in masonry.
DIN 1053 part 1. The calculated axial stress σ Its task is to distribute the inevitable restraint
in the bed joints may be estimated from the deformations over several cracks and hence
support reaction FA, the width of the cross- limit the widths of those cracks. This is not nec
section b and the span I of the deep beam essary for stability but rather to guarantee, in
from particular, the serviceability (e.g. thermal and
acoustic insulation, moisture control, frost
σ= FA / (b x I) resistance) and aesthetics of the masonry ele
ment.
This is certainly on the safe side. The influence of cracks on corrosion of the
For slab shear the analysis is similar to that for reinforcement can be ignored because of the
reinforced concrete but here only shear zone 1 necessary measures taken to prevent corro
is permitted. Accordingly, it has to be proved sion. The durability of external masonry ele
that ments with respect to moisture protection and
thermal insulation is generally not adversely
exist τ < τ011 = 0.015 βR affected by crack widths w ≤ 0.20 mm,
although driving rain can penetrate the facade
The effect of shear reinforcement may not be even with crack widths w ≤ 0.1 mm. However,
taken into account. The βR value is determined limiting cracks to this very small width is hardly
according to DIN 1053 part 1 or 2 and may possible under practical conditions, but is
also be applied to perforated solid units and hardly necessary because the water does not
other perforated units - irrespective of the damage the facade [183].
117
Structural masonry
2.3.53 Sections through shallow lintels with tension Specifying a maximum crack width in masonry be accommodated by the reinforcement with
flanges of trough-shaped masonry units; elements that is acceptable from an aesthetic out its yield stress being reached. This avoids
structural behaviour of shallow lintel.
point of view is very difficult because this crack wide cracks in masonry and also limits the
width depends to a large extent on the subjec crack width to a dimension acceptable in terms
tive opinion of the observer and also on the of both serviceability and appearance.
distance of the observer from the cracked ele In the case of restraint stresses with a risk of
ment. very wide cracks, DIN 1053 part 3 recom
Non-structural reinforcement should limit the mends reinforcement equal to at least 0.2% of
average crack width w m in readily accessible the total cross-section in the direction of the
reinforced masonry elements to about 0 . 1 - restraint.
0.3 mm to comply with aesthetic considera Based on newer findings, Meyer [135] recom
tions. However, it is important to establish right mends the following guidelines for minimum
from the very start just what demands are to be reinforcement to limit crack width:
placed on the appearance of individual com
ponents (e.g. facing brickwork or exhibition • central restraint:
surfaces) and whether hairline cracks - above μs,min = 0.25 %
all in relation to the surface finish - can be
accepted [60]. • bending restraint, perpends filled with mortar:
μs,min = 0.15%
The possible applications of masonry with non-
structural reinforcement • bending restraint, perpends not filled with
Limiting the widths of cracks as a result of mortar:
restraint stresses (shrinkage, thermal, floor slab μs,min = 0.10%
deflection, differential settlement etc.) is really
only possible by including reinforcement in the The amount of reinforcement specified is relat
bed joints of the masonry. This reinforcement ed to the total cross-section in the direction of
resists mainly horizontal but also slightly the restraint and takes into account most
inclined restraint stresses. unfavourable unit/mortar combinations. So in
The inclusion of bed joint reinforcement some cases these figures are on the safe side.
appears to be advisable wherever cracks can More accurate approaches to assessing the
occur but cannot reliably be predicted. Thus, amount of reinforcement are given in [135].
possible damage and expensive repairs can
be avoided from the very start. Furthermore,
the appearance is not unnecessarily impaired Shallow lintels
by an excessive number of movement joints. Shallow lintels are bending members spanning
Typical applications are the corners around over openings for doors and windows. They
door and window openings, as well as at may be designed and constructed according
changes in height, beneath concentrated loads to DIN 1053 part 3 or the guidelines covering
and non-loadbearing partitions in conjunction shallow lintels [35].
with slab deflections (see "Cracks in light Shallow lintels consist of a prefabricated or in-
weight partitions"). The causes of cracks at situ reinforced tension flange. They achieve
corners are, above all, diverted vertical com- their loadbearing capacity by acting in con
pressive stresses, increased shrinkage stress junction with the compression zone of masonry
es as a result of the reduction in cross-section or concrete (or both) above the lintel.
adjacent openings, changes in height and The prefabricated tension flange can be made
stress concentrations in the corners [177]. The from trough-shaped masonry units (specials)
areas below concentrated loads are subjected matching the material of the surrounding
to increased transverse tensile stresses paral masonry and containing tension reinforcement
lel to the bed joints which must be resisted by embedded in concrete, or from normal-weight
non-structural reinforcement (see 2.3.52). or lightweight reinforced concrete. The in-situ
Another possible application for non-structural tension flange is usually made from a soldier
bed joint reinforcement is in facing work and course with reinforcement fed through the per
infill panels. This helps to avoid cracks caused forations in the units. In practice, however, the
by restraint to the differential deformation prefabricated shallow lintel employing specials
between leaves of facing masonry or infill pan has become established, mainly owing to its
els and loadbearing members caused by building science and operational advantages
shrinkage and/or temperature differences as (e.g. the avoidance of thermal bridges thanks
well as possible additional lateral support or to the use of uniform wall materials, faster con
adhesion at the base of the wall. struction thanks to prefabrication and simple
erection, uniform substrate for plastering) (see
Minimum non-structural reinforcement to resist fig. 2.3.53).
restraint stresses The reinforcement in the tension flange is not
The minimum amount of reinforcement in normally prestressed but may be if required.
masonry must be chosen in such a way that The structural action of a shallow lintel corre
when a crack occurs, the tensile stresses can sponds to that of a tied frame, i.e. the tension
118
Prefabricated masonry elements
forces in the lintel are transferred to the tension tate transport and erection as well as the use of by DIN 1053 part 4. This standard mainly
flange (tie), while the compression zone dry walling. applies to storey-height, bay-wide prefabricat
(frame) is formed by the masonry above the lin Prestressed masonry has been used in the UK ed panels and the structures erected from
tel. A compression zone consisting of masonry since about 1960; design is covered by BS these. Besides design guidance it also con
and concrete above that may not call upon any 5628 part 2. In the meantime, the Swiss have tains methods for assessing stability during
further masonry above the concrete to assist in also had experience of this type of construc transport, erection and in the final condition, as
resisting the compression. In transferring the tion, reflected in their standard SIA V 177 well as detailed requirements concerning
load to the supports, the "struts" place shear "Masonry". Prestressed masonry can also be transport and erection of such components to
loads on the masonry supports. Depending on designed according to Eurocode EC 6. The prevent damage and ensure safety.
the angle of the struts, failure of the bed joints provisions are based on BS 5628 part 2 and on Prefabricated masonry elements can be pro
or failure of the units is possible. Aids for Eurocode EC 2. The corresponding sections duced as brickwork panels, cast panels and
designing and constructing shallow lintels are for prestressed masonry have not been includ composite panels. Brickwork panels are made
given in [128] and [145], ed in the German document covering the from masonry units and mortar manufactured
application of EC 6 (NAD). Likewise, the Ger vertically as a one-brick-thick wall. Cast panels
man masonry standards do not contain any are made from clay bricks to DIN 4159 and
Prestressed masonry design rules for prestressed masonry. There concrete cast on horizontal formwork. Reinforc
A further development of reinforced masonry is fore, in Germany there is no acknowledged set ing bars are included to accommodate tensile
prestressed masonry. The possible applica of engineering rules for the design and con stresses. These are placed in ribs or recesses
tions include the prestressing of existing struction of prestressed masonry. in the bricks and embedded in concrete. Cast
masonry as well as the prestressing of new Furthermore, there is currently no general build panels can be made as vertically perforated
structural masonry. In the former, prestressing ing authority certificate to regulate the use of panels, with bricks whose perpends are filled
(i.e. post-tensioning) is used to repair cracks this type of construction. The reason is lack of with mortar, or as ribbed panels, with bricks
when injection and needling are not adequate experience, both experimental and practical, in whose perpends are partly filled. Composite
(see "Consolidation of natural stone masonry"). dealing with prestressed masonry [56, 65, 158], panels are manufactured horizontally from hol
Vertical or diagonal cracks are repaired by low bricks to DIN 278 with profiled outer walls
using horizontal prestressing tendons, Gaping connected by vertical, reinforced concrete ribs
bed joints caused by eccentric loading can be Prefabricated masonry elements and plates (fig. 2.3.54) [18].
closed again by installing vertical prestressing
tendons. With new structural masonry the pre The production of prefabricated masonry ele Materials
stressing is introduced as the wall is erected ments under factory conditions is an elaborate Masonry units
(i.e. pretensioning). To do this, the prestressing technique, which has undergone major devel Any of the masonry units in DIN 1053 part 1
tendons are integrated in vertical ducts in the opment in recent years so that traditional may be used for constructing brickwork pan
wall at a spacing of 1.0-2.5 m. Special masonry masonry construction can continue to compete els. Cast panels make use of clay bricks for
units or hollow blocks are necessary to form with other forms of construction. Prefabricated prefabricated wall panels according to DIN
the ducts. The ducts can be left open or sub masonry elements can be employed wherever 4159. A distinction must be made here
sequently filled with grout. conventional masonry would otherwise be between clay bricks with full mortar joints and
When the ducts are left open, the prestressing used. The main reason for using prefabricated partial mortar joints. The difference between
tendon remains accessible for checking, fur masonry are the economic advantages. These the two types lies in the perpend recesses
ther stressing and replacement. Protection include rational and inexpensive factory pro along the length of the brick. This establishes
against corrosion is ensured by a coating of duction, shorter on-site times as a result of the theoretically usable cross-section when
grease in conjunction with a polyethylene exact scheduling of prefabrication, delivery assessing the stability of cast panels (see
sheath. In ducts that are not left open, corro and erection, thus speeding up progress on "Design of cast panels").
sion protection is ensured by the grout injected site, less extensive site facilities, a shorter peri Profiled hollow bricks to DIN 278 should be
into the ducts. This creates a shear-resistant od of noise and dirt on site, wall construction used for composite panels.
connection between masonry and prestressing unaffected by weather conditions, and finally
tendon and ensures the uniform transfer of the the guarantee of a fixed price. Factory produc
prestressing force into the masonry to prevent tion also results in a high-quality product with
sudden failure of the end anchorage. fewer flaws, and means that the masonry deliv
Structural masonry is often prestressed when ered to site is normally already dry and so no
masonry carries only light vertical loads, but at longer needs time to dry out later. However,
the same time can be subjected to horizontal there are also disadvantages to prefabricated
loads in and perpendicular to the plane of the construction, such as the need for precise
wall, e.g. earth pressure, wind or seismic advance planning or heavy lifting equipment
loads. The prestressing compensates for the for erection, and problems in accommodating
lack of vertical load and hence considerably subsequent alterations. On the whole, con
increases the bending and shear strength of struction using prefabricated masonry ele
the wall as well as providing better insurance ments is to be recommended only when it
against cracking. This method of construction leads to better quality at a lower price than
can be used for shear and gable walls, for infill masonry erected conventionally on the building
panels in frames and for basement walls. site.
Prestressed masonry contributes to increasing
This calls for improved products and - in the
the stiffness of masonry construction in struc
light of high wages - better productivity in the
tures located in regions of seismic activity. By
factory. In practice this means the increasing
using prefabricated masonry elements, this
use of partial or fall automation.
form of construction can be employed to facili-
Prefabricated masonry elements are covered
119
Structural masonry
2.3.54 Brickwork panel, cast panel (vertically Concrete and mortar must have a shear-resistant connection, which
perforated panel) and composite panel Normal-weight or lightweight concrete should must be verified. Walls comprising several
be used for cast and composite panels. brickwork panels assembled to form a wall the
Mortars according to DIN 1053 part 1, apart width of the bay are always considered to be
from normal mortars of mortar groups I and II, supported on just two sides.
may be used for producing brickwork panels
and for the vertical joints between individual Design of brickwork panels
brickwork panels. The analysis of brickwork panels for compres
sion and shear is carried out according to DIN
1053 part 1. To assess the interaction of sever
Production al adjacent brickwork panels in one plane, an
Cast and composite panels are manufactured additional analysis of the shear in the vertical
horizontally, sometimes in moulds. joints between the individual panels must be
Vertical production is prescribed for brickwork carried out. The permissible shear stresses
panels. The requirements of DIN 1053 part 1 perm τv in the vertical joints may be taken as
are to be observed here. 0.09 MN/m 2 for mortars MG II a, LM 21 and
The production of prefabricated elements must LM 36, and as 0.11 MN/m 2 for MG III, MG IlI a
take place under cover and the ambient tem and DM. The shear area is the cross-section of
perature must be at least +5°C. During stor panel height and width of mortar joint, i.e. the
age, until the prefabricated elements have thickness of the wall for a fully filled joint. The
hardened adequately, the conditions must be permissible shear stress in the vertical panel
such that neither the adhesion between mortar joint may not be higher than the permissible
or concrete and masonry units nor the shear stress in the panel itself.
microstructure of the mortar is adversely affect For brickwork panels loaded at right-angles to
ed or disrupted. The production and transport the plane of the wall, the tensile bending
conditions must be adhered to in order to guar strength of walls comprising several panels
antee not only the loadbearing capacity but assembled to form a wall the width of the bay
also adequate safety during transport and may not be taken into account. For such a
erection of the components. loading case, only the loadbearing capacity at
right angles to the bed joints and excluding the
tensile bending strength (vertical compression
Design arch with cracked joints) may be assumed.
The design of brickwork panels and cast pan Only the tensile bending strength parallel to the
els is based on DIN 1053 part 1 with the addi bed joint according to DIN 1053 part 1 may be
tional provisions of DIN 1053 part 4. Composite used for bay-wide brickwork panels. The require
panels are designed like reinforced concrete ments of DIN 1053 part 3 should be followed
elements to DIN 1045. when designing and constructing prefabri
cated panels of reinforced brickwork.
Basis for design
Prefabricated masonry elements are predomi Design of cast panels
nantly storey-height units, which must be held The design of masonry made from cast panels
in position top and bottom by beams or other depends on the magnitude of the eccentricity
equivalent structural measures, e.g. stiffening of the axial force.
floor plates. The minimum width of the compo Low eccentricities (e/d ≤ 0.33) may be designed
nent must be 1.25 m. For brickwork panels and for compression according to DIN 1053 part 1
cast panels the minimum component, and using the basic value σ0 for permissible com-
hence wall, thickness is 115 mm; the require pressive stress given in table 2.3.55 in relation
ments of DIN 1045 apply to composite panels. to masonry unit and concrete strength classes,
The provisions of DIN 1053 part 1 apply with The design cross-section for vertically perfor
respect to determining the cross-section based ated panels is the full cross-section, for ribbed
on loading (support reactions from floors, node panels the mortar-filled compression zone of
and wall moments), the influence of restraints, the concrete ribs plus the adjacent brickwork
the assessment of three-dimensional stability, up to a width of 12.5 mm on both sides (see
determination of the buckling length of walls fig. 2.3.56).
and allowing for openings in walls. This is also
valid for the assumptions applying to shear High eccentricities (e/d > 0.33) require an
walls. In addition, it should be remembered analysis of compression and shear according
that return walls on one side may be assumed to DIN 1045. The tensile stresses occurring in
to constitute an immovable lateral support only the cross-section are to be resisted by rein
when there is a tension- and compression- forcement laid parallel to the direction of the
resistant connection between the wall requiring perforations. The panels should be considered
support and the wall acting as the support. as one-way spanning. Only clay bricks of
Walls supported on three or four sides are only strength classes 18 and 24 in conjunction with
those walls formed by bay-wide prefabricated concrete grades according to 2.3.55 may be
components. In this case the vertical ends used. Slenderness ratios sk/d > 20 are not
120
Masonry in earthquake zones
2.3.55 Basic values σ0 for permissible compressive 2.3.56 Calculated cross-section (shaded area) for cast panels
stresses in cast panels
Vertically perforated panels with clay bricks for full mortar joints
Strength class Basic value σ0 for
permissible com
pressive stress
on calculated
cross-section
concrete clay brick MN/m2
Lightweight 6 1.2
concrete 8 1.4
LB 10 12 1.7
Normal- 6 1.2/1.2
weight 8 1.6/1.7
B 15/B 25 12 2.0/2.2
18 3.0/3.3
24 3.5/4.4
Normal- 30 4.7
weight 36 5.0
B 35
permitted. When analysing shear, the permissi the lifting loads within the component must be walls through torsion. Finally, the masonry
ble shear stress perm τ = 0.005 βNSt may be verified. plates must be carried down to the foundations
used irrespective of the concrete strength Temporary erection conditions must be catered in a consistent manner. Transfer structures and
class. βNSt is in this case the strength class of for by including at least two supports in the large openings cause the flow of forces to be
the clay bricks. The value for permissible shear upper third of the component to prevent it from diverted and can create "soft" storeys which
stress is also valid for the vertical joints falling over. are particularly vulnerable to dynamic loading.
between individual cast panels. In cases of The use of reinforced masonry increases the
pure bending, the regulations for clay hollow ductile deformation capacity of masonry and is
pot floors to Masonry in earthquake zones to be recommended. In particular, wall junc
DIN 1045 or DIN 1045 part 100 are applicable. tions and openings benefit from the inclusion of
The behaviour of masonry walls under seismic horizontally and vertically reinforced masonry,
Design of composite panels loads is of fundamental importance for con and this makes a major contribution to stabiliz
The design and construction of composite struction work in earthquake zones. Besides ing the construction.
panels is carried out according to DIN 1045. carrying vertical loads, in most structures In the case of infill masonry panels, we must
Only the cross-section of the concrete may be masonry walls also stabilize the entire struc distinguish between partially loadbearing and
considered in the design. ture. Therefore, during an earthquake their sta non-loadbearing. The fixings of partially load-
bility determines whether a building collapses bearing panels must guarantee to transfer hori
Seismic design or remains standing. In Germany the design of zontal loads even after several loading cycles.
As buildings made from prefabricated masonry masonry subjected to seismic loads is current The wall must be sized according to the effec
elements are not covered by DIN 4149 part 1, ly covered by DIN 4149 part 1 in conjunction tive compression and shear stresses. For the
seismic considerations are dealt with in DIN with DIN 1053 parts 1-4. In future this will be non-loadbearing panels the stability perpen
1053 part 4. The requirements of DIN 4149 part replaced by Eurocode EC 8 in conjunction with dicular to the plane of the wall, as well as the
1 apply to brickwork panels as well as com the associated National Application Document unrestricted deformability of the loadbearing
posite and cast panels in earthquake zones 1- DIN 4149 part 1 [45]. Besides designing the framework, must be guaranteed. For a more
4. In addition, an analysis is always required walls to cope with horizontal seismic loads, it is detailed discussion of the design and con
for cast panels, which are sensitive to shear essential that the building is planned accord struction of masonry subjected to seismic
loads, when used in earthquake zones 3 and 4. ing to seismic principles. The most important loads, please refer to [69, 125, 159, 220].
fundamental rule for such design is the mini
mization of the weight of the building to reduce
Safety during transport and erection the horizontal forces induced by acceleration.
Prefabricated masonry elements must be manu Furthermore, the floor slabs and foundations
factured in such a way that no damage is likely must form plates without changes in height if
when they are transported and erected proper possible so that the horizontal forces are dis
ly. The requirements for the transport and erec tributed evenly to the shear walls, and so that
tion loading cases are satisfied when the pre the walls are adequately held top and bottom.
fabricated components are manufactured It is important here to ensure that the floors are
according to DIN 1053 part 4, the rules apper properly built into the masonry and correctly
taining to safety and health risks when building supported. If it is not possible to construct hori
with prefabricated masonry elements [48] are zontal plates, rigid ring beams must be provid
observed, and the components are moved ed to support the walls at top and bottom. The
using the proper lifting and transport devices. masonry shear walls must be evenly distrib
These can take the form of reinforcing bars in uted so that the centre of gravity of the mass of
grouted vertical channels, loadbearing bolts or the building is as close as possible to the cen
slings, In all cases the loadbearing capacity of tre of gravity of the shear walls in order to pre
the lifting arrangement and the distribution of vent additional loads being introduced into the
121
Masonry details
Masonry details
Walls are not only enclosing, decorative ele- External walls Plastered single-leaf external walls
ments. They also have major structural and are built without additional layers of thermal
building science functions to perform. In terms External walls must be designed and built so insulation and are provided with a coat of plas-
of structure, we distinguish between load- that they withstand driving rain. This require- ter on the inside and water-repellent rendering
bearing, stiffening and non-loadbearing walls. ment is mandatory for all buildings occupied on the outside. The rendering prevents mois-
Loadbearing walls carry vertical and horizontal more or less permanently by people. External ture from penetrating the masonry and sub-
loads and transfer these to the subsoil. Stiffen- walls are divided into single- and twin-leaf sequently freezing, and permits the use of
ing walls in the form of shear walls guarantee walls. The single-leaf wall consists of just one non-frost-resistant masonry units. In order to
the load-carrying capacity of the building, and wall of masonry, whereas the twin-leaf wall comply with the strict thermal insulation require-
in the form of crosswalls or return walls provide consists of two parallel walls up to 150 mm ments and, at the same time, avoid unjustifi-
lateral support to prevent the buckling of load- apart, joined together with wall ties. As a rule, ably thick walls, which although satisfying
bearing walls. Therefore, they are always con- only the inner leaf is loadbearing. From a ther- building science demands are usually too
sidered as loadbearing walls. mal point of view, external walls are divided expensive in terms of construction and con-
Non-loadbearing walls generally only carry into single- and double- or multi-layer wall consumption of valuable space. Such walls only
their own weight and have merely an enclosing structions. The masonry of a single-layer wall is use masonry units with very good thermal insu-
function. They are not called upon to assist in like that of a single-leaf wall, but apart from lation properties (e.g. aerated lightweight clay,
stabilizing the building or to provide support to carrying the loads also fulfils the necessary autoclaved aerated concrete, lightweight hol-
other loadbearing walls. However, non-load- thermal requirements. The double- or multi- low concrete blocks, the formation of voids,
bearing walls must be able to transfer horizon- layer wall is a loadbearing construction but the cells and slots, masonry without mortar to the
tal loads perpendicular to the face of the wall masonry fulfils only part of the thermal require- perpends) in conjunction with thermal insula-
to loadbearing members. ments. The other layers are made from mate- tion plasters or plastering systems.
The building science functions of the wall are rials that generally only contribute to the thermal Table 2.4.2 shows the thermal transmittance
thermal (insulation and heat storage), sound insulation, e.g. single-leaf external wall with values that can be achieved for masonry 300
insulation, fire protection and protection against thermal insulation plastering system. and 365 mm thick, and how the thermal insula-
driving rain. Special requirements that may tion can be improved by using a thermal insu-
need to be fulfilled by a wall are protection lation plaster.
against water (both pressurized and non-pres- Single-leaf external walls The use of thin-bed and lightweight mortars
surized), e.g. basement walls, and security The design of single-leaf external walls is these instead of normal mortar together with large-
functions (external walls of certain buildings), days determined mainly by thermal require- format masonry units and laying without mortar
e.g. banks, military establishments. The many ments. According to DIN 1053 part 1, the mini- to the perpends further reduces the thermal
demands placed on walls can lead to conflicts mum thickness for a single-leaf external wall is bridging effect of the mortar joints.
of interest, which can be solved only through 115 mm. The wall constructions commonly in The diagrams in fig. 2.4.3 show the influence o
careful detailing and selection of materials. use are illustrated in fig. 2.4.1. The regulations length of unit and type of perpend as well as
Basically, the following criteria apply when on thermal insulation have led to the develop- thickness of bed joint for normal, LM 36 and
choosing the type of masonry: ment of different solutions to comply with those LM 21 mortars. A medium-bed joint of LM 36 is
For facing work the decisive factors are the regulations. So the single-leaf monolithic exter- practically identical with the thin-bed joint. The
surface finish and the strength of the units or nal wall with ever better thermal insulation val- use of lightweight or thin-bed mortar represents
their frost resistance and resistance to ues for the masonry and mortar will continue to a marked improvement in thermal insulation
mechanical damage and saturation. External be favoured for certain applications. And the irrespective of the thermal conductivity of the
walls, on the other hand, are primarily chosen use of insulating plasters will also help to masonry units.
depending on thermal requirements, while for secure the use of monolithic masonry. Adding In walls with normal mortar, the thickness of the
internal walls it is sound insulation and load- a layer of insulation to the loadbearing masonry bed joint and the length of the unit with mortar
carrying capacity that influence our choice. allows external walls to satisfy practically all to the perpends has a noticeable effect on the
When selecting the type of wall and type of demands. Only in the case of curtain wall thermal conductivity of the masonry. Differ-
material, other aspects such as weight, oppor- facades do we have to consider the additional ences within lightweight and thin-bed mortars
tunities for rationalization on site and the costs heat losses via the wall ties between wall and merely amount to the order of magnitude of
of materials and construction have to be con- facade. the range of one thermal conductivity class.
sidered [32, 7 1 , 9 1 , 4 1 , 161].
However, this can be important if, when deter-
122
External walls
2.4.1 Forms of single-leaf external walls
mining characteristic values, the measured or

calculated result for the masonry being evalu-
ated lies on the threshold of a class [A.1, p.
116].
Single-leaf external walls with thermal Insula- Plastered Single-leaf external Single-leaf external Single-leaf external Single-leaf facing
single-leaf wall with thermal wall with curtain wall wall with internal masonry with 20
tion composite systems external wall insulation composite facade insulation mm wall joint
are constructed from masonry units performing system
structural and other functions but exhibiting rel-
atively poor thermal insulation properties in
conjunction with a thermally insulating coating
applied to the external wall surface. This wall 2.4.2 Thermal transmittance values for single-leaf masonry
system is employed for new building work, as Wall thick- Type of Rendering Design value for thermal conductivity of masonry [W/mK]
ness [mm] plaster 0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.18
well as for subsequently improving the thermal
300 LP 2 0.31 0.34 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.47 0.52
insulation of existing masonry. The coating WDP 4 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.33 0.34 0.38 0.41
consists of three layers: bonding coat, thermal 366 LP 2 0.26 0.28 0.3 0.33 0.35 0.39 0.44
insulation (hard polystyrene foam or mineral WDP 4 0.23 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3 0.33 0.36
fibre batts) and a two-coat plaster finish com- External: 20 mm lightweight plaster (LP) or 40 mm thermal insulation plaster (WDP)
Internal: 10 mm lime-gypsum plaster
prising reinforcing and final coats.
Rail systems or dowels create an additional fix-
ing to the substrate. The heat losses caused by
the thermal bridges formed by such mechani-
cal fixings are taken into account by increasing
2.4.3 Thermal conductivity of masonry in relation to thermal conductivity of masonry unit, type of mortar, thickness of
the thermal transmittance values. However, this bed joint and length of unit
effect can be ignored when using thermally
optimized dowels.
As the thermal insulation composite system is
fully responsible for the thermal insulation func-
tion, this type of wall is often referred to as a
"thermoskin" and is used with masonry with
relatively low thermal insulation but high com-
pressive strength (e.g. calcium silicate mason-
ry).This system results in relatively thin walls,
which greatly benefits the total amount of inter-
nal space available.
In principle, this type of wall is an improvement
on the thermal insulation plastering system
because layers of thermal insulation with better
insulation values are used instead of the plas-
ter.
As the thermal insulation composite system
does not satisfy the requirement for decreasing
strength of the layers from the inside to the out-
side, the materials used in the three layers
must be compatible in order to avoid the nega-
tive consequences (see "Plasters"). This is
guaranteed by using complete systems. Never-
theless, it should be noted that this type of wall
123
Masonry details
2.4.4 Section through 375 mm single-leaf faced wall is vulnerable to mechanical damage. Apart by the lowest unit strength class used in the wall.
(sketch showing principle) from that, additional soft skins have an Saturation and attack by frost is assumed to
unfavourable effect on the sound insulation only affect the outer masonry units in single-
properties of the masonry. leaf faced walls. To avoid saturation of the back-
Fire protection requirements must be observed ing masonry in regions with severe weather,
when using flammable or not readily flammable every course of masonry should include at least
thermal insulation materials. two rows of units of equal height separated by
a 20 mm wide wall joint (offset in each course
Single-leaf external walls with curtain wall to follow the bond) over the full height of the
facade wall. This must be filled without voids using
If external walls made from non-frost-resistant waterproof mortar or, better still, run in liquid
masonry units are not rendered, the external waterproof mortar course by course. By in-
wall can be protected against the weather and creasing the thickness of the wall joint from
damage by adding a weatherproof cladding to 10 mm to 20 mm, guaranteed by the full mortar
the outside. This curtain wall can be attached filling, the minimum wall thickness becomes
either directly to the external wall or to external 310 mm. This is due to the fact that a 240 mm
2.4.5 Forms of twin-leaf external walls thick wall would mean that the wall joint could
insulation, which is then protected by the venti-
lated curtain wall facade. only be formed in every second course and a
The mechanical fixings for the curtain wall continuous moisture barrier the full height of
result in additional heat losses which can be the wall would not be possible (see fig. 2.4,4.).
quite considerable. Thicknesses of 375 and 500 mm are also
feasible.
Single-leaf external walls with internal insulation The joints in the exposed face - if flush point-
The thermal insulation effect of a single-leaf ing is not carried out - should be raked out to a
external wall can also be improved by attach- depth of 15 mm and properly pointed. Sub-
ing insulation made from hard polystyrene sequent pointing has the advantage that pig-
foam or mineral fibre batts to the inside face. ments can be added to the pointing mortar to
This type of wall is particularly suitable for the vary the appearance of the joints (see "Pointing").
refurbishment of existing buildings with It is very difficult to fulfil the thermal insulation
facades worthy of preservation, and for those requirements with single-leaf facing masonry.
rooms in new building work which are not per- Therefore, these days facing masonry is almost
manently heated (e.g. assembly halls). Owing exclusively built as part of a twin-leaf masonry
to the loss of the heat storage effect of the wall.
external walls, rooms insulated internally are
quickly heated and store less thermal energy
after the heating is switched off. Condensation Twin-leaf external walls
problems within the wall construction can be a Twin-leaf masonry is increasingly being used
problem with absorbent masonry, particularly for external walls to achieve the necessary
at junctions between floors and partitions. Like- thermal insulation. The various functions of a
wise, the sound insulation of adjacent rooms wall are separated in this type of construction
can be impaired through flanking transmis- and allocated to the individual leaves. The
sions caused by unsuitable internal insulation inner leaf (backing masonry) provides a solid
systems. enclosure to the interior and carries the vertical
and horizontal loads. The outer leaf (facing
Single-leaf external walls without rendering masonry or rendered outer leaf) determines the
(single-leaf faced wall) visual appearance and serves as protection
The decision to omit the rendering from an against the weather and mechanical damage.
external wall, i.e. the facade masonry remains Any thermal insulation required is fixed against
exposed (facing brickwork etc.), depends on the whole of the outside face of the inner leaf.
the desired appearance as well as local tradi- The outer skin uses non-efflorescent, frost-
tions and experience. The main advantage of resistant solid masonry units. Perforated units
facing masonry - in single- or twin-leaf walls - are less suitable because they can become
is the low cost of maintenance. severely saturated, which can be aggravated
A single-leaf faced wall consists of an outer by possible lack of care during pointing.
skin of frost-resistant, usually small-format, fac- We distinguish between cavity, partial-fill cav-
ing or engineering bricks or calcium silicate ity, full-fill cavity and plaster-filled collar-jointed
facing bricks and a backing of, usually, non- (see fig. 2.4.5).
frost-resistant masonry units. The use of differ- Only the thickness of the inner leaf (min.
ent masonry materials for the backing and the 115 mm) may be considered in the structural
facing work should be avoided because of the analysis. When analysing the inner leaf accord-
possible differential deformation and the asso- ing to the simplified method of analysis, the
ciated risk of cracking. Facing and backing are thickness of 115 mm is only suitable for build-
bonded together and together form the load- ings of no more of than two full storeys plus an
bearing cross-section. The permissible stress attic; in addition, crosswalls must be provided
which may be used in the design is governed for stability. The minimum thickness of the
124
External walls
outer leaf should be 90 mm for reasons of sta is pressed tightly against the outside face of 2.4.6 Outer leaf support details
bility during construction. the inner leaf.
Wall ties should be spaced at max. 500 m ver
Supporting the outer leaf tically, max. 750 mm horizontally. In addition to
The weight of the outer leaf must be supported the requirements outlined in table 2.4.8, three
on the loadbearing leaf. The complete outer ties per metre of edge length are required
leaf should be supported over its full length around openings and at the corners of the
(e.g. on nibs projecting from the floors, on steel building as well as along movement joints and
sections bolted on or cast in). If the support is at the tops of outer leaves.
non-continuous (e.g. separate brackets), every The type, number and arrangement of ties in
masonry unit must be supported at both ends curved masonry or masonry with projections
at the support level. should be specified, taking into account the
Using a metal angle as a support creates a deformation due to, for example, wind and/or
continuous thermal bridge which, in the temperature changes.
arrangement shown in fig. 2.4.6, means an Table 2.4.10 shows the influence of wall ties on
additional heat flow to the outside of 0.15 heat transmission for a number of typical types
W/mK [A.2] along the length of the angle. of wall. In cavity walls the ties are practically
For support over two storeys this means an ineffective as thermal bridges.
increase in heat losses of ΔU = 0.025 W/m 2 K The use of additional layers of insulation in the
compared to a wall without such supports. The cavity increases the heat transmission by up to
influence of the support can be neglected for 5% for optimum 150 mm thick cavity insulation
an outer leaf 12 m high. Support details which and 5 mm thick wall ties; these influences can
can no longer be inspected after being built in be ignored. Therefore, to comply with DIN
must be permanently protected against corro 4108 part 2, no analysis of the thermal bridge
sion. effect has to be carried out for minimum ther
Outer leaves 115 mm thick have proved to be mal insulation when using conventional forms
worthwhile in practice. Owing to their good of fixing, e.g. wire ties. When using lightweight
stability, these need to be supported only mortar, LM 36 is always required when wall ties
every 12 m in height. When supported at every are to be built in. Other types of tie are permis
second floor, a 115 mm outer leaf can project sible when they can accommodate min. 1.0 kN
beyond its support by up to one third of its tension and compression at 1.0 mm slip per
thickness. Outer leaves less than 115 mm thick tie. The number of ties must be increased if this
must be supported every 6 m in height and value cannot be guaranteed. Other types of
may not be built more than 20 m above ground ties (e.g. flat steel) and dowelled fixings in the
level owing to their limited resistance to wind masonry are permissible when their service
loads. Buildings comprising no more than two ability is verified by a building authority certifi
full storeys may include a triangular gable up cate.
to 4 m high without any additional support. If a Wall ties should be built in so that they cannot
115 mm leaf is not provided with flush pointing, convey moisture from the outer to the inner
weakening due to subsequent raking out of the leaf, This is achieved by positioning the ties
joints must be taken into account. horizontally and by fitting a plastic disc (drip
disc). The drip disc ensures that water pene
Anchoring the outer leaf trating the outer leaf does not reach the ther
The outer leaf is to be anchored to the load- mal insulation or the loadbearing leaf, but is
bearing inner leaf by means of wall ties to pre intercepted.
vent it from overturning, buckling and bulging
as a result of unequal temperature changes. In Additional requirements
addition, this anchoring serves to transfer the A damp proof course (dpc) should be included
wind loads. As the wind generates both pres at the bottom of the cavity between the leaves
sure and suction forces, the anchors must be in order to protect the inner leaf and the floor
able to resist tension and compression. Wall from moisture which penetrates the outer leaf
ties must be of stainless steel to DIN 17 440. and collects at the base of the cavity. The
Their shape and dimensions must be as given damp proof course must be laid with a fall to
in fig. 2.4.7. the outside within the cavity and horizontal
When the bonding of the loadbearing leaf and under the outer leaf. The outer leaf must be
the outer leaf coincide, then Z-shape ties may supported in such a way that it cannot slip.
be used. Otherwise the L-shape is more suit To do this, place the first row of ties as low as
able because this can be bent to suit. If the possible and ensure that the waterproofing
bed joints of the two leaves are not in the same complies with DIN 18 195 part 4. The damp
plane or if the outer leaf is built at a later date, proof course should extend as far as the front
ties for subsequent fixing into the inner leaf of edge of the outer leaf and should continue
masonry are necessary. min. 150 mm up the inner leaf on a firring piece
The use of such anchors is also recommended and be fixed to this leaf (see 2.4.9).
when attaching an additional layer of thermal Openings for doors, windows etc. in the outer
insulation in order to ensure that the insulation leaf are formed as transfer structures
125
Masonry details
2.4.7 Wall ties for twin-leaf external masonry (e.g. individual brackets or steel sections), as driving rain penetrating to the inside face of the
reinforced masonry or as lintels. The latter may outer leaf can drain without saturating the ther-
be constructed using specials or in the form of mal insulation. Consequently, the outer leaf
cambered or semicircular arches. protects the layer of thermal insulation against
Refer to "Joint design" for details of the the direct effects of the weather and impact or
arrangement of movement joints. other damage. If a vapour-permeable material
is used for the thermal insulation, then the cir-
Cavity walls culating air not only dries out the outer leaf but
In contrast to the curtain wall facade, in this also keeps the insulation dry, causing any con-
type of wall, the cavity between the masonry densation to evaporate.
leaves may be included in calculations to The maximum distance between inner and
determine the thermal insulation because the outer leaves is 150 mm (see "Cavity walls").
open vertical joints in the outer leaf are not pro- This does not need to be fully exploited if the
vided for ventilation. Rainwater or condensa- inner leaf has good insulation properties. But it
tion in the cavity can drain away or evaporate is important when the inner leaf makes use of
without causing problems and without the inner masonry types that exhibit high compressive
leaf becoming saturated. In addition, the cavity strength but low thermal insulation. In that case,
helps the outer leaf to dry out faster. The ther- the thermal properties of the wall are provided
mal insulation is mainly determined by the solely by the layer of insulation. This can partly
inner leaf, although this is usually only econom- compensate for the disadvantage of the total
ical in conjunction with inner leaves with very thickness of the wall construction necessary to
high insulation values. accommodate thermal insulation plus cavity. A
The cavity should be at least 60 mm wide. This further disadvantage is the high cost of con-
minimum distance is based on the fact that structing such walls.
2.4.8 Minimum number and diameter of wall ties per m 2
of wall area adequate circulation of the air cannot be The minimum width of the air space is 40 mm.
Wall ties: expected if the gap is too small. However, the If we use the maximum width of 150 mm between
min. No. diameter width of the cavity may be reduced to 40 mm if the two leaves, we are left with 110 mm which
[mm]
the mortar is struck off flush on at least one may be filled with insulation. However, owing to
Minimum, provided 5 3
neither of the side of the cavity, thus preventing mortar the unevenness of the surfaces of the two
following two bridges from interrupting the cavity. The maxi- leaves, it is advisable to include a reasonable
lines apply mum distance between the two leaves is deter- tolerance in our planning. Insulating batts are
Wall sections 5 4 mined by the load-carrying capacity of the wall recommended; these are butt jointed together
> 12 m above
ties under compression and should be no more and fixed by suitable means (e.g. clamping
ground level, or
than 150 mm. Ventilation openings (e.g. open discs on wall ties or wall anchors etc.). Blan-
distance between 7 4
masonry leaves or 5 5 perpends) should be included at the top and kets, on the other hand, tend to swell or
70-120 mm bottom of the cavity and at any intermediate expand and hence reduce the width of the air
A wall tie diameter of 3 mm is adequate for a plaster- supports to guarantee circulation of the air. space. Therefore, they should not be used for
filled collar-jointed wall. Openings at the bottom also serve to drain the this type of wall.
cavity (weep holes). This also applies to span- The details at the top and bottom of the wall
drel panels. A total of 7500 mm 2 of ventilation regarding openings and waterproofing corre-
openings should be provided for every 20 m 2 spond to those for cavity walls.
of wall area (including doors and windows).
This figure means that for a single-storey build- Full-fill cavity walls
ing and an outer leaf of thin-format units These are external walls in which the cavity
approximately every second perpend at the between the leaves is filled completely with
base and below the roof or the underside of insulation material in order to increase the
2.4.9 Detail at base of twin-leaf facing masonry
supports in the outer leaf must be left open. thermal insulation value, or the cavity is omitted
The damp proof course must be positioned in order to reduce the overall thickness of the
exactly in order to prevent the masonry below wall. The outer leaf should consist of frost-
the open perpends becoming saturated at the resistant masonry units at least 115 mm thick
base of the wall. As water may collect in cer- to increase the resistance to driving rain. The
tain areas at the base, the inner leaf is to be clear distance to the face of the loadbearing
protected against rising damp by extending inner leaf should not exceed 150 mm. Glazed
the damp proof course up the face of the inner units or units with surface coatings must exhibit
leaf. Openings must be at least 100 mm above enhanced frost resistance. The thermal insula-
ground level. tion is installed between the leaves without any
air space. The insulation materials used may
Partial-fill cavity walls be in the form of batts, blankets, granulates
In this type of wall the functions of the individ- and loose materials which are permanently
ual layers are clearly demarcated under opti- water-repellent (hydrophobic) as well as inject-
mum building science conditions. A layer of ed cellular foams (e.g. hard polystyrene or
thermal insulation is attached to the outside polyurethane), mineral wool, loose expanded
face of the inner, loadbearing leaf but a venti- perlite or polyurethane or urea formaldehyde
lated gap remains between this and the outer resin injected cellular foams. Up to now, the
leaf. This cavity means that condensation and serviceability of these materials has had to be
126
External walls
verified by a general building authority certifi 2.4.10 Influence of wall ties on thermal transmittance values of twin-leaf masonry
cate. In future the requirements these insula
tion materials have to meet will be covered by
corresponding standards.
In practical terms, it is virtually impossible to
build the outer leaf without a gap for the brick
layer's fingers when using batts and blankets
(not loose materials or injected cellular foams).
However, this has the advantage that any
water which does penetrate can drain away Inner leaf 175 mm 175 mm 175 mm
unhindered. λ = 0.36 λ = 0.56 λ = 0.56
Thermal insulation - 100 mm 120 mm
When used as full-fill cavity insulation, water λ = 0.040 λ = 0.040
proof or water-repellent materials do not need Cavity/Air space 60 mm 40 mm -
to be treated any differently to their use else Outer leaf 115 mm 115 mm 115 mm
λ = 0.81 λ = 0.81 λ = 0.81
where with respect to their thermal conductiv
Wall tie 5 per m 2 5 per m 2 5 per m 2
ity. However, full-fill cavity insulation can func 3 mm Ø 5 mm Ø 4 mm Ø
tion effectively only when the amount of water U 1.023 0.303 0.276
penetrating the insulation is not excessive and, ΔUf 0.003 0.009 0.006
above all, does not accumulate at certain posi Uc 1.026 0.312 0.282
tions. This is guaranteed by ensuring that the Increase 0.3% 3.0% 2.20%
outer leaf is built to a high standard of work
manship - which means erecting the masonry
with fully filled joints capable of transmitting
stresses. Lime-cement mortars of group II or
II a with a good sticky consistency are pre
ferred, in addition, proper bricklaying tech
niques appropriate to the material of the outer
leaf are essential (e.g. prewetting high ab-
sorbency units, reducing the plasticity of the
mortar for low absorbency units). Furthermore,
openings in the outer leaf totalling at least
5000 mm2 per 20 m2 of wall area (including
doors and windows) must be included at the
base of the wall so that any moisture that does
become trapped in the cavity insulation -
despite careful construction - can drain to the
base of the wall and escape to the outside.
Mineral fibre insulation materials in the form of
batts and blankets, or sheets of foamed plastic
and foamed glass are to be fixed to the inner
leaf by, for example, plastic discs fitted to the
wall ties, in such a way that the thickness of the
insulation remains constant. Blankets of insulat
ing materials are butt jointed together but the
stiffer batts require joints to be formed (e.g.
rebate, tongue and groove) or fixed with layers
offset so that water cannot penetrate the joints.
Missing sections of hard foam materials (e.g.
where wall ties penetrate) must be made good
with a suitable sealing compound.
When using loose thermal insulating materials
(e.g. mineral fibre granulate, polystyrene foam
beads, expanded perlite), it must be ensured
that the insulating material completely fills the 2.4.11 Max. permissible sizes of infill panels in non-loadbearing external walls without mathematical analysis
Wall thickness Permissible max. size of infill panel for a height above ground level of:
cavity between the leaves with a consistent
0to8m 8 to 20 m 20 to 100 m
packing density and also that the drainage
ε = 1.0 ε ≥ 2.0(1) ε = 1.0 ε ≥ 2.0(1) ε = 1.0 ε ≥ 2.0(1)
openings at the base of wall remain unob mm m2 m2 m2 m2 m m
structed by using, for example, a stainless 115 12.0 8.0 8.0 5.0 6.0 4.0
steel mesh. An inconsistent, incomplete filling 115(2) 16.0 10.6 10.6 6.7 8.0 5.3
to the cavity impairs the thermal insulation 175 20.0 14.0 13.0 9.0 9.0 6.0
240 36.0 25.0 23.0 16.0 16.0 12.0
value. This is particularly so at the top of the 33.0 35.0 23.0 25.0 17.0
≥300 50.0
wall if the material settles shortly after filling or where e = ratio of longer to shorter side of infill panel
over the course of time. However, voids and Max. permissible sizes for side ratios 1.0 < e < 2.0 may be interpolated linearly.
irregularities in fillings of loose insulating (1) The sizes may be doubled for masonry units of strength classes ≥ 20 and ratios h/l ≥ 2.0 (where h = height of infill
materials and injected foams are particularly panel, 1 = length of infill panel).
(2) Permissible for masonry unit compressive strength classes ≥ 12
127
Masonry details
2.4.12 Sliding and elastic joints at sides of infill critical as these allow moisture to penetrate
panels unchecked right up to the inner leaf. The only
way to avoid this is to use proven equipment
and techniques in the hands of experienced
personnel.
Plaster-filled collar-jointed external walls

This type of twin-leaf construction makes use of
a continuous layer of plaster applied to the out-
side face of the inner leaf. Like the cavity wall,
the inner leaf in this case consists of masonry
units with good thermal insulation properties.
This type of construction prevents water from
reaching the inner leaf and provides protection
against driving rain. The outer leaf (facing
masonry) is erected as close as possible to the
plaster (gap for bricklayer's fingers) with joints
fully filled with mortar. In terms of construction
and function, this wall is an improvement on
the single-leaf faced wall with its continuous
20 mm wall joint. In contrast to the single-leaf
external wall, which often suffers from damage
attributable to lack of care when casting the
wall joint, plastering the outside face of the
inner leaf and hence the standard of workman-
ship and function of the continuous coat of
plaster can be easily inspected before the
outer leaf is built. However, the disadvantage
of the twin-leaf wall compared to the single-leaf
faced wall is that the vertical loads must be
carried solely by the inner leaf. Compared to
the cavity wall, this type of wall is thinner over-
2.4.13 Detail at base of infill panel all.
If a rendered outer leaf is preferred to facing
masonry, then the plaster coat on the outside
face of the loadbearing, inner leaf may be omit-
ted. Frost-resistant facing bricks are not neces-
sary with such a rendered outer leaf.
Drainage openings (e.g. weep holes) are
required only at the base of the wall to allow
water which has penetrated the outer leaf and
drained down to escape. Openings at the top
of wall are not necessary because ventilation in
the narrow gap between inner and outer leaves
cannot be expected. Wall ties just 3 mm thick
2.4.14 Junction between infill panel and timber post
are adequate to connect the two leaves.
128
Internal walls
Non-loadbearing external walls between overlapping fittings or attached by Gable walls

Non-loadbearing external masonry walls are way of stainless steel anchors in slots (see fig. Gable walls without vertical load
slab-like components which, apart from their 2.4.12) in order to achieve the sliding and elas- Masonry gable walls are necessary on build-
own weight, have to carry loads acting perpen- tic connection. Strips of resilient, elastic, rot- ings with pitched roofs. With steep roof slopes,
dicular to their face (e.g. wind loads) and proof material (e.g. mineral fibre or bitumen such walls can constitute considerable areas
transfer these to adjoining, loadbearing com- felt) are placed between infill panel and adjoin- of masonry. Couple and collar roofs do not
ponents, e.g. shear walls, floor plates. In the ing component, outer and inner joints sealed transfer any load to the gable wall, which
structural analysis they may not be taken into with elastoplastic material or prefabricated joint therefore only carries its own weight and wind
account when assessing the stability of the fillers. The sides of panels are easily connect- loads. These should be considered as non-
building or as lateral restraint to loadbearing ed to steel columns when the overall dimen- loadbearing external walls. They may be
walls. These walls are popular for the infill pan- sions of the sections are selected to suit the analysed structurally or by comparison with
els of frame or cellular structures of reinforced thickness of the infill panel (see fig. 2.4.12). the permissible values for infill panels accord-
concrete, steel or timber. Such panels can be Strips of foil are placed between steel flange ing to DIN 1053 part 1 table 9, provided the
built in single- or multi-leaf form, with or without and mortar to achieve a sliding joint. Mineral gable wall is supported at the edges or by
plaster, with additional thermal insulation fibre pads between the mortar and the web of crosswalls or integral piers. At the base the
and/or curtain wall facade. Single-leaf, ren- the steel section help to improve sound insula- wall is held in position by the reinforced con-
dered walls must be min. 115 mm thick, single- tion and fire protection. The transfer of forces crete floor either by means of tension anchors
leaf facing masonry min. 310 mm. In a twin-leaf between masonry and column is ensured by or via adhesion and friction, at the top by a ring
wall the outer leaf must be at least 90 mm and completely filling the void between steel sec- beam or the roof construction. To do this, the
the inner leaf at least 115 mm thick. tion and panel with mortar. At the top of the roof construction must be braced (e.g. timber
panel a 20 mm tolerance is generally sufficient. or metal diagonal bracing). The better solution
Basis for design The gap is filled with a soft, rotproof material. in structural terms is the formation of a ring
According to DIN 1053 part 1, the infill panels This prevents the loadbearing adjoining com- beam, whose ends at least must be connected
of frame or cellular structures need not be ponent unintentionally transferring loads to the to the roof construction by way of steel anchors.
assessed structurally when the panels are sup- non-loadbearing panel by way of deformation The simpler solution is to support the gable
ported on four sides (e.g. by bonding, tongue and subsequent deflection. At the base of the wall at roof level via a connection rigid in the
and groove joints or anchors), normal mortar of wall the horizontal forces from, for example, horizontal direction. This is usually achieved
at least mortar group ll a or lightweight mortar wind loads, are transferred from the non-load- by way of masonry anchors.
LM 36 or thin-bed mortar is used and the con- bearing external wall to the loadbearing com-
ditions of DIN 1053 part 1 table 9 (see table ponent by friction. A layer of roofing felt can be Gable walls with vertical load
2.4.11) are maintained. The dimensions of the included between the wall and the loadbearing If purlins span onto the gable wall, then a load-
infill panel are to be taken as the clear dimen- component (fig. 2.4.13). bearing masonry pier can be assumed
sions between the supporting construction. Infill panels to a timber frame should always be beneath the bearing for the purlin as a result of
The heights above ground level refer to the top completed with a mortar joint 10-20 mm wide the vertical load. Apart from carrying the roof
edge of the respective infill panel. To classify between timber and masonry. This compen- load, this also stiffens the gable wall.
twin-leaf masonry, it is recommended to use sates for tolerances and deformations in the Therefore, the gable wall is divided into load-
the thickness of the inner leaf plus half the timber construction. A secure connection to the bearing and non-loadbearing areas. The load-
thickness of the outer leaf as the design wall timber is provided by way of triangular fillets to bearing sections (masonry piers) beneath the
thickness. In contrast to loadbearing masonry, all sides fixed with stainless steel nails. This purlins have to be examined according to the
the conditions of table 2.4.11 take into account presupposes reliable adhesion between mortar more accurate method of analysis. In doing so,
the low tensile strength perpendicular to the and masonry units (e.g. provided by suitable the clear height of the pier should be used as
bed joints. This is possible because failure of a pretreatment, the use of low-shrinkage mortar the buckling length. The distribution of load
panel does not lead to collapse of the entire etc.). Alternatively, stainless steel flat anchors below the purlins may be assumed to be 60°.
structure. If the above conditions are not met or bent to form an angle can be specified as a The roof construction must accommodate the
openings are provided in non-loadbearing mechanical fixing, particularly with large horizontal support reactions, e.g. by way of
external walls (e.g. windows, doors) which panels. diagonal bracing in the plane of the roof, aris-
impair the load-carrying ability, a structural ing from the provision of support to the pier.
analysis is required. The non-loadbearing sections adjacent to the
masonry piers should be analysed as gable
Connections to loadbearing components walls without vertical load.
Infill panels achieve their stability by being
fixed to adjoining components. The connec-
tions must be able to transfer loads acting on Internal walls
the infill panels to the loadbearing construction
and also accommodate deformations in the Loadbearing Internal walls
adjoining construction. They may be rigid or In the latest edition of DIN 1053 part 1, the mini-
sliding and elastic. However, a rigid connec- mum thickness for a loadbearing internal wall
tion, e.g. steel inserts, anchors, mortar joints, has been reduced from 240 mm to 115 mm.
bonding, should only be used when excessive This reduction in thickness has resulted in a
restraint and deformation is not expected from useful gain in floor space, particularly for
the masonry and the surrounding loadbearing single- and two-storey buildings in which the
construction. The use of sliding connections loads are only minimal. This is particularly evi-
means there is no opportunity to span the infill dent when it can be guaranteed that the cross-
walls between the adjoining components. The sections of such thin walls are not reduced by
infill panel is generally built into a groove, or chases and recesses. Reducing the minimum
129
Masonry details
2.4.15 Structural loading scheme according to wall thickness to 115 mm has also allowed Location 2:
DIN 4103 part 1 for non-loadbearing internal internal walls, previously classed as non-load- Locations with large numbers of people, e.g.
partitions
bearing on account of their thickness, to now larger assembly buildings and schools, lecture
be included as loadbearing elements. As a theatres, exhibition halls, retail premises and
result, stiffening to the building is improved, similar facilities:
floor spans are shortened, connection prob- horizontal line load
lems for non-loadbearing walls are minimized p2 = 1.0 kN/m at a height of 900 mm above the
etc. In some circumstances, design and con- base of wall.
struction of the building is, on the whole, made Irrespective of location, a bracket load of
easier. 0.4 kN/m wall length (see 2.4.15) and an
impact load with a force of E basic = 100 kNm
acting at an unfavourable position must also be
Non-loadbearing internal walls allowed for. The impact load can be caused by
When built from masonry, non-loadbearing a person (soft impact) or a hard object (hard
internal walls - or non-loadbearing internal par- impact).
titions - are usually built as lightweight parti- According to DIN 1055 part 3, the structural
tions in the sense of DIN 1055 part 3. Non- analysis of a loadbearing floor supporting such
loadbearing internal partitions are only subject- partitions may assume - instead of a more
ed to considerable wind loads in exceptional accurate calculation - a uniformly distributed
cases, e.g. in shed-type buildings with large additional imposed load of 0.75 kN/m2 for wall
door openings where the pressure can build weights (including plaster) < 1.0 kN/m2 wall
up inside the building. In such cases they are area and 1.25 kN/m 2 for wall weights (including
to be treated as non-loadbearing external plaster) 1.0-1.5 kN/m 2 wall area.
walls. Otherwise, non-loadbearing internal par- For wall weights > 1.5 kN/m 2 wall area - or
titions not subjected to wind loads are covered > 1.0 kN/m 2 wall area for floors without ade-
by the provisions of DIN 4103. The require- quate transverse distribution of the loads - the
ments and analyses of DIN 4103 part 1 are not position and magnitude of the wall load is to be
related to material. Construction guidelines for taken into account accurately when analysing
masonry partitions are stipulated in DIN 4103 the floor.
part 3. At present this standard only exists in
the form of an unpublished draft. Details given Materials for non-loadbearing internal masonry
here are based on the current state of know- partitions
ledge with respect to non-loadbearing masonry Only materials covered by DIN standards or
partitions based on the information sheet pub- building authority certificates may be used for
lished by Deutsche Gesellschaft für Mauer- building partitions. Partitions of masonry units
werksbau (German Masonry Association) [97, or wall elements may use only mortar of mortar
172]. groups II, II a or III to DIN 1053 part 1. The mor-
Non-loadbearing internal partitions are walls tar should not be unnecessarily firm in order to
between interior spaces that do not fulfil any preserve sufficient elasticity in the masonry to
structural function for the overall structure, i.e. accommodate deformation. Thin-bed mortar
they are not called upon to stabilize the build- covered by building authority certificate may
ing not to carry vertical loads. Consequently, be used for wall elements and gauged units.
they may be removed without adversely affect-
ing the stability of the building. Structural analysis
An assessment of the ability to carry horizontal
Requirements loads according to DIN 4103 part 1 (see
Apart from self-weight plus plaster and/or fig.2.4.15) may be carried out mathematically
cladding, these walls must be able to carry or by means of tests. However, a mathematical
light loads from brackets and horizontal analysis is difficult because tensile stresses
impacts from people or hard objects and trans- perpendicular to the bed joint may not be
fer these loads to adjoining, loadbearing com- taken into account even though they are pre-
ponents. They gain their stability from being sent to a limited extent.
connected to adjoining components. Maximum dimensions that satisfy the require-
DIN 4103 part 1 distinguishes between the fol- ments of DIN 4103 part 1 have been deter-
lowing locations for partitions with their associ- mined experimentally[97].
ated loads: These maximum dimensions (taken from [97])
are given in table 2.4.16 for various types of
Location 1: masonry and support conditions according to
Locations with low numbers of people, e.g. location, thickness and height. Designers
housing, hotels, offices, hospital patient adhering to these dimensions do not need to
accommodation and interiors with similar func- carry out a (less favourable) mathematical
tions (including corridors): analysis. If these maximum dimensions are
horizontal line load exceeded, additional support in the form of
p 1 = 0.5 kN/m at a height of 900 mm above the steel, reinforced concrete or reinforced mason-
base of wall. ry columns must be provided.
130
Internal walls
The type of junction between a partition and 2.4.16 Max. dimensions for non-loadbearing internal partitions of man-made masonry units
the floor above determines whether any load is
transferred from the floor to that partition.
Therefore, we distinguish between partitions
with and without vertical loading. Reinforced
concrete floors with high slenderness ratios
Max. dimensions for walls supported on 4 sides(1) without vertical load(2)
require us to assume partitions with vertical
d [mm] Max. wall length [m] for wall height [m] for location 1 (upper value) and location 2 (lower value)
loading. The minimum thickness of 50 mm in
h[m] 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
the tables is based on practical considerations.
The maximum wall length is restricted to 12 m
50 3.0 3.5 4.0 - -
1.5 2.0 2.5
in order to limit cracking. Load transfer on 60 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 -
three sides may be assumed up to a 2.5 3.0 3.5
height/length ratio of h/l ≤ 0.66. Smaller ratios 70 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
mean that the partition is supported only top 90 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
and bottom. In this case there must be a mor 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
tar joint between top of wall and underside of 100 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0
floor slab. 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
115 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
Design and construction rules 120 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
Following the recommendations below will help 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
175 no restriction on length
ensure good quality non-loadbearing internal 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
partitions: (1) The max. wall lengths are to be halved for walls supported on 3 sides (1 unsupported vertical edge).
( 2 ) The values given here apply to calcium silicate and autoclaved aerated concrete units when using MG III or thin-bed
• Max. final floor slab deflection I/500 mortar. For wall thicknesses < 175 mm and MG II or ll a, the values are to be halved when using these types of
masonry units.
(li = equivalent span depending on structural
system). Max. dimensions for walls supported on 4 sides(1) with vertical load(2)
• Reduce the floor slab deflection due to creep d [mm] Max. wall length [m] for wall height [m] for location 1 (upper value) and location 2 (lower value)
and shrinkage by adhering to striking times h[m] 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
and subsequently treating the concrete. 50 5.5 6.0 6.5 - -
• Build non-loadbearing internal partitions after 2.5 3.0 3.5
60 6.0 6.5 7.0 - -
completion of the primary structure whenever
4.0 4.5 5.0
possible so that the majority of deformations 70 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5
resulting from shrinkage and creep of the 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
loadbearing construction are already com 90 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
pleted. At the very least, the topmost course 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0
100 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
of masonry units and the plastering should be 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
carried out as late as possible in order to min 115 no restriction on length
imize the risk of cracks. 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
• Erect non-loadbearing partitions in such a
12.0 12.0
way that floor slab deformation due to the 175 no restriction on length
weight of such partitions does not introduce (1) The max. wall lengths are to be halved for walls supported on 3 sides (1 unsupported vertical edge).
any additional loads into non-loadbearing ( 2 ) The values given here apply to calcium silicate and autoclaved aerated concrete units when using MG III or thin-bed
partitions in the storey below (if possible, start mortar, and also for MG II or Ha with wall thicknesses > 100 mm. For wall thicknesses ≤ 100 mm and MG II or lla, the
values are to be halved when using these types of masonry units.
in the topmost storey and work down).
Max. dimensions for walls supported on 3 sides without vertical load(1) (top edge unsupported)
Up to an equivalent floor span of Ii = 7.00 m, a d [mm] Max. wall length [m] for wall height [m] for location 1 (upper value) and location 2 (lower value)
non-loadbearing partition can carry a load by h[m] 2.0 2.25 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
way of arching action without damage, provid 50 3.0 3.5 4 5 6 - -
1.5 2.0 2.5 - - - -
ing the recommendations are followed and it is
60 5.0 5.5 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 -
guaranteed that the horizontal thrust can be 2.5 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 - -
carried by the supports at the ends of the wall. 70 7.0 7.5 8.0 9.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Larger spans require additional measures to 3.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 7.0
be taken, e.g. separating the base of wall from 90 8.0 8.5 9.0 10.0 10.0 12.0 12.0
the floor slab by means of sanded building 4.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
paper or reinforcing the areas of wall at risk of 100 10.0 10.0 10.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
5.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
cracking.
115 11.5 8.0 9.0 10.0 10.0 12.0 12.0
6.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 10.0
120 8.0 9.0 10.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
6.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 10.0
8.0 9.0 10.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
(1)The max. lengths given here apply to masonry units of clay or lightweight concrete with normal mortar as well as
autoclaved aerated concrete blocks or calcium silicate units with thin-bed mortar or mortars of mortar group III. When
using units of autoclaved aerated concrete and calcium silicate with normal mortar, reduce the max. wall lengths as
follows: a) for walls 56 and 70 mm thick reduce to 40%; b) for walls 90 and 100 mm thick reduce to 50%; c) for walls
115 and 120 mm thick in location 2 reduce to 50% (no reduction for location 1). The units should be prewetted when
using mortar group III.
131
Masonry details
2.4.17 Sliding joint details Junctions with adjoining, loadbearing or recesses. In all other cases, the safety factor
components is increased to γp = 2.5.
Connections must take account of the possible The reduction factor is consequently defined
influence that deformations in adjoining com as k1 = 2.0/2.5 = 0.8. The use of divided
ponents may have on the internal partition. masonry units or divided units with ≥ 35% per
According to DIN 4103 part 1, the service forations makes the columns more vulnerable
ability of junctions must be guaranteed. to irregularities and flaws in the construction.
The junction details shown in figs. 2.4.17 and Unlike walls, these cannot be compensated for
2.4.18 do not normally require further assess by neighbouring parts of the cross-section and
ment. so this high risk of structural failure has to be
Rigid junctions are those which are fully bond taken into account by way of an increased
ed, filled with mortar or employ similar meas safety factor.
ures (anchors, dowels or steel inserts). Such
details are used for walls where no or very low
restraint forces from the adjoining members Free-standing masonry walls
are expected to act on the wall. The problem of the free-standing masonry wall
Rigid lateral connections are usually limited to is that it is supported only at its base, and so
housebuilding (wall length I ≤ 5.0 m). A rigid the system must span vertically. The exception
junction between top of wall and underside of to this rule is when suitable measures, e.g.
floor slab can be achieved by filling the joint reinforced concrete columns, masonry piers or
with mortar. Introducing a strip of hard foam crosswalls at close spacing, are introduced to
reduces the influence of the deformation of the ensure that the wall spans horizontally by way
adjoining loadbearing construction, but guar of arching action or by employing reinforced
antees the transfer of horizontal forces due to masonry. Without such measures, the permis
the hard foam strip being compressed as the sible height of the wall is very limited owing to
floor slab deflects. the fact that the cross-section may only crack
Sliding junctions are particularly suitable for as far as the centre of the wall.
applications where it is necessary to reduce Masonry units for free-standing walls must be
the risk of cracking due to unintentional forces frost resistant if they are not rendered. Free
being introduced into the non-loadbearing standing masonry walls are always built with a
nternal partition as a result of the deformation proper bond and with all joints filled.
of adjoining components. The foundation should be taken down to a level
Sliding connections are achieved by using pro where it is not affected by frost. A horizontal
files, grooves and stainless steel anchors in damp proof course of water-repellent mortar or
slots, maybe with the addition of foil to create a waterproof paint should be included above
sliding bearing. ground level in order to protect the wall against
The joint should be filled with mineral wool in rising damp and splashing water. Vertical
order to improve fire protection and sound faces of masonry in contact with the ground
insulation (see "Non-loadbearing external should also be protected against ingress of
walls"). moisture from the soil. The length of an individ
ual segment of masonry should not exceed
6-8 m; longer lengths should include move
Columns and free-standing masonry walls ment joints. They are a number of ways in
which long walls may be segmented attrac
Columns
tively (see fig. 2.4.19). The top of the wall must
Columns are elements with a cross-sectional be covered in such a way that water cannot
area < 0.01 m 2 . To act as a loadbearing ele penetrate, indeed that it drains away clear of
ment, a column must have a minimum cross- the face of the wall. If used as a coping, a
section of 0.004 m 2 . Hence, the minimum brick-on-edge course must consist of whole
dimensions of a loadbearing column are 115 x bricks and be carefully jointed. The joint below
365 mm or 175 x 240 mm. Columns have a low a brick-on-edge coping must be waterproof.
moment of area and therefore a low stiffness Owing to the many joints, this type of coping is
El. Their help in distributing horizontal loads is limited in its applications. Other types of cop
negligible, and so they are not called upon to ing include clay roof tiles, corrugated roofing
carry horizontal loads in the structural analysis. units of fibre-reinforced cement or specially
So columns carry only vertical axial loads. They designed coping units. Also suitable are pre
may be analysed for concentric or eccentric cast concrete units with permanently plastic
compression using either the simplified or joints laid in water-repellent mortar or on a
more accurate method of analysis. The simpli damp proof course, or metal cappings of
fied method makes use of the reduction factor galvanized steel, copper or aluminium either
k1 = 1.0, and the more accurate method uses nailed or screwed on.
the safety factor γ w = 2.0. In this case the
column should consist of one or more whole
masonry units or divided units with < 35% per
forations and should not weakened by chases
132
External basement walls
Party walls ing authority certificate or by the provisions of 2.4.18 Rigid joint details
DIN 4108 part 4. Products suitable for external
For reasons of sound insulation, party walls insulation include extruded polystyrene sheets,
between adjoining residential buildings (ter foamed glass sheets and polystyrene bead
raced houses, semi-detached houses) should foam sheets with a minimum bulk density of 30
be built as twin-leaf walls with a continuous kg/m 3 .
separating joint (cavity) from foundation to roof.
If twin-leaf external walls are used, the separat External basement walls are subjected to ver
ing joint must be taken through the outer leaf tical loads in the plane of the wall and horizon
as well in order to avoid an acoustic bridge. tal loads resulting from, for example, earth
According to DIN 1053 part 1, the minimum pressure, perpendicular to the plane of the
thickness of each leaf should be 115 mm. If the wall. Earth pressure loads are assumed to be
weight of the party wall exceeds 100 kg/m 2 wall mainly active earth pressures, provided the
area (including plaster), the width of the joint walls are not substantially thicker than the
must be at least 50 mm; if over structural analysis requires, and the backfill
150 kg/m2, then 30 mm is permissible but 50 mm material is only compacted to medium density.
is still recommended. To comply with the If the backfill material is highly compacted, an
sound insulation requirements of DIN 4109, the increased earth pressure, e.g. earth pressure
cavity must be completely filled with mineral at rest, must be assumed. The earth pressure
fibre batts to DIN 18165 part 2. Closed-cell generates bending moments in the wall which
hard foam sheets or wood-fibre boards are are usually the deciding factor in the design of
unsuitable for sound insulation. The insulation the wall.
must always extend above the leaf built last in
order to prevent mortar and debris falling into
the cavity and possibly forming acoustic Stability of external masonry basement walls
bridges between the leaves, Installing the insu Vertical uniaxial loadbearing action
lation in two layers with their joints offset is re If the basement wall is supported top and bot
commended for improving the sound insula tom, we can assume that the wall acts as a ver
tion. As the separating joint also passes through tical loadbearing member spanning in one
the floors, the insulation should extend above direction between two supports with a cracked
the thickness of the floor during casting, be section of no more than half the wall thickness.
protected by suitable means and supported The tensile stresses perpendicular to the bed
against the pressure of concrete on one side. joints may not be taken into account (see
If the weight of a single leaf exceeds 200 kg/m 2 "Analysis of tension and bending tension").
wall area, the separating joint may remain They are "neutralized" by vertical loads.
open. Special care must be taken here to DIN 1053 part 1 includes two methods which
ensure that mortar or debris does not drop into may be applied in order to avoid the need to
the cavity and form acoustic bridges. This is analyse the wall for earth pressure. The follow
less of a problem when using thin-bed mortar if ing conditions have to be satisfied for both
the mortar is applied by way of mortar sledges. methods (see fig. 2.4.20):
Otherwise, mortar - or concrete when casting
the floors - can be prevented from falling into
• Clear height of basement wall h s ≤ 2.60 m,
the cavity by using suspended battens raised
thickness of wall d > 240 mm.
as the work proceeds or joint forms, which
• The roof to the basement must act as a plate
have to be removed subsequently.
and be able to accommodate the forces gen
erated by the earth pressure.
• The imposed load on the ground over the
External basement walls area in which the earth pressure influences
the basement wall may not exceed 5 kN/m 2 .
Basements are no longer restricted to subordi At the same time, the surface of the ground
nate roles such as the storage of food or fuel, should not slope upwards from the wall and
but provide space for diverse activities, e.g. the depth of fill h e must be less than the clear
washing, hobbies, workshop, playroom, guest height of the basement wall h s . 2.4.19 Segmentation of free-standing masonry
room, study etc. They represent a relatively walls (plan views)
inexpensive way of extending the useful floor In the first method the decisive criterion is the
space available. At the same time, they corre permanent load N 0 at the top of the basement
spond to the concept of dense, space-saving wall below the basement roof, which must lie
construction [8]. within the following limits:
Basement rooms normally heated require addi
tional thermal insulation if that of the masonry max N 0 ≥ N 0 ≥ min N 0
alone is not sufficient. External thermal insula
tion is recommended. This should consist of Compliance with the permissible edge
materials covered by a standard but with extra pressure is checked using the equation
functions regarding resistance to water, frost
and earth pressure covered by a general build- max N 0 = 0,45 d σ 0
133
Masonry details
2.4.20 Loading assumptions for basement walls without where d = wall thickness and σ 0 = basic value for b ≤ h:
mathematical analysis of permissible compressive stress. N 0 ≥ 0.5min N 0 u n i a x i a l
N 1 ≥ 0.5min N u n i a x i a l
The minimum loads min. N0 are listed in DIN 1053
part 1 table 8 (see table 2.4.21). These ensure for b ≥ 2 hs:
compliance with the permissible eccentricity of N0 ≥ min N0 uniaxial
the basement wall as a result of axial force and N1 ≥ min Nuniaxial
bending moment due to earth pressure.
The second method is based on the findings of
Mann/Bernhardt [9] and enables the wall to be Horizontal loadbearing action
analysed with slightly less vertical load. The If supports are closely spaced, then it is pos
axial force N 1 resulting from permanent loading sible to carry the horizontal load of earth pres
at half the depth of fill must lie within the follow sure to the supports by way of tensile bending
ing limits: stresses parallel to the bed joints. Owing to the
low tensile bending strength of masonry paral
d x β R / ( 3 γ ) ≥ N 1 ≥ min N lel to the bed joints, this form of horizontal load-
bearing action is, however, very limited, partic
where ularly with walls which need to be thin in order
2.4.21 Min. N0 for basements walls without mathe min N = (p e x h s x x he2) / (20 d) to maximize the usable interior space. If the
matical analysis βR characteristic compressive strength vertical loads are very low owing to, for exam
Wall min N 0 in kN/m of masonry ple, large window openings or floor slabs
thickness d for depth of backfill h e of γ safety factor spanning parallel to the basement wall, or if
mm 1.0 m 1.5 m 2.0 m 2.5 m pe bulk density of fill [kN/m 3 ] there are segments of wall with unsupported
240 6 20 45 75
top edges, e.g. spandrel panels beneath large
300 3 15 30 50
365 0 10 25 40 If the vertical loads N 0 and N 1 do not lie within basement windows, the structural system can
490 0 5 15 30 the given limits, the basement wall must be be taken to be a horizontal arch. However, the
Intermediate values may be obtained by linear inter designed according to the more accurate external basement wall must be supported by
polation
method of analysis taking the earth pressure the transverse elements and at a close spacing
into account. This involves analysing the com to guarantee that the arch is formed and the
pressive stresses as well as the slab shear horizontal thrust accommodated. At an inter
resulting from the shear force generated by the mediate support between two arches with
earth pressure. Alternatively, the permissible roughly equal spans and loads, the arch
upper and lower limits may be adjusted by thrusts in the plane of the wall cancel each
2.4.22 Waterproofing of basement walls for the "non- increasing the thickness of the wall, reducing other out and only the component perpendic
hydrostatic pressure" loading case ular to wall has to be resisted by the support.
the height of the wall by forming the base in
reinforced concrete, or choosing a unit/mortar But at an end support, resistance to horizontal
combination with a higher compressive shear has to be proved. The type of construc
strength. This is also necessary if the design tion which usually fulfils the requirements of
according to the more accurate method of such an analysis is reinforced masonry using
analysis taking earth pressure into account is reinforced, concrete-filled specials. The base
not possible. Finally, the load-carrying capacity ment wall must be as thick as possible in order
of the basement wall can be increased by to achieve an adequate "rise" to ensure arch
using reinforced masonry or by considering it ing action. In addition, a cracked section up to
to span in two directions or horizontally [154]. half the thickness of the wall may be assumed
at the centre of the arch in the calculations.
Biaxial loadbearing action The perpends must be fully filled with mortar in
Stability can be checked by assuming that the order to transfer the compression. The charac
external basement wall subjected to earth teristic value that may be used for the strength
pressure spans in two directions when cross- of the masonry in the basement wall perpen
walls or structural components, e.g. piers or dicular to the perpends is - based on DIN
stiffening columns of reinforced, concrete-filled 1053 part 3 - the characteristic value βR for
channel blocks, support the wall at a clear solid units and half the characteristic value βR
2.4.23 Waterproofing of basement walls for the "tem
spacing b ≤ 2 h s . The necessary vertical loads for compressive strength perpendicular to the
porary build-up of seepage water" loading case
may then be reduced as follows according to bed joint for perforated solid units and other
DIN 1053 part 1 (intermediate values may be perforated units.
obtained through linear interpolation):
134
Natural stone masonry
Reinforced masonry during the subsequent construction of the floor of the superstructure. A plinth must be water
Reinforced external basement walls are useful (see fig. 2.4.22). proofed and protected against splashing water
when the vertical loads are so low that a The loading case "temporary build-up of to a height of about 200 mm above ground
cracked section larger than half the thickness seepage water" requires a layer of blinding to level. Therefore, waterproof paint or suitable
occurs under vertical or biaxial loadbearing be laid first which is then covered with a min. rendering is applied to exposed surfaces and
action, or when carrying the loads horizontally 0.2 mm thick polyethylene foil as a separating this must overlap the vertical waterproofing by
via tensile bending stresses parallel to the bed membrane and then a screed to protect this at least 100 mm. In twin-leaf masonry the water
joints or via horizontal arching action leads to against mechanical damage. The ground slab proofing is placed on the outside face of the
uneconomically thick walls. Generally, the rein is then cast on this (internal tanking) (see fig. inner leaf.
forcement is placed horizontally in the bed 2.4.23).
joints. However, vertical reinforcement is pos
sible in conjunction with specials. Please refer Vertical waterproofing Natural stone masonry
to "Reinforced masonry" for details of the de Waterproof sheeting bonded to the wall or
sign and construction of reinforced external sealing compounds worked cold (modified Natural stone masonry can be classed as dry
basement walls. synthetic bitumen thick coatings) spread or walling, rubble masonry, various forms of
sprayed on are suitable for the vertical water coursed masonry, ashlar masonry or faced
proofing. The number of layers of waterproof masonry depending on the degree to which
Waterproofing sheeting depend on the type of sheeting the natural stones are worked and their result
As they are constantly in contact with the soil, selected. Thick coatings may be one- or two- ing geometry.
external basement walls are permanently sub component sealing systems and are always
jected to especially arduous conditions. If the applied in two operations. Dry walling
basement is an extension to the living or ancil Special care must be exercised at the junction is made from rubble stone without mortar. The
lary space of a building, then the external walls with the horizontal waterproofing. The founda stones should be laid with minimal dressing in
must be permanently protected against the tion/wall transition should be rounded off with a a proper bond so that joints and voids are as
ingress of moisture. concave fillet (min. radius 40 mm). The overlap small as possible. Smaller stones are to be
Together with the customary waterproofing should be at least 100 mm and be formed as wedged into the voids to create tension
systems, masonry basements, without elabo an overlapped water check joint. between the main stones. This helps the wall to
rate treatment, satisfy the requirements for keep its shape and remain stable. Dry walling
design and construction to meet the loading Protective layer is used for gravity retaining walls. In assessing
cases "ground damp" to DIN 18195 part 4, This protects the vertical waterproofing to the stability, the density used should be taken as
"non-hydrostatic pressure" to DIN 18195 part 5 basement walls against mechanical damage half the bulk density of the natural stone. When
and "hydrostatic pressure" to DIN 18195 part 6 during backfilling and subsequent compaction building gravity retaining walls, the natural
with "low load" (temporary build-up of seepage of the excavation. Suitable materials are, for stones are allowed to pile up against the soil
water). Most basement walls designed for the example, textured plastic sheeting, thermal to be retained in order to improve the stability
loading case "hydrostatic pressure" with "high insulation batts or drainage boards of no-fines of the wall. The largest and most regular (rect
load" (groundwater) will continue to be con bitumen-bound polystyrene. This protective angular) stones are used to frame the wall at
structed in concrete to ensure adequate water layer guarantees that the vertical waterproofing the corners and ends, and for the base (see
proofing (external tanking). The most popular system remains fully functional. fig. 2.4.24).
waterproofing systems for external basement
walls are bitumen and polymer bitumen sheet Separating membrane Uncoursed random rubble masonry
ing; cold-application self-adhesive bitumen The inclusion of a non-woven fabric as a sepa is made from unworked stones as they occur in
sheeting; and modified synthetic bitumen thick rating or sliding membrane between water nature. The round form of the stones results in
coatings. The latter are used for the majority of proofing and protective layer prevents loads a highly irregular appearance.
waterproofing tasks in housebuilding and re due to settlement of the backfill from being The finished wall is highly susceptible to sliding
present the most economic solution [93]. transferred to the waterproofing, causing this to and does not exhibit any noteworthy compres-
become detached. sive strength despite the hard rock used.
Horizontal waterproofing To secure the masonry bond, the joints must
Horizontal waterproofing in the form of a com Service penetrations be carefully filled with mortar and small pieces
plete sealing membrane is applied to the Building services (e.g. waste water, fresh of stone. In addition, the corners are built using
ground slab for the loading cases "ground water, electricity etc.) must be routed in such a stones with a more regular shape and the
damp" and "non-hydrostatic pressure". It is way that the waterproofing is not impaired. In courses held together with headers (through-
extended to the outside at the base of the addition, service penetrations must be able to stones) trued up horizontally every approx.
external walls beneath the first course of accommodate settlement of the structure with 1.0 m of wall height (see fig. 2.4.25).
masonry units to overlap with the vertical out damage.
waterproofing. The ground slab must project Coursed random rubble masonry
sufficiently beyond the external wall to ensure Construction joints The bed faces of these stones (150-300 mm
an adequate connection between horizontal The waterproofing must safely bridge over high) obtained from quarries undergo only mini
and vertical waterproofing. Placing the water construction joints. Any waterstops that are in mal working. Natural stones of various sizes
proofing beneath the first course of masonry cluded must be permanently connected to the are laid in mortar in approximate courses.
units means that the entire floor construction, waterproofing. Coursed random rubble masonry is trued up
e.g. floating screed, is carried out in the dry. horizontally across its complete thickness
No further horizontal waterproofing is required. Transition to superstructure, plinth (≥ 500 mm) every max. 1.5 m of wall height.
Sheets of waterproofing material are usually It is undesirable - both from a visual and a The same applies to the inclusion of a damp
used because these are more robust than technical point of view - to continue the vertical proof course, which should be built in approx.
coatings with regard to mechanical damage waterproofing above ground level at the base 150 mm above ground level. Large stones
135
Masonry details
2.4.24 Dry walling 2.4.25 Uncoursed random rubble masonry should be used at the base and at corners in
order to secure the masonry bond. Normal
mortar of group II or II a is used depending on
the type of rock.
These days, coursed random rubble masonry
is only used for less important basement walls,
free-standing boundary walls and for retaining
walls in vineyards (see fig. 2.4.26).
Hammer-dressed masonry
The bed joints and perpends of the stones in
exposed faces are worked to a depth of at
least 120 mm. However, the natural stones
beyond this depth of wall are either not worked
at all or only very little. Vertical and horizontal
joints are approximately at right-angles.
2.4.26 Coursed random rubble masonry 2.4.27 Hammer-dressed masonry The height of a course may change within a
course and between courses; however, the
masonry is to be trued up horizontally across
its complete thickness every max. 1.5 m of wall
height. For information on mortars and horizon-
tal damp proof courses, refer to "Coursed ran-
dom rubble masonry" above (see fig. 2.4.27).
Irregular coursed masonry

The bed joints and perpends of the stones in
exposed faces are worked to a depth of at
least 150 mm. Vertical and horizontal joints are
approximately perpendicular to each other and
to the surface.
Perpends and bed joints may not be thicker
than 30 mm. The height of a course may
change within a course and between courses,
2.4.28 Irregular coursed masonry 2.4.29 Regular coursed masonry
but not excessively; however, the masonry is to
be trued up horizontally across its complete
thickness every max. 1.50 m of wall height (see
fig. 2.4.28).
2.4.30 Ashlar masonry 2.4.31 Stone facing with backing of man-made

masonry units or concrete
136
Openings in walls
Regular coursed masonry The thickness of the total wall construction 2.4.32 Arch action over opening in wall
The stones should be worked as for irregular should be as determined by the structural
coursed masonry. However, the height of analysis, but this is seldom less than 500 mm
stones may not change within a course. In for practical reasons. The conditions described
addition, the height of every course is to be above apply similarly when the backing is
trued up (see fig. 2.4.29). made from concrete. Here, the concrete is
When used for vaulting, domes and similar poured and compacted after every course of
constructions, the bed joints must pass facing stonework to prevent voids being
through the complete thickness of the curved formed beneath the header stones. The per-
element. Therefore, the bed joints should be missible stress for the complete wall construc-
worked over the full depth, while perpends tion is governed by the material with the lowest
need only be worked to a depth of 150 mm. permissible stress. Stone facings that do not
comply with the conditions outlined above may
Ashlar masonry not be included as part of the loadbearing
The stones for ashlar masonry should be worked cross-section. Coursed stones may be laid
accurately to the specified dimensions and all against their stratification only when they ex-
perpends and bed joints worked to the full hibit a minimum compressive strength of
depth. The principles for bonding ashlar ma- 20 MN/m 2 parallel to their stratification. A non-
sonry are basically the same as for masonry loadbearing stone facing should be anchored
using man-made units; all the different types and supported as for a non-loadbearing outer
of bonds using stretchers and headers can be leaf of a twin-leaf wall. Cladding panels may
produced. The joint thickness can be 4-30 mm; not be included as part of the loadbearing 2.4.33 Effective loads over opening in wall with arch
cross-section of a column. action
mortar is difficult to apply to joints thinner than
4 mm. Dry ashlar masonry requires the bed
faces to be ground and is hardly used these
days (see fig. 2.4.30). Openings in walls
Stone-faced masonry Openings in walls for windows, doors and

consists of a skin of regular coursed or ashlar larger items, e.g. ventilation ducts and light
masonry on a backing of man-made units or wells, are bridged over by way of lintels or
concrete (see fig. 2.4.31). arches (masonry "lintels").
The stone facing may be considered as part of
the loadbearing cross-section when
Arching action over openings
• the stone facing is built at the same time as When designing a lintel or arch, we can
the backing and is bonded to it, assume an arching action in the masonry
• the stone facing is bonded to the backing by above the opening in the wall, provided there
at least 30% headers, are no openings adjacent to and above the
• the headers of the stone facing are at least lintel or arch and the associated load triangle,
240 mm deep and are bonded at least and that the arch thrust (horizontal support
100 mm into the backing, reactions) can be resisted at the sides of the
•the thickness of the stone facing is > 1/3 its opening. Therefore, the lintel or arch carries
height or min. 115 mm, the load only below the assumed arch (see fig.
•with backings of man-made units, at least 2.4.32).
every third course of natural stone consists This is taken into account by the (equilateral)
entirely of headers. load triangle of masonry above the lintel or arch.
137
Masonry details
2.4.34 Reinforced concrete lintel details Uniformly distributed floor loads above the load it may need to be formed as an upstand beam.
triangle are not taken into account when There are channel blocks available to match
designing the construction over the opening in the respective formats and course heights of
the wall. For floor loads that act within the load facing masonry and these may be used to form
triangle as a uniformly distributed load on the prefabricated lintels and employed as form-
masonry (e.g. floor slabs and joist floors with work to the side of a reinforced concrete lintel
joist spacing ≤ 1.25 m), only the section which cast in situ (see fig. 2.4.34).
lies within the triangle is assumed to transfer
load onto the lintel. Point loads, e.g. from
beams, which lie within or near the load trian Shallow lintels with masonry above
gle are assumed to distribute their loads Shallow lintels consist of a prefabricated, rein
at 60°. If point loads occur outside the load forced tension flange and only achieve their full
triangle, they need be taken into account only if load-carrying capacity in conjunction with a
they lie within the span of the lintel or arch and compression zone of masonry or concrete or
below a horizontal line 250 mm above the apex both (e.g. masonry and floor or capping beam)
of the load triangle. In this case the self-weight above. The tension flange may be prefabri
of the wall below the point load also has to be cated from concrete or from channel blocks of
taken into account (see fig. 2.4.33). clay, lightweight concrete, calcium silicate etc.,
If arching action cannot be established in the filled with concrete in which the reinforcement
masonry above the load triangle over the open (prestressed if required) is placed. In contrast
ing in the wall, the lintel or arch must be to beam-type lintels, shallow lintels carry the
assumed to carry the entire load above the loads acting on them in conjunction with the
opening. wall above like a tied frame (a closed system).
The shallow lintel (tie) resists the tensile forces
from the arch (frame) in compression and
Beam-type lintels therefore replaces the end supports which
Beams of, for example, timber, steel or rein would otherwise be necessary to accommo
forced concrete transfer the loads acting on date the horizontal thrust.
them to their supports at each end by way of The advantage of shallow lintels is that they
bending. Therefore, the beams must be de can easily be made from the same material as
2.4.35 Shallow lintel details
signed to resist bending and shear forces. the surrounding wall. This avoids cracks in and
Owing to their excellent material properties, damage to the plaster. By matching the dimen
steel sections can be generally quite small, but sions of the shallow lintel to the modular sizes
for reasons of fire protection have to be encased of the surrounding wall, this type of construc
in concrete and to comply with building science tion can be integrated into the masonry without
requirements must be provided with thermal having to adapt or cut the masonry units ad
insulation. jacent the opening in the wall. This leads to
Reinforced concrete lintels are usually chosen more economic and more rational site opera
when the lintel can be combined with a rein tions. For further information, see "Reinforced
forced concrete floor or in certain loading situ masonry" and [35] (see fig. 2.4.35).
ations. They may be precast units or cast in
situ with the reinforced concrete floor. A rein
forced concrete lintel must always be provided Masonry lintels and arches
with insulation to meet thermal insulation Prefabricated or in-situ lintels of horizontally
requirements. The problem with this is that the reinforced masonry may be used for facing
effective cross-section of the lintel must be work. The loadbearing behaviour corresponds
reduced in order to accommodate the insula to the tied frame model of the shallow lintel with
2.4.36 Supporting a soldier course "fake" lintel
tion and this creates a substrate for plastering wall above. The horizontal reinforcement is
which is different to the surrounding wall. placed either in trough-shaped specials or
Despite the provision of a plaster backing horizontal channel blocks or perforated units
spanning across the thermal insulation, this with a continuous hole to suit the bond of the
type of detail often leads to cracks in the ren facing masonry. Design and construction
dering and staining of the finish. should be in accordance with DIN 1053 part 3.
One solution to this problem is to provide chan Please also refer to "Reinforced masonry".
nel blocks in the respective type of masonry as In twin-leaf facing masonry the outer leaf above
permanent formwork instead of the reinforced the opening in the wall can be carried by nibs
concrete. The reinforced concrete lintel (pre on the side of the floor slab or by supports
cast or in situ) is then integrated into this. This bolted to or cast into the floor slab (e.g. steel
can also be used in conjunction with a rein angles or brackets). To satisfy architectural
forced concrete lintel cast together with the requirements we can also provide a horizontal
floor slab. In this detail a prefabricated lintel lintel in the form of a soldier course in conjunc
unit made from channel blocks (with integral tion with brackets and bars passing through
insulation) forms one side of the formwork for the masonry units. The shear- and tension-
the reinforced concrete lintel. As the structural resistant connection to a reinforced concrete
ly effective width of this lintel is only very small, beam behind means that this is only a "fake"
138
Vaulting and arch floors
2.4.37 Semicircular and pointed arches according to [162] 2.4.38 Cambered and gauged arches according to [162]
The span (S) feasible depends on type of arch, compression in arch and vertical loads. The width (W) of the abutment depends on the span; the values given here apply to abut-
ment widths essentially without vertical load. All values are guidelines which may be exceeded in an accurate analysis. Cambered arches in non-loadbearing facing work can be
built for spans up to approx. 1.75 m without the need for a structural analysis.
lintel with no loadbearing function (see fig. tance to the arch thrust at the supports also Cambered and gauged arches
2.4.36). has to be taken into account when designing have inclined (skewback) abutments aligned
Masonry lintels in the form of arches are pri- an arch. Shallow arches with a low rise gener- with the centre of the arch. The bed joints also
marily used in the refurbishment of older build- ate a greater horizontal thrust than arches with point to the centre of the arch. The rise of a
ings, but are also being rediscovered as a a smaller radius and larger rise. The horizontal cambered arch is max. 1/50 of the width of the
modern design option in conjunction with fac- thrust must be resisted without displacement at opening, that of a gauged arch max. 1/12. A
ing masonry. Owing to the high labour input, the supports irrespective of the curvature of the cambered arch without any rise may also act
these arches are often produced as prefabri- arch because the arch itself undergoes a as an arch in compression if the soldier course
cated elements, which are then lifted into place severe increase in stresses due to the reduc- deviates slightly from the vertical and is
on prepared abutments. With a favourable tion in the rise even with only minimal displace- wedged into abutments built at a very slight
rise/span ratio and predominantly permanent ment of the supports. angle.
loads, i.e. dead loads considerably higher than The arch lintel is produced from an odd num-
imposed loads, the arch may be designed Semicircular and pointed arches ber of courses, which can make it necessary
according to the line of thrust method. This The radius of a semicircular arch is equal to to inset the abutments by half the width of a
means that the construction is subjected only half the width of the opening, and for a pointed course on the masonry at the sides. The extra-
to axial compression and no shear or bending arch equal to the full width of the opening, with dos should always end in a bed joint of the
moments when the axis of the arch coincides the centres of the radii being the respective masonry above in order to avoid large com-
with the line of thrust. However, this ideal case opposite springing points. The abutments for pensating courses above the arch or un-
is hardly possible in practice because chang- semicircular and pointed arches are generally attractive gussets above the abutments. The
ing loads, and hence different loading cases, positioned horizontally at the level of the requirements regarding joint thicknesses and
mean that various lines of thrust have to be springing points. The arches are normally con- bonding correspond to those for semicircular
considered when designing the arch. Never- structed with tapering bed joints. The thickness and pointed arches (see fig. 2.4.38).
theless, to ensure that exclusively compressive of the joints at the underside of the arch (intra-
stresses without a cracked section occur in the dos) should not be less than 5 mm, at the outer
cross-section of the arch, the geometry of the ring of the arch (extrados) not greater than Vaulting and arch floors
arch should be such that, if possible, the lines 20 mm. Special tapering units (voussoirs) may
of thrust for all possible loading cases lie in the be necessary for small radii. When using small- Vaults
middle third of the cross-section. Lines of format units, the size of the bed joints at the These are roof-like, one-way-spanning, or also
thrust can thus be used independently of the extrados of the arch increase as the arch bidirectional arch-like or spherical curved roof
loads in order to design a suitable, economic becomes thicker. Therefore, thick arches are constructions of masonry. The various types of
arch for masonry which, in theory, cannot also built in individual rings, one above the vaulting are based on the two fundamental
accommodate any tension. In doing so, we other. Arches are always constructed using an types: barrel vaults with cylindrical curvature,
assume that the structural system is based on odd number of units so that there is never a and domes with spherical curvature. Besides
determining the lines of thrust for a three-pin joint at the crown but rather always a keystone. the barrel vault, other cylindrical forms include
arch in which the pins are positioned at the The bed joints must be arranged perpendicular the Prussian cap vault; the cloistered vault; the
springing points and at the crown of the arch. to the line of thrust and must run the full depth trough vault; the cov; and the groined vault.
Arches with longer spans and more pronounced of the arch. The bond for masonry arches is to The dome is a spherical form of vaulting whose
changes of loading have to be designed be produced according to the bonding rules surfaces generally form part of the surface of a
according to elastic theory. Providing resis- for masonry piers [32, 141, 161] (fig. 2.4.37). sphere (see fig. 2.4.39).
139
Masonry details
2.4.39 Types of masonry vaulting Vaults with smaller spans, a favourable span/
rise ratio (f/l > 1/10) and essentially permanent
loading can be designed according to the line
of thrust method. They are built from tapered
masonry units that support each other and are
supported on immovable abutments in such a
way that they are only subjected to compres-
sion. The arch thrust can also be resisted by
ties (in tension) instead of abutments.
Vaults with large spans and pronounced
changes of loading are designed according to
elastic theory.
Masonry arch floors between beams

These are the upper part of an arch built
between steel beams as vertical supports (see
fig. 2.4.40). The structural system employed for
determining the vertical and horizontal support
reactions for arch floors is a three-pin arch with
the centre pin at the crown. With an essentially
2.4.40 Design requirements for masonry arch floors stationary imposed load according to DIN 1055
part 3, arch floors with a thickness based on
empirical rules and with beams spaced at max.
approx. 2.50 m do not need to be analysed
structurally. In this case, the minimum thick-
ness must be 115 mm, they must be built using
"Kuff" bond or herringbone bond, and the ratio
of rise to span must be at least 1/10. Centering
for parallel arches should, like the bricklaying
itself, be carried out simultaneously in order to
limit the horizontal thrust caused by the arches
at the end bays of multi-bay floors. Ties can be
integrated to transfer the horizontal thrust from
the end bays of multi-bay floors to the side
walls. These must be included in the end bays
parallel to the direction of span of the floor at
the ends of the beams and at a spacing equal
to the span of the end bay but at least at third-
points. In order to consider the end plate
formed by ties as an adequate abutment (rigid
horizontal plate) able to transfer the horizontal
thrust to the sides, the width of the end plate
must be equal to one third of its length. The
ties used must be longer than the minimum
2.4.41 Assumptions for arch thrust for multi-bay arch floor width of the plate. In the case of narrow end
bays it is sometimes necessary to extend the
ties over several bays (see fig. 2.4.41).
The end bays must be provided with supports
at the sides which are in the position to accept
the horizontal thrust of the middle bays even
when the end bays are not loaded. The sup-
ports may be secured by means of masonry,
permanent vertical load, anchors or other suit-
able measures. In the basements of buildings
with an essentially stationary imposed load of
max. 2.0 kN/m 2 we can assume, without a
structural analysis, that the horizontal thrust
from arch floors up to 1.3 m span can be
accommodated by means of 2 m long, 240 mm
thick crosswalls at a spacing of max. 6.0 m.
The crosswalls must be built simultaneously
with and fully bonded to the end bay support
walls or - in the case of toothing - via a non-
mechanical connection (see fig. 2.4.42).
140
Connections
Point loads horizontal point loads perpendicular to the 2.4.42 Accommodating the arch thrust without
plane of the wall where F ≥ 3 kN. Perforated structural analysis for a multi-bay arch floor
over basement
Masonry can be subjected to point (concen and cellular units require a plate or similar to
trated) loads from beams (e.g. window lintels); be incorporated underneath so that the hori
joists (e.g. joist floors); or columns (e.g. win zontal load is transferred to at least two webs
dow mullions, roof posts). These generate ver in order to avoid overloading the webs of indi
tical concentrations of stress on the bearing vidual masonry units.
surfaces and horizontal spitting tensile forces
in the load dispersion zone. The spitting tensile
forces can be accommodated by the tensile Connections
strength of the masonry bond, by reinforce
ment or by reinforced concrete elements. Walls must be connected to floors and roof
A padstone or similar is always integrated into frames in order to guarantee transfer of forces
the masonry to distribute the load from heavy and provision of horizontal support for load-
point loads. This is usually of reinforced con bearing and stiffening walls. This can be
crete but may be of steel. The reinforced con achieved either by anchors or through ad
crete ring beam or the support/floor strip is hesion and friction.
often used. It may also comprise masonry units In order to also achieve three-dimensional
of higher strength incorporated in the masonry stability for the building, ring beams must be
bond below the point load. In both cases the placed in all external and crosswalls which act
designer must take account of possible crack as vertical plates for carrying horizontal loads
ing in the masonry as a result of restraints (e.g. wind). This presupposes that the floors
caused by the change in material (see fig. act as horizontal plates. Floors that do not act 2.4.43 Load dispersion below point load
2.4.43). A load distribution of 60° may be as plates (e.g. timber joist floors), or those
assumed within a section of wall strengthened which are supported on the walls via sliding
with units of higher strength. The strength bearings in order that deformations are not
required for this masonry is determined by the restrained (e.g. roof slabs) require that the
bearing stresses beneath the point load. The walls, and hence the building, gain horizontal
height over which the wall must be strength restraint by way of capping beams or other
ened is determined by the fact that the normal equivalent structural measures.
masonry of the wall (of lower strength) must be
able to carry the load beneath the 60° load dis
persion. Connecting walls to floors and roof frames
The permissible stresses for masonry below In principle, all walls - including internal walls
point loads are greater than for the rest of the or party walls separating buildings - must be
wall because the inclined "struts" created by connected to floors such that forces can be
the 60° load dispersion generate a biaxial com transferred, provided the floors are intended
pression condition at the point of action of the to provide lateral support to the walls.
point load which increases the load-carrying
capacity of the masonry locally. However, the Connection using anchors
inclined struts mean that there are also horizon Anchors (with vertical straps in the case of tim
tal "ties" in the lower courses of the wall, the ten ber joist floors) must always be included in
sion in which has to be resisted by horizontal loadbearing areas of walls and never in non-
reinforcement or by the floor slab acting as a tie. loadbearing spandrel panels. Only by provid
Point loads that act at the end of a wall create ing vertical load is the wall in a position to
an inclined strut, which is balanced by a hori accommodate the anchor forces and guaran
zontal tension at the top of the wall. This ten tee the transfer of forces to the floor. A lack of
sion leads to vertical cracks, to tearing of the vertical load might dictate the use of a ring
masonry bearing, if it cannot be accommodat beam. Generally, the spacing between anchors
ed by the masonry bond, the reinforced con should not exceed 2.0 m in order to limit the
crete floor slab or ring beam acting as a tie or forces placed on them. However, the spacing
by horizontal reinforcement in the masonry. may be increased to max. 4.0 m in exceptional
When analysing the point load and the circumstances if the particular construction
dispersion of the load according to DIN 1053 does not permit any other solution.
part 1, the position of the point load is taken Walls parallel to the direction of span of the
into account through the dimensions of the floor require straps which extend at least 1.0 m
point of action of the load (see fig. 2.4.43). into the floor and are fixed to at least two floor
Point loads perpendicular to the plane of the ribs or two beams (three joists in the case of
wall, e.g. from horizontal impacts, should not timber floors). This distribution of load over
exceed 0.5βR according to the more accurate several ribs or beams/joists is necessary be
method of analysis in DIN 1053 part 1 and cause otherwise the restraint forces subject the
0.5 x 2.67 σ0 = 1.33 σ0 according to the simpli floor members to lateral bending (see fig.
fied method of analysis. In addition, the shear 2.4.46). Beams spliced over internal walls and
stresses in the bed joints of the individual tied to the perimeter walls must have a tension-
masonry units under load must be analysed for resistant splice connection. This is necessary
141
Masonry details
2.4.44 Support options for gable walls in order to link opposing external walls together Ring beams may be made from timber, steel,
and ensure an effective connection between reinforced masonry or reinforced concrete.
external walls and floors. They are to be designed for a tensile force of
Gable walls can be connected via anchors to 30 kN under service loads. This figure corre-
a braced roof frame. Alternatively, they gain sponds to the forces to be expected in build-
their stability by way of crosswalls or other ings of normal dimensions. The beams should
measures (e.g. reinforced concrete columns be designed for greater tensile forces when a
restrained by the floor slab, masonry piers) structural analysis of the wall plate, floor plate
(see fig. 2.4.44). or differential deformation results in larger fig-
ures. Ring beams of reinforced masonry must
Connection using adhesion and friction comply with the corrosion protection, reinforce-
Secure support for walls by way of adhesion ment arrangement and mortar or concrete
and friction is provided by concrete floors cover requirements of DIN 1053 part 3. Ring
when the depth of bearing of the slab on the beams of reinforced concrete must have at
wall is at least 100 mm; anchors are then least two continuous 10 mm reinforcing bars to
unnecessary. An adhesion/friction connection DIN 1045. The reinforcement laps should be in
assumes that a connection capable of transfer- accordance with DIN 1045, and staggered if
ring forces is generated by the adhesion alone, possible.
and is only reinforced by the friction arising The reinforcement required for ring beams of
from vertical loads if necessary; however, the reinforced masonry or reinforced concrete may
presence of friction is not absolutely essential. include the full cross-section of continuous
We can also assume this situation at the junc- reinforcement not fully utilized in floor slabs or
tion between a wall and a capping beam. window lintels no more than 500 mm from the
centreline of the wall or floor parallel to the
beam (see fig. 2.4.47). The use of different
Ring beams and capping beams materials for the masonry and the ring beam
These are horizontal straight members in the can lead to damage to masonry. Above all,
plane of the wall. Ring beams accommodate severe temperature deformations in ring
tension within the wall plate, which ensues as a beams generally as well as the shrinkage of
result of external loads or differential deforma- reinforced concrete ring beams in particular
tion, and hence increases the stability of the can lead to cracks in the masonry. Tempera-
walls and that of the whole structure, ture deformations can be minimized by includ-
Capping beams also serve as ring beams ing adequate thermal insulation, shrinkage
when they form a complete ring around the reduced by late striking of the formwork and by
whole building. Furthermore, their reinforce- subsequently treating the concrete. To mini-
ment arrangement allows them to accommo- mize cracking in rendering, a reinforced con-
date loads perpendicular to the plane of the crete ring beam should make use of fabric
wall by way of bending. reinforcement or, alternatively, should be fabri-
cated from channel blocks to match the sur-
Ring beams rounding wall and hence provide a consistent
act as ties to hold the structure together. They substrate for the rendering. This or the use of
are required in buildings with more than two full reinforced masonry as a ring beam means that
storeys, or those longer than 18 m at wall ele- the disadvantages of changing the material
ments provided for stabilizing the structure are, on the whole, avoided.
(external walls, twin-leaf party walls, crosswalls
etc.) at or immediately below every floor level. Capping beams
Ring beams may be interrupted only when their are subjected not only to tensile forces but also
effectiveness is guaranteed by other compo- to bending moments from horizontal loads.
nents, e.g. window lintels or landings in the case Capping beams are necessary when floors do
of continuous windows to a staircase. not act as plates, e.g. timber joist floors, or are
2.4.45 Load distribution of a ring beam for building It is also necessary to hold the structure together provided with sliding bearings where they are
stiffened by floor plates by way of ring beams in the case of walls with supported on the walls and so do not provide
many or particularly large openings; this is lateral restraint at floor level. The ring beam
especially the case when the sum of the widths becomes a capping beam and takes on a sta-
of the openings exceed 60% of the length of bilizing task. As a rigid horizontal beam it trans-
the wall or 4 0 % in the case of windows greater fers the horizontal loads from wind, reversal of
than 2/3 of the storey height. forces, earthquakes etc. to the shear walls (see
Other functions of ring beams are to act as a tie fig. 2.4.48).
for the compression arch in a horizontal floor The capping beam and its connections to the
plate; to act as a tie for the vertical masonry shear walls should be designed for a horizontal
plate; and to accommodate tensile stresses in load equal to 1/100 of the vertical load of the
the masonry as a result of differential deforma- walls and for a proportion of the wind loads. In
tion caused by temperature fluctuations, addition, capping beams beneath sliding bear-
shrinkage or differential settlement of the sub- ings must take account of tensile forces from
soil [54] (see fig. 2.4.45). the residual friction forces of the floors.
142
Connections
Shear walls must be analysed to ensure they 2.4.46 Fixing tension anchors in masonry
can accommodate the support reactions of
capping beams, and that they adequately
transfer the forces to the foundations.
If a capping beam does not fulfil ring beam
functions at the same time, it needs only to
extend as far as necessary to transfer its sup-
port reactions to another element. Capping
beams may be made of timber, steel or rein-
forced concrete. They must be rigid enough to
prevent any cracks in the masonry due to
deformations. This requirement means that the
feasible span of such a beam is sometimes
limited. Reinforced concrete capping beams
must have shear links and at least one longitu-
dinal reinforcing bar in each corner of the link. Fixing to masonry in direction of span of floor Fixing to masonry at right-angles to span of floor
Capping beams should be treated like ring
beams with regard to the problem of the risk of
cracks in masonry caused by a change of 2.4.47 Details of ring beams taking into account parallel reinforcement
material between wall and beam. This also
applies to the use of channel blocks to achieve
a consistent plaster substrate.
In-situ concrete floor with Timber joist floor with rein- Precast floor with reinforced Reinforced masonry as
ring beam reinforcement forced concrete ring beam concrete ring beam ring beam
Ring beam made from Max. spacing of parallel reinforcement which may be considered
prefabricated channel blocks
2.4.48 Capping beam action
143
The building of masonry

The standard of workmanship is a critical factor mixer is employed. Mixing instructions should tool matches the width of the wall and is pulled
that determines the load-carrying capacity and be attached to the machine in a place where along the bed joint, thereby depositing a con-
serviceability of masonry especially because, they are clearly visible. The raw materials should stant amount of mortar onto the bed joint
in contrast to reinforced concrete, timber or be mixed until the mortar has an even consis- through a slit. This makes it possible to apply a
steel, all the important structural and building tency that is suitable for the intended job. bed joint of constant thickness up to 10 m long
science tasks are in this case fulfilled by one Premixed mortars are becoming increasingly across the full width of the wall in one opera-
single building material. popular as an aid to rationalization and for tion.
Therefore, DIN 1053 part 1 includes a separate ensuring constant mortar quality in terms of Thin-bed mortars require the use of toothed
section devoted to the building of masonry. consistency, workability, strength etc. trowels or mortar rollers, which guarantee a
The aim of this section is not only to guarantee According to the form of supply, we distinguish consistent application of the mortar just 1 mm
that the aforementioned tasks are fulfilled, but between premixed dry mortar, premixed "coarse thick. The masonry unit is frequently merely
also that the appearance and aesthetics of stuff" and ready-mixed mortar (including multi- dipped in the mortar and then laid. A com-
masonry constructions comply with certain chamber silo mortar). On site, only the required paratively large amount of water is extracted
standards. In addition, these practical consid- amount of water needs to be added to pre- from the "green" mortar in the case of high
erations are intended to resist the undermining mixed dry mortar or multi-chamber silo mortar, absorbency masonry units, which means that
of quality standards as a result of the growing or the required amount of water plus cement to the hardening process of the mortar may not
pressure on costs and time, as well as the premixed "coarse stuff". No aggregates, addi- be completed because this requires a
decline in standards of training evident on site. tives or admixtures may be mixed into pre- certain minimum amount of water. The mortar
Consequently, the parameters for careful plan- mixed mortars. Premixed dry mortar and pre- dries out and the result is poor adhesion
ning and building of masonry ensure that the mixed "coarse stuff" are prepared on site in a between masonry unit and mortar. This can
practical realization is as free from flaws as mixer, but ready-mixed mortar is delivered be prevented by adequate prewetting of high
possible. ready to use in a workable consistency (see absorbency masonry units or by mixing an
In the end, rationalization measures such as "Mortars for masonry"). additive into the mortar to increase the water
building with large-format units, without mortar Different types and groups of mortars may only retention capacity. The recommendations of
or with kit-type elements and so on, can lead be prepared and used together on site if mis- the mortar supplier should be followed in the
to more economic masonry only if special takes in identification can be ruled out. This is case of premixed mortars.
requirements are placed on the standard of particularly so in the case of normal mortars of Another advantage of prewetting or using
workmanship of the wall. mortar groups II and Il a because they look very water-retention additives is that leaching of
similar. water-soluble salts from the cement in the
Mortar normally contains cement as the bind- mortar is reduced or prevented. As the water
Mixing and using mortar on site ing agent, which undergoes an alkaline re- evaporates, the salts cause efflorescence on
action in the presence of water or moisture. the surface of the masonry units which,
Mixing mortar Therefore, protect skin and eyes. Upon contact although harmless, is unattractive and there-
If mortar is to be mixed on site, the cement, with the skin, rinse with water, upon contact fore must be removed by repeated brushing
admixtures and additives must be stored in a with the eyes, consult a doctor without delay. (see "Building and cleaning facing masonry").
dry place protected from the weather. Aggre- As mortar hardens it loses water and so is
gates must be stored under clean conditions subjected to ever more severe conditions by
so that they cannot be contaminated by salts, Using mortar
the masonry units. Therefore, every type of
loam, organic substances or large stones. The trowel is still the best tool for laying small- pretreatment and subsequent treatment of the
Gauging the quantities of mortar ingredients and medium-format masonry units. The trian- masonry, e.g. prewetting the masonry units,
must be carried out using scales or suitable gular trowel has a favourable centre of gravity protecting the newly built masonry against rain,
containers, e.g. buckets or gauge boxes with and puts less strain on the bricklayer's wrist strong sunlight and premature drying-out by
volumetric gradations, but never with shovels, than the square trowel. The advantage of the covering it with plastic sheeting, or spraying
in order to guarantee a consistent mortar mix. latter is, however, that it is easier to lay and the new masonry with water, benefits the
For small amounts, mixing is carried out manu- spread larger amounts of mortar evenly. quality of the mortar and hence the masonry.
ally in a tub with a sand shovel or - particularly The masonry and mortar industries have de- This is particularly true in the first 3-4 days after
with thin-bed mortars - with a mixing blade veloped the so-called mortar sledge for econ- laying [164].
attached to an electric drill. As a rule, however, omic construction with large-format masonry
a suitably sized electric tilt or non-tilt drum units as well as for one-brick-thick walls. This
144
Suitability and quality tests
2.5.1 Arrangement of perpends
Mortar in groove only No mortar, tongue and

'Tipped and tailed" Full mortar filling groove connection
Protecting masonry against moisture on the masonry and to damage (e.g. spelling Quality control of prescribed masonry (RM)
caused by the formation of salt crystals) [54, Suitability and quality tests are not required for
Masonry units are usually delivered wrapped in 164,214]. prescribed masonry because this type of
plastic sheeting on pallets and hence are pro- masonry is based on many years of experience
tected against saturation up to the time of lay- of using a "prescribed" combination of stan-
ing. As saturated masonry units do not develop Suitability and quality tests dard masonry units and standard mortar. The
adequate adhesion to the mortar and, further- building contractor must check that the details
more, increase the energy required for drying According to DIN 1053, the properties of the on the delivery slip or the packaging of mason-
out the primary structure, bricks and blocks building materials must be verified. This ry units for prescribed masonry match those on
awaiting laying, as well as the unprotected requirement is fulfilled by suitability and quality the building authority documentation. Mortar
tops and sides of individual elements such as tests. The suitability test stipulates whether the mixed on site for prescribed masonry must be
walls, spandrel panels and openings, must be types and quantities of certain raw materials checked regularly during construction against
protected against prolonged rainfall by means are suitable for the production of a building table A.1 of DIN 1053 part 1 (see table 2.1.25)
of tarpaulins or plastic sheeting. These should material with defined properties, e.g. strength, or using a suitability test to ensure that the mix-
be secured against uplift by way of battens gross density etc. This test is carried out ing ratio is being maintained. For premixed
nailed down or by heavy materials. In addition, before the actual production of the building mortars, the details of the type of mortar and
temporary drainage measures should be taken material or the building of the masonry. The mortar group on the delivery slip or packaging
beneath roof gutters if the rainwater downpipes quality test is carried out on random samples must be compared with the technical docu-
have not yet been connected in order to pre- of the building material produced for use on mentation, and the grade number and the
vent local saturation of the masonry. Following the building site and simultaneously with the supplying works compared with the order.
these recommendations will ensure that there actual construction, in order to verify that the Mortars of group IlI a must undergo a com-
is no damage to the masonry in the form of, for intended material properties have been pressive strength test according to DIN 18555
example, shrinkage cracks, efflorescence or achieved. The quality control of masonry units part 3 carried out on three prisms from three
reduced strength [175]. is carried out within the scope of the manu- different mix batches per storey, but at least
facturer's own quality control measures, and every 10 m 3 of mortar, and be checked against
those of outside centres, at regular intervals. the requirements of DIN 1053 part 1 table A.2.
Laying during cold weather The requirements for this are stipulated in the Buildings with more than six full masonry
individual standards covering the different storeys require a quality test to be carried out
Masonry may be built during frosty conditions types of masonry units. The manufacturer's per storey, but at least for every 20 m 3 of mor-
only if certain protective measures are carried own quality control during production include tar, even for normal mortars of groups II, Il a
out. These include covering the aggregate for constant monitoring of the production process and III as well as for lightweight and thin-bed
the mortar with insulating blankets for the tem- to guarantee that the masonry units produced mortars. This takes account of the higher
perature range from 0 to +5°C; covering the comply with the critical technical parameters. requirements placed on the load-carrying
masonry units waiting to be laid with insulating Monitoring by approved outside centres takes capacity of such masonry and hence on the
blankets for the temperature range from -5 to the form of checking the manufacturer's quality required consistency of the mortar properties
0°C; heating the mixing water and the aggre- control measures during production and en- in the lower storeys. As the increased require-
gate and working in tents or protective shelters. suring that the personnel and equipment used ments do not apply to the top three storeys,
As the temperature drops still further, develop- meet the required standards. this extra quality test is unnecessary for those
ment of the mortar strength slows down and In the case of mortars, a suitability test accord- storeys.
practically comes to a halt at about -10°C. ing to DIN 1053 part 1 appendix A.5 is neces-
Whenever possible, masonry should not be sary only if the serviceability of the aggregate
built at such low temperatures. has to be verified or if admixtures and addi- Quality control of masonry according to
Frozen building materials may not be used at tives are to be used. suitability test (EM)
any temperature. Furthermore, newly built Furthermore, the suitability test needs to be Suitability tests according to DIN 1053 part 2
masonry, delicate elements and columns in carried out as a preliminary test for premixed are required to establish the strength class of
particular, should be protected against frost mortars, including lightweight and thin-bed masonry according to suitability test. This
and precipitation by a covering of insulating mortars only for structures with more than six involves allocating the masonry to a strength
blankets. If such measures are not carried out, full masonry storeys (see 2.1.28). class by way of a compressive strength test
no further masonry units may be laid on The building contractor is responsible for car- carried out on test samples according to DIN
masonry already frozen. Sections of masonry rying out on-site quality tests for mortar within 18554 part 1 and the subsequent issue of a
damaged by frost must be removed before the scope of checking and assessing the qua- classification certificate. This must be provided
work continues. On no account use antifreeze lity of prescribed masonry (RM) or masonry to the building site prior to commencing con-
agents or de-icing salts because this can lead according to suitability test (EM). struction work with such masonry. The suitabil-
to efflorescence (e.g. salt deposits) appearing ity test must be carried out by an approved
145
respect to building science properties and the full mortar filling, or the units are laid brick to
resistance of any rendering to driving rain and brick and the grooves filled later. In the brick-
cracking. to-brick method, the units are laid as close
Mortar should always be applied over the full together as the unevenness of the end faces -
bed joint because this joint has an important due to the manufacturing process - will allow.
structural function for the loadbearing behav Generally, the gap between the units should
iour of masonry, i.e. the uniform transfer of ver not be more than 5 mm. If this dimension is
tical compressive stresses as well as tensile exceeded, then the joints should be filled with
and shear stresses by way of adhesion and mortar on both sides of the wall in order to
friction. Voids in the bed joints and varying joint guarantee an even substrate for plaster.
thicknesses lead to stress concentrations
which in turn reduce the load-carrying capacity
and increase the risk of cracking. Laying without mortar to the perpends
The thickness of the bed joint influences the The perpend without mortar is gaining in popu
transverse tensile stress in the masonry units larity because it speeds up construction and
through the lateral strain behaviour and is requires less mortar. However, certain meas
therefore partly responsible for the compres ures must be taken to ensure that the require
sive strength of the masonry. Therefore, thick ments to be met by the component regarding
2.5.2 Butt joint bed joints are structurally less favourable, but protection against driving rain (e.g. rendering,
on the other hand a minimum thickness is nec cladding); thermal insulation (e.g. adequate
essary to compensate for the (permissible) wall thickness, additional layers of thermal
materials testing laboratory. It must be repeat deviations in the sizes of the masonry units and insulation); sound insulation (weight per m2 by
ed if masonry units with a different arrange to allow for practical building considerations. way of heavy masonry units); and fire protec
ment of perforations are to be used for the The thickness of the bed joint is about 12 mm tion are still maintained. Masonry without mor
masonry or if changes to the combination of for normal and lightweight mortars, between 5 tar to the perpends is constructed either with
raw materials or the method of production of and 7 mm for medium-bed mortars, and the bricks simply butt-jointed together or by
the masonry units could influence the strength between 1 and 3 mm for thin-bed mortars in using masonry units with an integral tongue
of the masonry. Masonry according to suitabili conjunction with gauged brickwork. and groove system. This laying technique
ty test does not need to undergo a quality test. The perpends are much less relevant than the achieves a masonry construction with optimum
In order to check the raw materials on site, bed joints in terms of structural function homogeneity.
every delivery of masonry units must include a because they do not help to accommodate Perpends wider than 5 mm must be filled with
document which includes details of the DIN tensile and shear stresses. Therefore, it is per mortar on both sides of the wall in order to
designation of the masonry unit, EM designa missible to either fill perpends completely with guarantee an even substrate for plaster. In
tion, compressive strength (classification cer mortar, only partly with mortar ("tipped and terms of the structural analysis of masonry
tificate), type of mortar and mortar group, tailed"), or leave them without any mortar. How without mortar to the perpends, it should be
masonry strength class, classification certifi ever, it should be noted that resistance to noted that when analysing shear the permis
cate number and testing centre. The delivery cracking decreases noticeably when the per sible reduced adhesive shear strength σ0HS
slip or packaging is to be checked to ensure pends are only filled partly with mortar or left must be halved and that in the case of base
that it matches the technical documentation. without mortar because the masonry units can ment walls the earth pressure may only be
Mortar mixed on site should be checked at no longer support each other as is the case carried uniaxially in the vertical direction.
regular intervals during construction to ensure when the perpends are completely filled with
that it continues to comply with the mixing ratio mortar (see fig. 2.5.1).
on the classification certificate. In the case of Junctions w i t h intersecting walls
premixed mortars, the details on the delivery
slip regarding type of mortar and mortar group, Laying with mortar to the perpends During construction, the contractor must make
the supplying works and the grade number It is necessary to provide mortar in the per sure that immovable supports for a wall (sup
must be checked to ensure they comply with pends when building reinforced masonry, ported on two, three or four sides) as assumed
the details on the classification certificate. As single-leaf unplastered masonry which has to in the structural analysis are actually realized
with the quality control of prescribed masonry, be sealed against wind and driving rain, in the on site. An immovable support to a shear wall
the compressive strength of the mortar must be compression zone above shallow lintels and in for example, is only guaranteed when the sup-
determined according to DIN 18555 part 3 and external basement walls (but depending on the porting wall and the shear wall are both con
compared with the requirements of DIN 1053 loadbearing system). The perpends are classed structed of materials with approximately equal
part 1 tables A.2, A.3 and A.4. These quality as fully filled with mortar when at least half the deformation behaviour, the connection
control measures must be carried out for every wall thickness is provided with mortar. between the walls can resist tension and com-
10 m 3 of mortar, but at least for every storey. The arrangement of mortar to the perpends de pression, and when separation of the walls as
pends on the type of masonry units used. A full a result of severe differential deformation is not
mortar filling to the perpend is principally car expected (see "Lateral restraint to walls").
Perpends and bed joints ried out with small- and medium-format mason A tension- and compression-resistant connec-
ry units. The thickness of the perpends should tion can be achieved by building both walls
The principal tasks of the joints in masonry are be 10 mm for normal and lightweight mortars, simultaneously and fully bonded together but
to ensure that the masonry units are uniformly and 1 -3 mm for thin-bed mortars. also via a butt joint.
loaded and to guarantee the transfer of forces Masonry units with mortar grooves in their end
from unit to unit. Furthermore, they compensate faces either have mortar applied to the faces
for the (permissible) deviations in the sizes of either side of the groove to produce visible
the masonry units and play a major role with perpends with thicknesses corresponding to a
146
Junctions with intersecting walls
Bonded junctions 2.5.3 Arrangement of wail intersections

A fully bonded junction - also valid as such
during construction - is guaranteed with rack- Racking Toothed
ing or toothed arrangements only where the
length of the return is at least one fifth the
height of the wall (see fig. 2.5.3).
Both types of junction consume valuable space
on the building site and this is often not desir-
able due to operational reasons, e.g. for easier
erection of scaffolds, to maintain unobstructed
access routes etc.
Therefore, to aid building operations the struc-
turally equivalent toothing or reverse toothing
may be used (see fig. 2.5.3). In this type of
bonded junction, the walls are not built simulta-
neously - support and bracing to the wall are
achieved at a later date. The tension- and
compression-resistant connection is created
through the transfer of compression via the
masonry bond and tension with the aid of rein-
forcement. This should be built into the bed
joints with sufficient embedment length and
protected against corrosion. If tensile forces do
not need to be transferred, these two forms of
bonded junction are only considered to
accommodate compression.
Butt-jointed junctions
Reverse toothing Toothing
The butt joint technique enables the junctions
to be simplified. In this method the walls are
butt-jointed without taking account of the bond-
ing rules. Consequently, they may be offset lat-
erally (see fig. 2.5.2). A tension-resistant con-
nection is achieved by anchors (for which a
structural analysis is required) placed in the
bed joints. If the walls are not built simultane-
ously, then the anchors are left projecting and
bent aside until required in order to prevent
injuries (see fig. 2.5.4).
The butt joint technique may be used only for
internal walls; external corners should always
be formed as fully bonded junctions. Butt joints
are fully filled with mortar in every course to
ensure adequate transfer of compression and
continuity of the acoustic insulation properties
of the wall. The anchors are to be designed
according to DIN 1045 section 19.8.3 in such a
way that 1/100 of the vertical load of the load- 2.5.4 Butt-jointed junction with various types of anchors
bearing wall can be transferred at each of the
third-points of the wall height. Under such con-
ditions, the supported wall can be analysed as
Butt joint
being supported on three or four sides. The
anchors may be distributed over the height of
the storey to avoid an accumulation at third-
points, e.g. in all or alternate bed joints.
It is recommended that walls supported on only
two sides be connected to intersecting walls
with non-structural anchors.
In the structural analysis of the walls, only rec-
tangular and not compound cross-sections may
be used despite the inclusion of anchors.
The best anchors have proved to be perforated
flat bars of stainless steel measuring 300 x 22 x
0.75 mm or pairs of V4A steel wire ties (as
used for twin-leaf walls).
147
2.5.5 C h a s e s and r e c e s s e s permissible in l o a d b e a r i n g walls without structural analysis (dimensions in m m )
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Wall Horizontal a n d inclined c h a s e s ( 1 ) Vertical c h a s e s and r e c e s s e s Vertical chases and recesses built in masonry bond
thickness cut s u b s e q u e n t l y cut s u b s e q u e n t l y
L e n g t h of Depth(4) Width of Distance of Width5' Remaining Min. distance Min. spacing

chase ≤ 1.25 m long (2) single c h a s e s and wall of c h a s e s and of chases and
unlimited Depth chase(5) recesses from thickness r e c e s s e s from recesses
D e p t h( 3 ) openings openings
≥ 115 - - ≤10 ≤100 ≥ 115 - - i 2 x width of ≥ width of
≥175 0 ≤25 ≤30 ≤100 ≥ 115 ≤260 ≥ 115 chase chase
≥240 ≤15 ≤25 ≤30 ≤150 ≥ 115 <385 ≥ 115 or ≥ 240
≥300 ≤20 ≤30 ≤30 ≤ 200 ≥ 115 <385 ≥175
≥365 ≤20 ≤30 ≤30 ≤ 200 ≥ 115 ≤ 385 ≥ 240
( 1 ) Horizontal a n d inclined c h a s e s are permissible only in an area < 0.4 m a b o v e or below the structural floor/roof slab, and only on one side of a w a l l . T h e y are not permissible in
horizontally perforated clay bricks.

( 2 ) M i n . distance from o p e n i n g s in longitudinal direction ≥ 4 9 0 m m , f r o m next horizontal c h a s e 2 x length of c h a s e .
( 3 ) T h e depth may be increased by 10 mm w h e n using tools w h e r e the d e p t h c a n be a c c u r a t e l y m a i n t a i n e d , e.g. m a s o n r y millers, m a s o n r y slot s a w s , etc. W h e n using such tools,
c h a s e s 10 mm d e e p on both sides may be cut in w a l l s ≥ 2 4 0 mm thick.

( 4 ) C h a s e s that e x t e n d max. 1 m a b o v e floor level m a y be cut up to 80 mm d e e p and 120 mm w i d e in w a l l s ≥ 2 4 0 mm thick.
( 5 ) T h e total width of chases a c c o r d i n g to column 5 a n d column 7 per 2 m of wall length may not e x c e e d the dimension g i v e n in c o l u m n 7. For walls less than 2 m long, the values in
column 7 should be r e d u c e d in proportion to t h e length of t h e w a l l .
The use of the butt joint technique has several the masonry. At the very least, the arrangement To simplify structural analysis, DIN 1053 part 1
important advantages for on-site operations of chases and recesses should be checked for table 10 specifies maximum dimensions for
and the later behaviour of the walls: their structural implications prior to construction. chases and recesses. If these dimensions are
Planned chases and recesses formed within not exceeded, the effect of such chases and
• The walls can be built separately without the masonry bond, or provided in the form of recesses on the load-carrying capacity of a
inconvenient toothing in one operation. The channel blocks, or service duct or pre-chased wall is so minor that they can be ignored when
omission of toothing speeds up operations units (see "Special formats, special units"), designing the masonry (see table 2.5.5 and fig.
quite considerably. In addition, the flush wall should be taken into account on the working 2.5.6). In addition, an analysis is not necessary
surfaces and avoidance of short returns drawings. As a rule, these are more accurate for vertical chases and recesses if the reduc
eases the erection and movement of working and less time-consuming and costly than chas tion in the cross-section - per m of wall length
platforms and scaffolds. es cut subsequently. When cutting chases, it - is no more than 6% and the wall is not
• The flush wall connection means that fewer must be ensured that the intended dimensions assumed to be supported on three or four
make-up units are required and there are no are not exceeded. Chases and recesses can sides. In this case, a residual wall thickness
bonding problems at intersections. considerably lower the load-carrying capacity according to DIN 1053 part 1 table 10 column
• The two intersecting walls can be built with of a wall because besides reducing the cross- 8 and a minimum spacing according to column
different course heights without bonding section they also decrease, in particular, the 9 must be maintained (see table 2.5.5). If the
problems, i.e. its is easy to combine walls of bending strength of the wall and alter the dimensions of the chases and recesses differ
units with different heights and formats (but eccentricity in the remainder of the wall. from the values given in the tables or from the
still complying with the "octametric" system). Vertical chases in walls spanning in one direc extra requirement for vertical chases, they
• The butt joint technique avoids the creation of tion only reduce the cross-sectional area; their must be taken into account in the design of the
thermal bridges at junctions between internal influence on the load-carrying capacity of the masonry. As the requirements of table 10
walls with high bulk density and external walls wall is hence of only minor importance. On the appear very complicated for the practically
with a lower bulk density. other hand, vertical chases in walls spanning in minded despite the graphic presentation in fig.
• The use of different types of masonry units in two directions, whose increase in load-carrying 2.5.6, the following recommendations should
the two walls means that the effects of long- capacity is due to lateral restraint and hence is be adhered to during construction:
term deformations are less critical because reliant on horizontal bending moments, can • Chases and recesses should be positioned
the anchors preserve a certain vertical defor have a severe effect on the horizontal span. well clear of heavily loaded sections of
mation capability while at the same time pro Therefore, their influence is taken into account masonry, e.g. bearings beneath lintels, open
viding a tension- and compression-resistant when determining whether a wall is supported ings. They should not be positioned in piers
connection between the walls [71, 2 1 1 , 214]. on three or four sides by using only the resid and chimney jambs.
ual wall thickness in the design of the section • The depth of a chase or recess should be as
adjacent to a vertical chase, or by assuming an small as possible, max. 30 mm, in order not
Chases and recesses unsupported edge at this position. We also to weaken the cross-section more than nec
assume an unsupported edge if the residual essary..
Chases and recesses are required for all types wall thickness is less than half the total wall
• Horizontal chases should only be positioned
of building services, e.g. heating, water and thickness or < 115 mm.
immediately below floor/roof soffits or immedi
waste water pipes, electric cables, ventilation Horizontal chases should be avoided if possi
ately above floor level because in these
ducts. Owing to their significance for the stabil ble because they reduce the cross-sectional
zones such chases have very little influence
ity of a wall, drawings showing the sizes and area, and hence the bending strength, along
on the loadbearing behaviour of the wall (sta
positions of chases and recesses should be their full length. At the same time, they have an
bility against buckling).
provided at an early stage so that they can be unfavourable effect on the eccentricity in the
• Walls < 175 mm thick should not be chased if
taken into account in the structural analysis of rest of the wall.
at all possible.
148
Building and cleaning facing masonry
• As chases and recesses are detrimental to facing masonry is that the units should be laid 2.5.6 Diagram of chases and recesses permissible in
loadbearing walls without structural analysis
the acoustic and thermal insulation properties and worked in a way appropriate to the mate (dimensions in mm)
of a wall as well as its loadbearing behaviour, rial. The different suction rates of different ma
"false wall" installations are to be preferred terials must be taken into account. Absorbent
wherever possible, i.e. all services are units must be prewetted before laying so that
installed on the face of the wall or in service they do not extract too much mixing water
shafts. During the interior works, the services from the mortar. The maximum rate for this is
are concealed behind masonry or some other 1.5 kg/m 2 /min. Prewetting is not necessary at
form of cladding. lower suction rates. If prewetting is not carried
out when required, shrinkage cracks between
units and mortar or dehydrated adhesion
Building and cleaning facing masonry zones in the mortar can form and help driving
rain to penetrate the facing masonry. Less
Certain rules have to be followed when plan absorbent masonry units, however, must be
ning and constructing facing masonry and laid dry. In some circumstances the plasticity
faced walls in order to guarantee the appear of the mortar must be reduced in order to pre
ance, serviceability and durability of the vent such units from "floating" on the mortar
masonry. This is especially the case for exter due to their low suction rate.
nal walls of facing masonry which are frequent Complete joints without voids are produced by
ly exposed to driving rain. In particular, the risk applying the mortar to the end of the masonry
of saturation due to inadequate workmanship unit and then pressing it against its neighbour,
or the wrong choice of material is frequently thereby squeezing out surplus mortar. Wall
underestimated. The damage caused to the joints remain open at first and are filled with Horizontal and inclined c h a s e s cut subsequently
grout upon completion of each course of Wall thickness Length of chase
facing masonry is often extensive and necessi
unlimited ≤ 1.25 m long (2)
tates major repairs. masonry [162].
d Depth ( 3 ) Depth ( 3 )
Fresh joints must be cured for at least 3-5 days ≥ 115 - -
(see "Mixing and using mortar on site"). ≥175 0 ≤25
≥240 ≤15 ≤25
Construction principles Please refer to "Jointing" below for further
≥300 ≤20 ≤30
Facing masonry and faced walls should only details of joints. ≥365 ≤20 ≤30
be built from free-standing scaffold, because ( 2 ) Min. distance from o p e n i n g s in longitudinal direction
putlog or other scaffold fixing holes are difficult ≥ 4 9 0 m m , from next horizontal chase 2 x length of
chase.
to make good subsequently. The top course of Cleaning facing masonry ( 3 ) T h e d e p t h may be increased by 10 mm w h e n using
masonry should be covered during longer First of all, for effective cleaning we must dis tools w h e r e the d e p t h c a n be accurately maintained,
interruptions in the work and during rain. If tinguish between the different types of soiling. e.g. m a s o n r y millers, slot saws etc. W h e n using such
possible, masonry units should not be laid in The most frequent type of soiling, but the easi tools, c h a s e s 10 mm d e e p on both sides may be cut in
walls ≥ 2 4 0 mm thick.
the rain, and in cold weather should not be laid est to remove, is that caused by mortar and
below certain temperatures (see "Laying dur cement during construction. Second, efflores
ing during cold weather"). cence and lime staining can occur upon com
Facing masonry must be built very carefully pletion of the facing masonry. Finally, atmos
because even very small irregularities, e.g. pheric pollution can spoil the appearance of
misaligned perpends above and below a facing masonry over time.
header, are disagreeable to the observer - and The soiling of facing masonry during construc
it is often viewed from close quarters. Per tion is most easily dealt with by removing mor
pends or headers, which according to the tar droppings and cement splashes immedi
bond should be aligned vertically, must be ately as the work proceeds or when building
plumbed, because deviations of just a few mil the next section. Water, brushes and sponges
limetres can add up to considerable discrep are adequate for such cleaning.
ancies over the full height of the wall. All the The avoidance of soiling is also important in
facing masonry units required for a certain sec this context: adequate clearance between
tion of the construction should be ordered from tubs of mortar and facade, newly built masonry
one supplier and intermixed between several covered with plastic sheeting to protect against
pallets in order to avoid colour variations in the mortar droppings and cement splashes or
finished work. If necessary, a reference panel against splashes of concrete and plaster.
for assessing material (consistency of colour Efflorescence often occurs when larger quanti
and dimensional accuracy), bond, jointing etc. ties of water (e.g. mixing water from the mortar,
should be produced on site. poorly designed/built eaves details, leaking Vertical chases and recesses cut subsequently
Facing masonry units must be carefully trans copings etc.) penetrate the masonry and wash Wall Depth 4 1 Width of Distance of chases
ported and stacked on pallets, in packaging or out efflorescent substances, e.g. calcium thickness single and r e c e s s e s
in containers in order to avoid damaging corners hydroxide, sodium and magnesium sulphate, d chase from o p e n i n g s
and edges. Furthermore, they are to be pro ≥ 115 ≤ 10 ≤100 ≥ 115

chlorides and nitrates, from the mortar and
≥ 175 ≤30 ≤100 ≥ 115
tected against the weather, soiling and mech masonry units. The absorbency of the units ≥240 ≤30 ≤150 ≥ 115
anical damage. Damaged units should be allows the dissolved substances to be trans ≥300 ≤30 ≤200 ≥ 115
rejected or used in such a way that the dam ported to the surface, where they are depo ≥365 ≤30 ≤200 ≥ 115
( 4 ) Chases that e x t e n d max. 1 m a b o v e floor level may be
aged section is not visible in the finished wall. sited at a point where the water can readily
cut up to 80 mm d e e p and 120 mm w i d e in walls
One important condition for building durable evaporate, e.g. at projecting piers and at the ≥ 240 mm thick.
149
2.5.7 Forming flush and

"bucket handle"
joints
corners of buildings, where higher wind They can generally be removed by water jets Jointing
speeds occur. with additives but softer surfaces will suffer
Efflorescence, which occurs during construc under this treatment. Special graffiti cleaners Jointing plays a special role in facing masonry
tion by the dissolving of efflorescent substan based on γ-butyrolactone have proved to be a and faced walls: it seals the masonry against
ces in the mortar (calcium carbonate), can be good alternative to mechanical cleaning. driving rain, and lends it the desired appear
avoided by prewetting and hence reducing This special plastic-dissolving product with a ance. The composition of the mortar, the set
the absorbency of the masonry units, Most pH value between 5.5 and 6.0 is applied to the back, consistency and position of the joint sur
efflorescence disappears after a relatively facing masonry and washed off afterwards with faces, and the way they are made are crucial
short period of exposure to the weather. Other cold water without damaging the surface. to the weather-tightness of facing masonry
wise, the most effective method for removal is exposed to driving rain. Therefore, to be effec
cleaning the masonry dry with spatulas, suit tive, joints should be water-repellent and fin
able small wooden boards and bristle brushes. ished flush with the surface of the masonry
Sandblasting may be employed in certain whenever possible. The joints form a fine lattice
cases, although this may place severe stresses over the whole surface of the wall and so their
on the facing masonry; or cleaning wet with a appearance has a decisive influence on the
cleaning agent. In this case the masonry must character and overall colour of exposed
be prewetted starting at the bottom before the masonry. Jointing can be carried out during
cleaning agent is applied in concentrated or construction, before the mortar has fully hard
diluted form in accordance with the manu ened (e.g. flush, "bucket handle"), or later,
facturer's instructions. These methods are often after raking out the joints (pointing) [162,164].
employed for old lime staining and leaching of,
for example, calcium carbonate. Very effective
cleaning agents for clay brickwork have Flush and "bucket handle" joints
proved to be those based on hydrochloric, The flush joint requires the visible joints of the
phosphoric or formic acid. The masonry should masonry to be filled completely with mortar.
be rinsed thoroughly with water after cleaning Surplus mortar is trimmed off with the trowel.
to make sure that all impurities are removed. It The "bucket handle" joint is formed after the
also prevents the masonry from reabsorbing mortar has started to harden by "ironing in" to a
the solution again as it dries. depth of 2 mm, compacting and smoothing
Masonry soiled by many years of atmospheric with a sliver of wood, jointing iron or piece of
pollution should only be cleaned by specialist plastic hose (diameter approx. 1.5 to 2 times
contractors. It is essential to carry out a clean the width of the joint). The smoothing must
ing test first in such cases to establish the most always be carried out at exactly the right time
suitable method of cleaning - so that the and starting from the first joint formed to ensure
masonry remains clean and does not suffer a consistent joint colour (see 2.5.7).
any significant damage. The advantage of these joints is that they are
High-pressure jets of cold and hot water, jets of carried out immediately after building the
water with additives, compressed-air water jets masonry and so provide homogeneous, well-
with additives and chemical cleaning process compacted joints formed "from one mould", so
es involving the application of wetting agents, to speak, throughout their depth.
acidic or alkali cleaners and subsequent rins However, this type of jointing can be carried
ing have all proved to be suitable methods of out properly only when bed joints and perpends
cleaning. When choosing a method, the effec are completely filled with mortar, to avoid hav
tiveness of safety requirements and disposal of ing to make good when smoothing the joints.
the cleaning water must also be taken into This presupposes careful bricklaying.
account [52, 175]. One common problem The disadvantage, that the facing masonry
these days is graffiti smeared over facades. must be kept clean during construction
150
Joint design
2.5.8 Pointing
because subsequent cleaning of the facade tar group ll a, III or IlI a. Joint design
could lead to cement being washed out of the The disadvantages of pointing are that it
joints, can be avoided by using a mortar with encourages the production of masonry without The components of a building are subjected to
good cohesion and water-retention properties. fully filled joints, and that jointing and pointing stresses and strains such as those caused by
This prevents the mortar running down the face mortars with different mixes, or pointing mortar temperature, creep and shrinkage deforma-
of the masonry when it inevitably squeezes out which is too dry, leads to diminished adhesion tions. Preventing such deformations causes
of the joints. between pointing and mortar or masonry unit. restraint stresses, which can lead to cracks
Both these disadvantages weaken the driving- appearing in the structure. Therefore, the
rain resistance of the facing masonry and, as a designer should include movement joints as a
Pointing result, impair the durability of the wall construc- preventive measure to avoid cracking. Besides
This requires the joints of exposed surfaces to tion. Therefore, pointing should be used only accommodating deformation, joints must com-
be raked out to depth of 15-20 mm - but not as when a particular effect (e.g. colour) is desired, pensate for manufacturing and assembly toler-
far as the first row of any perforations in the or when the surface of the masonry unit is ances, and at the same time comply with build-
units- immediately after construction by using unsuited to a flush joint. ing science requirements (thermal and sound
a slightly tapered strip of hardwood. insulation, weather and fire protection). To do
Attempting to construct facing masonry with this, they must be wide enough and be filled
the mortar left back from the edge to save rak- with suitable materials.
ing out the joints later is not a proper way of As joints affect the appearance of masonry,
preparing the outer joint substrate, and is they should be considered as architectural ele-
therefore not permitted. It is also considered ments in the planning. However, they should
poor workmanship to rake out the mortar V- be included only where absolutely necessary,
shaped, half-round or bevelled in the middle of because their construction and maintenance
a joint, because then the pointing mortar does are costly and involved. Joints should be
not achieve a proper bond with the units and straight and positioned logically, otherwise
the mortar of the joints, and consequently does they become complicated and may not be fully
not protect the masonry against driving rain. effective.
After raking out, any loose pieces of mortar
should be removed from the facade surfaces
and the joints by brushing and rinsing with Types of joints
water, possibly with the addition of a cleaning Joints are divided into movement joints, rigid
agent. Prior to pointing, the facade should be joints and dummy joints.
saturated with water starting at the bottom. The Movement joints include settlement and expan-
pointing mortar (mixed by machine to a "plastic" sion joints. Settlement joints (e.g. between
consistency) is then pressed into the joints and buildings) are called for when significant differ-
well compacted in two operations, and excess ential settlement is expected between two or
mortar removed. more sections of a building. They extend over
In the first operation the perpends are first the full height of the building and also pass
compacted and then the bed joint; in the through the foundations. In such situations it
second operation the bed joints first and then must be ensured that the separate parts of the
the perpends (see fig. 2.5.8). building each have an independent three-
Suitable measures, e.g. spraying with water, dimensional bracing system. The risk of differ-
covering with plastic sheeting, should be taken ential settlement arises when different sections
to protect the fresh pointing against premature of the building impose different ground pres-
drying-out caused by draughts, sunshine etc. sures on a subsoil susceptible to settlement or
The composition of the pointing mortar should when the type of subsoil changes beneath the
correspond more or less with that of the mortar building. Expansion joints (e.g. vertical and
of the joints, and should be preferably of mor- horizontal joints in facing work) are required in
151
2.5.9 Feasible movement joint detail large components that undergo deformation as aligned with the joint. As it attempts to regain
a result of shrinkage and temperature fluctua- its original size and shape, it presses against
tions. As a rule, vertical expansion joints con- the sides of the joint with sufficient adhesion to
tinue down as far as the top of the foundations. seal it immediately. In doing so, the gasket also
This type of deformation is less damaging to compensates for the unevenness of the sides
foundations and undivided foundations tend to of the joint. Preformed gaskets compressed to
compensate for settlement. Rigid joints (e.g. one third their original size are adequate to
assembly joints, construction joints, joints create a dust-tight and airtight joint; a gasket
between prefabricated elements) arise as a compressed to one fifth its original size creates
result of the type of construction or building a watertight joint.
operations. Such joints can also act as move-
ment joints, in which case they should be formed Cover strips
Compressed gasket and sealed as for such joints. Dummy joints are A cover strip can be clamped or glued into the
produced only for appearance and have no joint to seal it. The contact pressure of cover
functions regarding the accommodation of strips clamped into place must be adequate to
deformations or tolerances. prevent the strip dropping out if the gap
widens as a result of, for example, a drop in
temperature.
The sealing of joints The adhesion of the glue to the substrate is
Sealing compounds, preformed sealing gas- decisive for glued strips. To improve the adhe-
kets and cover strips are used to seal joints sion, the sides of the joint may be carefully
(see fig. 2.5.9) [ 9 ] . painted or, in the case of a highly absorbent
material, sealed with an epoxy resin solution.
Sealing compounds
Here, the joint is sealed by permanently elastic Drained joints
and permanently elastoplastic one- and two- Vertical movement joints in facing masonry can
part compounds, e.g. polysulphide, silicone be designed as drained, i.e. open, joints in
Self-adhesive side
rubber, polyurethane or acrylic dispersions. buildings located in regions where less driving
These materials are permanently elastic but rain is to be expected, provided the backing
deform plastically under the influence of long- masonry and any insulation are permanently
term loading and hence reduce stresses within protected against moisture, e.g. an airspace,
the joint. They are available in various colours plaster or plastic sheeting. Such joints are
and can be expected to last 15-20 years. Seal- restricted to a maximum width of
ing compounds must be applied in dry condi- 15 mm and require an outer leaf thickness of at
tions at temperatures above +5°C. The mason- least 90 mm.
ry joints on both sides of the movement joint
should be fully filled with mortar, and the open-
ng for the joint itself must be free from dust, The spacing and width of joints
mortar droppings, oil and grease in order to The design of the joints, i.e. establishing the
achieve optimum adhesion between sealing widths of the joints and the distances between
compound and masonry and to avoid cracks in them, is carried out by the structural engineer
Cover strips the long term. and depends on numerous variables: the
A round backing strip of flexible foamed mater- structural concept of the respective structure;
ial is inserted into the opening before the seal- the dimensions of the structure; the stiffness of
ing compound so as to be able to inject the the construction with respect to changes in
compound with sufficient pressure and at the length; the arrangement of stiffening elements;
same time give it a suitable form. This so- temperature changes; the insulation to the
called backing cord must have a diameter of external walls; the shrinkage and creep behav-
about 1.5 times the width of the joint, must be iour of the walls and floors; the settlement
compatible with the sealing compound and anticipated etc.
must not absorb any water. After injecting the Outer leaves of masonry undergo greater
sealing compound using a hand-operated or changes in length than inner leaves because
compressed-air gun, the joint is generally sub- they are subjected to greater temperature
sequently given a slightly concave profile. changes. Added to this we have the differentia
deformation of the leaves caused by different
material properties and different loads on the
Preformed sealing gaskets inner and outer leaves. The advice below
Joints may be filled with preformed sealing should be followed when designing movement
gaskets made from open-cell plastic foam joints in outer leaves of masonry:
impregnated with a special bitumen or poly-
acrylate. Therefore, the gaskets remain perma- • Vertical movement joints are required at the
nently elastic, do not crack or become brittle, corners of buildings and also in long walls at
and are resistant to ultraviolet radiation and a spacing of max. 6.0 m for lightweight con-
alkaline solutions. The preformed gasket is crete units, max. 8.0 m for calcium silicate
squeezed together before being inserted, and units, and 10-16 m for clay brickwork. These
152
Mechanical fixings in masonry
different figures do not represent different of the trowel or roller or sledge should match 2.5.10 Examples of plastic and injection anchors
standards but are the result of the different the thickness of the wall. When using a trowel, covered by building authority certificates [15]
deformation properties of these facing mater the thin-bed mortar is only applied to the bed
ials. If a facade is taken around the corner of joint two or three bricks ahead of the brick
the building without a joint, the return should being laid, but when using a roller or sledge,
not be longer than 5.0 m. In the case of lintels rationalization measures dictate that the mortar
over large window and door openings, move be applied to the whole length of wall. The
ment joints are positioned in line with the win roller can also be used to place a glass fibre
dow and door reveals above and below the mat between two layers of thin-bed mortar
openings. each approx. 1 mm thick. The high tearing
• Horizontal movement joints are required resistance of the mat increases the compres-
beneath parapets and roof overhangs, below sive strength of the masonry and the adhesive
balcony floors and beams, below joists and shear strength between gauged bricks and Plastic wall plugs
purlins, beneath windows and thresholds, mortar.
and below supports for outer leaves when After the gauged brick is laid, the faces and
they are more than 6.0 m high with an outer edges are aligned accurately before tapping it
leaf < 115 mm thick, and when they are more into place with a rubber hammer. Any thin-bed
than 12.0 m high with an outer leaf ≥ 115 mm mortar that squeezes out is trimmed off with a
thick. metal spatula once it has started to harden. At
the same time, any flaws, e.g. unfilled per
The width of the joint depends on the antici pends or bed joints or damaged edges, are
pated deformation of the components and the made good.
deformability of the material to be used to seal From time to time, after a brick is laid it should
the joint. The width is usually five to seven be removed again immediately in order to
times the change in length to be accommo check whether a complete bed of mortar is
dated by the joint. Joint widths of 15-25 mm being achieved with the respective method of
are normally chosen and the joints spaced to application.
suit this width. Wider joints are difficult to seal
properly.
Mechanical fixings in masonry
Gauged brickwork Very many different types of neighbouring con

structions, components and fittings have to be
When building with normal or lightweight mor fixed to masonry using anchors, drive screws
tar, the different positions and heights of the and nails. These are subjected to tension,
units can be compensated for to a certain compression, shear, inclined tension and
extent by adjusting the thicknesses of the bed bending.
joints. However, gauged brickwork and thin- Neither standards nor guidelines are available
bed mortar (with joint thicknesses of 1-3 mm) for assessing such connections. Therefore, load-
permit only minimal adjustment of position and bearing fixings may only use anchors covered
height. The result of this is that the base course by a building authority certificate.
must be laid with extreme care because it also Other types of fixing (anchors and nails without
serves as the course for adjusting the height as certificates) may be used for minor applica
well as the longitudinal and transverse planari- tions. However, these may not be used for fix
ty. ing constructions in the tension zones of roof
The base course is laid on a bed of normal mo and floor slabs and also not for attaching cur
rtar of group III and then aligned horizontally. tain wall facades and thermal insulation com
Small- and medium-format units or levelling posite systems [43, 49, 78, 109, 110]. Injection wall plugs
units - 50-125 mm high and up to 500 mm long
-are often used in the base course in conjunc
tion with the actual gauged bricks. Anchors
Once the base course has hardened, the Anchors are fixings inserted and secured into
gauged bricks with their associated thin-bed holes drilled into solid materials. Their main
mortar are used, starting from the second purpose is to permit the attachment of a whole
course. The bed faces of the gauged bricks range of minor items but they may also be
should be brushed before the thin-bed mortar used to anchor loadbearing components.
is applied in order to ensure a clean, smooth Regardless of the type of application, they
bed face, which helps to guarantee the adhe should always be properly planned and sized.
sion between unit and mortar. The thin-bed Anchors can be classified according to various
mortar is applied to the bed joint either by dip criteria. One common method is to distinguish
ping the gauged bricks approx. between the type of anchorage in the drilled
5 mm into the mortar or by spreading the mor hole - undercut, mechanical expansion, fric
tar directly onto the bed joint using a special tion, grouting, adhesion - and the material of
trowel, roller or mortar sledge, which applies a the anchor. Up to now, only plastic expansion
constant layer of mortar to the joint. The width anchors and injected grout anchors have been
153
2.5.11 Method of functioning

of anchors [13]
approved for fixings in masonry (see fig. 2.5.10). geometry and the shape of the substrate (see Anchors for autoclaved aerated concrete
There are also special anchors for fixing ther- fig. 2.5.11). Plastic expansion and injection anchors with a
mal insulation composite systems and for cylindrical drilled hole are not suitable for auto-
anchoring wall ties for twin-leaf masonry and Injection anchors claved aerated concrete because this material
facing masonry. These anchor systems are in are inserted into the wall before offering up the is very soft, is damaged by the expansion
turn based on the plastic expansion anchors item to be attached and up to now have only forces and also cannot accommodate any
and the injection anchors. Finally, there are been approved for fixings in hollow masonry significant bonding forces. Therefore, special
special wall plugs for autoclaved aerated con- units. anchors have been developed for fixings in
crete, which permit components to be attached They work by way of the bond between the autoclaved aerated concrete. They are
to this very soft material. anchor or anchor sleeve and the substrate. The anchored by way of conical drilled undercuts
bond is achieved by way of an injected grout virtually without any compression due to
Plastic anchors based on rapid-hardening cement or artificial expansion, or injection, or a special arrange-
can be used for fixings in concrete as well as resin. However, injection anchors fitted in voids ment which allows low expansion forces to be
in masonry of solid and perforated units. They also transfer the tension via the mechanical transferred, thanks to a suitable surface design
are normally inserted through the item to be interlock of the injected grout forced into the and partial compaction of the autoclaved aer-
fixed and into the wall. The anchors consist of void (see fig. 2.5.11). ated concrete (see fig. 2.5.12). The fixing of
a plastic sleeve, designed not to turn in the When using rapid-hardening cement, the mor- components subjected to heavy or dynamic
hole, and an associated screw or nail. The tar is mixed with a prescribed amount of water loads may require the use of bolts passed
minimum depth of anchorage is marked on before being forced into the void by a hand- through the aerated concrete wall.
the plastic sleeve. A collar at the outer end of operated pump. The result is that the void in In this case the wall is drilled right through to
the sleeve prevents the anchor being pushed the masonry is more or less filled. The amount match the diameter of the bolt and a wider
too far into the hole during assembly. of mortar required is minimized by using pocket formed on the rear face. The item to be
The geometry and length of the screw or nail anchors surrounded by a polyamide mesh. fixed is fitted over the bolt, which passes
are matched to the internal geometry and Injection anchors based on artificial resin con- through the wall and is secured on the rear
length of the sleeve so that the anchor is prop- sist of a mesh sleeve and a threaded bar with face, and pressed up against the autoclaved
erly expanded once the screw or nail is in nut and centering ring, or a metal sleeve with aerated concrete. Large washers or anchor
place. However, expanding plastic anchors internal thread, plus the artificial resin mortar. plates are fitted to the bolt on both sides of the
with nails may only be used for fixing facades The separate components, resin and hardener, wall to distribute the load.
in concrete and solid masonry units. are forced through a mixing tube and injected
Plastic anchors may not be used for pure axial - thoroughly mixed - into the mesh sleeve. The Installing anchors
tension, but only for inclined tension at an threaded bar or the sleeve with internal thread Anchors require the hole to be carefully drilled;
angle of at least 10°. In solid materials the ten- is subsequently pushed into the mesh sleeve. lack of care when drilling can lead to an over-
sion is transferred by friction. The expanded Anchoring the wall plug in the web of a mason- size hole, which results in a rapid decrease in
part of the anchor is pressed against the side ry unit requires the drilled hole to be carefully the pull-out strength of the fixing. Holes for
of the drilled hole and hence activates the fric- cleaned by brushing and compressed air in anchors in masonry can be drilled with a nor-
tion. In hollow masonry units the tension is also order to guarantee an adequate bond to trans- mal rotary drill, a percussion drill (rotation plus
transferred by the interlock between the anchor fer the tension. rapid percussion action) or a hammer drill
154
Rationalization measures
(rotation plus slower but more powerful percus This happens when the tension loads are too 2.5.12 Examples of anchors for autoclaved aerated
sion action). Percussion and hammer drills may high, the masonry is not strong enough or the concrete
be used in solid units with a dense microstruc- depth of anchorage is inadequate. A wall can
ture, but only rotary drills may be used in per fracture if it is not large enough to carry the
forated, autoclaved aerated concrete and low- loads or if the edge distances or spacings of
strength units so that the hole remains the fixings are too small for the expansion forces
proper size and the webs and walls of per introduced.
forated units are not damaged by the percus
sive action. It is recommended to grind normal
Expansion wall plug with compaction
carbide drills, which are designed for rotation Nail anchors
plus percussion action, sharp in the direction Nails and drive screws are employed only for
of rotation, similar to a steel drill, to achieve minor constructions with low anchorage loads,
optimum progress when drilling a hole purely and primarily in aerated concrete masonry.
by rotation. Lightweight items, e.g. battens for wooden
With few exceptions, the hole must be drilled at panelling, are fixed in place by driving the nails
least 10 mm deeper than the depth of anchor or drive screws directly into the autoclaved
age, This leaves room for any dust or for the aerated concrete.
Wall plug expands when expanding
point of the screw to protrude through the end The best nails for this are tapered, galvanized shell is forced over cone.
of the wall plug, and hence guarantees the cor square nails 60-180 mm long with a rough sur
rect functioning of the anchor. face finish. They should be hammered home
In solid cross-sections, dust resulting from the from alternate angles. Other types of nails
drilling should be removed from the hole dur include twisted nails and special nail anchors
ing and after drilling in order to avoid dimin and hammered plugs for autoclaved aerated
ished friction and bond effects, and to guaran concrete. The twisted nail gains its anchorage
tee the load-carrying capacity of the anchor, by way of friction and expansion, the other two
There are various ways of fixing the actual forms by way of a mechanical interlock (see
neighbouring construction, component etc. fig. 2.5.13).
The holes can be drilled (after having first used
the fixing holes in the component to establish Through-fixing for particu
larly heavy or dynamic loads
the positions of the holes in the wall) and the
anchors inserted before positioning the com Rationalization measures
ponent against the wall and screwing it into
place. In this case the anchor usually finishes Building to save space and costs
flush with the surface of the wall and the diam The rising cost of building means that the opti
eter of the hole in the wall is larger than that of mization of costs and space in the housing 2.5.13 Nail anchors for autoclaved aerated concrete
the hole in the component. Alternatively, the market is becoming increasingly important. masonry
holes in the wall can be drilled using the fixing The potential for optimizing the use of the avail
holes in the component as a template (which able space is to be found principally in exploit
guarantees accuracy) and the anchors insert ing the options for optimizing the loadbearing
ed into the wall through the component. In this structure as contained in standards and regu Square nail
case the diameter of the hole in the component lations. These options must be taken into
is at least as large as that of the hole in the account early in the planning stage of a build
wall. This procedure is particularly suitable ing project.
when each component requires more than two One fundamental optimization option for the
anchors and for large numbers of fixings. It is loadbearing structure is the regular arrange
also possible to attach a component at a cer ment of shear walls. A regular arrangement Twisted nail
tain distance from the wall. A tension- and provides excellent stability and minimizes wall
compression-resistant fixing is achieved by thicknesses. In addition, the spans of the floors
using an injection anchor having a metric in can be made equal, which in turn minimizes
ternal thread into which a screw, bolt or slab depths and the amount of reinforcement
threaded bar with locknuts is fitted. required.
Another measure for saving money and space Aerated concrete
nail anchor
Modes of failure of anchors is to reduce the thicknesses of loadbearing
Anchors can fail as a result of overloaded walls to the minimum dimension necessary to
anchorage points, incorrect installation or the satisfy structural and building science require
inadequate load-carrying capacity of the sub ments by employing the more accurate method
strate. Plastic anchors can fail by being pulled of analysis. According to DIN 1053 part 1, the
out of the substrate, although this does not minimum thickness for loadbearing internal
seriously damage. A pull-out failure means that and external walls, as well as the loadbearing
an excessive load has overcome the friction or leaf of twin-leaf external walls, is 115 mm. How
bond in the hole; a ruptured fixing means that ever, a minimum wall thickness of 175 mm is
the strength of the screw material was not ade recommended for single-leaf external walls
quate for the load. with a thermal insulation system in order to Aerated concrete
Fracture of the masonry material itself is the comply with thermal and sound insulation hammered plug
normal mode of failure for an injection anchor. requirements. Internal partitions ≥ 115 mm may
155
2.5.14 Working hours guidance figures [h/m3] be considered as ioadbearing. The gain in mortar from 50 l/m3 for a thick joint to 5 l/m3 for
floor area when using masonry walls with these a thin joint. Moreover, the application of a con-
minimum thicknesses is approx. 5-7% com- stant bed of mortar using a mortar sledge or
pared to the common wall thicknesses of 240- special trowel, and the resulting laying of a row
365 mm. In addition, fewer masonry units and of masonry units, achieves a time saving of up
less mortar are required. Furthermore, thin to 25%. The bricklayers work in pairs, one
masonry is more flexible and therefore less spreading the thin-bed mortar along the wall
liable to crack than thicker masonry, in which with the mortar sledge or special trowel, and
the structural stresses are lower. The use of a the other laying rows of masonry units in the
skim coat instead of 15-20 mm "normal plaster" prepared mortar bed [75],
can also achieve an additional gain in floor Further rationalization in masonry construction
area amounting to approx. 2% depending on can be achieved by using the various special
the size of the room. However, masonry walls units and special components produced by the
with large slenderness ratios call for the use of masonry industry (see "Special formats, spe-
masonry units with high strength and high cial units"). The aim here, in particular, is to
gross density, as well as high-quality mortar ntegrate other materials - steel and concrete -
(MG III, MG IlI a, DM). The actual building of required for structural reasons into an essen-
masonry at an optimized cost is less a question tially homogeneous masonry construction,
of optimizing the Ioadbearing structure than a while reducing the work required to integrate
matter for rationalized building operations, the such materials.
use of large-format masonry units and special
building methods (e.g. prefabricated construc-
tion) [139, 140], The quantities of materials and number of
working hours required
can be determined theoretically but are subject
Rational laying techniques to considerable fluctuationin practice. Organi-
The aim of rational bricklaying is to minimize zation on the building site is critical for this. To
the number of operations to be carried out by calculate the number of units required, it is
the bricklayer when building a wall, and at the important, for example, to know whether the
same time to adapt the ergonomics of the work units will be cut on site with a hammer or with a
to meet the needs of the bricklayer better. saw. The amount of mortar required is, for
The handling of the masonry units themselves example, approx. 25-30% lower for masonry
is crucial to manual bricklaying. Therefore, for without mortar to the perpends than for mason-
example, the calcium silicate industry has ry with mortar to the perpends. In Germany,
developed grip aids with grip bar and thumb- comprehensive guidance figures for working
hole especially for their heavy blocks for brick- hours have been published by the Federal
layers to be able to handle the blocks easily. Committee for Performance-linked Pay. These
The bricklayer no longer has to rely on the fric- include ancillary work such as instruction, mix-
tion between his fingers and the surface of the ing mortar, moving scaffolds, setting out and
masonry unit to grip it. Apart from that, there building openings, cleaning the workplace etc.
are also blocks with grip aids at the bottom for The figures clearly reveal the influences of the
when the bricklayer has to work on sections size of the masonry unit; whether bricklaying is
more than 1 m high. carried out by hand or with a handling device;
Above a certain weight, handling devices are the use of thin-bed mortar and the omission of
used to reduce the physical strain of lifting mortar to the perpends (see fig. 2.5.14). The
such heavy masonry units. At the same time, speeding-up of operations when using large-
productivity is improved (see "Large-format format instead of small-format units can be
elements"). Further rationalization measures for attributed to the size of the units but also the
bricklaying are the use of masonry without mor- technique of laying rows of units in thin-bed
tar to the perpends (see "Laying without mortar mortar. The economic advantage grows with
to the perpends"), the use of thin-bed masonry the manufacturing accuracy of the masonry
and the omission of bonded intersections units because as deviations diminish so the
between walls (see "Butt-jointed junctions"). mortar bed can be reduced to a minimum; sav-
Building walls without mortar to the perpends ings in time and materials are the result. At the
involves using masonry units with an integral same time, the wall becomes more homoge-
tongue and groove system, which can then be neous - with all the advantages this implies in
interlocked without using mortar. Tilted bricks terms of structure and building science.
are avoided by guiding each tongue and
groove together, which helps produce a plane Organizing the building site and building
wall surface. The construction of masonry with operations
conventional 10-12 mm perpends and bed Rational construction of masonry also means
joints means that 55% of the bricklayer's time is careful planning of site and operations in order
spent with the mortar. The use of the thin-bed to avoid framework conditions that make it
technique in conjunction with tongue and unnecessarily difficult. This includes the right
groove masonry units cuts the consumption of use of personnel; choice of materials; timely
156
organization and suitable location of stored particularly when laying large-format masonry prefabricated elements and simply built around
materials; preparations for optimum use of units. The time and effort required to lay a unit in one operation.
materials (the use of premixed mortar, pretreat- is lowest for working heights between 600 and
ment of masonry units etc.); and the right use 800 mm. Scaffold heights should be variable
of resources for bricklaying operations (e.g. so that this optimum working height can be Rational working with large-format masonry units
handling devices, working platforms, mortar maintained for the entire wall. Modern steel Large-format masonry units and elements are
sledge etc.). Disruptions to on-site operations scaffolds are useful here because they permit those with lengths of 498-998 mm and heights
have a greater effect on the degree of rational- scaffold boards to be placed every 500 mm in of 373-623 mm. The length and height result
ization when using large-format masonry units, height. In addition, extension brackets can be from the use of thin-bed mortar with bed joint
which result in fewer working hours per m2 of suspended 500 mm below each working level and perpend thicknesses of 1-3 mm. To
wall, than when working with small-format units. on the wall side to avoid unnecessary bending. reduce costs still further, the perpends are fre-
The correct provision of masonry units and Trestles and scaffolds on screw supports with quently tongue and groove units butted togeth-
mortar at the right time, in sufficient quantities infinite height adjustment mean that the work- er without mortar (see "Large-format ele-
and at the right place is especially important if ing height can be adjusted to suit the brick- ments").
the bricklayer is to avoid unnecessary walking layer, and so improves the ergonomics of the The high laying rates with handling devices
and movements when working. This is also true work. and two-man teams, the use of thin-bed mortar
when using handling devices. To achieve opti- In contrast to scaffolds on adjustable supports, and the reduction in subsequent work owing to
mum handling times, it must be ensured that the bricklayer's platform with or without integral the simple and accurate laying of the units are
each delivery of masonry units is stacked at hoist provides a larger working area enabling the rationalization possibilities which can be
the place of work in a row without any gaps. the building of walls up to 4.0 m long. Such expected from the use of large-format masonry
This guarantees that the optimum number of platforms also have their own wheels and so units. The rational laying process means that a
units is laid per handling routine with the preset can be readily moved to a new location, or length of up to 1.25 m of masonry in course
handling parameters. However, too many easily lifted by crane - representing a major heights of 375-750 mm can be constructed in
materials stored within the building can also be economic advantage. With an integral hoist, one operation. This corresponds to rates of up
a disadvantage because this can hamper the even larger masonry formats can be laid quick- to approx. 0.94 m 2 of finished masonry per
movement of scaffolds or handling devices. ly, accurately and without fatigue. operation. This is especially worthwhile for
The distance between bricklayers should be large uninterrupted areas of wall, but in other
about 2.5-3.0 m in order to achieve a regular Templates situations the rationalization effect can still be
working rhythm. One bricklayer per 3.0 m of The building of corners or window and door guaranteed by using supplementary formats,
wall length brings about a 25% increase in per- reveals are particularly complicated operations make-up pieces or specials.
formance over one bricklayer per 2.0 m because of the amount of plumbing and meas- The two-man team rationalizes bricklaying
because there are less interruptions to the uring work involved. Reusable corner and activities because one man operates the han-
working rhythm. opening templates, which indicate the vertical dling device and is only responsible for
The use of a mortar sledge means that the dis- and horizontal positions of courses and units, preparatory work (supplying masonry units and
tance between bricklayers and to the tub of can make such work much easier. Building the mortar, picking up units and transporting them
mortar can be increased still further because, corners first with the associated racking back to the place where they are to be laid), while
with one filling, longer lengths of wall can be is no longer necessary. When laying the base the other man carries out the actual bricklay-
provided with a constant bed of mortar than is course, in which any unevenness in the floor ing, i.e. spreading the layer of mortar with a
the case when using a trowel. The bricklayer has to be compensated for and so establishes mortar sledge or similar tool, laying and align-
has to walk and move less and so the working the basis for the accuracy of subsequent ing the units. Consequently, working rates of
rhythm is again made more consistent. courses, a noticeable rationalization effect is approx. 0.33 h/m2 for uninterrupted flat walls
achieved when using a template, above all in and 0.42 h/m2 for other walls can be achieved.
Scaffolds the next course. An increase in productivity is In order to limit the physical strain on the brick-
The height of the work is critical to the perfor- particularly evident when doors and windows, layer, the use of large-format masonry units
mance, fatigue and health of the bricklayer, or at least their frames, are incorporated as has led to the introduction of a maximum per-
157
2.5.15 Installation drawings for modular masonry
Calcium silicate gauged element wall with few interruptions
Gable wall
2.5.16 Prefabricated system walls
missible weight - including levels of moisture bricklayer despite the fact that improved pro- bonding because the lower number of per-
common on site - for masonry units when lay- ductivity is expected from a smaller number of pends (and frequently the use of perpends
ing by hand. The maximum weight limits are bricklayers. The use of a handling device in a without mortar) means fewer opportunities for
mandatory and are stipulated in an information two-man team only contributes to more rational compensation along the length of the wall. This
sheet published by the Bau-Berufsgenossen- masonry construction when the perpends limits the load-carrying capacity of the mason-
schaften (Building Employers' Liability Insur- make use of the tongue and groove system ry.
ance Associations) [132], and are based on without mortar (because several units are Consequently, large-format units must be di-
extensive ergonomic studies. The information gripped simultaneously), when the team is fully vided with a bolster chisel or a mason's ham-
sheet distinguishes between the one-hand and familiar with this system and each other, and mer or better still - especially for thin-bed
the two-hand lift. when a continuous transport chain from pro- masonry - by accurate sawing. Handsaws with
The one-hand lift means that the masonry unit duction to placement is guaranteed. Therefore, a hardened blade, diamond cutting discs,
can be picked up with one hand and laid with- the groups of masonry units should be aligned bandsaws or chainsaws may be used. Clean
out unnecessary physical strain. The maximum in rows with the tongue and groove end faces edges can be produced with the aid of guides
permissible weight of a unit is 7.5 kg for a grip interlocking so that they can be readily lifted and templates. Cutting discs generally last
width of up to 70 mm, and 6.0 kg for a grip into place by the handling device. The fastest longer than bandsaws or chainsaws.
width of up to 115 mm. working times are achieved when the groups of
The two-hand lift means that the masonry unit masonry units are stacked between the han-
exceeds the maximum values for the one-hand dling device and the bricklayer. However, it Modular masonry
lift. The maximum weight of a unit is 25 kg. should be noted that a concentrated arrange- The idea of modular masonry was developed
Such units must be provided with grip aids or ment of masonry units and handling device by the calcium silicate and autoclaved aerated
be designed in such a way that they can be places a heavy load on the floor which may concrete industries. The benefit that modular
gripped in both hands using suitable tools and need to be carried by temporary additional masonry brings to rationalization is that the
laid manually. Heavy units should be lifted and supports beneath the floor. Adequate circula- large-format masonry units for each wall are
laid by means of a handling device. tion zones are necessary in order to be able to delivered to site as factory-made wall "kits",
move the handling device from place to place. including all make-up and complementary
Masonry unit handling devices This is helped by using butt-jointed wall inter- units, together with computer-produced instal-
The use of lifting equipment or handling sections, which avoid the need for projecting lation drawings for a fixed price (see 2.5.15).
devices is necessary for masonry unit formats racking or toothed returns, so that crosswalls In addition, the manufacturer of the masonry
larger than 16 DF for 240 mm thick walls and can be built at a later date. units provides the thin-bed mortar, handling
10 DFfor 365 mm thick walls or for masonry devices and accessories.
units weighing more than 25 kg. Travelling The cutting of large-format masonry units The design of the walls (dimensions, layout
mini-cranes with a load-carrying capacity of up The production of proper masonry bonds, as and sizes of openings) must be coordinated
to 300 kg situated on the respective floor are well as the need to construct given wall and with the building system or the large-format
increasingly being employed for this work. column sizes, makes it necessary to divide, units in order to minimize the number of precut
Depending on the size of the units, up to five cut and bevel large-format units. While small- make-up and complementary units and hence
large-format units can be gripped and laid side format units can be cut with a brick or scutch the cost of materials. Flat panels of masonry
by side in one lift, i.e. approx. 1 m2 of wall area hammer, this is not a suitable method for large- without interruptions in cellular construction are
can be produced in two lifts. Handling devices format units because it would create too much advantageous.
are normally used in conjunction with the two- unnecessary wastage. Moreover, cutting with a The installation drawings and instructions sim-
man teams described above. They consider- hammer or similar tool is inaccurate. In mason- plify and accelerate the erection of masonry
ably relieve the physical strain on the individual ry of large-format units this leads to incorrect units delivered as kits. This leads to a
158
2.5.17 Gable in the form of a clay brickwork panel 2.5.18 Clay facade elements (Schatz-Preton system)
considerable reduction in labour costs, also entire length, whereby the depth of bearing for detached house to be completed in just 3-5
helped by the complementary units supplied. walls with floor loads to one side only must be days. Only minimal site facilities are required
In addition, cutting the units on site and the at least half the thickness of the wall or 120 mm. and at the same time the environmental pollu-
costly disposal of waste are avoided. The sim- The floors (also roofs) are to be formed as rigid tion due to noise and dirt from the building site
ple installation of wall kits can also be carried plates - equivalent measures (e.g. structurally is minimized. Another cost-saving results from
out by the unskilled in a "do-it-yourself" type of designed capping beams) are not permitted. the fact that factory prefabrication means the
construction, which again saves labour costs. The stability of dry walling should be verified components are essentially dry when deliv-
by way of various component tests as well as ered, which means that less energy is required
Dry walling special structural analyses with regard to buck- for drying out the building (see figs. 2.5.16 and
is built by laying masonry units in a bond but ling lengths, bonds etc. [79]. 2.5.17).
without any mortar to the perpends or the bed Besides their use for loadbearing, single-leaf
joints. To achieve this, the masonry units must Prefabricated construction masonry, prefabricated elements are increas-
exhibit a very high standard of quality with The advantages and economic effectiveness ingly being used for curtain wall masonry
regard to deviations from the intended height of prefabricated construction lie in the rational facades. Such facade elements - up to 8.0 m
dimensions and in terms of the flatness and prefabrication of wall elements under optimum, long and 3.6 m high - are produced rationally
parallelism of bed faces. Laying the units with- industrial conditions in the factory, the fast erec- and unaffected by the weather in the factory
out mortar to perpends or bed joints achieves tion using cranes and the subsequent simple according to the guidelines for reinforced
further rationalization in the construction of structural connection of elements on site to masonry with frost-resistant facing or engineer-
masonry because the operations for supplying thus form a homogeneous wall or structure. ng bricks. Factory production ensures a con-
the mortar, applying it and removing surplus The elements are manufactured in the factory sistent and high-quality outer leaf with respect
mortar after laying the units are all eliminated. as brickwork panels, cast panels or composite to joint pattern, colour of units and mortar, full
This improves the ergonomics of bricklaying panels (see "Prefabricated masonry elements") joints without voids, even jointing etc. In addi-
(number of bending and turning movements) to match the respective storey heights and tion, blinds, lintels and arches as well as
and hence makes the working rhythm of the incorporate all necessary openings and ser- special textures can be incorporated (see fig.
bricklayer more uniform. This leads to less time vice ducts. They are reinforced horizontally 2.5.18).
being required to construct each square metre and vertically for transport and erection. Indus-
of wall. In addition, the omission of thin-bed trial prefabrication renders possible the use of
mortar saves not only labour costs but material computer-assisted machinery (e.g. masonry
costs as well. robots) to achieve a high daily output with a
As so far there is very little experience of dry consistently high standard of quality but at the
walling in practice, its use is currently regul- same time low labour costs.
ated by way of general building authority cer- Delivering the elements to the building site "just
tificates. These restrict the use of dry walling in time" and their rapid and economic erection
to buildings with up to three storeys or a speeds up progress on site and requires only a
height above ground level of max. 10 m, to few personnel. Smooth erection on site demands
clear storey heights of max. 2.75 m, and to good preparations (instruction of personnel,
floor spans of max. 6.0 m. Apart from that, specification of erection procedure, prepara-
dry walling may not be used for reinforced tion of crane hardstanding and temporary sup-
masonry, vaulting, arches, brick arch floors ports etc.) and usually the use of a mobile
or chimneys. crane. Above basement level, this method of
Dry walling must be loaded by floors along its construction allows the primary structure of a
159
Building science
Building science
Joachim Achtziger
2.6.1 Surface resistances in m2K/W Thermal insulation • location, orientation and form of the structure,
Direction of heat flow
• physical properties of materials and compo-
Upwards Horizontal Downwards
0.10 0.13 0.17 The thermal insulation of a building is intended nents used for the structure,
Rsi
to contribute towards a hygienic and comfort- • the design of systems for the technical ser-
Rse 0.04 0.04 0.04
able internal climate, which is not detrimental vices,
to the health of the occupants and users of the • performance features for the components of
building, and at the same time protects the these systems, and
structure against the climate-related effects of • the behaviour of the users of the building.
moisture and their consequences. The energy
required for heating in the winter and measures The combination of planning and design stan-
to provide an acceptable internal climate in the dards, standards with generally acknowledged
summer without the use of air conditioning for design data, standards for the measurement of
cooling must be optimized in conjunction with components and materials as well as those
the necessary thermal insulation and energy- covering products is shown in a very much
saving measures. These days, thermal insula- simplified and generalized form in fig. 2.6.2.
tion to a building is not just a means of saving The quality of a building in energy terms is
energy but an important element in an environ- calculated according to a design standard.
mental protection programme. Therefore, Further rules are necessary for assessing the
reducing emissions of pollutants from building thermal performance of parts of a building,
heating systems is an important aspect. such as rooms adjacent the soil, rooms in the
Besides saving heating costs for the user, an roof space or parts of the building with lower
increasingly important factor, ever more pre- temperatures, as well as standards for specify-
cious energy and fuel resources are also ing the thermal performance of components
spared. and their non-constant behaviour upon heating
The Construction Products Directive [13], the and cooling. Tables of values or measurements
most important element in the creation of a of components prepared according to estab-
European Single Market for the construction lished rules serve for the calculation of trans-
industry, acknowledges the importance of mission heat losses from a building envelope
thermal insulation and defines the area of and given heat gains. Further, components can
"Energy economy and heat retention" as one be assessed according to their constituents,
of six essential requirements. On the whole, based on the properties of the materials
the costs and adaptation problems of Euro- employed. Therefore, a complete, coordinated
pean standardization are outweighed by the standardized concept from the product proper-
benefits. The effects of these are to: ties to final energy requirement is available for
• harmonize the markets, describing the performance of a building. In
• create uniform framework conditions within Germany, DIN 4108 remains as the National
the EU, Application Document and the publication
• attain European supply conditions, describing national requirements. The first
• set uniform evaluation and testing standards, national measures for saving energy in the
• set uniform standards of quality recognized heating of buildings were established within
throughout Europe; different standards in dif- the scope of the Energy-savings Act of 1976,
ferent countries can be assessed according which led to the 1977 Thermal Insulation Act
to a system of graded performance classes. and its subsequent revisions in 1982 and 1995.
The new Energy-savings Act of 2001 has the
The objective of the principal document "Ener- potential to achieve a further 30% saving in
gy economy and heat retention" is, taking into energy in the heating of buildings. A complete
account the location, to keep down the con- energy planning concept is available for the
sumption of energy related to the use of a design of buildings, taking into account heat-
building and its technical systems, and to ing systems and an assessment of the energy
guarantee an adequate of standard of thermal carrier.
comfort for the occupants. This encompasses
and standardizes the following main factors:
160
Thermal insulation
Heat transfer, thermal insulation parameters, terms 2.6.2 Diagram of relationship between materials, components and design standards for assessing buildings in terms
of energy performance
Heat transfer can take place in the form of con
duction in solid, liquid and gaseous media,
and in the form of radiation in transparent
materials and vacuum. In building materials,
heat transfer is expressed by the property of
thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity λ
specifies the heat flow in W passing through
1 m2 of a 1 m thick layer in 1 h when the tem
perature gradient in the direction of the heat
flow is 1 K. The lower the thermal conductivity,
the better is the thermal insulation for a given
thickness of material. The thermal insulation
capacity of a component is characterized by
the thermal resistance R. It is determined by
dividing the thickness of the layer concerned
(in m) by the material's thermal conductivity λ
(in W/mK). Multi-layer components require the
value of each layer to be calculated separately
according to this method. The total of the indi
vidual values gives the thermal resistance R
for the complete component. The higher the
thermal resistance, the better is the thermal
insulation.
To determine the thermal transmittance
through a component, we also need to know
the internal and external surface resistance R si
and Rse. The surface resistance is the resis
tance of the boundary layer of air to the trans
fer of heat from the internal air to the compo
nent and from this to the external air. The sur
2.6.3 Calculation of thermal resistance and thermal transmittance values for single- and multi-layer masonry
face resistances are generally standardized
components
according to the orientation of the component
(vertical, horizontal) and the external air circu Construction Sketch of principle Equation
lation (unrestricted, ventilated, not ventilated)
as given in table 2.6.1. They have been deter
mined for a degree of emissions from the sur Thermal resistance
face of ε = 0.9 and a wind speed n = 4 m/s at
the external surface. The total of all resistances Single-layer component
-those of the layers of the component and the
surface resistances of the boundary layers of
air - is the total thermal resistance Rτ which the
complete component applies to resist the flow
of heat. The reciprocal of this value is the ther
mal transmittance U - the characteristic vari
able for the thermal insulation of a building
component. The U-value is fundamental for
calculating the heating requirement of a build Thermal resistance
ing. The smaller the U-value, the better is the
thermal insulation. The calculation of the ther Multi-layer component
mal resistance of single- and multi-layer com
ponents as well as the U-value is shown
schematically in 2.6.3. The calculation of the U-
value for components made from several
neighbouring sections with different thermal
conductivities is dealt with in the section enti
tled "Thermal bridges". The mathematical
Thermal transmittance
assessment of heat transfer and temperature
gradients in components is a relatively difficult
Single- or multi-layer
problem depending on time and geometry. component
Therefore, to simplify the work we assume sta
tionary, i.e. constant, temperatures on both
sides of the component as well as a one-
dimensional heat flow across the thickness of
161
Building science
2.6.4 Thermal conductivity of dry expanded clay and expanded shale concrete samples with and without various the component. This approach is generally suf
quartz sand additions by volume of total aggregate content (%) in relation to gross density (average tempera ficiently adequate for winter conditions with
ture 10°C), after W. Schule, Giesecke and Reichardt [195]
permanently heated interiors and constant low
temperatures outside, as well as for calculatinc
a mean heat loss over a longer period of time.
At equilibrium, the heat flow
Φ = U x A (qi - qe)
passes through an external component with ar

area A on one side of which there is internal air
at a temperature qi, and on the other, there is
external air at a temperature qe . Therefore, the
thermal transmittance U is critical for the trans
mission heat loss through the component.
However, the graphic representation of the U-
value in fig. 2.6.8 reveals that only slight
improvements are possible beyond a certain
thickness of component. This non-linear be
haviour leads to the situation of increasing
costs for more and more insulation having ever
2.6.5 Order of magnitude of thermal conductivity 2.6.6 Variables, symbols and units used in thermal smaller energy-saving effects. The variables,
(W/mK) of solid constituents of building and ther performance symbols and units necessary for assessing the
mal insulation materials, after J.S. Cammerer [29] Physical variable Symbol Unit
thermal performance of the building envelope
Inorganic building materials Temperature q °C
Crystalline Thermal conductivity λ W/mK
are given in table 2.6.6. Further details are con
perpendicular to crystal axis 4.7 to 7.0 Thermal resistance R m2K/W tained in DIN EN ISO 7345 and the respective
parallel to crystal axis to 14 Internal surface resistance Rs i m2K/W parts of DIN 4108.
Quartzite 6 External surface resistance Rs e m2K/W
Limestone, marble, granite 1.6 to 4.0 Total thermal resistance
Basalt, feldspar, sandstone (air-to-air resistance) Rτ m2K/W Thermal conductivity of building materials
Amorphous solidified melts such as Thermal transmittance U W/m2K With the exception of very dense stone, build
blast furnace slag and glasses 0.7 to 1.2 Heat flow Φ W ing materials are porous to some extent. They
Natural organic substances 0.3 to 0.4 Heat flow rate q W/m2
Plastics 0.16 to 0.35 Specific heat capacity c J/kgK contain air-filled voids of various sizes in vari
Gross/bulk density ρ kg/m3 ous arrangements, and these can have a sig
Thickness d m nificant effect on the transfer of heat. The ther
Area A m2 mal conductivity of masonry depends on:
Volume V m3
Mass m kg • the thermal conductivity of the solid con
stituents,
• the porosity or gross/bulk density,
• the nature, size and arrangement of the
2.6.7 Thermal conductivity of building materials pores,
• the radiation properties of the boundary walls
of the voids,
• temperature, and
• the water or moisture content.
As the thermal conductivity of the material

under observation depends on the temperature
within its range of application, for building pur
poses all thermal conductivity values are relat
ed to a mean temperature of 10°C so that
unequivocal comparisons can be made. For
the same reason, material parameters are
specified for the dry state of the material, initial
ly without taking into account the fact that
moisture increases the thermal conductivity.
Table 2.6.5 provides an overview of the order
of magnitude of the thermal conductivities of
solid materials used to manufacture building
and thermal insulation materials. Materials with
mainly crystalline components exhibit a higher
thermal conductivity than those with vitreous or
lime-based components. For instance, the
addition of quartz sand to concrete or mortar
has a noticeably detrimental effect on the ther
mal conductivity. Measurements of concrete
162
Thermal insulation
with different quartz contents are shown in fig. building materials being marketed internation 2.6.8 Thermal transmittance U in relation to thermal
2.6.4. Generally speaking, the use of aggre ally. The nominal value for thermal conductivity resistance R
gates containing quartz can be assumed to is the value to be expected for the thermal
reduce the insulating effect of the concrete by insulation property of a building material or
20%. However, the characteristic variable influ product, assessed by way of measurements
encing the thermal conductivity of building and taken at a reference temperature and humidity
insulation materials is the gross density. This according to table 2.6.11, specified for defined
relationship is shown in fig. 2.6.7 - the eval percentiles and confidence ranges and corre
uation of more than 1000 measurements in a sponding to an expected service life under
European research project. After being incor normal conditions. The term "service life" also
porated into a structure, especially in external includes the ageing behaviour of products,
components, building materials exhibit a such as thermal insulation materials with high-
greater or lesser water content. Owing to the molecular propellants, which over time under
generally relatively small proportion, this is go an exchange of gas with the surrounding
known as moisture content. Depending on the air, or the settlement behaviour of loose ther
porous structure and the magnitude of the mal insulation materials in voids. Only the
moisture content, the water may partly or com material scatter and the influence of moisture
pletely fill larger and smaller pores or just are relevant for masonry products.
adhere to the sides of the pores or in corners The design value for thermal conductivity is
of the pores. Damp building materials exhibit a the value of a thermal property of a building
higher thermal conductivity compared to the material or product under certain external and
dry state, and this depends on the moisture internal conditions, which can be regarded as
content, which in turn is related to the type of typical behaviour of the material or product in
material. its form as a constituent of a component. The
design values are determined by the user/
Figure 2.6,9 shows the thermal conductivity of
planner, building authorities or national stan
various building materials as a function of the
dards corresponding to the intended applica
moisture content; this can be expressed relat
tion of the product, the environmental or clim
ed to either the volume or the mass. If the ther
atic conditions as well as the purpose of the
mal conductivity in the dry state and the mois
calculation, e.g.:
ture content of the building material is known,
the thermal conductivity in the moist state can 2.6.9 Thermal conductivity of building materials in
be calculated according to DIN EN ISO 10456 • energy consumption relation to moisture content (volume- and mass-
related)
using the equation • design of heating and cooling plants
• surface temperature
λu,Ψ = λ10,tr X Fm • compliance with national building codes
• investigations of non-constant thermal
Fm = efu (u2 - u1) conditions in buildings
Fm = ef Ψ (Ψ2 - Ψ1) Thermal insulation design values can be

derived from the nominal values by means of
where: the conversion factors given in DIN EN ISO
fu and fΨ = conversion factor for mass- and 10456. This is customary for thermal insulation
volume-related moisture content respectively materials. Design values for masonry materials
u1 and fΨ = moisture content 0 of dry material are derived from the thermal conductivity in the
u2 and Ψ2 = mass - and volume-related mois dry state.
ture content respectively.
Thermal insulation provided by layers of air
The moisture contents u and y common in Layers of air in components transfer heat by
practice, as well as conversion factors for the conduction, convection and radiation.
moisture content, are given in DIN EN 12524 The various heat transport mechanisms have
corresponding to table 2.6.10. The standard the effect that, unlike with solid materials, for air
ized moisture contents u (mass-related) and y the thermal resistance R does not rise with
(volume-related) are related to the moisture increasing thickness but instead reaches a
content equilibrium of the corresponding mate maximum value and then remains constant.
rial at 23°C and 50% relative humidity, or 23°C Thermal resistances of layers of air according
and 80% relative humidity. The moisture con to table 2.6.12 are specified in DIN EN ISO
tents in the desired reference ambient condi 6946 and may be taken into account only when
tions and the conversion factors for the influ analysing thermal performance if they are iso
ence of the moisture content on the thermal lated from the outside air. Such layers of air
conductivity can also be determined individual also include the cavities in twin-leaf masonry
ly for certain materials by way of experiment, walls to DIN 1053 because the openings in the
with the aim of achieving more favourable ther outer leaf are too small to bring about an
mal conductivity values for real situations. The exchange of air with the outside air. The extent
term "nominal value" was introduced to achieve to which a layer of air with small openings to
a uniform specification for the properties of the outside air can still be regarded as a
163
Building science
2.6.10 Moisture-related properties of masonry materials stationary layer, or to which insulating values
Material Gross Moisture content at Moisture content at Conversion factor for poorly or well ventilated layers of air can be
density 23 °C, 50% re 23 °C, 80% rh moisture content given are shown schematically in fig. 2.6.13.
Small or divided air spaces corresponding to
P u Ψ u Ψ fu fΨ
kg/kg
fig. 2.6.14, as occur in perforated masonry
kg/m3 m3/m3 kg/kg m3/m3
Solid bricks 1000-2400 0.007 0.012 10 units, horizontally perforated clay bricks and
(fired clay) grip aids, require special consideration. In
Calcium silicate 900-2200 0.012 0.024 10 these cases, the geometry of the perforations-
Pumice concrete 500-1300 0.02 0.035 4
the gap width-to-thickness ratio - has an influ
Normal-weight concrete 1600-2400 0.025 0.04 4
Concrete bricks ence on the equivalent thermal conductivity of
Polystyrene concrete 500-800 0.015 0.025 5 the void. The thermal resistances of air spaces
Expanded clay concrete 400-700 0.02 0.03 2.6 with any dimensions can be calculated accord-
Concrete with pre 800-1700 0.02 0.03 4
ing to DIN EN ISO 6946. The thermal resis
dominantly expanded
clay aggregate tance of an air cell is found using the equation
Concrete with blast 1100-1700 0.02 0.04 4
furnace slag aggregate
Autoclaved aerated 300-1000 0.026 0.045 4
concrete
Concrete with other 0.03 0.05 4 where:
lightweight aggregates R = thermal resistance of air space
Mortar (masonry mortar 250-2000 0.04 0.06 4
and plastering mixes)
d = thickness of air space
b = width of air space
E = degree of exchange through radiation
2.6.11 Reference conditions according to DIN EN ISO 10456 hro = external surface resistance due to
Property Boundary condition radiation for a black body
I (10 °C) II (23 °C)
a b c d
Reference temperature 10 °C 10 °C 23 °C 23 °C h a is as follows:
Moisture udry u23,50 udry u23,50 • for a horizontal heat flow:
Ageing aged aged aged aged ha = 1.25 W/m 2 K or 0.025/d W/m 2 K,
ud is a low moisture content attained after drying. whichever is the greater
u2 3, 5 0 is a moisture content which becomes established in equilibrium at 23°C air temperature and 50%
• for an upward heat flow:
relative humidity.
ha = 1.95 W/m 2 K or 0.025/d W/m 2 K,
whichever is the greater
• for a downward heat flow:
2.6.12 Thermal resistance R of stationary air layers - surfaces with high degree of emissions
Thickness of air layer Direction of heat flow h a = 0.12d - 0 4 4 W/m 2 K or 0.025/d W/m2K,
mm R in m2K/W whichever is the greater
Upwards Horizontal Downwards
0 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.11 0.11
where d = thickness of air space in direction of
5 0.11
7 0.13 0.13 0.13 heat flow.
10 0.15 0.15 0.15
15 0.16 0.17 0.17 The thermal optimization of perforated masonry
25 0.16 0.18 0.19
50 0.16 0.18 0.21
units depends on the distribution of perfora
100 0.16 0.18 0.22 tions and their cross-section. In comparing dif-
300 0.16 0.18 0.23 ferent patterns of perforations, the proportion of
Note: Intermediate values may be obtained by linear interpolation. perforations and the thermal conductivity of the
solid material must be kept constant. Figure
2.6.15 illustrates the thermal insulation qualities
2.6.13 Thermal resistances of stationary, poorly ventilated and well ventilated air layers according to DIN EN ISO 6946 for various arrangements of perforations in clay
bricks with 4 0 % perforations [46]. The 18 sam-
ples are arranged in order of descending ther-
mal conductivity.
In lightweight concrete units the thermal con
ductivity - for the same gross density -
depends quite crucially on the proportion of
perforations and the arrangement of cells.
Figure 2.6.16 shows thermal conductivities of
masonry made from three- and four-cell
hollow blocks, as well as a slotted unit calcul
ated according to EN 1745 assuming a gross
density of 600 kg/m 3 . The values given apply to
units made from expanded clay concrete and
lightweight mortar LM 36.
Opening ≤ 500mm2 per 1 m length Opening > 500 mm2 per 1 m length Opening > 1500 mm2 per 1 m length
≤ 1500 mm2 per 1 m length
Stationary air layer Poorly ventilated air layer Well ventilated air layer
R = half the value of the stationary air
layer but max. 0.15 m2K/W Rse = Rsi = 0.13 m2 K/W
164
Thermal insulation
Determination of design values for thermal 2.6.14 Small or divided non-ventilated voids (air spaces)
conductivity
The design value for thermal conductivity for
use in calculating the thermal insulation of
buildings is defined for Germany on the basis
of the practical moisture content or the mois
ture content equilibrium at 23°C and 80% rela
tive humidity. To do this, the practical moisture
content or the reference moisture content of
the building material must be known. Practical
moisture content is understood to be a quantity
of water in the building material which
becomes established in an adequately dry
structure over the course of time. This is
caused by water being absorbed from the air
(hygroscopicity) and the formation of conden
sation on surfaces and within components.
Therefore, practical moisture content excludes 2.6.15 Variations in clay brick cross-sections for a constant proportion of perforations and constant total web thick
moisture due to building processes which has ness (heat flow horizontal) [2]
not yet fully disappeared and saturation result
Diamonds, Circular holes, Ellipses, Hexagons, Delta Rectangles, par-
ing from precipitation, rising damp and dam
offset parallel parallel offset perforations allel + grip holes
age to the building. The practical moisture con
tent is defined by the relative cumulative fre
quency of a multitude of investigations on as
many structures as possible. Figure 2.6.17
shows the typical progression for a building
material. The results of measurements of auto-
claved aerated concrete walls and roofs (see Ellipses, Rectangles, Rectangles, off- Rectangles, off- T-bricks Interrupted outer
offset parallel set + grip holes set/ "standard" webs
fig. 2.6.21) can serve as an example for the
drying gradient of external components [104].
External walls with adequate rain protection
and permitting evaporation on both sides dry
out faster. The drying period lasts about two
years under different conditions. As the drying
gradient is considerably influenced by the K-bricks Gothic Meander "Spring" Fence Fine ceramic "B"
bricks bricks bricks bricks bricks
weather, the occupation of the building, the
standard of construction and the orientation of
the walls, and determining the moisture by
removing cores of material is expensive and
complicated, a new method of determining the
moisture characteristic of a building material
by way of its hygroscopic moisture content
equilibrium in a defined climate is now being 2.6.16 The influence of perforations on the thermal conductivity of lightweight concrete units with
used (fig. 2.6.18). Moisture absorption at 23°C gross density 600 kg/m3
and 80% relative humidity has proved equiva
lent to the field investigations. We speak then A B C
of the reference moisture content, a parameter Unit Proportion of Concrete Thermal conductivity
which has also become established in Euro perforations gross density of masonry
pean standards (see table 2.6.10, columns 5 % kg/m3 W/mk
A 35 929 0.27
and 6). The water content of a building material
B 35 923 0.25
is specified either as the quantity of water con C 12 680 0.18
tained in a mass unit of the material, related to
the dry mass as the "mass-related water con
tent" u in kg/kg, or as the volume of water con
tained in a volume
unit of the material, related to the material

volume as the "volume-related water content"
Ψ in m3/m3.
The mass-related moisture content is recom
mended for building materials because it
remains constant over the entire gross density
range. As an example, figure 2.6.19 shows the
results of tests to measure the sorptive mois
ture of aerated concrete at an ambient temper
ature of 23°C and 80% relative humidity, and
165
Building science
2.6.17 Cumulative frequency of moisture content 2.6.18 Volume-related moisture content in relation to fig. 2.6.20 shows the relationship between ther
of pumice building materials in external relative humidity for absorption and desorption mal conductivity and moisture content derived
walls determined in 88 samples of a calcium silicate unit with gross density
1720 kg/m3, after Künzel from this. Taking the mass-related moisture
content as our reference point allows the use of
a surcharge to cover the influence of the mois
ture on the thermal conductivity, which is inde
pendent of the material bulk density and the
thermal conductivity. To carry out a thermal
insulation analysis, the user requires a thermal
conductivity design value for the particular
type of masonry construction. This takes
account of the type, form and gross density of
the masonry unit as well as the type of mortar.
The thermal insulation properties of different
types of masonry can be determined from
tables according to EN 1745 or by measuring
samples of wall or by calculation based on the
material parameters [3]. To take into account
the influence of moisture on the thermal con
2.6.19 Sorbed moisture (equilibrium moisture content) 2.6,20 Percentage increase in thermal conductivity of ductivity, the reference moisture contents and
of autoclaved aerated concrete at 20°C and 80% autoclaved aerated concrete depending on moisture correction values Fm given in table
rh in relation to the volume (y) or the mass (u) of λ10, t r , in relation to % by vol. or 1 mass %, after 2.6.23 apply in Germany. More favourable
the material depending on gross density [6]
values not contained in the table may be
verified experimentally.
Thermal performance of external walls

The thermal resistance R of single-leaf plas
tered external walls, single-leaf external walls
with internal or external thermal insulation, or
twin-leaf walls with or without additional insula
tion is calculated by simply adding together
the R-values of the individual layers. As an
example, figure 2.6.24 shows a plastered
single-leaf wall with a thermal insulation com
posite system. If the insulation is attached with
mechanical fixings, additional heat losses
occur depending on the type of fixing. Based
2.6.21 Drying-out of autoclaved aerated concrete exter- 2.6.22 Ventilated natural stone facades and lightweight on experiments and numerical parameter
nal components (walls and flat roofs) plotted curtain walls; increase in thermal transmittance studies [6, 205], the heat transfer for a com
against time [3] of wall in relation to number of fixings and fixing ponent (including the thermal bridge effect)
material
can be represented in a simplified estimation
method as follows:
• by adding the increase ΔU to the thermal
transmittance value U for the undisturbed
section
U c = U + ΔU
• by a percentage increase in the thermal

transmittance value U
• by adding the increase in the conductance of

a component by means of the discrete ther
mal transmittance %
L = Σ Ui Ai + Σ χj
The initial progression of the given range stems from
measurements on external walls at the Fraunhofer Insti- The first method with a surcharge ΔU was first
tute's open-air site (lower limit: external wall, evaporation used in the European standard EN 6946. The
possible on both sides; upper limit: outer face sealed, correction values given in table 2.6.25 apply to
evaporation only possible via inner face).
the various types of anchors used for fixing
• external walls
thermal insulation composite systems. A ma
◦ flat roofs
represent measurements of actual buildings. sonry substrate behaves slightly better than a
166
Thermal insulation
concrete one. The type of rendering has practi 2.6.23 Moisture contents and conversion factors for moisture content according to draft standard EN 12524 table 2,
cally no influence on the outcome. The thermal and moisture correction factor Fm according to draft standard EN 10456
conductivity of the insulation material and its Material Moisture content at Conversion factor for Moisture
23 °C, 80% rh moisture content correction
thickness have no effect on the additional heat
factor
loss when adding ΔU. The ΔU-values given per kg/kg m3/m3 fu fΨ Fm
anchor can be simply added together for the
Autoclaved aerated 0.045 - 4 - 1.2
particular application, since in the most un concrete
favourable situation the anchor only has an Lightweight concrete - 0.035 - 4 1.15
effect within a radius of max. 250 mm about its with pumice
Lightweight concrete 0.03 - 2.6 - 1.08
axis. Influences of ΔU < 0.002 can be ignored
with expanded clay
because the additional heat loss lies below Clay - 0.012 - 10 1.13
3%. Calcium silicate - 0.024 - 10 1.27
Mortar - 0.06 - 4 1.27
At just 1 % the influence of the thermal bridges
can be neglected for mechanical fixing sys
tems using plastic rails. However, if the plastic
rails are replaced by aluminium ones, this 2.6.24 Example of calculation for external wall of plastered single-leaf masonry
results in a considerable surcharge of ΔU =
0.05 W/m2K for horizontal rails fixed to the load- Layer Thickness of λR R
layer in m W/mK m 2 K/W
bearing substrate at 500 mm centres.
Internal plaster 6 0.015 0.35 0.04
In the case of a thermally insulated wall with a Calcium sili
ventilated external cladding made from any cate masonry 5 0.175 0.99 0.18
one of a number of different materials, the Bonding
cladding fixings in the wall act as thermal compound 4 _ _ _
Rigid ex
bridges. Their effect depends on the following panded poly
influences: styrene foam 3 0.120 0.040 3.00
• material of the fixings Textured
rendering 1 _ _ _
• number of fixings per unit surface area
Thermal resistance R = Σ d/λR = 3.22
• type of wall material.
Thermal transmittance
Timber supporting constructions with vertical U = 1/(0.13 + 3.22 + 0.04) = 0.30 W/m2K
and horizontal battens for carrying the thermal
insulation and the cladding have only a rela
tively small effect on the heat transfer. The ther
mal insulation of such constructions can be
calculated according to DIN EN ISO 6946. One
particularly unfavourable case with a high num
ber of fixings is the ventilated facade with a
cladding of natural stone. The natural stone
slabs are usually fixed to the wall by means of
supporting and retaining anchors. The 2.6.25 Heat losses via various types of anchors
absolute increase in the thermal transmittance Type of Dia. of anchors Δk per anchor
caused by the anchors does not depend on anchor mm W/m2K
Facade anchor with 8 0.006
the thickness of the insulation and the type of disc and steel screw with
stone basically has no influence on the heat unprotected head 10 0.008
transfer. On the other hand, replacing a con Facade anchor with 8 0.004
crete loadbearing wall with one of masonry electrogalvanized steel screw
with plastic coating
reduces the influence of the anchors by 40%. Facade anchor with 8 0.002
There is a linear correlation between the V4A stainless steel
absolute increase in the heat transfer and the screw with plastic coating
number of anchors per unit surface area (see Facade anchor with 6.5 0.002
thermal break
fig. 2.6.22). The influence of the thermal
bridges is cut by half when stainless steel
anchors are used. If the natural stone facade is
replaced by a lightweight ventilated cladding
with other types of fixing to the loadbearing 2.6.26 Recommended values for total energy transmittance of transparent components to DIN 4108 part 6
wall, surprisingly, the influence of the anchors Transparent component Total energy transmittance
remains the same. The use of a plastic under g┴
lay ("Thermostop") between bracket and Single glazing 0.87
masonry brings about a clear reduction in the Double glazing 0.76
Heat-absorbing double glazing with selective coating 0.50 to 0.70
thermal bridge effect, but a thermal break Triple glazing, standard 0.60 to 0.70
attached to the cold side of the bracket hardly Triple glazing with 2-fold selective coating 0.35 to 0.50
has any effect. Solar-control glass 0.20 to 0.50
Translucent thermal insulation gTI
An important planning instrument these days is
Translucent thermal insulation 0.35 to 0.60
the "Determination of the thermal influences of Thermal insulation, 100-120 mm;
thermal bridges for curtain wall ventilated 0.8 W/m2K ≤ Ue ≤ 0.9 W/m2K
facades" [163]. The discrete thermal bridge Absorbent opaque thermal insulation with single layer glass cover, 100 mm approx. 0.10
167
Building science
2.6.27 Ranges of standard thermal transmittance U loss value c in W/K or the thermal bridge sur coatings and noble gas fillings have already
for various external masonry walls charge ΔU in W/m 2 K is specified depending on reached peak values between 0.7 and 0.4
the construction of the support system and the W/m 2 K.
thermal resistance of the loadbearing construc
tion (influence of transverse conduction). The The permeability of the window for solar radia
U-value
System effect of a thermal break is shown in fig. 2.6.28, tion is expressed by the total energy transmit
W/m2K a thermally advantageous supporting construc tance g. This corresponds to the percentage
tion in fig. 2.6.29. Figure 2.6.27 is an overview proportion of incident radiation that passes
of the thermal transmittance values for a num through the glazing into the interior of the build
ber of different wall constructions. ing. As the glazed surfaces are generally not
positioned perpendicular to the solar radiation
0.30-0.50 and so part of the solar energy is lost through
Windows reflection at the pane, the total energy trans
The window as the "thermal hole" in the build mittance is reduced by 15%. Furthermore,
ing envelope is now a thing of the past, Tech permanent shade, from parts of the building,
nological developments in insulating glazing trees, neighbouring buildings, window frames
systems have set standards in the energy etc., as well as the degree to which the solar
assessments of heated buildings. The reduction energy supplied is used must be taken into
in transmission heat losses and maintenance of account when calculating solar heat gains. If
0.30-0.45 no individual figures based on measurements
a sufficient total energy transmittance for the
passive use of solar energy mean that windows are available for the total energy transmittance,
contribute to the heat gain during the heating the design values given in fig. 2.6.26 may be
season. However, the areas of glazing do have used. These values cover the lower, i.e. less
their limits in terms of thermal insulation during favourable, range of permeability of insulating
the summer, when they can lead to uncomfort glazing with respect to the solar gains in the
ably high interior temperatures. The thermal heating season. Figure 2.6.31 shows the ther
0.20-0.40 transmittance U w of a window depends on: mal balance of two windows with double and
• the distance between the panes triple glazing during the heating season in a
• the number of panes reference environment (10°C heating threshold
• the emissivity of the glass surfaces towards temperature, degree days factor 2900) com
the cavity pared to the heat losses of a well-insulated
• the gas filling in the cavity between the panes external wall. The U-values are achieved by
• the hermetic edge seal of insulating glazing using coated glasses and gas fillings to the
• the material of the frame. cavity. It can be seen that double glazing with
0.25-0.40
a combination of higher U -value but less
favourable total energy transmittance has
The thermal transmittance U w can be taken
advantages on the southern side but for other
from tables according to DIN EN ISO 10077
orientations exhibits slight disadvantages com
part 1 (table 2.6.30) for constant frame propor
pared to the triple glazing. The latter is not
tions of 20 or 30%, depending on the glazing
used so widely because of the considerably
(U g ) and the type and design of the frame (U F ),
higher weight of the glass. In the search for
or determined by a simple area-based assess
solutions with even lower thermal transmittance
ment of the U-values for glazing and frame
values, countersash and coupled windows
0.30-0.50 including a surcharge for the glass seal around
offer good alternatives in certain circum
the perimeter. Timber and plastic frames pro
stances. The much better insulated external
vide good thermal insulation; the inside and
walls of modern buildings render it necessary
outside surfaces of metal frames must be care
to pay special attention to the detail at the junc
fully separated (thermal break). Widening the
tion between the window and the wall, or the
cavity between the panes only improves the
position of the window in the wall. Poor design
U -value up to a certain width depending on
or workmanship can have a considerable
the type of glass (for air about 20 mm). If this
effect on the heat losses. Various window
0.40-0.50 width is exceeded, then the improvement to
arrangements in monolithic masonry walls with
the thermal insulation properties is counter
external, cavity and internal insulation have
acted by convection. By employing noble
been investigated with respect to their heat
gases (argon, krypton, xenon), we can exploit
losses via the window reveals and masonry
their lower thermal conductivity (compared to
[45]. Figure 2.6.32 shows the best positions for
air). The heat transport by way of radiation
windows in different masonry wall construc
characterized by the emission behaviour of the
tions.
glass surfaces can be drastically reduced by
using low-E coatings. The development of low- DIN 4108 supplement 2 contains window sill,
E glazing began with sputtered, later pyrolytic reveal and head details for monolithic masonry
coatings and an air filling to the cavity; this or masonry with external or cavity insulation.
brought U g -values of 1.8 W/m 2 K. Today, double An extract showing details for a wall with cavity
glazing with magnetron coatings and noble insulation is shown in fig. 2.6.33.
gas fillings reach U g -values of 1.1 W/m 2 K. And
modern triple glazing systems based on silver
168
Thermal insulation
Translucent thermal insulation (Tl) 2.6.28 Thermal bridges in ventilated curtain wall facades; influence of thermal break between
In contrast to normal opaque thermal insulation aluminium bracket and fixing substrate
attached to the outside, Tl allows the incident
solar radiation to pass through the insulation
material. The radiation is then absorbed and
converted into heat at the loadbearing wall. As
Tl functions as thermal insulation, the heat loss
to the outside is considerably impeded and the
majority of the solar energy is conveyed as
heat to the interior behind the Tl wall. As fig.
2.6.34 shows, conventional, opaque thermal
insulation converts the incident solar radiation
into heat at the external surface and then radi
ates the majority of it back to the external envi
ronment. Only a negligible proportion of the
absorbed incident solar radiation is transmitted
through the wall to the interior. But the wel
come passive use of solar energy during the
winter can lead to undesirable heat gains dur
ing the warmer months of the year. The lower 2.6.29 Thermal bridges in ventilated curtain wall facades; rail systems of chromium-nickel steel with
the thermal conductivity and storage capacity good thermal performance
of the absorbent surface of a Tl wall, the hotter
it becomes upon the incidence of solar radia
tion. This means that the absorbent surface
behind a Tl wall can reach peak temperatures
of 100°C and more with very lightweight
masonry compared to maximum temperatures
of 70°C for very heavy masonry. The translu
cent thermal insulation must be provided with
sunshading for such situations. The more inten
sively the sun can shine on the facade, the
higher the heat gains of a Tl wall are. This
means that the energy gains are greatest for a
south orientation, the lowest for a north orien
tation. The heat losses during the heating sea
son outweigh the benefits in the case of a north
orientation. Tl surfaces facing east and west
exhibit an even energy balance. Clear gains
have been recorded for south-facing Tl sur
faces during the heating season. The thickness
of the masonry has no significant effect on the 2.6.30 T h e r m a l transmittance of w i n d o w s to D I N EN ISO 10077 part 1
energy gains of a Tl wall. Nevertheless, when T y p e of Ug
planning a Tl building it is important to con glazing W/m2K W/m2K
Proportion o f f r a m e area 3 0 %
sider the thickness of the masonry behind the 1.0 2.2 3.0 3.4
1.4 1.8 2.6 3.8 7.0
translucent thermal insulation as this influences Single 5.7 4.3 4.5 4.5 4.6 4.8 4.9 5 5.1 6.1
the delay between maximum incidence of solar glazing
radiation and the heat being passed on to the Double 3.3 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.6 4.4
glazing 3.1 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.5 4.3
interior. This delay is about 4 hours for walls
2.9 2.4 2.5 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1
175 mm thick, about 6 hours for walls 240 mm 2.7 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 4.0
thick and about 8 hours for walls 300 mm thick, 2.5 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.9
virtually irrespective of the type of wall material. 2.3 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.8
2.1 1.9 2 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.6
Consequently, the time at which the heat is
1.9 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.7 3.5
passed on to the interior is decisive for the 1.7 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.3
comfort of the user. The thermal and energy 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.4 3.2
effects and the influence of climate, material 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 3.1
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.9
parameters and construction details have been
Triple 2.3 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.7
investigated in a project sponsored by Ger glazing 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.8 3.6
many's Federal Ministry for Research and 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 3.4
Technology [63]. 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.5 3.3
1.5 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.4 3.2
As the use of translucent thermal insulation 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 3.1
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.9
frequently leads to excessive heat which can
0.9 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.8
not be used, the cost-benefit ratio can be con 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 2.6
siderably influenced in individual cases by pro 0.5 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.7 2.5
viding only a partial covering of translucent Note: Calculated using Ψ_values from appendix E. Values for windows whose frame proportion ≠ 30% should be
thermal insulation. The area of translucent determined using the equations in the main part of this standard.
169
Building science
2.6.31 Thermal balance of windows over a heating season for a reference location in Germany thermal insulation is typically between 10 and
30% of the total area of insulation. In choosing
which areas to cover, architectural aspects,
the orientation of the facade, the planned use
of the interior and the amount of space avail-
able on the facade all play a role. A solar ener-
gy system consisting of a translucent layer of
polycarbonate with a capillary structure and a
final coating of translucent plaster has proved
to be an especially practicable option [204].
One important advantage of the system is that
in summer a large part of the incident solar
radiation is reflected at the surface of the
translucent plaster, and so expensive and
troublesome shading systems are generally
unnecessary.
Solar gains of opaque external walls

External components absorb direct or diffuse
incident solar radiation. Thus, the outer layers
of the component heat up first and the heat is
conducted to the inside of the component.
This process reduces the heat transfer through
the external component. The heat gain due to
2.6.32 Position of window in wall for different types of walls
+ small heat flow via window reveal radiation depends on the available solar radia-
- large heat flow via window reveal tion and hence on the orientation and colour of
the component's surfaces, any shading to
those surfaces and the external surface resis-
tance. The reduction in transmission heat
Type of external wall according to table 1
losses which can be achieved due to the
Position of absorption of radiation by an opaque external
window in
wall Monolithic External insulation Cavity insulation Internal insulation wall is proportional to the U-value of the ex-
ternal wall. Whether the construction has one
or more layers is virtually irrelevant; likewise,
the sequence of layers in a multi-layer con-
struction.
The annual solar net heat gains from opaque
sections of the building envelope without
Outside translucent thermal insulation constitute only a
fraction of the total solar heat gains and are
partly offset by the radiation heat losses from
the building to a cloudless sky. Therefore, they
can usually be ignored. Table 2.6.35 contains
solar gain factors for common external walls.
The thermal transmittance of an external wall is
only reduced by 2-12% by the radiation influ-
ence for average climatic relationships. The
Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics has
reached similar conclusions in a computer-
Central
assisted experimental study on buildings with
monolithic and multi-layer external walls [198].
Inside
170
Thermal insulation
Heat storage relatively small. Theoretical studies have pro 2.6.33 Favourable window position to DIN 4108
The interior heats up and cools down, the sun duced the same result [74]. Therefore, the supplement 2 to reduce thermal bridge effect
(full-fill cavity wall)
shines on the outside and rapid changes to question of whether the heat storage capacity
the air temperature take place on both sides of or the thermal insulation of external compo
components. These effects lead to temperature nents is more important from the point of view
changes and changes to the heat flows which of saving energy can be answered: it definitely
cannot be taken into account by the thermal depends on thermal insulation. The importance
resistance R or the thermal transmittance U. In of the thermal transmittance as the basis for
these cases the heat storage capacity of the calculating transmission heat losses through
materials and components in conjunction with external walls is undisputed. Studies of build
the time play a decisive role. ings with the most diverse external masonry
For a mathematical analysis with numerical walls have revealed that despite severely fluc
methods we require variables derived from the tuating external climatic conditions quasi sta
specific heat capacity, the thermal conductivi tionary heat flows become established after, at
ty, the gross density and the thickness of the most, one week and the U-value adequately
materials concerned. The heat storage capaci describes the heat losses through the opaque
ty Qs, i.e. the amount of thermal energy in external surfaces of a building [2]. However,
J/m2K stored in 1 m2 of a slab-like component heavy components, which are thus suited to
of thickness d in m made from a material with storing heat, do have a positive effect on the
density r in kg/m3 for a 1 K temperature rise, in internal climate because they cool down slower
a homogeneous construction is given by when ventilating the interior or after switching
off the heating and hence maintain the interior
Qs = c x ρ x d air temperature at a comfortable level for a
longer period. The amount of heat lost through
The propagation of a temperature zone in a ventilation and transmission remains, however,
material is described by its thermal diffusivity a the same as for the lighter type of construction.
in m2/s. As the a-value increases, so the tem
perature change in a material spreads faster. We must distinguish between two opposing
The thermal diffusivity is derived from the ther phenomena with regard to the effect of the
mal conductivity λ, the specific heat capacity c heat storage capacity on the annual heating
and the density p of the material concerned: requirement. The heat gains due to internal
heat sources and incident solar radiation can
λ be better used by the heavy construction than
a= ρxc the lightweight construction because overheat
ing of the interior is considerably lower in the
The thermal diffusivity of building materials lies former. This effect is rewarded with a better
in the range 0.4 to 1 x 10 - 6 m2/s depending on use of the heat gains. In contrast, the behav
bulk density (timber = approx. 0.2 x 10 - 6 m 2 /s, iour of the lightweight construction is more
steel = approx. 2.0 x 10 - 6 m 2 /s). The heat pene favourable than the heavy construction in the
tration coefficient of the material concerned is case of a night-time temperature reduction
the governing variable when assessing the because the internal air temperatures can fall
behaviour of materials subjected to brief heat more rapidly and hence the heat losses are 2.6.34 The function of translucent thermal insulation
compared to opaque thermal insulation
flow processes such as the heating and cool smaller. It is not possible to make generalized
ing of walls. The heat penetration coefficient b statements as to which type of construction is
is derived from the thermal conductivity λ, the better in terms of heating energy consumption
specific heat capacity c and the density p of because of the opposing effects of a night-time
the material concerned: temperature reduction and overheating.
During the warmer months of the year the heat
b =√ ( λ x p x c ) storage capacity of the internal components of
a building exerts a compensating influence on
The b-values of some building materials are the internal air temperature gradient. If the heat
given in table 2.6.36. Figure 2.6.37 shows the from the sun is stored in the components
heating and cooling behaviour for a change in before being radiated to the internal air, in
interior air temperature of 15 K for two different summer we enjoy a pleasant, balanced internal
wall constructions with approximately equal climate even when cooler temperatures
thermal resistance. Rapid heating-up of the already prevail outside. DIN EN 13786 stipu
walls is desirable from the point of view of lates characteristic values related to the
comfort - with the heating operated briefly. dynamic thermal behaviour of complete com
However, the lighter component cools down ponents and specifies methods for their cal
quicker after switching off the heating. Practi culation.
cal investigations of the influence of the heat The characteristic values defined in the stan
storage capacity all lead to the same result - dard can be used as product specifications for
that the influence of the heat storage capacity, components or for calculating
especially that of external walls, on the energy • the internal temperature in a room,
consumption for the heating of a building is • the daily peak performance and the energy
171
Building science
2.6.35 Solar gain factors for common external walls requirement for heating or cooling, l = ΣUi x A i + ΣΨK x IK + Σχ j
subjected to average climatic conditions [213] • the effects of intermittent heating or cooling.
Orientation Common external wall
Light colour Dark colour
where:
South 0.04 0.12 L thermal conduction in W/K
East/west 0.03 0.07 Thermal bridges Ui thermal transmittance of building envelope
North 0.02 0.06 These are weak points in the thermal insulation component i in W/m 2 K
of the building envelope at which - compared Ai surface area applicable for Ui
2.6.36 Heat penetration coefficients for some building
to undisturbed, neighbouring sections of the ΨK thermal transmittance of continuous ther
materials
Building material Heat penetration coefficient component - additional heat losses and lower mal bridge k in W/mK
J/s0,5 m2K internal surface temperatures occur. Various l K length applicable for Ψ K
Normal-weight concrete types of thermal bridges are possible depend χ j thermal transmittance of discrete thermal
depending on gross density 1600 to 2400
ing on the way in which they are formed: bridge j in W/K.
Lightweight concrete
depending on gross density 250 to 1600 • Geometric thermal bridges ensue when the
Clay bricks 1000 to 1300 heat-absorbing and heat-radiating surfaces The thermal transmittance Ψ is normally taken
Timber 500 to 650 of the component are of different sizes. The from thermal bridge catalogues. The examples
Foamed plastics 30 to 45
classic example of a geometric thermal of building details contained in these cata
2.6.37 Chronological progression of interior surface
bridge is the corner of an external wall. logues are essentially based on fixed parame
temperature q0 i for various external walls with • Material-related thermal bridges depend on ters (e.g. dimensions and materials) and are
approximately equal thermal resistances after the construction of the building and the therefore less flexible than calculations. The
increasing or decreasing the internal air temper catalogue examples often do not correspond
arrangement and combination of components
ature qL i by 15 K (°C) [62]
with materials of different thermal conductivi exactly with the component being investigated,
ty. Typical thermal bridges of this kind are Consequently, the use of Ψ-values from cata
roof bearings, parapets, balcony floor slabs logues leads to uncertainties about those
and columns in external walls. details. Nevertheless, the Ψ-value from a cata
• Detail-related thermal bridges can ensue in logue can be used, provided the dimensions
components due to mechanical connections and the thermal properties of the catalogue
which penetrate or bypass the thermal insula example are similar to those of the building
tion. These include anchors in concrete sand detail, or the catalogue example is less
wich walls and multi-leaf walls, and all con favourable in thermal terms than the building
structions in metal and timber. detail. The Ψ-values in a thermal bridge cata
logue must have been derived from numerical
Measures for avoiding or reducing thermal calculations according to DIN EN 10211 part 2.
bridges are certainly necessary to avoid con Thermal bridge catalogues offer solutions to
densation on internal surfaces, and such details from basement to roof - for wall, win
measures are generally taken. However, the dow, floor and balcony junctions (see fig.
remaining - in energy terms - weak points with 2.6.38). DIN 4108 supplement 2 contains
higher heat losses are usually not taken into design and construction examples for thermal
account when assessing thermal performance bridge details; the masonry details include
and the heating requirement of a building. To junctions for monolithic external walls with
some extent the additional heat losses via ther external and cavity insulation. Figure 2.6.39
mal bridges are balanced by the fact that the shows the junction details for ground slab,
transmission heat losses of a building are cal basement roof (ground floor), upper floor slabs
culated with reference to the outer surface, and flat roof with parapet for a monolithic exter
which is too large, particularly in the case of nal masonry wall 365 mm thick. A balcony floor
thick, monolithic masonry constructions. As the slab projecting from the structure acts like a
standard of thermal insulation of the building cooling fin owing to the increase in the external
envelope rises and the thermal transmittance surface area; figure 2.6.40 shows how the bal
values drop, so the thermal bridges play an cony junction can be thermally isolated from
increasingly significant role. Therefore, the the floor slab. The layer of thermal insulation is
increased heat losses must be investigated at only penetrated at individual points by the rein
the planning stage when calculating the heat- forcing bars. This cuts the thermal transmit
ng energy requirement for the building. This tance Ψ by 50% compared to a continuous
can be done in different ways. Thermal bridges concrete slab. A steel curtain wall construction
due to the structure itself, e.g. edges, corners, connected to the floor slab by a tension rod
roof bearings, balcony floor slabs etc., can exhibits a similar reduction in thermal bridge
only be calculated accurately with the help of losses. Applying thermal insulation to the top
computer techniques. However, for the pre and bottom of the cantilevering balcony slab
liminary design of a building and assessment brought practically no worthwhile success. In
of the energy effects of the building envelope, terms of the thermal bridge effect of a whole
it must be possible to estimate the effects of variety of construction details for balcony junc
thermal bridges without major mathematical tions, there is no difference between single-leaf
analyses. With the help of correction values to walls, walls with thermal insulation composite
take into account continuous and discrete ther system and multi-layer external walls.
mal bridges, DIN EN ISO 14683 gives the ther
mal conduction of the building envelope as
172
Thermal insulation
The thermal influence range of thermal bridges about the extent of thermal losses. Tempera 2.6.38 Some details used in a thermal bridge catalogue
can lead to noticeably lower surface tempera ture distribution and heat transfer can be deter (Hauser) for specifying Ψ- and f-values
tures on the inside and to condensation, which mined for faithful replicas of components in
may lead to the growth of mould. Specifying laboratory tests according to DIN EN ISO 8990,
the interior surface temperatures in °C deter in which the component is incorporated as a Wall junction Floor junction
mines - to a limited extent - the additional stip partition between two spaces at different tem
ulation of external and internal air temperature. peratures. The mathematical determination of
As very different boundary conditions may be the effects of multidimensional thermal bridges
chosen depending on use and meteorological is carried out by calculating the temperature
circumstances, the surface temperature is used zone and heat flow using the numerical solu
in a dimensionless form by DIN EN ISO 10211 tion of the three-dimensional thermal conduc
part 2 according to the following definition: tion equation. If adequate for the particular
case, the calculation for two-dimensional plane
relationships is carried out and, in the case of
fRsi = (qsi - qe) / (qi - qe)
clear three-dimensional temperature and heat
Window junction Balcony junction
where: flow zones, extended to three-dimensional
fRsi temperature factor at location of thermal structures.
bridge
qsi internal surface temperature
qi internal air temperature
qe external air temperature.
To avoid the growth of mould, according to

DIN 4108 part 2, the minimum requirement fRsi
≥ 0.70 must be fulfilled assuming an internal air
temperature of 20°C and 50% relative humidity
for an external air temperature of -5°C - a not
infrequent occurrence in Germany under aver
age meteorological limits. In this context the
minimum thermal resistance for an external
wall R = 0.55 m2K/W must be increased to
R = 1.2 m2K/W in order to also maintain the
temperature factor 0.70 at the corners of ex
ternal walls according to 2.6.41 assuming an
internal surface resistance R si = 0.25. This
means maintaining an internal surface temper
ature of qsi ≥ 12.6°C for the said limits. As a
rule, the stipulation in DIN 4108 part 2 that all 2.6.39 Junction details for a single-leaf external wall
according to DIN 4108 supplement 2
constructional, form-related and material-
related thermal bridges given as examples in
DIN 4108 supplement 2 can be regarded as
providing adequate thermal insulation forms a
simple criterion for the avoidance of mould for
the designer and operator of a building. In the
case of thermal bridges in components adjoin
ing the soil or unheated basement rooms and
buffer zones, we must assume the conditions
given in fig. 2.6.42.
The establishment of thermal bridges can be
carried out by experiment or by analytical
means. The simplest method is the determina
tion of the internal surface temperatures in the
region of a thermal bridge by way of discrete
measurements and reference to the tempera
ture limits on both sides of the external compo
nent. Thermographic techniques involve the
use of an infrared camera to provide a thermal
image of the exterior of a building elevation or
the internal surfaces of individual rooms. This
method supplies important information about
the condition and quality of thermal insulation.
Defective workmanship or the success of
upgrading the insulation to a building can be
made visible. However, an infrared photograph
cannot help us to make quantitative statements
173
Building science
2.6.40 Improving the thermal performance of balcony Airtightness 1 the case of masonry, penetration of the internal
floor slab junctions As the requirements for thermal insulation plaster, window junctions, false wall installa
increase, so the airtightness of the building tions and roof junctions must be carefully
envelope becomes more and more important. detailed. DIN 4108 part 7 contains important
A high degree of imperviousness is necessary and useful design and construction recommen
in order to really achieve the desired reduction dations, and shows - see fig. 2.6.43 - details of
in heating energy requirement and avoid dam overlaps, junctions, penetrations and joints in
age to the building as well as a drop in the the plane of imperviousness.
standard of comfort. Uncontrolled leakage from
the building wrecks all other measures for Requirements for thermal insulation
increasing the thermal insulation. Therefore, The design, calculation and measuring stan
partial optimization, like minimizing U-values dards provided in CEN/TC 89 "Thermal perfor
without taking into account such leaks, are mance of buildings and building components"
totally ineffective in practical terms. The air- form the basis for the National Application
tightness of a structure must be considered Documents of the series of standards belong
independently of the exchange of internal and ing to DIN 4108 "Thermal insulation and energy
external air. This exchange of air is necessary economy in buildings". The type and extent of
to maintain a hygienic internal climate and is requirements is still a matter for the individual
taken into account when calculating the heat countries. In order to maintain minimum require
ing energy requirement by way of the ventila ments and plan energy-saving measures, the
tion heat losses with a defined air change rate. following parts of DIN 4108 must be adhered to:
The air change rate is accomplished naturally part 2: Minimum requirements for thermal
by opening the windows or by way of mechani insulation
cal ventilation systems. So, leaks in external part 4: Characteristic values relating to
components represent additional uncontrolled thermal insulation and protection
ventilation heat losses which can be avoided or against moisture
at least minimized according to the state of the part 6: Calculation of annual heat and
art.
annual energy use
A non-airtight building envelope usually results part 7: Airtightness of building components
in several unwanted effects: and connections; recommendations
and examples for planning and per
• Draughts impairing the comfort of occupants formance
• Condensation damage resulting from water supp. 2: Thermal bridges - examples for
vapour convection of the moist internal air to planning and performance
cold external zones of enclosing components
• Lowered sound insulation against external noise DIN 4108 part 2 specifies the minimum require
2.6.41 The temperature factor at an external wall corner • Energy losses that form a considerable part of ments for the thermal insulation of components
as a function of the thermal resistance of the the total energy losses of a building. and thermal bridges in the building envelope. It
external wall for two different thermal trans-
mittance values also contains advice pertinent to thermal insu
The airtightness of buildings as well as individ lation for the design and construction of occu
ual residential units or rooms within a finished pied rooms in buildings, the use of which
building is determined according to DIN EN requires they be heated to common internal
ISO 9972 (blower door). This international stan temperatures (≥ 19°C). Minimum thermal in
dard specifies the use of mechanical overpres sulation is understood to be a measure that
sure or underpressure applied to buildings. guarantees a hygienic interior climate, with
The airtightness is generally defined by the adequate heating and ventilation assuming a
remaining air change rate of the building or conventional usage, at every point on the
part of the building at a pressure difference of internal surfaces of the building envelope so
50 Pa (n 5 0 -value). The airtightness can be that no condensation forms over the whole
assessed on the basis of the n 5 0 air change area, nor in corners. Apart from that, the risk of
rates given in table 2.6.44. Thresholds for the mould growth is diminished. Major changes in
air change rate were first laid down in DIN the 2000 edition compared to the 1981 edition
4108 part 7. The n 50 -value for buildings with involve practically the doubling of the minimum
natural ventilation is limited to 3.0 per hour, for value for the thermal resistance of external
buildings with mechanical ventilation 1.0 per walls from R ≥ 0.55 to R ≥ 1.2 m2K/W, the more
hour. In addition to the requirements of the detailed treatment of thermal bridges, meas
standard, it is considered adequate, taking into ures for avoiding the growth of mould and the
account practical building tolerances, when simplified assessment of minimum thermal
the measured air flow rate, related to the vol insulation for heavy and lightweight compo
ume of air in the room, exceeds the threshold nents. We now only distinguish between com
given in the standard by up to 0.5 per hour at a ponents with a surface-related total mass of at
pressure difference of 50 Pa. least 100 kg/m 3 and components with a lower
As might be may expected, masonry buildings total mass without taking into account the posi
generally have a better airtightness than light tion of layers of insulation and their effect on
weight types of construction. However, even in heating and cooling processes. The fact that
174
Thermal insulation
lower storage mass is compensated for by • Primary energy requirement: the amount of 2.6.42 Temperature limits to DIN 4108 part 2 for thermal
better thermal insulation is solved simply by energy required to cover the final energy bridge calculations
Part of building or surroundings Temperature θ
applying enhanced requirements with requirement, taking into account the addi
°C
R ≥ 1.75 m2K/W for components < 100 kg/m 3 , tional amounts of energy consumed by up Basement 10
which corresponds to the former maximum stream process chains beyond the system Soil 5
value for lightweight components. In the case boundary of the building during the produc Unheated buffer zone 10
Unheated roof space -5
of structural frames, the value applies only to tion, conversion and distribution of the fuel
the infill panels. In these cases an average of used.
R ≥ 1.0 m2K/W is to be maintained in addition
for the entire component. Further details have Up to now, the heating requirement has been
already been described in the sections on subject to certain stipulations, but the new
thermal bridges and airtightness. standard is coupled to the heating energy
requirement, i.e. the primary energy evaluation, 2.6.43 Examples of sealing to DIN 4108 part 7
Energy-savings Act in order to incorporate the efficiency of the
Putting figures to the requirements for energy- plant and the energy carrier used. This means
saving thermal performance is the object of that the balance framework, which previously
public-law statutes aimed at energy-saving ended at the radiator, now extends back to the
construction. The stipulation of an annual ener power station or to the supply of gas or oil.
gy requirement in the Energy-savings Act cor One key element in the Energy-savings Act is
responds to a performance class for different the stricter framework of requirements for
methods of energy-saving defined in principal energy-saving construction, the aim of which is
document No. 6 "Energy economy and heat to cut consumption by an average of 30% for
retention", The European standard DIN EN 832 new building work and to bring the previous
serves for its technical implementation. This thermal insulation and technical plant require
standard refers to a series of further design ments and upgrading rules, as applied to the
standards, such as the calculation of the spe existing building stock, up to the current tech
cific heat loss coefficient, heat transfer to the nological level. As in the Thermal Insulation
soil, dynamic thermal parameters and the treat Act, this act covers buildings with normal inter
ment of thermal bridges. The raw data for the nal temperatures (min. 19°C); the definition for
design standards includes product features, buildings with lower internal temperatures 1 Airtight layer
e.g. the thermal conductivity of insulation ma remains unchanged. 2 Clamping batten
3 Compressed sealing strip
terials and masonry constructions. The logical Buildings with normal internal temperatures Adhesive
connection between the various design, pro must comply with maximum figures for the 4 Internal plaster
duct and measuring standards is illustrated in annual primary energy requirement (see fig.
Junction between roof and plastered masonry wall
fig. 2.6,45. Furthermore, national boundary 2.6.46), depending on the type of building
conditions, e.g. climate data, solar gains, inter A/Ve. The specification of the primary energy is
nal heat sources and air change rate in DIN intended to create a clear link to the political
4108 part 6, as well as provisions for dealing objective of reducing carbon dioxide emissions
with total heat losses from a heating system and avoid a distortion of the market for com
and the heating requirement for hot water sup peting energy systems. On the other hand, the
plies to DIN 4701 part 10, still have to be spec calculated final energy provides valuable infor
ified in order to finalize the European method of mation for the user as a standardized predic
analysis. tion of the consumption to be expected and at
Experience has shown that ambiguous desig the same time forms a parameter in an "energy
nations and confusion often arise when des requirement pass" specific to the building. The
cribing thermal insulation and energy proper additional ancillary requirement covering the
ties. Therefore, the following definitions are maximum annual heating requirement is 5 Adhesive
6 Sealing strip laminated
intended to provide clarity: intended to ensure that the previous standard with non-woven cloth
• Heating requirement: heat to be delivered to of thermal insulation to the building envelope is
the heated space to maintain the temperature maintained. Junction between window frame and masonry wall
over a period of time. Requirements for the imperviousness of ex
• Heating energy requirement: the calculated ternal windows and glazed doors remain
amount of energy that must be fed into the unchanged. The imperviousness of the build
heating system of a building to be able to ing envelope is dealt with more precisely by
cover the heating requirement. providing information on a suitable method of
2.6.44 Air change rates for airtightness test
• Heating energy consumption: the amount of measurement and permissible leakage rates. Recommended values
heating energy (energy carrier) measured To guarantee energy-saving summer thermal Airtightness Air change rate at 50 pa/h
over a certain period which is required to insulation, the previous provisions have been of building Apartment Detached
maintain a certain temperature in a zone. improved and tightened up in line with tech block house
• Final energy requirement: the amount of nical progress, very airtight 0.5-2.0 1.0-3.0
moderately airtight 2.0-4.0 3.0-8.0
energy which is required to cover the annual A limit to the cooling requirement has been less airtight 4.0-10.0 8.0-20.0
heating energy requirement and the heating imposed on buildings which, because of their Threshold values
requirement for the provision of hot water, function, demand a particular type of facade Building with Air changes per h
determined at the system boundary of the and cooling in the summer. The minimum ener natural ventilation n 60 ≤ 3
building under consideration. gy requirements for starting up heating boilers, mechanical extraction n 60 ≤ 1.5
175
Building science
2.6.45 Breakdown of TC 89 standardization work and links between individual standards distribution apparatus and hot water systems
stipulated in the Heating Plants Act have been
incorporated essentially en bloc.
As before, buildings with low internal tempera
tures only have to comply with a maximum
annual transmission heating requirement
because for these buildings the air change rate
and internal heat sources can fluctuate quite
considerably depending on use.
Changes to existing buildings necessitated the
previous provisions to be adjusted to the
requirements for the thermal transmittance of
individual components according to fig. 2.6.47.
Tighter stipulations for thermal insulation mea
sures to be carried out during refurbishment
work were created so that corresponding
improvements affecting energy requirements
would find a wide range of applications among
the existing building stock. Within a specified
period, the heating distribution pipes of a heat
ing system in an existing building must be
insulated and the boiler itself brought up to the
standard of new building work.
Method of calculation
The calculation of the heating and heating
energy requirements is carried out by using the
European standard DIN EN 832 in conjunction
with the National Application Document DIN
4108 part 6 and DIN 4701 part 10. The method
of calculation according to DIN EN 832 is
based on a stationary energy balance but
does, however, take into account internal and
external temperature changes as well as the
dynamic effect of internal and solar heat gains.
The annual heating energy requirement is cal
culated according to fig. 2.6.48 by drawing up
a balance sheet of the loss and gain variables
involved. Apart from the heating requirement
depending on the building, the heating energy
requirement also includes the technical losses
of the heating system, the energy requirements
for hot water and possible gains from regener
ative systems. The losses of the system can be
calculated accurately according to DIN 4701
part 10 by way of quantity figures for heat
transfer, distribution, storage, generation and
primary energy conversion for each individual
case according to the plans available for the
technical services or by using a quantity figure
ep for the entire system related to the primary
energy. Two methods are available for deter
mining the heating requirement. The simpler
period balance method, also possible without
the use of a computer and restricted to resi
2.6.47 Energy-savings Act (EnEV): measures for existing building stock dential buildings, uses the equation
Component U-value
W/m2k
EnEV Qh = QI , HP - η HP x Q g ,HP
External walls (internal insulation, renewing of infill walls) 0.45
External walls 0.35 where:
Windows 1.70
Qh the heating requirement for the heating
Floors, roofs, pitched roofs (steep) 0.30
Floors, roofs, pitched roofs (shallow) 0.25 season
Roofs and walls to unheated interiors or soil (insulation on cold side) 0.40 Q I, HP the heating losses during the heating
Roofs and walls to unheated interiors or soil (insulation on warm side) 0.50 season
176
Thermal insulation
Q g,HP the heating gains (internal, solar) during ing system (low-temperature boiler, condens • The difference between the air temperature
the heating season ing technology), with verified imperviousness, and the surface temperature of enclosing
ηHP the degree of utilization. night-time drop in temperature, optimized dou components does not exceed 2 K.
ble glazing and a high standard of insulation to • The relationship between air temperature and
The more accurate monthly balance method roof and basement areas. relative humidity lies, and is appropriately
takes into account further variables influencing In such cases the thermal transmittance of the balanced, in the range of q = 18-24°C and
the heating energy requirement and broadens external wall should not exceed U = 0.40 W/m2K. φ = 40-60%.
the planning options. The annual heating Twin-leaf masonry with additional thermal insu • The air circulating in the interior does not
requirement Qh is obtained by adding together lation, single-leaf walls with thermal insulation exceed a velocity of 0.10-0.20 m/s.
the individual monthly balances, provided composite systems or thermally insulated con
there have been positive values for each structions with ventilated outer leaves are all
month, using the equation possible without any problems. Thermal Insulation in summer
and All the main energy requirement segments of a With suitable construction, mechanical cooling
building are covered by an "energy require systems are generally unnecessary in build
Q h ,M = QI,M - η M x Q g , M ment pass" for the following purposes: ings containing apartments or individual offices
• To provide the user with information about the and other buildings with similar uses.
energy consumption to be expected. Thermal insulation in summer essentially
DIN 4108 part 6 contains the limits for the heat • To improve clarity in the housing and proper depends on the total energy transmittance of
ing degree days, the average available solar ty market with respect to the quality of build transparent external components, their com
radiation and the average monthly external ings in terms of energy aspects. pass orientation and, in the case of roof win
temperatures and intensity of solar radiation • To support the implementation of the Act by dows, their inclination. Other factors are the
necessary for both methods of calculation. An putting the user in the position to check the ventilation options in the rooms, the heat stor
analysis of thermal insulation according to pub features of his building relevant to energy, age capacity (particularly internal compo
lic-law requirements must also apply the condi and to investigate unusual aspects. nents), and the heat conduction properties of
tions described in DIN 4108 part 6. A simple summary shows that the heating opaque external components subject to non-
The advantages of the monthly balance energy requirement of a building is determined constant boundary conditions. Effective sun
method are that the influences of lighter or by four factors: shades for transparent external components
heavier types of construction on the degree of • Climate: location of building, external temper can be integrated into the construction by way
utilization of the heat gains and the effect of the ature, incident solar radiation of overhanging roofs or balconies, by external
night-time drop in temperature, as well as solar • Building: shape, volume, plan layout, orienta or internal blinds or by using solar-control
gains via glazed sections, opaque components tion, construction of external components, glass. The purpose of limiting the ingress of
and translucent thermal insulation can all be type of construction solar radiation in the summer is to guarantee
taken into account. The air change rate of • Heating system: heat generation, regulation, comfortable interior temperatures, i.e. to avoid
n = 0.7 per hour for natural ventilation, and its distribution, hot water supply exceeding certain threshold temperatures for
reduction to n = 0.6 per hour if an airtightness • Use: internal temperature, air change rate, more than 10% of the occupancy time. In order
test is carried out and the condition n 5 0 < 3 per usable waste heat. to keep within temperature limits in warmer cli
hour is thereby fulfilled, has a decisive influ matic regions (with sunshades provided), the
ence on the heat losses. A further reduction in following requirements have been laid down:
ventilation losses can be achieved by using Thermal comfort
mechanical ventilation with heat recovery. The thermal comfort in a heated room essen • summer climate region A;
In the period balance method the influence of tially depends on the surface temperatures of cool summer regions 25°C
thermal bridges is determined by a global sur the surfaces enclosing the room and on the air • summer climate region B;
charge on the specific transmission heat loss temperature within the room. The velocity and moderate regions 26°C
Hτ: humidity of the air, the activities of people in • summer climate region C;
the room and clothing also play a role. The hot summer regions 27°C
HWB = ΔUWB X A comfort ranges of the individual factors are
inked. The air and surface temperatures influ The fixed threshold of the dimensionless solar
ΔUWB = 0.05 W/m2K can be used for con ence the temperature perceived by an occu heat penetration S m a x must not be exceeded in
structions comparable in thermal terms with pant such that - within certain limits - a lower an analysis. This value is calculated from the
DIN 4108 supplement 2. The monthly balance air temperature can be compensated for by a total energy transmittance of the glass g, the
method also permits thermal bridge losses to higher surface temperature (see fig. 2.6.49). proportion of window area f in an elevation,
be calculated using thermal transmittance val There is a connection between the desired and the reduction factor F c for sunshades as
ues (ψ -values). humidity of the air and its temperature, which well as the window frame component FF:
can also be presented as a comfort range (see
In addition, quick implementation of DIN EN 832 fig. 2.6.50). The degree of comfort perceived S m a x ≥ S = f x gx F c ( 1 - F F ) / 0 . 7
is made possible by means of global reduction by an occupant must be assessed differently
methods or correction values derived from for each individual. Based on essentially physi The threshold is calculated from a basic value
comprehensive European standards requiring cal processes such as radiation exchange, S 0 for the applicable summer climate region as
intensive mathematical analysis. This simplifi conduction and evaporation, as well as gener well as correction factors depending on con
cation has an effect on temperature correction ally applicable experiences, a favourable inter struction and use according to table 2.6.51:
factors for areas in a heated basement in par nal climate prevails when the following factors
ticular. are present: S m a x ≥ S0 + Σi ΔSi
Calculations carried out for individual types of • The external components - with good thermal
buildings confirm that single-leaf masonry walls insulation - have an internal surface tempera The following values apply for the design
are still possible with a higher standard of heat ture of about 18°C. value S 0 :
177
Building science
2.6.48 EN 832 (thermal performance of buildings): calculation of heating energy requirement Q (final energy) and summer climate region A S0 = 0.18
primary energy requirement Qp for residential building. summer climate region B S0 = 0.14
summer climate region C S0 = 0.10
According to DIN 4108 part 2, only the basic

value S0 = 0.18 for cool summer regions is
used as the minimum requirement for thermal
insulation in summer. If the proportion of win
Q Heating energy requirement dows in a west to south to east orientation is
Qr Heat gain from surroundings less than 20%, or less than 30% for a north
(renewable energy) east to north to north-west orientation, or less
Qh Heating requirement
than 15% for sloping windows, an analysis is
Q Heating requirement for hot water
w
supplies not necessary.

Qt Losses from heating systems In the differentiated method according to DIN
Qp Primary energy requirement 4108 part 6, the specified threshold for the so-
ep Primary energy-related total Q = Qh + Qw+ Qt - Qr called standardized, non-usable heat gains
system cost index Qp= (Qh+ Qw) - ep
(which can also be interpreted as overtemper-
ature degree hours) must not be exceeded.
2.6.49 Relationship between interior air temperature and surface temperature with The method of calculation makes it possible to
respect to the comfort of occupants [15] take into account various factors, e.g. internal
heat loads, orientation of facade, air change
rate etc., accurately. The differentiated method
is particularly suitable for buildings with high
internal loads or enhanced passive solar ener
gy use. Buildings with interior cooling should
be initially designed and constructed in such a
way that the stipulations for thermal insulation
in summer are complied with and the residual
heat is removed by using mechanical systems
(see fig. 2.6.36).
2.6.50 Relationship between interior air temperature and relative humidity with respect
to the comfort of occupants [16]
2.6.51 Correction values AS for basic characteristic value S0 for solar heat penetration
Influencing variables i to be considered ΔSi
Lightweight construction:
timber studding, lightweight partitions, suspended ceilings - 0.03
Extremely lightweight construction:
primarily internal insulation, large hall, few internal components - 0.10
Solar-control glass(1) with g < 0.4 + 0.04
Increased night-time ventilation (night n ≥ 1.5 /h during 2nd half of night) + 0.03
Proportion of window area in facade > 65% - 0.04
Rooms facing north (NW-N-NE) + 0.10
Inclined windows (0°-60° to the horizontal) -0.06
178
Climate-related moisture control
Climate-related moisture control i.e. saturation, is reached. If the air cools fur 2.6.52 Moisture loads on external components
ther, the water must be separated out from the
The effects of moisture caused by building air, because the air at that temperature can no
work, normal living conditions, rain and con longer hold that amount of water in vapour
densation remain a problem in the construction form. Mist forms in a gaseous atmosphere or
industry. Therefore, measures have to be taken condensation on solid surfaces. The tempera
to keep moisture of any kind away from the ture at which this process begins is known as
building or reduce it to a safe minimum. Inade the dew point temperature, or simply dew
quate moisture control decreases the level of point. Constructional measures to avoid the
thermal insulation and can lead to later dam temperature falling below the dew point on
age to the masonry through corrosion, frost, internal surfaces have been dealt with in the
mould growth and efflorescence. Figure 2.6.52 section "Thermal insulation" in conjunction
is a diagram of the moisture loads on a build with thermal bridges.
ing.
From outside we have the effects of: Hygroscopic moisture

• rain, snow, moist external air Porous bodies absorb moisture in the form of
• moist soil, seepage water, a build-up of water vapour from the surrounding air accord
water, groundwater ing to their physical and chemical properties.
From inside we have the effects of: Adsorption may cause water molecules to col
• moisture from new building work lect on the surface of a material in one or more
• water in kitchens and bathrooms layers, according to the relative humidity. And
• dampness caused by the household, plants in porous materials with a capillary-like struc
and washing, and moisture evaporating from ture, water can also accumulate on internal
the occupants surfaces. If the water vapour in these capillar
• moisture condensing on the internal surfaces ies condenses, the water moves according to
of components or within the components. the laws of capillarity. This process is known as
capillary condensation, These two mechanisms 2.6.53 V a r i a b l e s , symbols and units used in moisture
The physical variables, symbols and units rele come under the general heading of "sorption". control
Physical variable Symbol Unit
vant to the assessment of moisture protection The hygroscopic properties of building mater
W a t e r v a p o u r partial pressure P Pa
are given in table 2.6.53. ials are described by sorption isotherms, which Relative humidity Φ 1
provide information on the moisture content in Mass-related moisture content u kg/kg
each case depending on the relative humidity W a t e r v a p o u r diffusion coefficient D m 2 /h
W a t e r v a p o u r diffusion flow rate g kg/m 2 h
Humidity (see fig. 2.6.55). The temperature of the ambi
W a t e r v a p o u r diffusion resistance Z m 2 hPa/kg
The air in the atmosphere always contains ent air has only a small influence. The hygro W a t e r v a p o u r diffusion conduction
water vapour from the evaporation of water. scopic water content that becomes established coefficient δ kg/mh Pa
Depending on the temperature, air can hold under normal ambient conditions is important W a t e r v a p o u r diffusion
resistance index μ 1
only a certain amount of water vapour, and this for assessing moisture ratios in a material in
W a t e r absorption coefficient w kg/m 2 h 0 , 5
increases as the temperature rises (see fig. practice. The hygroscopic equilibrium moisture W a t e r v a p o u r diffusion-
2,6,54). As moist air cools, the dew point (or contents of various building materials are given equivalent air layer thickness Sd m
saturation value) is reached. The saturation in table 2.6.23 (for reference climatic condi Area-related
condensation m a s s kg/m 2
content of water vapour in the air corresponds tions of 23°C and 80% relative humidity). Mw,T
Area-related
to a saturation vapour pressure depending on Besides the final values for sorption moisture evaporation m a s s kg/m 2
MW,V
temperature. This also increases as the tem which become established in the constant
perature rises to the same degree as the state, the non-constant behaviour of surface
capacity to hold water vapour. layers is also interesting since they act as
In the majority of cases the air contains slightly buffer zones for fluctuating internal humidities.
more water vapour than the respective satura Künzel [62] has shown that it is the properties 2.6.54 Water saturation or dew point graph
tion content allows. The relative humidity φ of the outermost surface layers that are partic-
serves to designate the water content of the ularly relevant for short-term moisture changes,
air. This is the ratio between the actual amount and that the substance of the wall beneath
of water vapour present W and the saturation plaster or wallpaper no longer has any influ-
quantity Ws or the ratio between the prevailing ence. On the other hand, furnishings with a
water vapour partial pressure p and the satura high textile content, e.g. upholstery, carpets,
tion pressure ps, given by curtains etc., have a high sorption capacity,
which means that no significant moisture fluc-
tuations should be expected in living rooms
Φ = W / Ws = p / ps
and bedrooms, and the sorption behaviour of
building materials is unimportant.
For saturated air Φ = 1.0 or 100%. As moist air
heats up in a room without the addition or
extraction of air, so the relative humidity drops
because the possible saturation quantity rises
for a constant quantity of water vapour. In the
reverse situation - moist air cooling - the rela
tive humidity increases until the value of 100%,
179
Building science
2.6.55 Ranges of sorption curves Capillarity out occurrence of condensation is easily illus
In water-filled pores and tube-like material trated for a single-layer component (see fig,
structures in building materials, capillary ten- 2.6.57). The water vapour diffusion flow rate g
sile forces occur due to the surface tension of in kg/m 2 h through a component in the constant
water, depending on the concave radius of the state is calculated using the equation below.
meniscus and the wettability of the solid mater- To do this, we must know the water vapour par
ial. The capillary suction can have either a pos- tial pressures pi and pe in Pa on both sides of
itive or negative effect on the building, depend- the component as well as the water vapour
ing on the moisture load and the associated diffusion resistance Z of the component. At a
moisture movement. The absorption of water reference temperature of 10°C, Z can be
and conveyance by capillary action due to dri- calculated from
ving rain or moist soil must be avoided. On the
other hand, the capillarity of a building material Z = 1.5 x 10 6 x μ x d
promotes the transport of water from within a
building component to the surface, where it Consequently, the diffusion flow rate is indirect
then has the chance to evaporate. This accel- ly proportional to the diffusion resistance gen
erates the removal of moisture from the build- erally applicable and the thickness of the build
ing process from masonry. In the case of con- ing material. The dimensionless material prop
densation forming within the masonry due to erty μ specifies by how much the diffusion
A Clay bricks, gypsum water vapour diffusion, the amount of conden- resistance of a material is greater than the sta
B Normal-weight concrete, lightweight concrete, auto-
claved aerated concrete, calcium silicate
sation can be reduced by capillary action and tionary air. The μ-value of air is therefore 1. As
C Timber, organic fibrous materials the chance to dry out improved. A standard- the thickness is of course important for calcu
ized test in DIN EN ISO 15148 is suitable for lating the diffusion resistance of a component
establishing the water absorption of a capillary- or layer of a component, in practice we use the
2.6.56 Capillary water absorption of various building type porous material. In this test a sample sur- diffusion-equivalent air layer thickness
materials in relation to the square root of the
face is immersed in water and the increase in
time (after Künzel)
mass determined as a function of the absorp- Sd = μ x d
tion time. The water absorption increases lin-
early in proportion to the square root of the This unit is specified in m. In some cases this
immersion time (see fig. 2.6.56). The curve characterizes the diffusion properties of a
corresponds to the water absorption coefficient building material layer better than the μ-value
specific to the material: on its own. This is particularly true for thin lay
ers and vapour barriers (see table 2.6.59). The
W = w x √t diffusion-equivalent air layer thicknesses of thin
layers have recently been defined in DIN 4108
where: part 3 as follows:
W = the quantity of water absorbed for a unit
surface area in kg/m 2 - open diffusion layer with sd ≤ 0.5 m
t = the absorption time in h - diffusion-resistant layer with
w = the water absorption coefficient in 0.5 m < s d ≤ 1500 m
1: Gypsum 1390 kg/m3 kg/m 2 h -0,5 - closed diffusion layer with sd > 1500 m.
2: Solid clay bricks 1730 kg/m3
3: Autoclaved aerated concrete 640 kg/m3
4: Calcium silicate 1780 kg/m3
Table 2.6.58 gives w-values for materials typic Water vapour diffusion resistances for building
5: Pumice concrete 880 kg/m3 ally used for building walls. materials and masonry are specified in DIN
4108 part 4 and DIN EN 12524. Two values are
given in DIN 4108 part 4 in order to take
Water vapour diffusion account of the scatter for type of material or
In physical terms, air is a mixture of gases in type of masonry. In calculating the diffusion,
which the nitrogen, oxygen and water vapour the less favourable water vapour diffusion
2.6.57 Water vapour transport through an external com molecules circulate independently. Each indi resistance should always be used for the con
ponent vidual gas exerts the same partial pressure it densing period. This means that when conden
d temperature gradient
would exert at the same temperature if the sation occurs within a type of structure, the
p Water vapour partial pressure gradient
other gases were not present. Existing mois lower μ-values should be used for calculating
ture differences in two blocks of air are bal the quantity of condensation on the inner
anced by water vapour diffusion in the direc (warm) side of the condensation plane or con
tion of the potential gradient. This diffusion densation zone, and the higher μ-values for the
should not be confused with a flow which outer (cold) side. However, the values used for
occurs as a result of a total pressure differ calculating the mass of condensation should
ence. In diffusion processes, the same total be retained for calculating the evaporation
pressure is generally present on both sides of options. Table 2.6.60 provides an overview of
a separating layer. The external components of the water vapour diffusion resistances for
heated interiors are subjected to water vapour masonry and plaster given in DIN 4108 part 4.
diffusion processes because they separate In contrast, the European standard DIN EN
blocks of air with different temperatures and 12524 distinguishes between water vapour dif
moisture contents. The diffusion process with fusion resistances determined according to the
180
dry and moist zone method of DIN EN ISO 2.6.58 Water absorption coefficient of building materials (after Künzel)
12572. In the first case the material is essen- Material Gross density Water absorption
coefficient
tially dry during the test because the humidities kg/m3 kg/m2h0.5
on both sides of the sample are approx. 0% Clay bricks solid 1750 25
and 50%, but in the second case about 50% solid 2175 2.9
and 95%, so that for hygroscopic materials an vertically perforated 1155 8.3
vertically perforated 1140 8.9
appropriate moisture content becomes estab-
Calcium silicate solid calcium silicate 1635 7.7
lished and influences the μ-value through the normal-weight solid calcium silicate 1760 5.5
transport of the sorbed water (see fig. 2.6.61). ightweight concrete solid calcium silicate 1920 3.2
Corresponding figures for building materials pumice concrete 845 2.9
pumice concrete 1085 1.9
can be found in table 2.6.62. It can be seen
autoclaved aerated concrete 535 4.0
that the μ-values for the moist zone with the autoclaved aerated concrete 600 4.2
greater flow of sorbed water are lower than autociaved aerated concrete 630 4.6
those for the dry zone. normal-weight concrete 2290 1.8
normal-weight concrete 2410 1.1
Calculating the quantity of condensation within

components
The quantity of condensation accumulating
within a component and the chance of drying
out can only be estimated and not accurately
calculated owing to the assumptions concern
ing the climatic boundary conditions and the 2.6.59 Water vapour diffusion-equivalent air layer thickness to DIN EN 12524 of thin layers
wide scatter of material parameters. Even sub Product/material Water vapour
diffusion-equivalent
sequent calculations, carried out within the air layer thickness
scope of assessing damage, are fraught with s d (m)
uncertainties. The water vapour diffusion resis
Polyethylene 0.15 mm 50
tance is the most important material property
Polyethylene 0.25 mm 100
but can vary considerably in practice due to Polyester sheet 0.2 mm 50
utilization effects. In the case of hygroscopic PVC sheet 30
materials the water vapour diffusion is con Aluminium foil 0.05 mm 1500
Polyethylene sheet (stacked) 0.15 mm 8
cealed by sorption processes and flows of
Bitumenized paper 0.1 mm 2
adsorbate films. Aluminium composite foil 0.4 mm 10
Several methods - with different claims to Roofing felt for walls 0.2
accuracy - are known for investigating the pos Coating material 0.1
High-gloss lacquer 3
sible saturation of components by the forma Vinyl wallpaper 2
tion of condensation, which results from the dif Note: The water vapour diffusion-equivalent air layer thickness of a product is specified as the thickness of a stationary
ference between the amount of water accumu layer of air with the same water vapour diffusion resistance as the product. The thickness of the product in the table is
lating and the amount able to dry out. The not normally measured and can be related to thin products with a water vapour diffusion resistance. The table speci-
fies nominal thickness values as an aid to identifying the product.
Glaser method is covered by a standard. This
is a simple graphic method for estimating pos
sible moisture bleeding within the cross-sec
tion of a wall and the possible drying-out
based on a constant state for the temperature
zone and the vapour partial pressure gradient.
With constant climatic conditions for the con
densing period over two winter months and the
evaporating period over three summer months, 2.6.60 Recommended values for diffusion resistance indexes to DIN 4108 part 4; upper and lower limits of material
we also speak of the block method. Figure scatter
2,6,63 is a schematic presentation of a simple Material Recommended value for water
vapour diffusion resistance index (m)
diffusion diagram with a condensation plane
Plasters
between layers 2 and 3, as would be the case, Plastering mixes of lime, lime-cement 15/35
for example, in a twin-leaf masonry wall with and hydraulic lime
cavity insulation. However, owing to the misun Plastering mixes of lime-gypsum, gypsum, anhydrite and lime hydrite 10
Lightweight plasters 15/20
derstandings which often occur in practice, it
Gypsum plasters 10
must be emphasized that the DIN method is an Thermal insulation plaster 5/20
estimate of the accumulation of condensation Synthetic resin plaster 50/200
and its possible drying-out as well as a check - Masonry of
solid engineering bricks, vertically perforated engineering bricks 50/100
proved over decades - of the absolute safety
high-strength engineering bricks
of a component subjected to standard condi solid clay bricks, vertically perforated clay bricks 5/10
tions. The climatic boundary conditions and the ightweight vertically perforated clay bricks
method of analysis are described in detail in calcium silicate, gross density 1.0-1.4 5/10
DIN 4108 part 3. The basic requirement is that calcium silicate, gross density 1.6-2.2 15/25
granulated slag aggregate units 70/100
the formation of condensation within compo autoclaved aerated concrete 5/10
nents, which leads to damage or impairment of lightweight concrete 5/10
181
Building science
2.6.61 Diagram of direction of diffusion upon measur the function due to the increase in moisture the surrounding air is achieved.
ing the water vapour permeability in the dry and contained in building and insulating materials, Moisture transport in components taking into
moist zones, and specification of the water con
tent in the samples and sorbate water transport
should be avoided. This is generally the case account sorption, diffusion and capillarity effects
for a hygroscopic material with the given sorp- when the following conditions are satisfied: subjected to non-constant climatic conditions is
tion curve (after Künzel) • Building materials that come into contact with reflected in the KieBI method [94]. The asso-
condensation should not suffer any damage ciated computer program "WUFI" [219] takes
(e.g. through corrosion, mould growth). into account the conditions of the temperature
• Water accumulating within the component and relative humidity of the internal and exter-
during the condensing period must be able to nal air as well as the rain load and the radiation
escape to the surroundings again during the loss according to the inclination and orientation
evaporating period. of the component. This information can be ob-
• The area-related quantity of condensation tained from measured weather data or from
should not exceed 1.0 kg/m 2 for roof and wall test reference years. Material data such as
constructions. porosity, specific heat capacity, thermal con-
• If condensation occurs at the contact faces of ductivity, diffusion resistance, moisture storage
capillary, non-absorbent layers, the permis- function and fluid transport coefficient are all
sible condensation mass may be reduced to put into the calculation. The computer program
0.5 kg/m 2 ; provisions covering timber com- then determines the chronological progression
ponents are given in DIN 68800 part 2. of the temperature and moisture zone within
• An increase in the mass-related moisture the component.
content u exceeding 5% is not permitted for
timber (3% for timber derivatives); wood-wool
2.6.62 Water vapour diffusion resistance indices for the
dry and moist zones to DIN EN 12524 and multi-ply lightweight building boards to Moisture behaviour of masonry
Material Water vapour diffusion DIN 1101 are excluded from this. DIN 4108 part 3 describes components that, in
resistance index the light of experience, can be regarded as
μ In contrast to the DIN method, the Jenisch absolutely safe with respect to saturation, and
dry moist
Plastering mix 20 10 method takes into account the temperature for which a mathematical analysis of conden-
Clay brick 16 10 relationships at the location of the building sation is not required. The condition for this is
Calcium silicate 20 15 [90], This makes use of the mean annual figure adequate minimum thermal insulation accord-
Concrete with expanded ing to DIN 4108 part 2 and normal interior clim-
and the frequency of the daily average for the
clay aggregates 6 4
Concrete with lightweight external air temperature in certain climatic ates. Figure 2.6.64 provides an overview of
aggregates 15 10 zones in order to establish whether the mass of external wall constructions which are absolute-
Autoclaved aerated concrete 10 6 condensation occurring in a component can ly safe in terms of the formation of condensa-
dry out again during one year. This method is tion internally.
slightly more involved than the DIN method but
supplies a more accurate annual balance for The masonry walls are made up as follows:
the occurrence of condensation and the
2.6.63 Water vapour diffusion with condensation chance of it drying out. • Single-leaf masonry to DIN 1053 part 1 and
occurring in one plane of the building
component
The COND method [72] enables a moisture walls of autoclaved aerated concrete to
profile in multi-layer enclosing constructions to DIN 4223 with internal plaster and the
be calculated on the basis of the coupled heat, following external layers:
water vapour and capillary water transport, and - rendering to DIN 18550 part 1
hence forms a solid foundation for - in terms of - claddings to DIN 18515 parts 1 and 2
moisture - a correct and differentiated attached by mortar or bonding with a joint
approach to the physics of the building struc- proportion of at least 5%
ture. Starting with a simple block climate for - ventilated external wall claddings to
winter and summer, similar to DIN 4108 part 3, DIN 18516 part 1 with and without thermal
the capillarity and hygroscopicity of the build- insulation
ing material are taken into account in addition - external insulation to DIN 1102 or
to the water vapour diffusion. As the cold sea- DIN 18550 part 3 or an approved thermal
son begins, the difference between water insulation composite system
Diffusion diagram for condensation case vapour quantities diffusing into and out of the • Twin-leaf masonry to DIN 1053 part 1, also
material, initially without formation of condensa- with cavity insulation
tion, is used to create a hygroscopic load with- • Walls of masonry with internal insulation sub-
in the component. Once the water vapour satu- ject to the following limitations:
ration pressure is finally reached, condensation - internal insulation with a thermal resistance
does form but, at the same time, capillary relief of the thermal insulation layer R ≤ 1.0 m2K/W
begins. The balance of vapour and capillary as well as a value for the water vapour diffu
water flows leads to a reduced moisture load sion-equivalent air layer thickness of the
compared to the pure diffusion method. During thermal insulation layer with internal plaster
the warm part of the year the material is or internal cladding s di > 0.5 m
relieved by water vapour and capillary water - internal insulation of plaster or clad wood
transport - until the condensation has dried wool lightweight building boards to DIN 1101
out. Finally, further drying takes place until with R ≤ 0.5 m 2 K/W without any further
Diffusion diagram for evaporation case hygroscopic moisture content equilibrium with requirement for the s di -value
182
• External basement walls of single-leaf mason 2.6.64 External masonry walls for which a mathematical analysis of condensation is not necessary
ry to DIN 1053 part 1 or concrete to DIN 1045
with external thermal insulation. Single-leaf walls: monolithic, with ventilated cladding, with thermal insulation Single-leaf wall with
composite system internal insulation
These provisions in the standards are based

on many years of experience and, as a rule, lie
on the safe side. If a construction deviates from
the details given in the catalogues, this does
not necessarily mean that the construction will
fail. A number of selected investigations of
external walls show the serviceability of facade
claddings with limited ventilation, the use of
various combinations of materials for twin-leaf
masonry with cavity insulation and the absence
of problems - in terms of moisture protection -
with internal insulation. The wall protected by
an external cladding, with or without additional
thermal insulation, is a proven form of wall con
struction. The transport of moisture from the Twin-leaf walls: with cavity, with partial-fill cavity, with full-fill cavity Basement wall with
wall to the outside is achieved as shown in fig. external insulation
2.6.65 by ventilation to the rear of the cladding
in conjunction with the formation of conden
sation on the inner face of the cladding, which
then drains away. The mechanism which
applies depends on the degree of ventilation.
Tile-like, small-format elements also benefit
from a considerable moisture exchange by
way of the perviousness of the cladding [131].
Therefore, if a cladding is not ventilated
according to DIN 18516, this does not repre
sent a defect, provided the condensation on
the rear face of the cladding can drain away
and does not lead to damage to the load-
bearing construction [130]. masonry with different types of internal insula halve the thermal transmittance values often
In a full-fill cavity wall, thermal insulation mater tion in laboratory tests under the climatic con encountered in old buildings. A diffusion
ials with any water vapour permeability can be ditions according to DIN 4108 part 3 [4], resistance μ = 5 allows the construction to
combined with all relevant building materials Masonry walls made from no-fines lightweight remain open to diffusion. Possible conden
for the inner leaf and an outer leaf of clay or concrete, calcium silicate and clay bricks with sation behind the insulation is dispersed and
calcium silicate facing bricks [5], diffusion-permeable insulating materials such relieved by the high capillary action so that
When calculating the diffusion according to as mineral fibres, even those without vapour diffusion-resistant layers are unnecessary.
DIN 4108 part 3, the amount of condensation barrier, are absolutely safe with respect to sat Apart from that, the pH value of calcium sili
according to figure 2.6.66 lies below the uration in winter. The thermal insulation cate makes it resistant to mould growth and
maximum permissible condensation mass of remains dry during the condensing period. its hygroscopicity is a help in regulating the
1000 g/m2, even for the most unfavourable However, the increase in the water content of internal climate, i.e. moisture load peaks in
case of thermal insulation open to diffusion the masonry exceeds the limit of 1.0 kg/m 2 the interior are buffered.
(e.g. mineral wool, loose insulation) and a thin according to DIN 4108 part 3. The necessary
inner leaf. Only for an outer leaf of engineering drying-out during the evaporating period is
bricks must water occurring within the compo achieved. Theoretical studies with a constant
nent during the condensing period be able to internal climate and practical external climate
escape again to the surroundings during the [95] confirm this assumption for certain types
evaporating period ( m w t : m wv ≤ 1) not fulfilled - of masonry. As in the laboratory tests, they
on paper-for insulating materials open to dif produce higher moisture fluctuations in the
fusion (see fig. 2.6.67). Taking into account masonry compared with the use of denser
laboratory tests on samples of wall in a insulation materials or vapour barriers. Butt
Munich-based thermal insulation research cen joints near the covering on the inner face in
tre, further practical investigations [53] and the conjunction with rigid expanded foams or min
fact that the condensation that occurs is only a eral fibre boards, with vapour barriers interrupt
fraction of the amount of driving rain that pene ed at the butt joints, have no measurable effect
trates an outer leaf, a full-fill cavity wall can be on the water content of the masonry. Investiga
regarded as absolutely safe, even when using tions carried out on existing structures confirm
engineering bricks, with respect to the forma the laboratory measurements. Insulating ma
tion of condensation within the wall. terials with active capillaries, e.g. calcium sili
Practical studies of the formation of condensa cate, have recently been favoured for the inter
tion within components with internal insulation nal insulation of buildings with facades worth
have been carried out on common forms of preserving [73]. A thickness of just 40 mm can
183
Building science
2.6.65 Schematic presentation of moisture loss in ex- Water vapour convection wind conditions would otherwise cause them to
ternal walls with claddings. With ideal ventilation Walls and roofs must be airtight to prevent the be allocated to the low driving rain loading group.
(qa = q z ) , the wall moisture is carried away with
through-flow and convection of internal humidi-
the air (right). With less than ideal or no ventila-
tion (qa < qz), some moisture diffusing out of the ty, which can lead to the formation of conden- Loading group III - high driving rain load
wall can condense and drain away (left) [7] sation. Special attention should be paid to the As a rule, this loading group applies to regions
airtightness of junctions with other components with annual precipitation levels > 800 mm or to
and service penetrations. Transverse flows in windy regions, even those with lower levels of
ventilation layers within a construction between precipitation (e.g. coastal areas, hilly and
rooms heated to different temperatures should mountainous regions, the foothills of the Alps),
also be avoided. Facing masonry and timber as well as to tall buildings or buildings in
frames, as well as masonry to DIN 1053 part 1, exposed positions in regions where the local
are not airtight without further treatment. These rain and wind conditions would otherwise
types of walls must be given a coat of plaster cause them to be allocated to the moderate
to DIN 18550 part 2 on one side or made air- driving rain loading group.
tight by other suitable measures. Plasters to
DIN 18550 part 2 or 18558 are classed as air- External walls with rain protection provided by
tight layers. rendering or coatings are assessed using the
water absorption coefficient w for water
absorption during rainfall and the diffusion-
Protection against driving rain equivalent air layer thickness sd of the layer
Driving rain loads on walls are caused by the providing rain protection for the loss of water
simultaneous effect of rain and wind blowing during dry periods [106]. In order to limit the
against the facade. The rainwater can be short-term increase in moisture during rainfall,
absorbed by the wall by way of the capillary the water absorption coefficient should not
action of the surface or enter via cracks, gaps exceed a certain value, even when drying-out
2.6.66 Condensation mass mWT in relation to diffusion- is guaranteed in the long term. The lower the
or defective seals as a result of the pressure
equivalent air layer thickness of inner leaf
Thermal insulation layer: mineral fibre boards build-up. It must be ensured that the water diffusion-equivalent air layer thickness sd of the
Outer leaf: clay facing bricks entering the construction can escape again to surface layer, the more quickly the component
the outside air. Providing a wall with protection loses water - which entered during driving rain
against driving rain in order to limit the absorp- - in the dry period. So such a surface layer
tion of water by capillary action and to guaran- should be water-resistant or water-repellent
tee evaporation opportunities can be achieved with respect to rain protection, but at the same
through constructional measures (e.g. external time remain as permeable as possible for
cladding, twin-leaf masonry) or through render- water vapour to allow the moisture which has
ing or coatings, The measures to be taken penetrated to escape quickly. The require-
depend on the intensity of the driving rain load, ments for rain protection provided by rendering
which is determined by the direction of the and coatings are defined in DIN 4108 part 3
wind and the level of precipitation as well as (see table 2.6.69).
the local situation and type of building. Accord- The rain protection is confined to the outer leaf
ingly, three loading groups are defined in DIN in the case of twin-leaf walls with an air space
4108 part 3 in order to assess the behaviour of or masonry with a ventilated cladding. Airtight-
external walls subjected to driving rain. A rain- ness and thermal insulation are the tasks of the
Diffusion-equivalent air layer thickness fall map of Germany provides general informa- inner leaf. In a full-fill cavity wall, the cavity
tion about precipitation levels. However, this is insulation should not impair the resistance to
only the starting point for assessing driving rain driving rain, and moisture should not be able to
because the local circumstances, altitude and reach the inner leaf via the insulation. The cavi-
Thickness of inner leaf form of the building (roof overhang, height of ty insulation must be covered by a standard,
building) must also be taken into account (see otherwise its serviceability will have to be veri-
fig. 2.6.68). Therefore, the loading groups for fied in accordance with building authority regu-
Germany are defined with associated explana- lations. Loose materials and mineral fibre
tions: boards must possess hydrophobic properties
to repel the water. An overlapping stepped
Loading group I - low driving rain load joint is adequate for plastic foams in order to
As a rule, this loading group applies to regions guarantee that the water drains to the base of
with annual precipitation levels < 600 mm but the wall. If loose cavity insulation materials are
also to locations well protected from the wind employed, suitable measures must be taken at
in regions with higher levels of precipitation. the openings at the base of the external leaf in
order to prevent material from escaping. As
Loading group II - moderate driving rain load with a cavity wall, a damp proof course must
As a rule, this loading group applies to regions be provided at the base and above all open-
with annual precipitation levels of 600-800 mm ings together with weep holes to allow driving
as well as to locations well protected from the rain which has penetrated the outer leaf to
wind in regions with higher levels of precipita- drain away.
tion and to tall buildings or buildings in exposed When using thermal insulation composite sys-
positions in regions where the local rain and tems, cracks in the rendering could endanger
184
the driving rain protection and impair the ther 2.6.67 Drying-out opportunities in relation to the diffu- 2.6.68 Allocation of driving rain groups according to
mal insulation mainly provided by the external sion-equivalent air layer thickness of insulation position and form of building
material when using outer leaves of clay facing
thermal insulation layer. The effects of cracks
bricks and engineering bricks
in rendering have been investigated on exter
nal walls subjected to natural weather condi
tions at the open-air test centre of the Fraun-
hofer Institute for Building Physics [14]. After
three years of exposure to the weather, it can
generally be said that for rendering on rigid
expanded polystyrene and polyurethane foam
sheets as well as hydrophobic mineral fibre
boards, cracks with a width of approx. 0.2 mm
do not impair the function of the rendering as
rain protection to any significant extent, pro
vided the substrate does not conduct through
capillary action or is water-resistant. As a
simple planning aid, DIN 4108 part 3 gives
examples of the classification of standard
types of wall according to the three loading
groups (see 2.6.70). However, this does not
rule out the use of other types of construction
proved by years of practical experience.
2.6.69 Requirements for rain protection to rendering and coatings according to DIN 4108 part 3
Rain protection Water absorption Diffusion-equivalent Product
requirement coefficient air layer thickness w x sd
w kg/mh0.5
kg/m2h0.5 Sd (m)
Water-resistant 0.5 <w< 2.0
Water-repellent w≤0.5 ≤2.0 ≤2.0
2.6.70 Examples of the allocation of standard wall types and loading groups according to DIN 4108 part 3
Loading group I Loading group II Loading group III
low driving rain load moderate driving rain load high driving rain load
Rendering to DIN 18550 pt 1 Water-resistant rendering Water-repellent rendering to
without special requirements to DIN 18550 pt 1 on DIN 18550 pts 1-4 or synthetic resin
for driving rain plaster to DIN 18550 on
protection
• External walls of masonry,
wall panels, concrete or similar
• Wood-wool lightweight
boards (with reinforced joints)
• Multi-ply lightweight boards • External walls of masonry, wall panels, concrete or similar
(reinforced over entire surface) • Wood-wool and multi-ply lightweight boards
to DIN 1101, to DIN 1101, installed according to DIN 1102
installed according to DIN 1102
Single-leaf masonry Single-leaf masonry Twin-leaf facing masonry
to DIN 1053 pt 1, 310 mm thick to DIN 1053 pt 1, 375 mm thick to DIN 1053 pt 1 withpartial-
(with internal plaster) (with internal plaster) or full-fill cavity
(with internal plaster)
External walls with tiles or panels to DIN 18515 pt 1 External walls with tiles or panels
applied in thick- or thin-bed mortar to DIN 18515 pt 1 applied
in water-repellent mortar
External walls with dense microstructure outer layer of concrete to DIN 1045 and DIN 1045 pt 1 (draft) as well as
DIN 4219 pts 1 & 2
Walls with ventilated external claddings to DIN 18516 pts 1, 3 & 4
Walls with external insulation by means of a thermal insulation plaster system to DIN 18550 pt 3 or an approved
thermal insulation composite system
External walls in timber with weather protection according to section 8.2 of DIN 68800 pt 2 (May 95)
Note: Drained joints between cladding panels do not impair rain protection.
185
Building science
2.6.71 Sound levels of various sources Sound insulation
Sound insulation is becoming more and more

important throughout the building industry. This
primarily concerns questions relating to the
health and well-being of people. Sound insu-
lation is particularly important in housing be-
cause this is where people relax and rest and
need to be shielded from the everyday noises
of their neighbours. And sound insulation is an
indispensable part of the building system if
schools, hospitals and offices are to be used
properly. Sound insulation in buildings begins
at the design stage. For instance, noise-
sensitive rooms like bedrooms and living
rooms should be placed within the plan layout
so that they are unlikely to be affected by
unacceptable external noise; a useful expedi-
ent is to group those rooms with similar func-
tions together. Besides careful planning, sound
insulation measures can only be successful
when great care is exercised during construc-
tion. Even minor flaws in workmanship can lead
to, for example, acoustic bridges for structure-
borne noise, which then practically nullify the
entire sound insulation measures. Putting right
such problems subsequently is in many cases
impossible or at best extremely expensive.
Terms and definitions

Sound insulation is the protection against
sound which is conveyed in various ways
(see fig. 2.6.72):
• Airborne sound is sound which propagates in

air (a gaseous medium). Upon striking a solid
body (building component), part
of the airborne sound is reflected and part is
absorbed or attenuated.
2.6.72 Airborne and structure-borne sound • Structure-borne sound is sound which propa-
Excitation of airborne sound Excitation of structure-borne sound gates in solid materials. In buildings these are
frequently noises caused by building services
and machinery which are then conveyed via
the construction.
• Impact sound is a special form of structure-
borne sound caused by people walking
across the floor.
Sound is the mechanical vibration of an elastic

medium whose frequency lies within the audi-
ble range of the human ear (between 16 and
20 000 Hz). Frequency f is defined as the num-
ber of vibrations per second. As the frequency
increases the pitch rises. A doubling of the fre-
2.6.73 Frequency ranges
quency corresponds to one octave. In building
acoustics we are generally concerned with a
range of five octaves - from 100 to 3150 Hz
(see fig. 2.6.73). The periodic sound vibration
generates an alternating pressure in air or flu-
ids known as sound pressure p. The sound
pressure is superimposed on the static pres-
sure present in the respective medium and can
be measured by using a microphone.
The sound pressure level L describes sound
186
Sound insulation
events in building acoustics. As the human ear the walls on all sides as well as door frames 2.6.74 Example of formation of average value with the
is in a position to perceive a range equal to 1 x and service penetrations, by a resilient insulat- aid of the evaluation curve
106, the sound pressure level (often abbreviat- ing layer.
ed to SPL) is described using a logarithmic
scale. This is the base 10 logarithm of the ratio
of the square of the respective sound pressure Requirements
p to the square of the reference sound pres- Minimum requirements for sound insulation
sure p0: have been laid down in a number of construc-
tion law documents. DIN 4109 specifies
L = 10 log 10 (p2/p02) requirements for airborne and impact sound
insulation between individual functional units in
The unit of sound pressure or sound level dif- buildings and requirements for protection
ference is the decibel (dB). The sound level is against external noise. It should be noted here
specified using the A-scale dB(A); this is based that the requirements apply only to the sound
on the A-weighting network, which approxi- performance of separating components
mates to a scale of volume comparable to that between different residential or office premis-
of the sensitivity of the human ear. A sound that es; there are no minimum requirements for
increases by 10 dB is perceived to be twice as sound insulation within residential or office
loud. The sound level extends from the limit of premises. Supplement 1 to DIN 4109 (exam-
audibility 0 dB(A) to the pain threshold . A num- ples of details and methods of calculation) has
ber of typical sound levels are given in fig. been implemented by the building authorities.
2.6.71. So sound insulation means reducing the Supplement 2 to DIN 4109 (recommendations
sound levels of sound sources to an accept- for enhanced sound insulation and sugges-
able level when they cannot be diminished. tions for sound insulation within premises) has
The sound reduction index R describes the not been implemented by the building authori-
insulating effect of components against air- ties, and necessitates a special agreement
borne sound. This is calculated from the sound between developer and architect. Bearing in
2.6.75 Transmission paths for airborne sound
level difference between two rooms (source mind the increasing quality awareness of
and receiving rooms) taking into account the users, the designer should check whether the Besides transmission through the separating wall (path 1)
the airborne sound is also transmitted via paths 2, 3 and 4.
absorption surface A of the receiving room and enhanced sound insulation measures of sup-
the test surface of the component S: plement 2 can be implemented taking into
account technical and economic aspects. A
R = L 1 - L 2 + 10log 1 0 (S/A) guide to the contents of DIN 4109 and the sup-
plements is given in fig. 2.6.76. Work on Euro-
The airborne sound insulation index Rw is a pean standardization is being carried out by
single value for the simple identification of the technical committee CEN/TC 126 "Acoustic
building components. As shown in fig. 2.6.74, properties of building products and of build-
a curve B, the shape of which takes into ings".
account the sensitivity of the human ear, above The European standard is essentially con-
the line of measured frequencies M, is dis- cerned with the harmonization of testing meth-
placed downwards in steps of 1 dB until the ods (laboratory and in situ), the evaluation of
average undershoot U of the displaced grade test results and the drawing-up of methods of
curve below the measured curve is max. 2 dB. calculation for determining the acoustic perfor-
The sound reduction index of the displaced mance of buildings based on the properties of
grade curve at 500 Hz is taken as the single their components. The standards being pro-
identifying value. duced for this by CEN will have a direct influ-
In practice the airborne sound insulation index ence on the provisions of DIN 4109. The Ger-
2.6.76 Requirements and recommendations for sound
is specified taking into account the sound man building acoustics standardization con- insulation
transmission via flanking components (see fig. cept will have to undergo a fundamental over- Designation Implemented Content
2.6.75). Flanking transmission is that part of the haul. The DIN study groups responsible are by building
currently working on a standardization concept authorities
airborne sound transmission between two ad-
DIN 4109 Yes Protection of occupied
jacent rooms which does not take place direct- that takes the harmonized codes into account. rooms against
ly via the separating component but instead via Both DIN 4109 and supplement 1 will need to • noises from rooms not
auxiliary paths through adjoining components. be revised. belonging to the same
Impact sound is structure-borne sound gener- The work to be carried out essentially involves premises
• noises from building
ated by walking or similar excitation of floors or the following areas: services and operations
stairs, and is transmitted to the rooms below on the same premises
partly directly as airborne sound or via flanking • A revision of DIN 4109 while retaining the cur- • external noise and the
components as structure-borne sound waves. noise of commercial or
rent level of requirements.
industrial operations
Impact sound insulation is usually improved by • The production of a building component Supplement 1 Yes Examples of construction
a two-layer arrangement in the form of the floor catalogue. to DIN 4109 details and methods of
finish being supported by a "floating" construc- • The integration of the harmonized method of calculation
tion on the structural floor, Supplement 2 No Advice on design and
calculation in the German building acoustics to DIN 4109 construction and
A floating screed is a supporting layer which is concept, including the drawing-up of instruc- recommendations for
separated from the structural floor, and from tions. enhanced sound insulation
187
Building science
2.6.77Airborne sound insulation for walls and doors to prevent sound transmission from other
residential or working areas The necessary work will involve masonry and
Component Requirements Recommendations
to DIN 4109(1) for enhanced reinforced concrete, steel and other frames,
sound insulation timber construction, elements (windows, doors
according to etc.) and building services.
supplement 2(2) In Germany, supplement 3 to DIN 4109 has
reqd R'w reqd R'w
dB dB
been prepared for the transition period. This
1. Multistorey buildings with apartments and work rooms contains a method for converting the airborne
Party walls between apartments and walls between separate sound insulation index Rw determined in the
work premises 53 ≥55 laboratory without flanking transmission into a
Staircase walls and walls adjacent to communal corridors 52(3) ≥55
value R' w , which is still required at present for
Walls adjacent to driveways, entrances to common garages etc. 55 -
Walls to games or similar community rooms 55 - the German system. The reverse procedure,
Doors i.e. converting R' w to R w , is also included in the
• which lead from communal corridors or stairs to corridors and supplement.
hallways in apartments and residential homes or from work rooms; 27 ≥37
• which lead from communal corridors or stairs directly The level of requirements for sound insulation
to occupied rooms - except corridors and hallways - in apartments 37 - in buildings is not affected by the European
2. Semidetached or terraced houses standard. The establishment of requirements
Party walls 57 ≥67 remains exclusively the province of national
3. Hotels etc.
Walls between bodies and can therefore be adjusted to the
• bedrooms 47 ≥52 respective national traditions and develop
• corridors and bedrooms 47 >52 ments in the construction industry. According
Doors ly, DIN 4109 is not threatened in this respect
• between corridors and bedrooms 32 ≥37
4. Hospitals, clinics
by developments at European level.
Walls between 47 ≥52
• patients' rooms
• corridors and patients' rooms Sound insulation against internal noise
• examination or consultation rooms
• corridors and examination or consultation rooms - Table 2.6.77 lists the requirements of DIN 4109
• patients' rooms and work or nursing rooms and the recommendations of supplement 2 to
Walls between DIN 4109 for a number of selected walls for
• operating theatres or treatment rooms 42 -
protecting occupied rooms against sound
• corridors and operating theatres or treatment rooms
Walls between 37 - transmission from other residential or working
• intensive care rooms premises. Sound insulation for occupants is
• corridors and intensive care rooms also important within the same residential and
Doors between
working premises when rooms serve different
• examination or consultation rooms 37 -
• corridors and examination or consultation rooms purposes, or different working and resting peri
• corridors and patients' rooms 32 ≥37 ods apply, or enhanced insulation require
• operating theatres or treatment rooms - ments are desirable. Supplement 2 to DIN
• corridors and operating theatres or treatment rooms
4109 contains recommendations for standard
5. Schools and similar places of education
Walls between 47 - and enhanced sound insulation. Table 2.6.79
• classrooms or similar rooms provides an overview of the corresponding
• corridors and classrooms or similar rooms suggestions for residential and office buildings.
Walls between 52 -
DIN 4109 stipulates values for the permissible
• stairs and classrooms or similar rooms
Walls between 55 - sound level in noise-sensitive rooms in order to
• "particularly noisy" rooms (e.g. sports halls, music rooms, provide protection against noise from building
work rooms) and classrooms or similar rooms services and operations. In order to maintain
Doors between 32 -
these values, requirements are laid down for
• corridors and classrooms or similar rooms
1) Extract from table 3 of DIN 4109 the airborne and impact sound insulation of
2) Extract from table 2 of supplement 2 to DIN 4109 components between "particularly noisy"
3) The following applies to walls with doors: R'w(wall) = Rw(door) + 15 dB; wall widths ≤ 300 mm are not considered rooms and those sensitive to noise (see table
here.
2.6.80). The latter are understood to be living
rooms, bedrooms, hospital wards, classrooms
and offices. "Particularly noisy" rooms are:
• Rooms with "particularly noisy" building plant

or services if the maximum sound pressure
level of the airborne sound in these rooms fre
quently exceeds 75 dB(A).
• Rooms housing containers for rubbish chutes
and access corridors to such rooms from the
outside.
• Rooms for craft or commercial activities,
including sales activities, if the maximum
sound pressure level of the airborne sound in
these rooms frequently exceeds 75 dES(A).
• Restaurants, cafes, snack bars and the like.
188
Sound insulation
• Bowling alleys 2.6.78 The airborne sound insulation index R'w according to the mass law
• Kitchens for hotels etc., hospitals, clinics,
restaurants; not included here are small
kitchens, preparation rooms and communal
kitchens.
• Theatres
• Sports halls
• Music and work rooms.
In many cases it is necessary to provide addi

tional structure-borne insulation to machines,
apparatus and pipes opposite soffits and walls
of the building. No figures can be specified
here because it depends on the magnitude of
the structure-borne sound generated by the
machine or apparatus, which is very different in
each case. Supplement 2 to DIN 4109 pro
vides general design advice. There is no
requirement with respect to the airborne sound
insulation index for the sound insulation of
walls built to conceal building services and
plant if the area-related mass of the wall is at 2.6.79 Suggestions for sound insulation within residential or working premises according to DIN 4109 supplement 2
least 220 kg/m2 - such walls comply with the Component Suggestions for
standard sound enhanced sound
permissible sound level for noises generated insulation insulation
by water pipes (including waste water pipes). reqd R'w reqd R'w
Walls with an area-related mass < 220 kg/m 2 dB dB
must be verified by a suitability test to prove Residential building
Walls without doors between "noisy" 40 ≥47
that they are adequate. Excessive noise trans
and "quiet" rooms with different uses,
mission in such situations can be effectively e.g. between living room and
reduced by attaching a non-rigid facing of min child's bedroom.
eral fibre board and plasterboard on the side Office buildings
Walls between rooms for normal office activities 37 ≥42
of the noise-sensitive room. Modern systems
Walls between corridors and rooms for normal office activities 37 ≥42
for such walls, with a facing or cladding the full Walls to rooms for intensive mental 45 ≥52
height of the room, provide very good sound activities or for handling confidential matters,
insulation. e.g. between director's office and
anteroom
Walls between corridors and rooms for intensive mental 45 ≥52
activities or for handling confidential matters
Sound insulation against external noise Doors in walls between rooms for normal office 27 ≥32
activities or in walls between corridors and such rooms
Various noise level ranges, classified accord Doors in walls to rooms for intensive mental activities 37
ing to the actual or expected "representative or for handling confidential matters or in walls between
external noise level", form the basis of the pro corridors and such rooms
visions for the required airborne sound insula
tion of external components to protect against
external noise. Different requirements have
been laid down for the bedrooms in hospitals
and clinics, occupied rooms in residential 2.6.80 Requirements for airborne sound insulation of walls and floors between "particularly noisy" rooms and those
needing to be insulated
accommodation, hotel bedrooms and class
Type of room Airborne sound insulation
rooms as well as offices (see table 2.6.81). index R'w reqd
As the enclosing external components usually dB
consist of several different surfaces with differ Sound level Sound level
LAF = 75 - 80 dB(A)
ent sound insulation properties, the require
LAF = 81-85dB(A)
ments apply to the resulting sound reduction Rooms with "particularly noisy" 57 62
index R'w, res calculated from the individual building plant or services
sound reduction indexes of the different surfaces. Rooms for craft or commercial activities, 57 62
ncluding sales activities
The required sound reduction indices have to
Kitchens for hotels etc., 55
be increased or decreased depending on the hospitals, clinics, restaurants,
ratio of the total external surface of a room to snack bars etc.
the plan area of the room. For instance, for a Kitchens as above 57
but also in operation after 10 p.m.
standard ceiling height of 2.5 m, the require
Restaurants etc. not occupied after 10 p.m. 55
ments given in table 2.6.81 are already accept Restaurants etc. - max. sound level 62
able for a room depth of 3 m and reductions of LAF ≤ 85 dB(A) - also occupied after 10 p.m.
up to -3 dB may be exploited for greater room Bowling alleys 67
depths. Restaurants etc. - max. sound level 85 dB(A) ≤ LAF ≤ 95 dB(A) 72
e.g. with electroacoustic system
The requirements for the resulting sound reduc Note: LAF = time-related sound level, which is measured with the frequency evaluation A and the time evaluation
tion index for rooms in residential buildings F (= fast) as a function of the time.
189
Building science
2.6.81 Noise level ranges and sound reduction index with a standard ceiling height of 2.5 m, room of the flanking components can be assumed to
R'w,res to be maintained depths of at least 4,5 m, and 10-60% window be approx. 300 kg/m 3 .
Noise Critical R'w,res reqd for external area, are deemed to be fulfilled when the indi Besides the fact that sound insulation generally
level external component vidual sound reduction indices given in tables depends on mass, the internal attenuation
range noise (in dB)
level Bed Occupied Offices(1) in DIN 4109 - according to the proportion of (material attenuation) of the material used is
dB(A) rooms rooms window area - are maintained for the wall and also important to a certain extent. This attenua
I ≤55 35 30 - window. tion is understood to be the ability of the mate
II 56-60 35 30 30
The sound reduction indices of ventilation rial to convert part of the vibration energy into
III 61 - 6 5 40 35 30
IV 66-70 45 40 35 ducts and roller blind boxes and the associat heat and hence remove some of the energy
V 71 - 7 5 50 45 40 ed reference area should be taken into from the vibration. Investigations carried out by
VI 76-80 (2) 50 45 account when calculating the resulting sound the Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics
VII >80 (2) (2) 50
(1)There are no stipulations for the external components of
reduction index. Facilities for temporary ventila have shown that the airborne sound insulation
rooms in which, owing to the nature of the activities car tion (e.g. opening lights and flaps) are evaluat index can be set 2 dB higher thanks to this
ried out in those rooms, external noise which enters such ed in the closed condition, those for permanent material attenuation effect for plastered walls of
rooms makes only a minor contribution to the internal ventilation (e.g. sound-attenuated ventilation autoclaved aerated concrete and lightweight
noise level. concrete containing aggregates of pumice or
(2) The requirements in these cases are to be established
openings) in the operating condition.
according to the local circumstances. The representative external noise level is deter expanded clay with gross densities ≤ 800 kg/m3
mined for the various noise sources using and an area-related mass ≤ 250 kg/m2.
2.6.82 Airborne sound insulation index of party walls appropriate methods of measurement and Acoustic studies at Braunschweig University
without plaster, after Gösele evaluation. DIN 4109 contains a traffic noise have established this 2 dB bonus for plastered
R'w [dB] nomogram in which the average level can be walls of calcium silicate with gross densities
without with ≤800 kg/m 3 as well.
read off depending on the volume of traffic and
plaster
240 mm vertically perforated the distance of the building from the centre of J. Lang [107] showed long ago that clay brick
clay bricks 50 53 the road. Special analyses for traffic situations walls with comparable masses but different
250 mm in-situ concrete 11 53 in which the nomogram cannot be used as well perforations exhibited differences in their air
240 mm hollow blocks of
as for rail and waterborne traffic are covered borne sound insulation index of up to 10 dB
pumice concrete 16 49
200 mm storey-height aerated by DIN 18005 part 2. (see fig. 2.6.83). Gosele discovered one expla
concrete panels 45 47 nation for this in the effect of thickness reso
For air traffic, i.e. airports, the "Law governing
protection against aircraft noise" lays down nances [62]. The measured deviations were
2.6.83 Different sound insulation of vertically perforated noise protection zones. The provisions of this attributed to the arrangement of the webs with
clay brick walls with approximately equal area- law, or more rigorous national regulations, in the masonry units. In one case the webs
related mass but different perforations, after
J. Lang apply within these protected zones. pass through the unit in a straight line and
The representative external noise level for com serve to stiffen the unit; in another they are off
Unit c r o s s - s e c t i o n W e b cross-
section mercial and industrial operations makes use of set with respect to each other and work like a
(schematic) the daily immissions value given in the devel set of springs in series. More recent studies
opment plan for the respective area category have revealed that the sound insulation of walls
according to Germany's Noise Abatement Act. made from perforated units depends not only
on the arrangement of perforations in the units
but also on numerous other factors, such as
Single-leaf walls the type of mortar bed, thickness of plaster and
The sound insulation of thick, single-leaf, homo format of the unit [176]. Figure 2.6.84 shows
geneous walls depends in the first instance on the difference between the measured and cal
their area-related mass. The relationship culated sound reduction indices for walls of
between the airborne sound insulation index perforated units with different area-related
R' w and the area-related mass is shown in fig. masses and different proportions of perfora
2.6.78. The prerequisite for the correlation tions. The effects of the various influencing
between the airborne sound insulation and the variables on the sound insulation are sum
A: m' = 435 kg/m 2 , R w = 5 9 d B
area-related mass of a single-leaf wall is a marised in table 2.6.85.
(continuous webs from outside to inside)
closed microstructure and sealed construction. Positive effects are brought about by:
B:m' = 420 kg/m 2 , R w = 4 9 d B
(webs offset with respect to each other) If this requirement is not fulfilled, then the wall • harder mortar
must be sealed on at least one side by a com • thicker coats of plaster
plete covering of firmly adhering plaster or cor • shorter masonry units
responding coating to insulate against direct • coarsely structured perforations with thick
sound transmission [62]. Table 2.6.82 shows webs.
the difference in the airborne sound insulation
indices for walls with and without plaster. The The problems associated with perforated
curve in fig. 2.6.78 does not apply to lightweight masonry units appeared in clay, calcium sili
components < 85 kg/m 2 and, according to DIN cate and concrete units, and - according to
4109, with an area-related mass > 630 kg/m 3 current findings - are not restricted to a certain
can only be used to describe the behaviour of building material.
twin-leaf walls with continuous separating joint Table 2.6.87 provides an overview of the char
because in this range the achievable sound acteristic airborne sound insulation indices for
insulation is limited by the flanking compo masonry with normal-weight and lightweight
nents. The given sound reduction indices are mortar and plastered both sides. These values
achieved only if the average area-related mass must be reduced by 100 kg/m 3 for a gross
190
Sound insulation
density > 1000 kg/m3 and 50 kg/m 3 for a gross 2.6.84 Difference between measured and calculated 2.6.85 Influence of masonry unit geometry and type of
density < 1000 kg/m3 for walls of lightweight or (to DIN 4109 supplement 1) airborne sound construction on the sound insulation of walls of
insulation indices in relation to proportion of per perforated units, after Scholl
autoclaved aerated concrete panels, as well as
forations for various walls of perforated masonry
for gauged brickwork using thin-bed mortar. units, after Scholl
Another possibility of improving the sound
Influencing variable ΔRmax
insulation of internal walls - also subsequently
Arrangement of perforations 10-15 dB
- is to combine the solid wall skin with a non- Type of mortar approx. 5 dB
rigid cladding on the "noisy" side of the separ Thickness of bed joints approx. 5 dB
ating wall. We distinguish between two groups Thickness of plaster 5-10 dB
depending on the connection to the rigid wall Unit format approx. 5 dB
The figures given here represent the maximum change in
(seefig. 2.6.88). Claddings of group A are sound insulation ΔR max that occurred upon changing the
fixed to the heavy wall via a supporting frame respective influences for a constant wall mass in the
work, while those of group B are free-standing measurement data available.
or bonded to the substrate via a resilient con
nection using mineral fibre boards. Table
2.6.86 specifies airborne sound insulation
indices for solid walls with a cladding on one
side, If, for example, for thermal insulation rea
sons, insulating batts with a high dynamic stiff
ness are attached to a single-leaf rigid wall
either fully bonded over the whole surface or
just at discrete points, this can degrade the
sound insulation if the insulating batts are
covered by plaster. 2.6.86 Airborne sound insulation index R' w of single-leaf rigid walls with a non-rigid cladding; characteristic values
according to DIN 4109 supplement 1
Area-related Airborne sound insulation index R'w(1)
mass of without with cladding with cladding
Twin-leaf party walls solid wall cladding group A group B
Party walls of two heavy, rigid leaves with a kg/m2 dB dB dB
100 37 48 49
continuous separating joint bring about a con
200 45 49 50
siderable reduction in the sound transmission 300 47 53 54
between, for example, adjoining apartments. 400 52 55 56
The sound reduction index of a twin-leaf party 500 55 57 58
(1) Applies to flanking components with an average area-related mass m' L,mean of 300 kg/m 2 . The values are reduced by
wall with continuous joint is determined from
1 dB for a "rigid" connection between cladding and wall.
the area-related mass of both leaves, including
coats of plaster, similarly to single-leaf compo
nents. The direct sound transmission (without
flanking transmission) of a twin-leaf wall of solid
leaves is 12 dB higher than could be expected
for a single-leaf solid wall with the same mass.
The joint extends without interruption from top
of foundation to roof covering (see fig. 2.6.90).
A joint passing through the foundation leads to 2.6.87 Airborne sound insulation index R' w of walls plastered both sides in relation to the bulk density class and wall
better sound insulation in the basement but as thickness
Gross Wail Airborne sound Gross Wall Airborne sound
this is a problem in terms of sealing the build density thickness insulation index (1)(2) density thickness insulation index(1)(2)
ing, this arrangement remains an exception. class mm R'w (dB) class mm R'w (dB)
The 12 dB bonus may only be taken into Normal Lightweight Normal Lightweight
account when the following conditions are mortar mortar mortar mortar
0.5 175 40 39 1.0 175 45 (3)
complied with: 240 43 42 240 48
300 45 44 300 51
• The area-related mass of each leaf must be 365 47 45 365 53
0.6 175 41 40 1.2 175 47 (3)
at least 150 kg/m2 and the distance between 240 44 43 240 50
the leaves at least 30 mm. 300 46 45 300 52
• With a separating joint ≥ 50 mm, the area- 365 48 47 365 54
related mass of each leaf may be reduced to 0.7 175 43 42 1.4 175 48 (3)
240 45 45 240 52
100 kg/m2. 300 47 47 300 54
• The joint must be filled completely with tightly 365 50 49 365 56
jointed resilient boards, e.g. mineral fibre 0.8 175 44 43 1.6 175 50 (3)
impact sound insulation boards. 240 46 46 240 53

300 49 48 300 55
• Such fibre boards are not required when the 365 51 50 365 57
area-related mass of each leaf is ≥ 200 kg/m 2 . 0.9 175 45 44 1.8 175 51 (3)
The joint between the leaves should not be 240 48 47 240 54

made too thin as this can very quickly lead to 300 50 49 300 57
365 52 51 365 59
acoustic bridges. On the other hand, the opti (1) Applies to flanking components with an average weight of 300 kg/m2.
mum leaf spacings in terms of sound insulation (2) A total of 40 kg/m 2 has been taken into account for the coats of plaster.
(3) These gross densities are not generally combined with lightweight mortar.
are higher than the minimum values given in
191
Building science
2.6.88 Sound performance of favourable claddings to DIN 4109 supplement 1

Group(1) Wall construction Description
B Cladding of wood-wool lightweight boards to DIN 1101, thickness ≥ 25 mm,
(no connection plastered, gap between wall and timber studding ≥ 20 mm,
or resilient free-standing in front of heavy wall, construction to DIN 1102.
connection
to wall)
Cladding of plasterboard to DIN 18180, thickness 12.5 or 15 mm,

construction to DIN 18181 (currently in draft form), or of chipboard to DIN 68763,
thickness 10-16 mm, gap between wall and timber studding ≥ 20 mm, free-standing(2)
in front of heavy wall, with cavity filled(3) between timber studding.
Cladding of wood-wool lightweight boards to DIN 1101, thickness ≥ 50 mm,

plastered free-standing with 30-50 mm gap in front of heavy wall, construction to
DIN 1102, a 20 mm gap is sufficient when filling the cavity according to footnote 3.

and fibre insulation boards(4), construction to DIN 18181
(currently in draft form), discrete or linear fixing to heavy wall.
A Cladding of wood-wool lightweight boards to DIN 1101, thickness ≥ 25 mm,

(with connection plastered, timber studding fixed to heavy wall,
to wall) construction to DIN 1102.

construction to DIN 18181 (currently in draft form),
or of chipboard to DIN 68763, thickness 10-16 mm, with cavity filling(3),
timber studding fixed to heavy wall(2).
(1) In a wall test rig without flanking transmission (test rig DIN 52210-P-W), the airborne sound insulation index Rw, P of a single-leaf, rigid wall is improved by at least 15 dB when
adding claddings of group B, and by at least 10 dB for claddings of group A.
(2) In these examples the timber studding may be replaced by sheet steel C wall sections to DIN 18182 pt 1.
(3) Fibre insulation materials to DIN 18165 pt 1, nominal thickness between 20 and 60 mm, linear flow resistance Ξ ≥ 5 kNs/m 4 .
(4) Fibre insulation materials to DIN 18165 pt 1 application type WV-s, nominal thickness > 40 mm, s' ≥5 MN/m 3 .
2.6.89 Examples of twin-leaf walls - two leaves employing normal-weight mortar with continuous separating joint between buildings - in relation to gross density classes
to DIN 4109 supplement 1
Airborne sound Gross density class of unit and min. wall thickness of leaves for twin-leaf masonry
insulation index Facing brickwork 10 mm plaster P IV 15 mm plaster P I, P II
R' W, R both sides both sides (lime-gypsum or P III both sides
(dB) or gypsum plaster) oder P III (lime, lime-
2 x 10 kg/m2 cement or cement plaster)
(2 x 25 kg/m2)
Unit gross Min. thickness of Unit gross Min. thickness of Unit gross Min. thickness of
density leaves without plaster density leaves without plaster density leaves without plaster
class mm class mm class mm
57 0.6 2 x 240 0.6(1) 2 x 240 0.7(2) 2 x 175
0.9 2 x 175 0.8 (2) 2 x 175 0.9 (4) 2 x 150
1 2 x 150 1.0(3) 2 x 150 1.2(4) 2 x 115
1.4 2 x115 1.4 (5)
2 x115 - -
62 0.6 2 x 240 0.6(6) 2 x 240 0.5(6) 2 x 240
0.9 175 + 240 0.8(7) 2 x 175 0.8(7) 2 x 175
0.9 2 x 175 1.0(7) 2 x 150 0.9(7) 2 x 150
1.4 2 x 115 1.4 2 x 115 1.2 2 x 115
67 1 2 x 240 1.0(8) 2 x 240 0.9(8) 2 x 240
1.2 175 + 240 1.2 175 + 240 1.2 175 + 240
1.4 2 x 175 1.4 2 x 175 1.4 2 + 175
1.8 115 + 175 1.8 115 + 175 1.6 115 + 175
2.2 2 x 115 2.2 2 x 115 2 2 x 115
(1) The gross density class may be 0.2 less when spacing between leaves is ≥ 50 mm and weight of each individual leaf is ≥ 100 kg/m 2 .
(6) For leaves of gas concrete units or panels to DIN 4165 or 4166, as well as lightweight concrete units with expanded clay aggregate to DIN 18151 or 18152, the gross density
class may be 0.1 less when spacing between leaves is ≥ 50 mm and weight of each individual leaf is ≥ 100 kg/m2.
(7) For leaves of gas concrete units or panels to DIN 4165 or 4166, as well as lightweight concrete units with expanded clay aggregate to DIN 18151 or 18152, the gross density
class may be 0.2 less when spacing between leaves is ≥ 50 mm and weight of each individual leaf is ≥ 100 kg/m2.
(8) The gross density class may be 0.2 less for leaves of gas concrete units or panels to DIN 4165 or 4166, as well as lightweight concrete units with expanded clay aggregate to
DIN 18151 or 18152.
192
Sound insulation
the standard. A twin-leaf solid party wall com- slots in terms of building acoustics and rigidity 2.6.90 Joints between buildings with or without joint in
plies with the minimum requirements of DIN of the connection in the sense of DIN 4109, foundation and joint at roof level
4109 (R'w = 57 dB) when the leaves are each provided the butt joint between the walls is fully
115 mm thick, the unit gross density class is filled with mortar. This applies to masonry in
1.4 and a total of 20 kg/m 2 of plaster has been which all joints are filled with mortar as well as
applied. To meet the recommendations of to masonry without mortar to the perpends. The
enhanced sound insulation with at least 67 dB, inclusion of stainless steel anchors provides
the thickness of each leaf must be increased to additional security.
175 mm for the same unit gross density class. Another typical case of increased flanking
Table 2.6.89 specifies airborne sound insula- sound transmission occurs when an external
tion indices for various wall constructions wall is provided with a rigid-clad (plaster or
according to DIN 4109 supplement 1; these plasterboard) layer of insulation of rigid
have been calculated on the basis of the mass expanded foam or wood-wool lightweight
dependency of R'w and the 12 dB addition. boards on the inside in order to improve ther-
mal insulation (see fig. 2.6.93) [5]. The increase
in flanking transmission brought about by the
Flanking components resonance effect is on average about 10 dB.
The airborne sound insulation between rooms This means that the requirements for separat-
dependson the construction not only of the ing walls and floors between apartments are
separating wall but also of the flanking com- no longer fulfilled.
ponents and the connection between separat-
ing wall and flanking components. The sound
reduction indices for separating components External walls
given in supplement 1 to DIN 4109 apply to Facades are generally made up of walls with
flanking components provided the following windows and doors. The resulting airborne
conditions are fulfilled: sound insulation index may be calculated
• The average area-related mass R' L, m e a n according to DIN 4109 taking into account the
of the rigid flanking components is approx. total area and the areas of the individual com-
300 kg/m2. ponents and their airborne sound insulation 2.6.91 Flanking transmission via flanking component;
• A rigid connection to the flanking compo- indices or - more simply - designed as shown junction between party wall and external wall
nents is guaranteed when the area-related in the example in figure 2.6.95 using tables of using slot or butt joint
mass of the separating components exceeds values. The airborne sound insulation indices
150 kg/m2. of the windows are obtained from the test
• The flanking components are continuous from certificates of manufacturers. Recommended
one room to the next. values for common types of windows with in-
• The joints between separating and flanking sulating glazing are included in supplement 1
components are sealed. to DIN 4109.
The airborne sound insulation index of an
If the average area-related mass of the flanking external masonry wall depends on its construc-
components deviates from approx. 300 kg/m 2 , tion (see fig. 2.6.92). For single-leaf external
the specified sound reduction index of the walls it is initially the thermal insulation that
separating component must be corrected (see governs which wall material of low gross densi-
table 2.6.94). The influence of the correction ty is required. Wall thicknesses of 300-365 mm
value KL,1 is relatively small. In contrast, the and gross densities of 500-800 kg/m 3 generally
connection between the separating wall and provide sound reduction indices of between 45
the solid flanking components has a consider- and 51 dB depending on the mass of the exter-
able influence (see fig. 2.6.91). This is the case nal component. If a rendered thermal insulation
when a lightweight thermal insulation external layer is attached to the outside, then - as has
wall passes a heavy separating wall between been known for some time - coats of plaster on
apartments without being firmly connected to wood-wool lightweight boards degrade the
it. Measurements carried out by the Fraunhofer thermal insulation of a wall [61 ]. Later studies
Institute for Building Physics revealed a have confirmed this trend for insulation materi-
degrading of the sound reduction index of up als of high dynamic stiffness (polystyrene parti-
to 10 dB in the case of non-bonded, i.e. butt- cle foam), while insulation materials with low
jointed, walls whose joint subsequently stiffness (mineral wool) bring about improve-
cracked and was sealed with a permanently ments in some cases but a worsening in others
elastic compound. depending on the weight of plaster and the
A fixed connection between the flanking, solid material of the solid wall [166], Investigations
components and the separating wall or floor, have recently been
provided this is of a heavy construction, is carried out on 14 different thermal insulation
desirable. The example in fig. 2.6.91 shows composite systems on a wall of calcium silicate
two types of junction between a separating wall perforated units [147]. Improvements in the
between apartments and an external wall: with insulation sound index of up to 4 dB were
slot and with butt joint. The butt joint between established for insulation materials with low
masonry walls is equivalent to toothing and dynamic stiffness (mineral fibre boards with
193
Building science
2.6.92 Examples of airborne sound insulation index R'w horizontal fibres or elasticized rigid expanded
for various external wall constructions polystyrene boards) and rendering with a high
Single-leaf external wall Single-leaf wall with thermal area-related mass. Non-elasticized rigid
45-51 dB insulation composite system expanded polystyrene boards resulted in a
47-51 dB
worsening of -1 to -3 dB, mineral wool with ver
tical fibres (laminated boards) -5 dB. Installa
tion by way of profiled rails presents the
chance to achieve an improvement of 2 dB,
even with a thin coat of plaster. Basically, an
external wall with thermal insulation composite
system can achieve a high degree of sound
insulation against external noise because the
loadbearing wall does not need to contribute to
the thermal insulation and can therefore be
built using a heavy type of construction. The
airborne sound insulation index of a 175 mm
Single-leaf wall with Twin-leaf masonry with and thick calcium silicate external wall with thermal
ventilated curtain wall without thermal insulation
57 dB 55-66 dB insulation composite system lies between 47
and 51 dB depending on the particular con
struction.
According to DIN 4109 supplement 1, the posi
tive effect of a ventilated facade may not be
taken into account when assessing the sound
insulation against external noise. Only the area-
related mass of the inner leaf is assumed to
contribute to the sound insulation. However,
solid external walls can achieve considerably
higher airborne sound insulation indices with
the ventilated facades currently available
[167], Depending on the type of joints, type of
insulation material and supporting construc
2.6.93 Example of external wall cladding detrimental to sound performance (rigid thermal insulation boards on inner tion, the sound insulation of solid external walls
face), after Gösele
with ventilated facades may be increased by
up to ΔR W = 15 dB with a careful consideration
of all boundary conditions relevant to building
acoustics. For a twin-leaf external wall, the air
borne sound insulation index is calculated from
the sum of the area-related masses of both
leaves. The following amounts may be added
to the value determined in this way for the twin-
leaf type of construction:
• 5 dB if the area-related mass of adjoining

internal walls does not exceed 50% of the
inner leaf of the external wall.
• 8 dB if the area-related mass of adjoining
internal walls exceeds 50% of the inner leaf of
the external wall.
2.6.94 Correction values KL, 1 to DIN 4109 for the airborne sound insulation index R' w, R for rigid walls at flanking
components of average area-related mass m' L, m e a n
Type of separating component KL, 1 in dB for average area-related mass
m' L, mean in kg/m²
400 350 300 250 200 150 100

Single-leaf, rigid walls 0 0 0 0 -1 -1 -1
and floors
Single-leaf, rigid walls +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4
with non-rigid claddings
194
Sound insulation
It is possible to achieve an airborne sound 2.6.95 Resulting sound reduction index R'w, . R . res (dB) in relation to sound reduction index of wall, sound reduction
insulation index of 55-66 dB for cavity, partial- index of window and its proportion of the area (%)
fill or full-fill external walls using the customary Wall: 50 dB
forms of construction. The results of investiga- Window: 35 dB
tions into calcium silicate walls show, for the at 25% window area proportion
same wall construction, the effects of the Facade: 40 dB
remaining air space and the type of insulation
material [92]. Using rigid expanded poly-
styrene boards as the thermal insulation with
an air space of 40 mm (partial-fill) produces a
result 2 dB higher than full cavity insulation,
Sound reduction Sound reduction index of window Rw , R in dB for a window area proportion (%)
On the other hand, filling the cavity completely index of wall 30dB 32 dB 35 dB
with mineral fibre boards or hyperlite loose-fill 25% 30% 40% 50% 25% 30% 40% 50% 25% 30% 40% 50%
material results in a 2 dB advantage over rigid 45 35 34 33 32 37 36 35 34 39 39 38 37
50 35 35 33 33 37 37 35 34 40 39 38 37
expanded plastic boards.
55 35 35 33 33 37 37 35 34 40 40 38 37
a) Standard constructions
Sound red. Sound reduction index of window Rw, R in dB for a window area proportion (%)
index 37 dB 40 dB 42 dB 45 dB
of wall 25% 30% 40% 50% 25% 30% 40% 50% 25% 30% 40% 50% 25% 30% 40% 50%
50 42 42 41 40 45 44 43 43 46 46 45 44 48 48 47 47
60 43 42 41 40 46 45 44 43 48 47 46 45 51 50 49 48
65 43 42 41 40 46 45 44 43 48 47 46 45 51 50 49 48
b) External walls and windows with high sound insulation
195
Building science
2.6.96 Building materials classes to DIN 4102 part 1 Fire protection

Building materials class Building authority designation
A incombustible materials
The chief tasks of fire protection are to prevent
A1
A2 fires from starting and spreading, and should
B combustible materials that happen, to guarantee opportunities to
B1 not readily flammable materials rescue persons, animals and property as well
B2 flammable materials
as create the right conditions for effective fire-
B3 highly flammable materials
fighting. The compulsory building authority
requirements may be supplemented by the
requirements of the insurers. Satisfying these
is not compulsory but does lead to marked
2.6.97 Fire resistance classes F to DIN 4102 part 1 reductions in insurance premiums.
Fire resistance Duration of fire Besides active fire-fighting measures, e.g.
class resistance in minutes sprinkler systems and fire alarms, the empha
F 30 ≥30
sis is on maintaining preventive fire protection
F 60 ≥60
F 90 ≥90 through constructional measures (referred to
F 120 ≥120 as structural fire protection). This includes
F 180 ≥180 guaranteeing adequate fire resistance for the
components, using materials that do not gener
ate any, or at least no excessive amounts of,
smoke or toxic gases during a fire, and reduc
ing the risk of fire through careful planning
2.6.98 Comparison of German building materials classes with future European classes measures. The latter includes the arrangement
Fire situation Product performance European building DIN 4102 building
materials class
of fire compartments; the safeguarding of
materials class
Extensive fire No contribution to fire A A1 escape and rescue routes; and means for
in one room Very limited fire B A2 venting smoke and heat.
Single object Limited contribution to fire C B1 In Germany the building authority requirements
on fire Acceptable contribution to fire D B1
Acceptable behaviour in fire E B2
regarding fire protection are defined in the
No spread of flame
to adjoining surfaces Federal State Building Codes supplemented
of a product by statutes, bye-laws and directives. The stan
No performance established F B3 dard covering fire protection is DIN 4102 (18
parts), which contains both testing standards
for investigating and assessing fire behaviour
and information on analysing fire protection for
classified building materials and components.
Building material classes

The behaviour of building materials in fire is
assessed and classified according to DIN
4102 part 1. Building materials are classified
2.6.99 Determination of fire resistance class, after Kordina/Meyer Ottens
according to their combustibility as class A
(incombustible) or class B (combustible) (see
table 2.6.96). The assessment criterion for
incombustible building materials of class A1 is
their behaviour upon the outbreak of a fire. If
building materials of class A 2 include com
bustible components, the spread of flame, the
density of conflagration gases and their toxicity
must be evaluated. This is intended to ensure
that despite containing combustible compo
nents the overall behaviour can be compared
to the purely inorganic A 1 materials. Com
bustible building materials are assessed with
regard to their flammability and rate of spread
of flame. Building materials of class B 3 - high
ly flammable - can make a direct contribution
to the outbreak of fire and so the Federal Out
line Building Code prohibits their use. The test
for B 2 involves a small, defined flame, the test
for B 1 typically an object on fire within the
room (e.g. waste paper basket in one corner).
The behaviour of the building material in fire is
important for the building authority require
ments for two reasons. First, the material must
196
Fire protection
meet requirements when it is used as the sur- 2.6.100 Standard temperature curve
face of a component (e.g. wall and soffit
cladding); second, when used as part of the
construction of a component. The essential
parts of fire-resistant components must consist
of incombustible materials.
The European classes for the fire behaviour of
building products have now been accepted by
the Standing Committee for the Construction
Industry. They will be published after work on
the standard and the associated test methods
has been completed. A comparison between
the European and German building materials
classes could well look something like table
2.6.98.
Fire resistance classes

The safety of a structure during a fire depends
not only on the combustibility of the materials
but also - in particular - on the duration of fire
resistance of the components. The fire resis-
tance class of a component is defined as the
minimum duration in minutes for which the
component withstands a specified fire test. In a
fire test the sample is subjected to a precisely
2.6.101 Designation of fire resistance classes in conjunction with materials used according to DIN 4102 part 2
defined temperature gradient, the international-
Fire resistance Building materials class to DIN 4102 pt 1 Designation(2) Code
ly standardized standard temperature curve class to of the materials used for
(see fig. 2.6.100), and is assessed according table
to the following chief test criteria: 2.2.3-2
essential parts(1) other parts not classed
• Maintaining the load-carrying capacity (stabil- of components as essential parts(1)
ity) - under load for loadbearing components of components
or self-weight for non-loadbearing compo- Components of
nents. F 30 B B Fire resistance class F 30 F 30-B
A B Fire resistance class F 30 and F 30-AB
• Maintaining a maximum permissible rate of with essential parts made
deflection in the case of components on from incombustible materials(1)
statically determinate supports. A A Fire resistance class F 30 and F 30-A
• Maintaining the room enclosure (integrity and made from incombustible materials
F 60 B B Fire resistance class F 60 F 60-B
insulation) in the case of walls so that no A B Fire resistance class F 60 and F 60-AB
ignitable gases can escape and no cracks with essential parts made
can form which might lead to ignition. The from incombustible materials (1)
increase in temperature on the side remote A A Fire resistance class F 60 and F 60-A
made from incombustible materials
from the fire should not exceed 140°C on F 90 B B Fire resistance class F 90 F 90-B
average and 180°C at individual measuring A B Fire resistance class F 90 and F 90-AB
points. with essential parts made
from incombustible materials(1)
A A Fire resistance class F 90 and F 90-A
As can be seen in fig. 2.6.99, the duration of made from incombustible materials
fire resistance is essentially determined by the F 120 B B Fire resistance class F 120 F 120-B
behaviour of the material and influences spe- A B Fire resistance class F 120 and F 120-AB
cific to the component. In the case of masonry, with essential parts made
from incombustible materials(1)
failure takes place due to the reduction in cross- A A Fire resistance class F 120 and F 120-A
section resulting from temperature-related made from incombustible materials
fatigue of the masonry units and dehydration of F 180 B B Fire resistance class F 180 F 180-B
the mortar. The duration of fire resistance A B Fire resistance class F 180 and F 180-AB
with essential parts made
enables a component to be assigned to a fire from incombustible materials (1)
resistance class (see table 2.6.97). Component A A Fire resistance class F 180 and F 180-A
classifications can be coupled to material made from incombustible materials
(1) Essential parts include:
requirements with respect to building materials
a) All loadbearing parts and those contributing to stability; for non-loadbearing parts also the parts that contribute to
classes according to fig. 2.6.101 in individual their stability (e.g. frames for non-loadbearing walls).
cases. b) In enclosing components a continuous layer in the component plane that may not be destroyed in the test
The fire resistance classes are designated with according to this standard.
In floors this layer must be at least 50 mm thick in total; voids within this layer are permissible.
different letters depending on the type of com-
When assessing the fire behaviour of materials, surface coatings or other surface treatments need not be
ponent (see table 2.6.102). considered.
(2) This designation concerns only the fire resistance of the component; the building authority requirements for
materials used in fitting out the interior, and which are connected to the component, are not affected by this.
197
Building science
2.6.102 Codes for designating components when specifying the fire resistance class Types and functions of walls
Component Code for designating In terms of the function of a wall, for fire protec-
fire resistance class
F
tion purposes we distinguish between load-
Walls, floors, columns, beams
External walls W bearing and non-loadbearing, and between
Fire protection closures, e.g. fire doors T enclosing and non-enclosing walls. Figure
Ventilation ducts, fire stops (fire protection closures) L/K 2.6.103 illustrates these terms using practical
Glazing G
examples [68].
A non-loadbearing wall is a plate-type compo-
nent that - also in the case of fire - is essential-
ly loaded by its own weight and does not pro-
vide buckling restraint to loadbearing walls.
However, it must transfer wind loads acting on
its surface to loadbearing components.
A loadbearing wall is a plate-type component
mainly loaded in compression for carrying both
vertical and horizontal loads. Walls contributing
to the stability of the building or other loadbear-
2.6.103 Types of walls: examples of plan layouts for residential and industrial buildings, after Hahn ing components are to be considered as load-
bearing walls from the point of view of fire pro-
tection.
An enclosing wall is a wall, for example, along
an escape route, adjacent to a staircase, or a
party wall or fire wall. Such walls serve to pre-
vent fire spreading from one room to the next
and are therefore subjected to fire on only one
side. Enclosing walls may be loadbearing or
non-loadbearing.
A non-enclosing wall is a wall subjected to fire
on two, three or four sides during a fire.
Requirements
The fundamentals of building authority fire pro-
tection requirements are contained in the
respective State Building Codes and the asso-
ciated statutes, as well as in technical building
provisions and administrative rules. Figure
2.6.104 explains the relationships and mutual
influences. All State Building Codes, the corre-
sponding implementation acts and administra-
tive rules make a distinction between normal
2.6.104 Overview of building authority fire protection regulations buildings for normal purposes, e.g. housing,
and those of special construction for special
purposes, e.g. places of assembly, hospitals,
industrial buildings.
Normal buildings for normal purposes make a
distinction between the different types of build-
ings. The classification in building classes
according to fig. 2.6.105 depends on ladder
access for the fire brigade and so is directly
related to the height of the building.
Buildings of special construction or for special
purposes are dealt with only in principle in the
building codes. The State Building Codes are
complemented by special acts and directives
that take into account the special circum-
stances of high-rise buildings, places of
assembly, restaurants, hospitals, business
premises, schools and industrial buildings.
The relationship between the requirements
partly described in the State Building Codes
and the abstract classification according to
part 2 and other parts of DIN 4102 is carried
out on the basis of the definitions contained in
some State Building Codes, or according to
198
Fire protection
the list of standard building material. The rela 2.6.105 Classification of buildings in five building classes according to the building codes
tionship between construction law and DIN 4102 Building class
is given in table 2.6.106. The primary com 1 2 | 3 4 5
ponent of the fire safety concept in the building Free-standing Low-rise buildings Other High-rise
code is the compartmentation principle: fire residential building Ladder access H ≤ 8 m buildings buildings
1 housing unit ≤ 2 housing units ≥ 3 housing units H >8m
should be restricted to as small an area as
possible. The first "fire compartment" is the Fire brigade access possible For FFL > 7m ≤ 22 m At least 1 occupied
functional unit, e.g. a whole apartment in an with scaling ladder for FFL ≤ 7 m room > 22 m
above FFL
apartment block, bounded by the floors, party
walls and staircase walls. At the very least, the
fire should not spread to neighbouring build
ings, which can be achieved by relatively high
requirements being placed on the fire walls. In
addition, the State Building Codes demand
that large buildings themselves be subdivided
into fire compartments. However, the compart
mentation principle can be fully effective only
when the openings necessary for the use of
building are appropriately closed. This applies
to building service penetrations, e.g. electric 2.6.106 Designations according to DIN 4102 and construction law
cables, pipes, as well as to openings such as DIN 4102 designation Code Building authority
designation
flaps, doors and gates. Fire resistance class F 30 F 30-B Fire-retardant
A number of primary fire protection require Fire resistance class F 30 with F 30-AB Fire-retardant with
essential parts made from loadbearing parts made
ments for components in residential buildings
incombustible materials from incombustible materials
are given in table 2.6.107. The example given Fire resistance class F 30 and F 30-A Fire-retardant and
here is taken from the State Building Code for made from incombustible materials made from incombustible materials
North Rhine-Westphalia (there are sometimes Fire resistance class F 90 with F 90-AB Fire-resistant
slight differences between the codes of the essential parts made from
incombustible materials
individual federal states in Germany); this Fire resistance class F 90 and F 90-A Fire-resistant and
building code was adopted in its entirety for all made from incombustible materials made from incombustible materials
the federal states of former East Germany.
Free-standing residential buildings with one
housing unit (building class 1) are not included
in the table because there are no requirements
for the fire resistance classes of components in
such buildings. However, the basic require 2.6.107 Summary of the most important requirements for structural fire protection for components customary in
ment, that no highly flammable building mater buildings using the North Rhine-Westphalia Building Code as an example
ials may be employed, still applies. Conse Class of building 2 3 4
quently, the thermal insulation materials used Type of Residential Any building Other buildings
building apart from
in walls with external or internal thermal insula of low height (FFL ≤ 7 m) from high-rise
tion layer and twin-leaf masonry with additional ≤ 2 housing units ≥ 3 housing units buildings
thermal insulation between the masonry leaves Loadbearing walls Roof 0(1) 0(1) 0(1)
must comply with building materials class B 2 Other F 30-B F 30-AB(2) F 90-AB
Basement F 30-AB F 90-AB F 90-AB
or higher. Non-loadbearing external walls 0 0 A or F 30-B
External wall 0 0 B1
Cladding B 2 —>suitable measures
Building end walls F 90-AB BW BW
Fire walls
(F 30-B) + F 90-AB
Fire walls according to DIN 4102 part 3 must (F 90-B)
comply with the following enhanced require Floors Roof 0(1) 0(1) 0(1)
ments: Other F 30-B F 30-AB(3) F 90-AB
Basement F 30-B F 90-AB F 90-AB
• They must be built from materials of building Party walls - F 90-AB BW BW
materials class A to DIN 4102 part 1. 40 m building compartments F 90-AB
• They must comply with the requirements Party walls between Roof F 30-B F 30-B F 30-B
of fire resistance class F 90 or higher to apartments Other F 30-B F 60-AB F 90-AB
Staircase Roof 0 0 0
DIN 4102 part 2; loadbearing walls must Floor 0 F 30-AB F 90-AB
satisfy this requirement under concentric Walls 0 F 90-AB BW
and eccentric loading. Cladding 0 A A
• Firewalls must remain stable and fulfil their Stairs Loadbearing parts 0 0 F 90-A
Generally accessible Walls F 30-B F 30-AB
enclosing function after being subjected to an corridors as F 30-AB
impact load (3 x 200 kg of lead shot in sack). escape routes Cladding 0 A
Open walkways Walls, floors - 0 F 90-AB
However, it is not only adequate to ensure that adjacent external walls Cladding 0 A
(1) Inside of roof F 30-B for buildings with gable facing the street
fire walls comply with test requirements - they (2) F 30-B for buildings with ≤ 2 storeys above ground level
must be properly located in practice and (3) F 30-B for buildings with ≤ 2 storeys above ground level
properly constructed. F 30-B/A for buildings with ≥ 3 storeys above ground level
199
Building science
2.6.108 Fire protection requirements in the vicinity of fire walls The fire protection requirements for fire walls
Component Requirements are summarized in 2.6.108. DIN 4102 part 4
Fire walls F 90-A
+ impact load 3 x 3 0 0 0 Nm
contains details of permissible slenderness
Loadbearing and bracing c o m p o n e n t s F 90 ratios and minimum thicknesses of fire walls
No. of openings No restriction and their junctions with other components.
Closures to openings T 90 d o o r s (self-closing m e c h a n i s m )
F 90 fire protection glazing
S 90 fire stop to c a b l e penetrations
R 90 fire stop to pipe penetrations Complex party walls
Arrangement of fire walls At the b o u n d a r y with a n e i g h b o u r Complex party walls are merely referred to in a
The respective Federal State Building C o d e B e t w e e n buildings forming a t e r r a c e
footnote in DIN 4102 part 3 because this is an
must be adhered to Within large buildings
insurance industry term. The main point to be
D e p e n d i n g on height of building and roof c o v e r i n g : noted is that the provisions of the insurers, with
≤ 3 full storeys e x t e n d i n g to u n d e r s i d e of roof c o v e r i n g limitations on openings, call for fire resistance
> 3 full storeys at least 3 0 0 mm a b o v e roof class F 180. Complex walls must pass through
soft roof c o v e r i n g at least 5 0 0 mm a b o v e roof
all storeys without any offsets. Components
C o m p o n e n t s m a y intrude, p r o v i d e d the r e m a i n i n g cross-section may not intrude into nor bypass these walls.
of the wall remains sealed a n d stable to F 90 s t a n d a r d .
Classification of proven components

DIN 4102 part 4 contains details of building
2.6.109 Fire protection r e q u i r e m e n t s for ventilated curtain wall f a c a d e s materials, components and special compo
Component R e q u i r e d building materials class to DIN 4 1 0 2 nents whose fire behaviour has been classified
n ≤ 2 full storeys n > 2 full storeys, high-rise buildings on the basis of tests. The products included in
< high-rise buildings
Cladding B 2 B 1 A
the standard have already been verified in
Supporting construction B 2 B 2 (1)(2) A terms of their behaviour in fire. The fire protec
Thermal insulation B 2 B 1 A(3) tion classification of the walls is carried out
Means of fixing A (4) A (4) A(4) according to:
( 1 ) There are no restrictions on using B 2 building materials for frame-like supporting constructions, p r o v i d e d the g a p
between cladding and insulation d o e s not e x c e e d 40 mm a n d w i n d o w / d o o r reveals are protected by class A build
ing materials. • wall material
( 2 ) The Bavarian Building C o d e permits t i m b e r s u p p o r t i n g constructions for buildings up to 30 m high.
• wall thickness
( 3 ) Does not apply to e l e m e n t s for retaining layers of insulation.
( 4 ) Does not apply to a n c h o r s y s t e m s c o v e r e d by a building authority certificate.

• type of fire (from just one side or from more
than one side)
• utilization of the load-carrying capacity of
the wall
If a component is not fully utilized, its load-car

2.6.110 Single- a n d twin-leaf fire w a l l s to DIN 4 1 0 2 part 4 table 4 5 . Permissible s l e n d e r n e s s , m i n . wall t h i c k n e s s rying capacity during a fire is greater than
and min. s p a c i n g of l e a v e s (fire load on one s i d e ) . V a l u e s in b r a c k e t s apply to walls with plaster. Design to when it is utilized 100%. Therefore, in the stan
DIN 1053 parts 1 and 2 with permissible s l e n d e r n e s s ratio h s /d. T h e eccentricity e m a y not e x c e e d d/3,
dard we distinguish between the utilization fac
T y p e of wall Masonry
tors α2 = 1.0 (100% utilization), α2 = 0.6 (60%
without plaster with plaster
Min. t h i c k n e s s d (mm) utilization) and α2 = 0.2 (20% utilization). The
for single-leaf twin-leaf ( 6 ) classification of walls, shallow lintels and chan
construction construction nel blocks filled with concrete can be found in
Walls of masonry ( 3 ) to D I N 1053 parts 1 a n d 2
tables 38-42 of DIN 4102 part 4. The informa
using normal-weight mortar of mortar g r o u p I I ,
II a or III, IlI a. tion in the tables applies to masonry according
Masonry units to D I N 105 part 1 of gross density class ≥1.4 240 2 x 175 to DIN 1053. Plaster on the side facing the fire
≥1.0 300 2 x 200 prolongs the duration of fire resistance. The
(240) (2 x 175)
values in brackets in the tables relating to wall
DIN 105 part 2 of gross density class ≥0.8 365 ( 3 ) 2 x 240
(300) ( 3 ) (2 x 175)
thicknesses refer to plastered walls because
Masonry units to DIN 106 part 1 ( 1 ) a n d D I N 106 ≥1.8 240(2) 2 x 175(5) certain plasters have a positive influence on
part 1 A1 ( 1 ) as well as part 2 of gross density class ≥1.4 240 2 x 175 the fire behaviour of masonry walls. Twin-leaf
≥0.9 300 2x200 walls only require plaster on the outer faces.
(300) (2 x 175)
= 0.8 300 2 x 240
The tables are valid for all types of perpends
(2 x 175) according to DIN 1053 part 1, i.e. for perpends
Masonry units to DIN 4 1 6 5 of gross density class ≥0.6 300 2 x 240 fully filled with mortar, for "tipped and tailed"
≥ 0.6 (4) 240 (2 x 1 7 5 ) perpends, and perpends without mortar (inter
≥ 0.5 (6) 300 2 x 240
Masonry units to DIN 1 8 1 5 1 , 18152 and 18153 240
lock or tongue and groove). Perforations in
≥0.8 2 x 175
of gross density class (175) (2 x 175) masonry units or wall panels may not run per
≥0.6 300 2 x 240 pendicular to the plane of the wall.
(240) (2 x 175) Masonry readily satisfies the requirements of
(1) Also with thin-bed mortar.
fire protection, generally through the wall thick
(2) d = 175 mm w h e n using thin-bed mortar a n d g a u g e d brickwork.
( 3 ) Utilization factor α 2 ≤ 0.6 w h e n using lightweight mortar. ness required for structural or building science
( 4 ) Applies to thin-bed mortar and g a u g e d brickwork with mortar to p e r p e n d s and bed joints. reasons. Therefore, the extensive tables in DIN
( 5 ) d = 150 mm w h e n using thin-bed mortar and g a u g e d brickwork.
4102 part 4 can be considerably reduced by
( 6 ) Applies to thin-bed mortar and g a u g e d brickwork with t o n g u e a n d groove only in the c a s e of mortar to p e r p e n d s and
specifying fire resistance class F 90 and 100%
bed joints.
200
Fire protection
degree of utilization. Tables 2.6.111-113 spe Thermal insulation composite systems with wall claddings upon which doubt has been
cify the minimum thicknesses required to insulation materials of not readily flammable cast by certain tests [22].
achieve fire resistance class F 90 employing polystyrene particle foam (building materials Thermal insulation materials of building materi
masonry of standard units. Besides the fire class B 1) and a maximum thickness of 100 mm als class B 2 may be used up to the high-rise
resistance class, fire walls must also comply complying with a general building authority building limit for partial- or full-fill cavity walls.
with the conditions given in table 2.6.110 with certificate may be used on masonry up to the In contrast to this, buildings of medium height
regard to slenderness ratio and wall thickness. high-rise building limit. Thermal insulation (7-22 m) require that continuous layers of F 30-
Claddings may not be used in order to reduce composite systems using mineral materials, AB and F 90-AB components must consist of
the specified wall thicknesses. Thinner walls e.g. mineral wool products of building mater class A building materials.
than those given in DIN 4102 part 4 have been ials class A 1 or A 2, are considered as a coat Flammable insulation materials of building
proved for fire walls of clay, calcium silicate, of plaster when classifying the wall. In terms of materials class B 2 are permitted in the case of
autoclaved aerated concrete and lightweight fire protection, the external wall is equivalent internal insulation for buildings up to 22 m
concrete units in tests to DIN 4102 part 3 [7, to a plastered wall without thermal insulation. height. Special regulations apply to escape
76,134, 209], Reference [67] contains com Thermal insulation composite systems with routes.
prehensive information on fire protection in insulation materials of building materials class
masonry structures with practical examples. B 2 may be employed only on buildings with a
maximum of two full storeys. The fire protection
External walls with thermal insulation requirements for curtain wall ventilated facades
Single-leaf external walls with an external, ren depend on the height of the building; the
dered thermal insulation layer (thermal insula requirements with respect to building materials
tion composite system) are assessed in fire classes for facade components are summar
protection terms according to the type of insu ized in table 2.6.109. The fire protection
lation material used. requirements still apply for ventilated external
2.6.111 Loadbearing, enclosing walls of masonry to 2.6.112 Min. thickness d of loadbearing, non-enclosing 2.6.113 Non-loadbearing, enclosing walls of masonry
DIN 4102 part 4 table 39. Values in brackets walls of masonry to DIN 4102 part 4 table 40 or wall panels to DIN 4102 part 4 table 38.
apply to walls plastered both sides. Utilization (fire load on more than one side). Values in Values in brackets apply to walls plastered
factor α2 = 1.0 brackets apply to walls plastered both sides. both sides
Utilization factor α2 = 1.0 Construction features Min. thickness (mm)
Construction features Min. thickness (mm)
for fire resistance Construction features Min. thickness (mm) for fire resistance
class F 90 for fire resistance class F 90
class F 90
Walls Walls mm
Autoclaved aerated concrete Autoclaved aerated concrete Autoclaved aerated concrete 100(1)
Blocks & gauged brickwork 175 Blocks & gauged brickwork to DIN 4165 240 Blocks & gauged brickwork to DIN 4165 (75)
to DIN 4165 Gross density class ≥ 0.5 (175) Panels & gauged brickwork elements
Gross density class ≥ 0.5 (150) using (1)(2) to DIN 4166
using (1)(2) Lightweight concrete Lightweight concrete 95
Lightweight concrete Hollow blocks to DIN 18151 Hollow wall elements to DIN 18148 (70)
Hollow blocks to DIN 18151 Solid bricks & blocks to DIN 18152 240 Hollow blocks to DIN 18151
Solid bricks & blocks to DIN 18152 175 Concrete masonry units to DIN 18153 (175) Solid bricks & blocks to DIN 18152
Concrete masonry units to DIN 18153 (140) Gross density class ≥ 0.6 Wall elements to DIN 18162
Gross density class ≥ 0.6 using (1)(3) Concrete masonry units to DIN 18153
using (1)(3) Clay bricks Clay bricks 115
Clay bricks Solid & vertically perforated Solid & vertically perforated
Solid & vertically perforated 175 to DIN 105 pt 1 1 240 to DIN 105 pt 1 (100)
to DIN 105 pt 1 using (1) (115) Lightweight vertically perforated
using (1) (115) Clay bricks to DIN 105 pt 2
Clay bricks Lightweight vertically perforated High-strength bricks & engineering
Lightweight & vertically perforated to DIN 105 pt 2 bricks to DIN 105 pt 3
toDIN 105 pt 2 Gross density class ≥ 0.8 High-strength engineering bricks
Gross density class ≥ 0.8 using ( 1 ) ( 3 ) to DIN 105 pt 4
using (1)(3) Calcium silicate 115
Perforation types A & B (115) Perforation types A & B (115) Solid, perforated, blocks, (100)
hollow blocks & gauged brickwork
Lightweight vertically perforated (240) Lightweight vertically perforated to DIN 106 pt 1 & 1 A1
bricks type W bricks type W Gauged brickwork to DIN 106 pt 1 &
Calcium silicate 115 Utilization factor α2 = 1.0 (240) DIN 106 pt 1 A1
Solid, perforated, blocks, hollow (115) Facing bricks to DIN 106 pt 2
Calcium silicate (1) d ≥ 50 mm when using thin-bed mortars.
blocks & gauged brickwork to Solid, perforated, blocks, hollow blocks &
DIN 106 pt 1 &1 A1 gauged brickwork to DIN 106 pt 1 & 1 A1 140
Facing bricks to DIN 106 pt 2 DIN 106 pt 1 A1 (115)
using (1)(2)(4) Facing bricks to
(1) Normal-weight mortar
DIN 106 pt 2
(2) Thin-bed mortar
using (1)(2)
(3) Lightweight mortar (1) Normal-weight mortar
(4) The values apply only to masonry of solid bricks, (2) Thin-bed mortar
blocks and gauged brickwork when (3) Lightweight mortar
3.0 < exist σ ≤ 4.5 N/mm2. (4) The values apply only to masonry of solid bricks, blocks
and gauged brickwork when 3.0 < exist σ ≤ 4.5 N/mm2.
201
Variables
Units and symbols forbuilding science
Symbol Designation Unit

A Area m2
Fm Moisture correction factor -
FC
Reduction factor for sunshading -
HT Specific transmission heat loss W/K
L Heat conduction W/K
Q Heat, heat energy J or Ws
Q Annual heating energy requirement kWh/a
Qh Annual heating requirement kWh/a
Heat gain kWh/a
Qg
Qj Heat loss kWh/a
Qp Primary energy requirement kWh/a
Qr Energy requirement from renewable sources kWh/a
Qt Total heat losses due to heating system kWh/a
Qw Energy requirement for hot water provision kWh/a
R Thermal resistance m2K/W
Internal/External surface resistance m2K/W
Rsi, Rse
RT Total thermal resistance (air-to-air resistance) m2K/W
s Solar heat penetration -
U (formerly k in Germany) Thermal transmittance W/m2K
uf Thermal transmittance, window frame W/m2K
ug Thermal transmittance, glazing W/m2K
uw Thermal transmittance, window W/m2K
V Volume m3
Z Water vapour diffusion resistance m2hPa/kg
a Temperature diffusivity m2/s
b Heat penetration coefficient J/m2Ks0.5
c Specific heat capacity J/kgK
d Thickness m
e, ep Cost index related to primary energy requirement -
fRsi Temperature factor -
g Solar total energy transmittance -
g Water vapour diffusion flow rate kg/m2h
h Thermal surface resistance coefficient W/m2K
m Mass kg
mW,T
Area-related condensation mass kg/m2
mW,V Area-related evaporation mass kg/m2
n Air change rate No./h
p, ps Water vapour partial pressure,
water vapour saturation pressure Pa
pi, pe Water vapour partial pressure, internal/external Pa
q Heat flow rate W/m 2
sd
Water vapour diffusion-equivalent air layer thickness m
t Time d
u Mass-related moisture content kg/kg
w Water absorption coefficient kg/m2h0.5
η (eta) Degree of utilization -
q (theta) Temperature °C
qi, qe Air temperature, internal/external °C
qsi Internal surface temperature °C
λ (lambda) Thermal conductivity W/mK
μ (my) Water vapour diffusion resistance index - m metre
ρ (rho) Gross/bulk density kg/m3 W Watt
 (phi) Heat flow W K Kelvin
 Relative humidity - J Joule
X (chi) Discrete thermal transmittance W/K a year
Ψ (psi) Linear thermal transmittance W/mK s second
Ψ Volume-related moisture content m3/m3 h hour
J Sound intensity W/m 2 P Pascal
L Sound pressure level, sound level dB kg kilogram
R Sound reduction index dB d day
RW Airborne sound insulation index dB °C degree Celsius
f Frequency Hz dB decibel
p Sound pressure Pa Hz Hertz
202
Construction details
Part 3 • Construction details
Contents Preliminary remarks Roof constructions include diffusion-tight layers

where necessary. In the other cases the details
Flat roof Masonry continues to be the most popular employ diffusion-resistant membranes. The use
Parapet to warm deck form of construction in Central Europe, espe- of roofing felts sufficiently open to diffusion
cially for housing. With its diverse architectur- means that a membrane on the inside is no
Shallow pitched roof al options and rich variety of different types of longer necessary, provided the layers of the
Parapet to cold deck construction, masonry is just as fashionable construction below the thermal insulation, e.g.
as ever. Indeed, its good building science chipboard, plasterboard, form an adequate
Pitched roof properties have increased the vocabulary of barrier to diffusion. However, it should not be
Eaves its architectural manifestations. The following forgotten that the necessary degree of airtight-
Verge without roof overhang chapter, "Construction Details", illustrates the ness must still be guaranteed.
Verge with roof overhang diverse applications of masonry. Three differ-
Verge with masonry parapet ent types of wall were chosen for the details: The details shown do not relate to specific con-
Junction with wall struction projects but instead, in conjunction
Chimney • A single-leaf rendered wall with the explanatory texts, are intended to draw
attention to possible problem zones and illus-
Floor junction • A partial-fill cavity wall (outer leaf of facing trate feasible solutions. Their suitability for the
masonry, air space, insulation, inner load- respective climatic conditions must be
Openings bearing leaf) checked in each individual case. Details which
Window head and reveals without shoulder only vary as a result of the different types of
Window fitted behind shoulder • A full-fill cavity wall (outer leaf of facing wall construction are shown schematically in
Window with peripheral sheet metal lining masonry) the overview of the details.
Door head and jambs without shoulder
Door head and jambs with shoulder A schematic overview of the details presents
Door to terrace the most important building details for the
three different types of wall. The details shad-
Balconies ed grey are shown enlarged at a scale of
1:10 in the subsequent catalogue.
Junction with terrace In designing these details, the prime objec-
tives were dependable engineering qualities
Plinth and architectural clarity.
Energy-efficient building demands alternative
Stairs types of wall construction with ever better,
ever thicker thermal insulation. Therefore,
Special details cavity insulation in conjunction with an inde-
Re-entrant corner pendent outer leaf 240 mm thick was includ-
Corner ed in the catalogue of details as this form of
Free-standing walls wall construction is becoming increasingly
widespread. It provides - in masonry - a reli-
able form of construction in terms of building
science but still permits all the options of fac-
ing masonry in the design of the actual
masonry skin.
204
Overview
3.1. Flat roof 3.2. Flat roof 3.3 Flat roof
Parapet to warm deck Parapet to warm deck Parapet to warm deck

with sheet metal capping with precast concrete with steel section
coping
Single-leaf rendered
masonry
365 mm masonry
Partial-fill cavity wall
115 mm outer leaf of facing

brickwork
55 mm air space
80 mm insulation
240 mm inner leaf
Full-fill cavity wall

brickwork
135 mm insulation
175 mm inner leaf
205
3.4 Shallow pitched roof 3.5 Pitched roof 3.6 Pitched roof
Parapet to cold deck Eaves Verge

with sheet metal capping without roof overhang
masonry
365 mm masonry

brickwork
55 mm air space
80 mm insulation
240 mm inner leaf

brickwork
135 mm insulation
175 mm inner leaf
206
Overview
3.7 Pitched roof 3.8 Pitched roof 3.9 Pitched roof 3.10 Pitched roof
Verge Verge Junction with wall Chimney

with roof overhang with masonry parapet
207
3.11 Floor junction 3.12 Openings 3.13 Openings
Window head and reveals Window head and reveals

without shoulder without shoulder
with roller blind
masonry
365 mm masonry

brickwork
55 mm air space
80 mm insulation
240 mm inner leaf

brickwork
135 mm insulation
175 mm inner leaf
208
Overview
3.14 Openings 3.15 Openings 3.16 Openings 3.17 Openings
Window fitted behind Window Door head and jambs Door head and jambs
shoulder with peripheral sheet without shoulder with shoulder
metal lining
209
3.18 Openings 3.19 Balconies 3.20 Junction with terrace
Door to terrace Outer edge
masonry
365 mm masonry

brickwork
55 mm air space
80 mm insulation
240 mm inner leaf

brickwork
135 mm insulation
175 mm inner leaf
210
Overview
3.21 Plinth 3.22 Stairs 3.23 Special details
Masonry basement Internal stairs Re-entrant corner

Junction with plinth Entrance to building Corner
Stairs to basement Free-standing walls
211
Flat roof
Parapet to warm deck
3.1.2 Parapet with sheet metal capping on

twin-leaf masonry
3.2.2 Parapet with stone coping on twin-leaf
masonry
3.3.1 Parapet with steel section on single-leaf
masonry
3.3.2 Parapet with steel section on twin-leaf
masonry
The most common finish to the top of a mason-

ry wall is the capping of sheet metal - copper,
titanium-zinc or galvanized steel. This is usual-
ly fitted over a suitably sized and shaped tim-
ber section, which should be fixed only to the
loadbearing inner leaf and may not transfer
any load to the outer leaf of facing brickwork.
The capping should be designed with a fall
towards the roof surface. In architectural terms
it is primarily the height of the visible front lip of
the capping which is relevant, as this forms the
upper boundary of the facade. It is also possi-
ble to provide a welted edge at this point,
although this does deviate from the stipulations
of the DIN standard.
3.1.2
Finishing the top of a wall with a prefabricated

coping creates a distinct boundary, often of a
different colour. Prefabricated elements offer
diverse architectural options in terms of shape
and material - from a simple precast concrete
coping to dressed natural stone.
When providing a prefabricated coping to a
twin-leaf wall, it must be ensured that it is fixed
only to the loadbearing 240 mm wall; it must be
able to slide where it bears on the outer leaf. It
is advisable for the coping to have a fall to the
inside. The expansion joints between the indi-
vidual coping elements must be designed and
carefully built so that no water can penetrate
through to the masonry. A stepped joint or a
damp proof course beneath the coping is
advisable.
To reduce the thermal bridge effect, it is rec-
ommended to use masonry units with a low
gross density (thermal conductivity) for build-
ing the parapet.
Please refer to "Part 2 • Fundamentals" for

details of the ring beam.
3.2.2
212
Flat roof
The inclusion of a steel section adds a special

emphasis to the edge of a flat roof on a mason-
ry building. The top of the wall is highlighted
and, with an appropriate choice of colour, can
contrast with the wall below. However, this
detail is not without its problems.
A steel section can be fixed directly to the top
of a single-leaf, rendered masonry wall. How-
ever, it must be ensured that the steel section
includes expansion joints and that the fixings
can accommodate the movement. The move-
ment joint between a steel section and a ren-
dering stop bead must be sealed with a per-
manently elastic compound to prevent mois-
ture from penetrating through to the masonry,
It is essential to provide a covering to the steel
section to stop water entering the expansion
joint. The detail proposed here with UV-resis-
tant sheeting and a clamping bar fitted to the
steel section places particular demands on the
sealing. Great care must be taken to ensure
that the connection to the clamping bar is
properly executed.
If the parapet on a building employing twin-leaf

wall construction (with facing brickwork) is to
be terminated with a steel section, then the
detail must be carefully adapted to suit (3.3.2).
First, care must be taken to ensure that the fix-
ing of the steel section to the loadbearing leaf 3.3.1
permits adjustment (elongated hole) and that
the section can accommodate expansion.
There must be no direct connection with the
outer leaf. This joint must be watertight, i.e. a
damp proof course must be carefully bonded
to the top of the outer leaf and the steel section
must be able to slide on this. The steel section
must be covered as described for detail 3.3.1.
Instead of UV-resistant sheeting, an additional
sheet metal capping can be used, but this is a
considerably more elaborate and costly detail
(see "Built examples in detail", example 12).
1 Loadbearing masonry
2 Facing brickwork
3 Air space
4 Wall tie
5 Rendering
6 Thermal insulation
7 Reinforced concrete slab
8 Diffusion-tight membrane
9 Roofing felt
10 Stone chippings
11 Sheet metal capping
12 Profiled timber section
13 Steel section
14 Foil slip joint
15 UV-resistant roofing felt
16 Clamping bar
17 Ring beam, or ring beam reinforcement 3.3.2
213
Shallow pitched roof

Parapet to cold deck
3.4.2 Parapet to cold deck on partial-fill

cavity wall
3.4.3 Parapet to cold deck on full-fill
cavity wall
Terminating a non-loadbearing outer leaf in the

form of a parapet to a cold deck requires pro
vision to be made for adequate ventilation of
both the outer leaf and the roof construction.
However, it should be ensured that the last wall
tie for the outer leaf is fixed to the load bearing
structure as near as possible to the top edge
of the outer leaf. The detail shown here applies
to sections of roof which fall only a short dis
tance. If the parapet needs to be higher, then it
should be built as a twin-leaf construction to
anchor the outer leaf properly.
3.4.2
The parapet to a full-fill cavity wall is shown in

detail 3.4.2. In this case it is not necessary to
stabilize the outer leaf. The required cross-
section for ventilation of the cold deck
depends on the pitch of the roof. The roof cov
ering of sheet metal with double-welted seams
is possible for a pitch ≥ 7°. The metal roof cov
ering is given more elaborate treatment hereto
provide better protection against driving snow.
2 Facing brickwork
3 Air space
4 Wall tie
5 Rendering
9 Roofing felt
14 Foil slip joint
17 Ring beam, or ring beam reinforcement
21 Timber boarding of cold deck
22 Roof covering of metal sheeting with standing seams
23 Rafter
24 Gutter
25 Roof tiles
26 Roofing felt, open to diffusion
27 Wall plate (eaves purlin)
28 Timber boarding
29 Roofing felt, diffusion-resistant
30 Tiling battens
31 Clamping bar
3.4.3 37 Insect screen
214
Pitched roof
Pitched roof - eaves
3.5.1 Eaves detail for single-leaf masonry

3.5.2 Eaves detail for twin-leaf masonry
The eaves detail for a single-leaf, rendered

masonry wall makes use of facing brickwork to
conceal the ring beam and wall plate. An over-
hanging roof requires the rendering to continue
up to the top edge of the rafters. With a para-
pet to the gable wall (see details 3.8.1 and
3,8,3), the verge gutter should discharge into
the eaves gutter.
On the inside it must be ensured that there is
an airtight connection between the diffusion-
resistant roofing felt and the masonry. The
example shown here employs a clamping bar.
3.5.1
The wall plate of the roof construction in detail

3.5,2 is placed on the outside edge of the
loadbearing leaf. Masonry units are laid on top
of the ring beam to conceal the wall plate and
provide a consistent substrate for the plaster.
The reader's attention is drawn to the airtight
connection between the diffusion-resistant
roofing felt and the masonry (tucked into the
plaster). The remaining cross-section of the
rafter above the outer leaf must be sufficient for
fixing the timber boarding. The outer leaf is
ventilated at the eaves. The ventilation opening
must include a screen to protect against insects.
With a parapet to the gable wall (see details
3.8.1 and 3.8.3), the verge gutter should dis-
charge into the eaves gutter.
As the outer leaf forms the actual weather pro-
tection, the roof does not need to overhang the
wall.
3.5.2
215
Pitched roof - verge
3.6.1 Single-leaf masonry with roof tile

bedded in mortar
3.6.2 Partial-fill cavity wall with verge tile
3.6.3 Full-fill cavity wall with metal trim
3.7.1 Single-leaf masonry with bargeboard
and roof overhang
The detail in which the rendering is taken right

up to the underside of a roof tile bedded in
mortar has become less common. However, it
still remains a typical masonry detail and mere-
ly requires a good standard of workmanship in
order to be successful. It is important that the
roof tile at the edge is solidly bedded in mortar
(mortar group II) and that the roofing felt is
fixed to this. On the outside, the individual
masonry units must be properly jointed with
mortar in order to provide a solid substrate for
the rendering.
Detail 3.6.1 is suitable for low-rise buildings
that do not require a ring beam.
3.6.1
The use of a verge tile permits the creation of

an almost flush junction with this twin-leaf
masonry wall.
A number of variations may be employed for
the top course of the outer leaf (compare detail
3.8.3). If the topmost course of masonry units
is to be cut off at an angle to match the pitch of
the roof, this can be partly concealed by the
verge tile. However, ventilation for the outer
leaf must still be guaranteed. The last tiling
batten can be fixed to the boarding cantilever-
ing beyond the last rafter. This detail can also
be used in a similar way for single-leaf, ren-
dered masonry walls.
3.6.2
216
Pitched roof
A folded metal profile creates a neat termina-

tion to the edge of a tiled roof as it conceals
the edges of the roof tiles. The metal profile
acts as a sort of "mini-gutter" and slips under
the last row of tiles. It also conceals the top
edge of the uppermost course of facing brick-
work, which is cut to match the pitch of the
roof.
The metal profile must include a drip posi-
tioned clear of the face of the masonry.
As it acts as a gutter, the metal profile must be
able to discharge into the eaves gutter.
3.6.3
The most common verge detail with a timber

bargeboard can be used with different lengths
of roof overhang. If the overhang is large, then
a robust supporting construction with tail
beams is called for.
The soffit board (s) can be fixed to battens
attached to the purlins and/or tail beams. But
these are not installed until after the rendering
is complete. Detail 3.7.1 is suitable for low-rise
buildings that do not require a ring beam.
2 Facing brickwork
3 Air space
4 Wall tie
5 Rendering
23 Rafter
25 Roof tiles
28 Timber boarding
30 Tiling battens
31 Clamping bar
81 Bargeboard 3.7.1
217
Pitched roof - verge
3.8.1 Single-leaf masonry with masonry

parapet and sheet metal capping
3.8.3 Twin-leaf masonry with masonry parapet
The masonry parapet with internal sheet metal

gutter is a well-established architectural means
for achieving a plain edge to the roof. The top
of the rendered parapet can be finished with a
sheet metal capping or with precast concrete
or natural stone copings.
The masonry parapet should be at least 175 mm
thick.
The metal gutter behind the masonry parapet
must be able to discharge into the eaves gutter
(see detail 3.5.1).
3.8.1
Finishing the top of the wall with a brick-on-

edge or soldier course can be accomplished
only with an outer leaf of facing masonry
240 mm thick. In this case the courses of brick-
work below the soldier course should be cut
back so that the metal drip below the soldier
course overhangs the internal sheet metal gut-
ter. No further flashings are necessary, pro-
vided the work is carried out to a good stan-
dard of workmanship and all joints are fully
filled with mortar (if necessary with water-
repellent mortar). It is always the bricks below
the brick-on-edge or soldier course which are
cut to match the pitch of the roof.
3.8.3
218
Pitched roof
Pitched roof - junction w i t h wall
3.9.1 Junction with single-leaf masonry wall

3.9.2 Junction with twin-leaf masonry wall
Details 3.9.1 and 3.9.2 illustrate junction details

for buildings with different numbers of storeys,
or which are offset with respect to each other.
Great care must always be exercised at any
wall-roof junction. The position of the edge tiles
must be coordinated with that of the tiles at the
eaves. The start of the gutter and its flashing
should the aligned with the end of the wall for a
facade of varying height. On a rendered wall,
the gutter must terminate at the base of the
rendering. The rendering should be isolated
from the gutter by means of a stop bead and
near the junction with the roof should be of a
type suitable for use on ground level plinths
(mortar group II).
The wall construction should be chosen such
that the continuous slot for the gutter does not
impair the structural stability of the wall. 3.9.1
In detail 3.9.2 the outer leaf of facing brickwork

is supported on a continuous bracket. In this
case the facing brickwork can follow the pitch
of the roof exactly. It is recommended to con-
struct the base course as a brick-on-edge or
one-brick course and to cut the bricks of the
next course to match the pitch of the roof. This
recommendation also applies to detail 3.9.3
(see p. 207). In that case the lower junction be-
hind the gutter could also be cast in concrete.
2 Facing brickwork
4 Wall tie
5 Rendering
12 Profiled timber section
16 Clamping bar
23 Rafter
24 Gutter
25 Roof tiles
28 Timber boarding
30 Tiling battens
31 Clamping bar
32 Metal drip
33 Steel angle bracket 3.9.2
219
Pitched roof - chimney
3.10.1 Top of chimney with metal flashings

3.10.2 Roof tiles bedded in mortar
Chimneys passing through pitched roofs must

be flashed to prevent ingress of water into the
roof space. Ideally, chimneys should be posi-
tioned to pass through the ridge in order to
avoid forming an acute angle on one side. This
preferred detail is shown in 3.10.1. The chim-
ney with refractory clay flue lining, insulation
and flue blocks passes between trimmers
incorporated in the timber roof construction.
The flue blocks are also available with corbal
bricks for the facing brickwork, which means
that the facing brickwork only needs to con-
tinue down to just below the trimmers. The
metal flashings and roofing felt are easier to
attach to the facing brickwork when the corres-
ponding courses are cut back approx. 30-
40 mm. The roofing felt and metal flashings
with drip above can be neatly fixed and sealed
in the resulting recess in the masonry. A pre-
cast concrete cap protects the top of the chim-
ney.
If the top of the chimney is to have facing

brickwork 240 mm thick, the roof tiles can be
bedded in mortar in a recess on all sides, pro-
vided the climatic conditions allow. A fibre-rein-
forced mortar is recommended. The 240 mm
facing brickwork can then be easily laid on the
115 mm masonry below owing to the bond laid
in a ring around the chimney.
3.10.1
3.10.2
220
Floor junction
Floor junction
3.11.1 Junction between reinforced concrete

floor and single-leaf masonry
3.11.2 Junction between timber joist floor and
partial-fill cavity wall
3.11.3 Junction between reinforced concrete
floor and full-fill cavity wall
All floor junctions should be constructed in

such a way that an adequate thermal break is
assured. In the case of single-leaf, rendered
masonry (3.11.1), the closing brick sealing the
edge of the floor slab should always be made
from the same material as the rest of the wall.
This creates a consistent substrate for the ren-
dering. A strip of compressible material at the
inside edge of the floor support protects the
corner of the topmost course of masonry units
below the floor against excessive bearing
pressure.
The insulation in the partial-fill cavity wall

(3.11.2) automatically creates the necessary
thermal break. This detail also applies when
using facing masonry for the inner, loadbear-
ing leaf as well.
A timber floor requires the timber joists to bear

on the masonry via a separating membrane. In
addition, air bricks must be built into the wall
adjacent the ends of the timber joists.
2 Facing brickwork
3 Air space
4 Wall tie
5 Rendering
25 Roof tiles
28 Timber boarding
30 Tiling battens
31 Clamping bar
32 Metal drip
34 Refractory clay flue lining
35 Flue block
36 Trimmer
38 Precast concrete chimney cap
39 Impact sound insulation
40 Floating screed
41 Compressible plastic strip
42 Timber floor joist
43 Air brick
221
Openings
Window head and reveals without shoulder
3.12.1 Lintel over window in single-leaf

masonry
3.12.2 Lintel over window in partial-fill cavity
wall, with louvre blind
3.12.3 Lintel over window in full-fill cavity wall
3.13.2 Lintel over window in partial-fill cavity
wall, with roller blind box
It is possible to install windows without a step

or shoulder in the opening, but special atten-
tion should be paid to achieving a good seal to
the peripheral joint between window frame and
structure. Various prefabricated lintels are
available from building materials suppliers. All
the details require the inclusion of adequate
thermal insulation. Detail 3.12.1 shows channel
blocks filled with (reinforced) concrete and a
layer of insulation. The channel blocks must be
made from aerated clay. Window details with-
out step or shoulder will become increasingly
problematic as the thermal insulation regula-
tions are tightened further.
3.12.1
Twin-leaf masonry (3.12.2) enables a sun-

shade (in this case a louvre blind) to be in-
corporated in the cavity between loadbearing
leaf and facing brickwork. Care must be taken
to ensure that the reinforced concrete lintel is
adequately insulated; the insulation should be
protected by a sheet metal cover. The operat-
ing mechanism for the blind should certainly
be motorized with this type of detail. The facing
brickwork outer leaf can be supported by means
of a cambered arch for spans up to 2 m; larger
spans require the use of steel sections.
2 Facing brickwork
3 Air space
4 Wail tie
5 Rendering
40 Floating screed
43 Air brick
44 Open perpend
45 Lightweight clay channel block lintel
46 Masonry lintel
47 Shallow lintel
48 Precast concrete lintel
49 Prefabricated lintel
50 Blind
51 Wooden lining
52 Roller blind with box
3.12.2 53 Window with wooden frame
222
Open
A window detail without step or shoulder in a

full-fill cavity wall (3.12.3) is best achieved by
positioning the window in the plane of the insu-
lation. A prefabricated shallow lintel can be
used as the lintel supporting the inner leaf.
Special attention must be given to achieving a
good junction with the insulation at the frame.
The solution illustrated here presupposes that
after installing the subframe, the gap between
the cavity insulation and the window frame is
filled with insulation (polyurethane foam) and
the opening closed with a continuous profiled
strip. The window reveal is clad with plaster-
board.
3.12.3
The roller blind industry provides box elements

which comply with all the thermal insulation
requirements.
For single-leaf masonry there is a roller blind
box with a rendering support along its outer
edge. Roller blind boxes are available for all
the common wall thicknesses.
In twin-leaf masonry the roller blind box should
be positioned behind the outer leaf of facing
brickwork.
The detail shown here assumes a concrete lin-
tel left exposed, which bears on the masonry
on both sides of the opening.
The outer leaf has to be ventilated above the
roller blind box. A damp proof course must be
provided at the base of the cavity.
3.13.2
223
Openings
Window fitted behind shoulder
3.14.1 Single-leaf masonry

3.14.2 Twin-leaf masonry
Windows fitted behind a step or shoulder can

be sealed easier and more reliably. The joints
to be sealed can be hidden and are not visible
from the outside. The subframe may need to be
suitably enlarged if an identical width of frame
on all sides is desired on the outside face.
The lintel arrangement shown in detail 3.14.1
may employ a shallow lintel, provided the span
is not too large. It is necessary to ensure ade-
quate insulation between the lintel/masonry and
the concrete lintel on the inside face. The wood
finish to the window reveal shown in this detail
covers the thermal insulation on the inside of
the window. The external window sill, in this
case of sheet metal, could also be made of
precast concrete or natural stone.
Detail at end of shee

metal window sill
3.14.1
For a twin-leaf masonry wall (3.14.2), the win-

dow is installed similarly to detail 3.14.1. If the
opening is not too wide, then a cambered arch
may be used to support the outer leaf; spans
> 2 m require additional support in the form of
steel sections. Ventilation (open perpends) to
the outer leaf must be provided above the
bricks of the arch.
The window sill in detail 3.14.2 is shown as a
precast concrete element. However, a brick-
on-edge course could be used instead.
Detail at end of
precast concrete
window sill
3.14.2
224
Openings
Openings
Window with peripheral sheet metal lining
3.15.1 Sheet metal lining in single-leaf

masonry for window fitted in front of
shoulder
3.15.2 Sheet metal lining in twin-leaf masonry
for window openings without shoulder
Windows opening outwards or at least fitted on

the outside are common and indeed advisable
in northern Europe. However, adequate protec-
tion against driving rain must be guaranteed,
especially for the detail at the head of the
frame. Detail 3.15.1 shows a peripheral sheet
metal lining, which at the same time functions
as the window sill. In single-leaf masonry care
must be taken to ensure that the window is
positioned in the plane of the insulation behind
the outer lintel. It is important to provide a care-
fully detailed permanently elastic joint, in-
corporating a stop bead, at the junction
between rendering and sheet metal lining.
3.15.1
The sheet metal lining in a twin-leaf masonry

wall (3.15.2) fulfils the same requirements as in
detail 3.15.1. Detail 3.15.2 shows an arrange-
ment without a step or shoulder in the window
opening. Once again, the sheet metal lining
also acts as the window sill, projecting a suffi-
cient distance beyond the face of the outer
leaf.
2 Facing brickwork
3 Air space
4 Wall tie
5 Rendering
40 Floating screed
43 Air brick
44 Open perpend
46 Masonry lintel
47 Shallow lintel
51 Wooden lining
53 Window with wooden frame
54 Sheet metal lining 3.15.2
225
Openings
Doors
3.16.2 Door opening without shoulder in

twin-leaf masonry
3.17.1 Door fitted in front of shoulder in
single-leaf masonry
3.17.2 Door fitted behind shoulder
in twin-leaf masonry
3.18.2 Opening in twin-leaf masonry for door
to terrace
Door openings without a shoulder are subject

to similar conditions to window openings with-
out a shoulder. The door is best positioned
flush with the outside face of the loadbearing
leaf in order to provide a neat junction with the
floor. The edge of the floor construction is fin-
ished with a steel section, which also functions
as the weather bar at the bottom of the door,
The brick-on-edge course forming the thresh-
old requires its own support. The insulation is
covered by a wooden lining fixed on the out-
side to the sides and top of the opening.
A cambered masonry arch may be used as the
lintel for normal door widths. Ventilation (open
perpends) for the outer leaf is required above
the arch. The damp proof course above the
wooden lining must be built into the outer leaf
3.16.2 below the open perpends.
A door fitted in front of a shoulder (3.17.1)

requires careful detailing to provide protection
against rain, especially at the head of the door
(as for details 3.15.1 and 3.15.2). The peripher-
al sheet metal lining provides the necessary
protection, while acting as threshold and
weather bar. Therefore, this sheet metal should
be thick enough to withstand being walked
upon.
In twin-leaf masonry the sheet metal lining
should be separated from the outer leaf. This
means that a gap can be formed to permit
ventilation of the outer leaf.
3.17.1
226
Openings
2 Facing brickwork
3 Air space
4 Wall tie
5 Rendering
14 Foil slip joint
19 Precast concrete capping
40 Floating screed
43 Air brick
44 Open perpend
46 Masonry lintel
47 Shallow lintel
49 Prefabricated lintel
51 Wooden lining
54 Sheet metal lining
55 Wooden door with weather bar
56 Wooden door opening outwards
57 Steel section as weather bar
58 Paving to terrace
60 Glazed door with wooden frame
64 Drainage channel with grating
Detail 3.17.2 shows a masonry arch lintel

240 mm thick. The masonry at the sides of the
opening remains exposed. The door frame is
positioned behind the jambs and the lintel. In
this detail care must be taken to ensure that
the lintel is adequately insulated and that a
damp proof course is incorporated. 3.17.2
Doors leading to outside terraces often incor-

porate steps. However, detail 3.18.2 shows an
arrangement where the outside terrace is at the
same level as the floor inside the building. The
structural floor is stepped at this point. This
detail shows only the form of the transition at
the opening.
The outer leaf of the twin-leaf wall is carried on
a continuous bracket above the insulation on
top of the concrete slab supporting the terrace.
The transition from the door opening to the
terrace includes a drainage channel covered
by a grating; this is connected to the drainage
system.
Single-leaf, rendered masonry, as shown

schematically in detail 3.18.1, p. 210, may be
built directly on the concrete slab.
The 240 mm outer leaf of a full-fill cavity wall is
also supported on a continuous bracket (see
detail 3.18.3, p. 210).
3.18.2
227
Balconies
3.19.1 Continuous balcony floor slab

3.19.2 Balcony floor slab with thermal break
Balconies whose loadbearing construction is

integral with the floor slab inside the building
are always a problem. In building science
terms it is better to provide the balcony con-
struction as an independent item in front of the
external wall.
However, in the case of single-leaf masonry,
the floor construction often continues through
the wall to the outside. If this is done, then the
floor slab inside must be adequately insulated
(3.19.1a). A sufficient width (min. 500 mm) of
insulation must be provided across the full
width of the slab where it passes through the
wall in order to reduce thermal bridge losses.
It should be noted, however, that this causes
the surface temperatures at the junction
between floor and wall to drop by about 2 K
(2°C). The detail can be substantially
improved by extending the thermal insulation
20 mm into the external masonry. Similar posi-
tive effects can be obtained by placing a strip
3.19.1a of insulation approx. 100 mm wide vertically in
the masonry beneath the floor slab.
A slip joint should be provided between floor
slab and masonry to allow for the differential
deformation.
Openings (3.19.1b) should be treated similarly.
In doing so, the outer lintel should also be of
masonry in order to achieve a consistent sub-
strate for the rendering. This lintel must be
properly insulated. A small step from inside to
outside is unavoidable in this detail; elaborate
measures are required to avoid such a step
(by way of different floor slab thicknesses). At
the sides of the opening, the damp proof mem-
brane below the balcony floor finish must
extend up the wall as far as the bottom edge of
the rendering. The damp proof membrane is
then covered with a plinth of the same material
as the balcony floor finish.
3.19.1b
228
Balconies
A better detail for the balcony floor junction is

one with an intended thermal break (3.19.2a).
One of the advantages of this type of construc-
tion is that the balcony can be formed as a
prefabricated unit with an integral surface fin-
ish. It is useful to match the thickness of the
balcony floor slab to the size of the masonry
units in the case of twin-leaf masonry.
The outer leaf should be supported on a con-
tinuous bracket and should not bear directly on
the balcony. Likewise, there should be a com-
pressible joint between the top course of
bricks below the balcony and the underside of
the balcony floor slab. At an opening (3.19.2b)
the masonry lintel should also be separated
from the balcony. Here, the bricks are carried
on a steel section, which is supported at the
sides of the opening.
It is advisable to position the window in the
plane of the insulation in order to avoid cold
bridges. The sheet metal threshold shown in
detail 3.19.2b should be made from hot-dip
galvanised steel of adequate thickness (4mm).
There must be a good seal below this thresh-
old, connecting balcony floor slab to bottom
rail of door frame.
The detail shown here has a considerable

difference in level between inside and outside
and is therefore not suitable for disabled
persons. 3.19.2a
2 Facing brickwork
3 Air space
4 Wall tie
5 Rendering
14 Foil slip joint
33 Steel angle bracket
40 Floating screed
44 Open perpend
59 Reinforced concrete balcony floor slab
60 Glazed door with wooden frame
61 Balcony floor finish
62 Thermal insulation incorporated in formwork
63 Reinforcement, with thermal break 3.19.2b
229
Junction w i t h terrace
Outer edge of terrace
3.20.2 Masonry parapet above partial-fill

cavity wall
3.20.3 Balustrade fixed to full-fill cavity wall
The detail at the outer edge of a terrace sup-

ported on twin-leaf masonry can be the same
as that for a flat roof parapet. Detail 3.20.2
shows a masonry wall (i.e. parapet) forming the
boundary to the terrace because it not possible
to fix a balustrade to the facing brickwork-
which is shown in detail 3.20.3. The masonry
parapet should be at least
175 mm thick - 240 mm is better. The top can
be finished with a precast concrete or natural
stone coping, or a soldier course (see detail
3.8.3, p. 218). A compressible joint should be
incorporated between the masonry parapet
and the facing brickwork. This joint- a "pre-
determined breaking point" - should be
sealed with a permanently elastic compound.
If, for architectural reasons, such a special joint
is not desirable, there is no alternative to build-
ing the entire parapet in twin-leaf masonry
(similar to detail 3.2.2, p. 212).
3.20.2 Adequate insulation must be incorporated
between the edge of the floor slab and the
outer leaf. Open perpends are included below
this insulation to ensure ventilation.
The waterproof sheeting must be extended up
the side of the parapet to a level at least
150 mm above the water run-off layer (in this
case gravel). The peripheral metal sheet with
its fixing and the metal drip could be incorpo-
rated somewhat more attractively - but at high-
er cost - by cutting out a recess in the masonry
similar to detail 3.8.3.
The terrace edge detail shown in 3.20.3 calls

for a firm bond between the edge of the water-
proof sheeting where it joins the masonry and
the top of the outer leaf above the level of the
concrete slab supporting the terrace. Care
must be taken to guarantee that the paving
slabs forming the floor of the terrace and the
slabs on top of the outer leaf - which must be
securely fixed - finish at the same level.
3.20.3
230
Junction with terrace • Plinth
Plinth
3.21.1 Masonry basement

3.21.2 Plinth detail for twin-leaf masonry
In principle, masonry basements must comply

with the protective measures for non-pressur-
ized water - a situation which occurs in most
construction projects - as laid down in DIN
18195 part 5. This is accomplished by using
bonded waterproof layers of bitumen or plastic
sheeting or thick bitumen coats (see "Part 2 •
Fundamentals"). The horizontal layer of water-
proofing must be properly joined to the vertical
layer. In order to provide extra protection, a
second waterproof layer can be incorporated
horizontally above the second course of
masonry. Only rendering made from pure
cement mortar of mortar group II may be used
in contact with the ground and on the water-
proof layers. This rendering should extend at
least 150 mm above ground level. The lime-
cement mortar rendering above this should be
separated by a slit cut with a trowel. In twin-
leaf wall construction the waterproof layer
should extend over the foundation and as far
as the top of the second course of masonry.
The outer leaf can then be built on the founda-
tion. The base course of the outer leaf must 3.21.1
include open perpends to allow moisture to
drain away. Ventilation of the outer leaf is guar-
anteed by way of open perpends in the third
course above ground level; a horizontal damp
proof course should be included below the
open perpends.
2 Facing brickwork
3 Air space
4 Wall tie
5 Rendering
9 Roofing felt
10 Stone chippings
13 Steel section
14 Foil slip joint
58 Paving to terrace
65 Waterproofing
66 Protective mat
67 Horizontal damp proof course/membrane
68 Cement mortar rendering
69 Lime-cement mortar rendering
70 Concave fillet
71 Concrete foundation
73 Reinforced concrete ground slab 3.21.2
231
Stairs
3.22.1 Internal stairs

3.22.2 Stairs at entrance to building
3.22.3 Stairs to basement
Masonry stairs inside buildings may be con-

structed using various combinations of mason-
ry unit formats depending on the pitch.
In principle, the supporting construction can
make use of loadbearing masonry walls with
segmental arches, precast concrete elements
or reinforced concrete stairs. The stair treads
are then placed on this. Detail 3.22.1 shows
treads formed from DF units laid horizontally
and also on edge.
This example shows precast concrete steps
which are incorporated without sound insula-
tion at the ends. To satisfy sound insulation
requirements, it is recommended to use a
continuous reinforced concrete stair flight with
3.22.1 sound insulation at the supports.
Masonry entrance stairs can be constructed as

a solid block located completely within the
width between the reveals of the door opening.
The size of the landing depends on the nature
of the entrance door and the design of the
entrance.
The example shown here includes a modest
landing just 490 mm deep in front of an en-
trance door opening inwards. It is essential to
provide an adequately sized foundation to the
stair block, if necessary separate to the load-
bearing construction of the basement. The
internal floor finish terminates at a steel section,
which also functions as the weather bar for the
door.
2 Facing brickwork
3 Air space
4 Wall tie
40 Floating screed
44 Open perpend
55 Wooden door with weather bar
57 Steel section as weather bar
74 Brick-on-edge course
75 Reinforced concrete treads
76 Reinforced concrete stair flight
77 Insulating masonry unit
3.22.2 78 Masonry units laid in bond in formwork
232
Stairs • Re-entrant corner
The masonry external basement stairs shown

in detail 3.22.3 are supported on a reinforced
concrete stair flight, This is cast against the soil
as a self-supporting flight spanning from top to
bottom. Normally, the basement walls and the
wall on the other side of the stairs separating
them from the soil are constructed indepen-
dently from the stairs.
The external wall to the basement in this exam-
ple makes use of English bond and is at least
240 mm thick. The facing brickwork to the con-
crete wall on the opposite side facing the soil
can be constructed similarly. The stairs are
then constructed independently between the
two walls. The joints at the sides can be left
open. 3.22.3
Re-entrant corner
3.23.1 Re-entrant corner with masonry soffit
The masonry re-entrant corner is not unknown

in masonry construction. Höger and Schu-
macher have used this particular feature on
many occasions. This detail increasingly
appears in re-entrant facades, offset storeys,
arcades and covered passages or driveways
in the examples of modern masonry construc-
tion. A one-brick-thick skin is built in a proper
bond in the bottom of the formwork for the rein-
forced concrete slab and anchored to the rein-
forced concrete with mechanical fixings. The
reinforcement is then positioned and the con-
crete slab cast on top of the brickwork. To
avoid a cold bridge, it is necessary to con-
struct the base course of the loadbearing leaf
above the floor slab using insulating masonry
units. The damp proof course in the cavity is
built into the outer leaf above the concrete
slab.
3.23.1
233
Corner
3.23.2 Horizontal section through external

corner of twin-leaf masonry
The provision of movement joints at building

corners is relevant only for the 115 mm outer
leaf. The separation of the outer leaf at the
corner which is normally carried out reveals
the thinness of the outer leaf and hence demon-
strates the - often - wallpaper-like quality of
the cladding.
However, the corner can also be built in a

proper bond. A movement joint must then be
incorporated into the main body of the wall.
When doing so, it should be ensured that the
distance between the corner and the joint does
not exceed half the maximum recommended
joint spacing. If this rule is observed, then the
joint can be located satisfactorily within the
wall.
The joint may be vertical or may zigzag (vertic-
ally) following the joints in the masonry.
In contrast to this, an example of a negative

corner incorporating a steel section is also
shown. This emphasizes the corner. The steel
section must be carefully fixed to the corner of
the loadbearing leaf.
3.23.2
Free-standing walls
3.23.3 Finishing the tops of free-standing

masonry walls
Free-standing masonry walls of facing brick-

work are usually topped by a precast concrete
coping, or a brick-on-edge or soldier course.
Good-quality workmanship with joints fully filled
with mortar (if necessary water-repellent mor-
tar) makes any further protection unnecessary.
Sheet metal cappings similar to those used on
masonry parapets (see detail 3.1.1) are, in the
opinion of the authors, not suitable in this situ-
ation.
2 Facing brickwork
3 Air space
4 Wall tie
19 Precast concrete capping
79 Movement joint
3.23.3 80 Steel angle as corner profile
234
Part 4 • Built examples in detail
Günter Pfeifer
The buildings documented on the following

pages illustrate the multitude of applications for
masonry,
Modern masonry construction has many faces.
This is reflected not only in the design of facing
brickwork and a changing architectural ex
pression, but also in the structural treatment of
slender loadbearing constructions right up to
thick solid walls used for reasons of energy
efficiency. In the choice of examples, attention
was given to the various materials used for
facades: rendering, clay, calcium silicate and
concrete bricks, and natural stone, But an
equal amount of attention was also devoted to
the resulting, different types of wall construc
tion. However, the chief criteria for selecting a
project were its engineering and architectural
qualities.
The examples shown here come from different

locations with different conditions in terms of
climate, construction law and building regula
tions. Likewise, there are also examples from
times when other thermal insulation require
ments applied. For this reason, the details
recorded here cannot necessarily be used
elsewhere without being modified to suit the
respective situation.
The typical engineering and architectural

details were selected from the planning docu
ments of the examples shown here and re
drawn in a standard format. To help in identify
ing the relationships, basic information such
as location plan, floor layouts, sections and
general explanations were added.
236
Built examples in detail - overview
External wall
Architect(s)
Material(s)
Project
Page
No.
1 238 Walter Stolz, Rosenheim House in Hallertau, D Single-leaf, rendered Lightweight clay
2 242 Hartwig N. Schneider, Stuttgart Housing complex in Ludwigsburg, D Single-leaf, rendered Lightweight clay
3 246 Rolf Ramcke, Hannover Sewage works building in Hannover, D Single-leaf Clay
4 250 Burkard, Meyer + Partner, Baden Extension to school in Gebenstorf, CH Single-leaf Clay + lightweight clay in common bond
5 256 Gunter Pfeifer, Lörrach House in Bad Sackingen, D Partial-fill cavity wall Calcium silicate / calcium silicate
6 258 Frederiksen + Knudsen, Copenhagen House in Hellerup, DK Full-fill cavity wall Clay/clay
7 262 Heinz Bienefeld, Swisttal-Ollheim House in Brühl, D Single-leaf Clay + lightweight clay in common bond
8 267 Gunter Pfeifer, Lörrach Housing complex in Lörrach, D Partial-fill cavity wall Concrete (bricks) /calcium silicate
9 272 Claus + Kaan, Amsterdam Housing complex in Groningen, NL Partial-fill cavity wall Clay / calcium silicate
10 276 Heide + Beckerath, Berlin Two apartment blocks in Berlin, D Partial-fill cavity wall Clay/calcium silicate
11 278 Hans Kollhoff, Berlin Housing complex in Amsterdam, NL Partial-fill cavity wall Clay/calcium silicate
12 284 Schattner, Schmitz, Eichstatt Extension to palace near Beilngries, D Partial-fill cavity wall Concrete (bricks) / reinforced concrete
13 288 Rudolf Hierl, Munich Youth hostel in Dachau, D Partial-fill cavity wall Concrete (bricks) / reinforced concrete
14 293 Schunck-Ullrich-Krausen, Munich School in Munich, D Partial-fill cavity wall Concrete (bricks) / reinforced concrete
15 298 Lederer, Ragnarsdóttir, Oei, Stuttgart/Karlsruhe School in Ostfildern, D Partial-fill cavity wall Clay / reinforced concrete
16 304 Ernst Gisel, Zurich Town hall in Fellbach, D Partial-fill cavity wall Clay / reinforced concrete
17 308 Hiltebrandt + Schulz, Cologne Office building in Lunen, D Partial-fill cavity wall Clay / autoclaved aerated concrete
18 311 Heinz Mohl, Karlsruhe Computer centre in Karlsruhe, D Partial-fill cavity wall Concrete (bricks) / concrete (bricks)
19 314 Haessig + Partner, Zurich Mixed-use building in Zurich, CH Full-fill cavity wall Calcium silicate / reinforced concrete
20 318 Petra und Paul Kahlfeldt, Berlin Mixed-use development in Berlin, D Full-fill cavity wall Clay / reinforced concrete
21 322 Lederer, Ragnarsdottir, Oei, Stuttgart/Karlsruhe Extension to office building in Stuttgart, D Partial-fill cavity wall Clay / reinforced concrete
22 328 Maccreanor, Lavington, London Business premises in London, GB Framework Precast concrete elements, clay facing brickwork
23 331 Hegger, Hegger, Schleiff, Kassel Business start-up centre in Hamm, D Partial-fill cavity wall Recycled clay / calcium silicate
24 334 Atelier Zeinstra, van der Pol, Amsterdam Housing complex in Amsterdam, NL Partial-fill cavity wall Clay infill panels / lightweight timber construction
25 338 Lundgaard + Tranberg, Copenhagen Housing development in Rungsted, DK Full-fill cavity wall Clay / precast concrete elements
26 342 Jesus Maria Aparicio Guisado, Madrid Apartment block in Salamanca, E Full-fill cavity wall Clay / horizontally perforated clay
27 346 Baumschlager + Eberle, Lochau Community centre in Lochau, A Partial-fill cavity wall Clay / reinforced concrete frame
28 352 Hahn, Helten, Aachen Church, community centre in Neu-Anspach, D Partial-fill cavity wall Concrete (bricks) / reinforced concrete
29 357 Raffaele Cavadini, Locarno Community buildings in Iragna, CH Full-fill cavity wall Natural stone / clay
30 360 Kaag und Schwarz, Stuttgart Bank extension in Schönaich, D Partial-fill cavity wall Natural stone / reinforced concrete
31 364 de Blacam + Meagher, Dublin Library in Cork, IRL Diaphragm wall Clay / concrete (bricks)
32 369 Adalberto Dias, Porto Faculty building in Aveiro, P Partial-fill cavity wall Clay / reinforced concrete
33 374 Eckert Negwer Sommer Suselbeek, Berlin Office building in Essen, D Full-fill cavity wall Clay / calcium silicate
34 378 Fink + Jocher, Munich Housing complex in Hannover, D Partial-fill cavity wall Clay / reinforced concrete
237
Example 1
House in Hallertau, Germany
1999
Architect:
Walter Stolz, Rosenheim
Assistants:
Georg Trengler,
Elisabeth Mehrl (colour scheme), Hofberg
Structural engineers:
Bauer Ingenieure, Landshut
The plot is located in a new development with

heterogeneous, detached family houses on the
edge of this little town in Bavaria. The house
and garage are positioned at the top end of
this gently sloping site. Together with the wall
in between, they form a boundary on the road
side and enclose the west-facing garden with
its view towards the town in the valley. The
north elevation of the main building has very
few openings but includes a glazed porch,
which acts as a climate buffer and lobby for
the entrance to the house. The living room is a
few steps below the level of the rest of the
open-plan ground floor layout in order to follow
the slope of the garden outside. The careful
choice of materials and the simple, precise
detailing have created a building that relates to
both contemporary architecture and regional
building traditions. The walls are of 365 mm
lightweight clay brickwork with three-coat lime
rendering painted sienna red. The shallow
reveals of the windows leave them almost flush
with the outside face and the amount of in
coming sunlight can be regulated by means of
louvre blinds fitted internally. The natural-colour
concrete roof tiles terminate at the eaves and
verges without an overhang, simply with sheet
metal flashings.
The pitched roof is supported on two glulam
purlins. There is glazing to part of the ridge
between these two purlins. The roof structure
appears once again above the ground floor in
the form of two steel beams spanning length
wise to shorten the span of the timber joist
floor.
238
House in Hallertau
Site layout
scale 1:1000
1 st floor
Ground floor
Sections
scale 1:250
239
Example 1
Sections
Verge
scale 1:20
1 Roof construction:
natural-colour concrete roof tiles
battens and counterbattens
roofing felt, open to diffusion
wood fibre insulation batts, 22 + 40 mm
80 x 176 mm rafters, with 100 + 60 mm
thermal insulation between
vapour barrier
16 mm spruce boarding
2 Reinforced concrete ring beam,
240 x 300 mm
3 Lightweight clay toothed bricks,
large block 8-0.8-12 DF
4 3-coat lime rendering
5 Steel angle, 60 x 190 x 10 mm,

with welded dowels
6 Timber joists, 60 x 190 mm
7 Wall heating
8 Glass fibre fabric
9 Heat-absorbing glass (2 panes of
toughened safety glass)
10 Titanium-zinc perforated sheet
11 Wall plate, 60 x 160 mm
12 Angle, 90 x 90 x 7 mm, to both sides
of rafter
13 Toughened safety glass, 8 mm
14 Stainless steel angle, 25 x 25 x 3 mm
15 Wood/aluminium window
16 Louvre blind
17 Prefabricated clay lintel
18 Drainage channel
19 Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) board,
30 mm
20 Titanium-zinc verge flashing
21 Clay channel block
240
House in Hallertau
Horizontal sections through chimney

1st floor- Ground floor
scale 1:50
22 Seat
23 Refractory clay brickwork, sharp-edge moulding, 70 mm
24 Wood-burning oven
25 2 No. 60 x 190 x 10 mm angles as support for floor joists
241
Example 2
Housing complex in Ludwigsburg, Germany
1998
Architects:
Hartwig N. Schneider, with Gabriele Mayer,
Stuttgart
Project architects:
Andreas Gabriel, Ingo Pelchen
Assistant:
Franz Lutz
This housing complex, comprising a total of

60 rented apartments distributed according to
type among the group of three-storey blocks, is
located on the eastern edge of Ludwigburg's
city centre. There is one main block over 80 m
long which faces south. Attached to this are
three L-shaped wings on the road side, whose
end facades break up the streetscape. The
open spaces between these wings contain the
entrances to the basement garages and the
outside stairs to the landscaped courtyards
over the garages.
The building follows the topography with very
small changes in height between the different
parts of the complex. Access to the apartments
is by way of various staircase arrangements or
an open walkway. All the housing units receive
daylight from at least two sides and face either
onto the semi-public courtyards or the garden
to the south. Further differentiation is provided
by the different facade elements: ribbon win
dows with sliding wooden shutters alternate
with regular fenestration, cedar-clad access
blocks contrast with the areas of dark render
ing.
The walls of the blocks comprise, in the main,
300 mm aerated clay brickwork covered with a
coloured mineral rendering. The junctions
between the areas of rendering and adjoining
elements, such as windows and plinths, are
carefully detailed. The masonry on the long
south elevation facing the garden is clad with
cedar wood elements. Similar elements serve
as sliding shutters to the room-height glazing.
The balconies are precast concrete units sus
pended in front of the facade and
provided with a thermal break.
242
Housing complex in Ludwigsburg
Location plan scale 1:2500
2nd floor • Ground floor

North elevation • Section
scale 1:750
243
Example 2
244
Housing complex in Ludwigsburg
Section through west facade 14 Floor construction:

Horizontal section through sliding glazing in 5 mm floor covering
rendered facade scale 1:20 50 mm cement screed
Section scale 1:500 0.2 mm polyethylene separating membrane
Section through south facade scale 1:20 20 mm impact sound insulation
60 mm thermal insulation
1 Aluminium track, with brushes 180 mm reinforced concrete slab
2 Toughened safety glass, 8 mm, 15 Aluminium angle, 60 x 30 x 5 mm
rear face enamelled 16 Parapet cladding: 14 mm cement-bound
3 Aluminium guide shoe, with guide wheel wood fibre board
4 Aluminium track 17 Upper track for sliding shutters
5 Wall construction: 18 Lower track
20 mm mineral rendering 19 Cedar wood shutters, 58 mm
300 mm Hlz lightweight clay bricks 20 Wall construction:
15 mm internal plaster 15 mm internal plaster
6 Lightweight clay channel block, 300 mm 240 mm Hlz lightweight clay bricks
7 Aluminium channel, 100 x 50 x 5 mm 80 mm mineral wool thermal insulation
8 Aluminium external window sill protective covering (non-woven fabric)
9 Wood/aluminium window with insulating glazing prefabricated cedar wood cladding, 58 mm
10 Reconstituted stone internal window sill 21 Timber closing piece, 220 x 48 mm
11 Toughened safety glass, 8 mm 22 Precast concrete element, coloured
12 Steel hollow section, 60 x 20 x 3 mm, galvanized 23 Balustrade of steel sections, galvanized,
13 Thermal insulation element, loadbearing colour-coated
245
Example 3
Screens and sand catcher facility to sewage

w o r k s in Hannover, Germany
1994
Architect:
Rolf Ramcke,
Hannover Municipal Building Authority
Schülke & Gerke, Erich Schulke, Hannover
Situated on the raised bank of the River Leine,

this utility building appears as a concise state
ment dominating the recreational zone of the
Leine flood plain.
This plant and processing building houses the
mechanical preliminary sedimentation of the
city's waste water. The building is divided into
two sections to match the processing of the
waste water: separating out solids by means of
coarse and fine screens and the subsequent
separation of the deposits via sand catcher
lines, as well as the collection of mineral set
tling material for further processing in the
waste water treatment plant. The waste water
passes through the two sections in open chan
nels.
The unheated processing areas have a con
stant internal temperature of 12 °C and a rela
tive humidity of approx. 90%. Added to the
extreme building science conditions are the
loads generated by the aggressive gases from
the waste water. Temperatures below the dew
point are unavoidable in this situation, which is
why all the walls were built in single-leaf facing
masonry of solid engineering bricks.
The clearly arranged complex with the external
walls and stairs matched to the main building
lives from the use of the changing colours of
the Bockhorn engineering bricks built in an
irregular bond. The small number of formal
interventions are restricted to the arrangement
of the vertical windows, which are formed with
approx. 10 mm thick profiled piers. All window
openings employ glass bricks. The south-east
corner is particularly emphasized by dog-
toothing at an angle of 45°. This sedate struc
ture with its long masonry walls and handful of
interruptions to edges and enclosures repre
sents simple but powerful industrial architec
ture. Section through screens building South elevation
Section through sand catcher Plan
scale 1.250 scale 1:750
246
Screens and sand catcher facility to sewage works in Hannover
1 Screens building
2 Screens containers
3 Sand screening
4 Sand catcher lines I and II
5 Rainwater retention basin
6 Inlet pumping plant I
247
Example 3
Section through north facade 1 Sheet metal capping vapour pressure compensation
Horizontal section through windows 2 NF engineering bricks membrane
Elevation on and section through door 3 Thermal insulation, 40 mm 200 mm lightweight concrete
scale 1:20 4 Roof construction planks
50 mm gravel 5 Floor construction:
waterproofing, 3 layers 50 mm reconstituted stone tiles
thermal insulation with 1.5% fall, 30 mm mortar bed
150-270 mm polyethylene separating membrane
vapour barrier 6 Stainless steel channel, 80 mm
248
Screens and sand catcher facility to sewage works in Hannover
249
Example 4
Extension to school in Gebenstorf,

Switzerland
1997
Architects:
Urs Burkard, Adrian Meyer & Partner, Berlin
Assistants:
Daniel Krieg, Adrian Streich
Gerber + Partner, Munich
This extension to the existing school complex

consists of two sections: a three-storey class
room wing facing south, and to the east a two-
storey block with staff-room and library plus the
school kitchen on the upper floor. The north
facade of the three-storey block forms the
boundary to the school yard and features
storey-height glazing, which permits a view of
the stairs and the internal walls with their win
dows to the classrooms. Location plan scale 1:1000 1 Library 6 Textiles workshop
The buildings, the proportions of which remind 2nd floor 2 Staffroom 7 School kitchen
us of bricks, are built entirely of masonry: 1 st floor 3 Hall 8 Dining room
Ground floor 4 Cloakroom 9 Classroom
single-leaf 610 mm external walls clad intern scale 1:400 5 Workshop 10 Group room
ally, and 250 mm internal walls with facing
brickwork on both sides. The tension which
results from the heaviness of the brick volumes
and the lightness of the glazing helps to create
this impressive architectural statement.
The 320 mm reinforced concrete floor slabs
are prestressed to support the cantilever.
Their good heat storage capacity reinforces
the simple energy concept of the building.
The single-leaf wall construction employs a
precisely specified two-layer composite. Hard
clay bricks on the outside with a bulk density of
1800 kg/m 3 have been combined with aerated
masonry units with a bulk density of 1400 kg/m 3 .
Within the masonry bond, every fourth course
of engineering bricks penetrates deeper into
the external wall. This construction achieves a
U-value of 0.34 W/m 2 K, which lies within the
statutory requirements for this type of building.
The advantages of this system found expres
sion in the architecture - the south elevation,
with tall, simple window slits and deep reveals,
does not require any sunshading. The class
room walls adjacent to the corridors also
include window openings to enable those
passing to observe the activities within. This
school has pointed a new way forward for
masonry construction in terms of the precise
implementation of the building concept and the
credibility of the design and the details.
250
Extension to school in Gebenstorf
251
Example 4
252
Section
South-east elevation
scale 1:400
Section
scale 1:200
Section through parapet
scale 1:10
1 Aluminium capping, 2 mm
2 Waterproof chipboard laid to fall, 18 mm
3 Brick-on-edge course of facing cant bricks
4 Thermal insulation, rigid expanded foam, 30 mm
60 mm gravel
waterproofing, 2 layers of bitumen sheeting
thermal insulation, 100 mm rigid expanded foam
vapour barrier
320-440 mm reinforced concrete slab
253
Example 4
254
Sections
scale 1:20
1 Wall construction:
clay facing bricks in bond with lightweight
clay bricks, 610 mm
MDF boards on timber battens
2 Plinth construction:
250 mm clay facing bricks
250 mm reinforced concrete wall
3 Floor construction:
linoleum floor covering, black
100 mm floating cement screed
250 mm reinforced concrete slab
perforated plasterboard on timber battens
4 Lintel of clay facing bricks
5 Artificial stone window sill,
painted brick red
linoleum floor covering, black
45 mm cement screed
polyethylene separating membrane
320 mm prestressed concrete slab
7 Wooden window with insulating glazing
8 Laminated safety glass, matt finish
9 Insulating glazing
10 Internal wall construction:
250 mm clay brickwork
255
Example 5
House in Bad Sackingen, Germany
1978
Architect:
Günter Pfeifer, Lörrach
Assistant:
Rolf Buhler
Structural engineer:
Jurgen Bahr, Schopfheim
This house stands on the north-west boundary

of a plot where in the past it formed a counter
weight to a villa dating from the Bauhaus era,
which has since been demolished. The owners
possess an extensive collection of contempo
rary art.
In order to provide an appropriate setting for
the paintings, with differentiated lighting, the
internal rooms are of different heights.
The shape of the house is based on a square
plan which includes large rooftop terraces on
two sides.
The garage and a pergola, which denote the
entrance, enclose a small play area in front of
the children's bedrooms. The building is set
out on a 1.25 m grid. The calcium silicate
masonry left exposed internally and externally
was whitewashed after the joints were finished
in the same operation as the bricklaying.
Just two different window sizes with blinds
behind the soldier course lintels determine the
simplistic appearance of the house.
The details which would today no longer be
acceptable from the building science viewpoint
have not led to any damage to the building
thanks to the extensive low-temperature heat
ing at ground floor level.
256
House in Bad Sackingen
Axonometric view
not to scale
Plans
Sections
scale 1:400
Section through facade

Scale 1:10
1 Titanium-zinc sheet
capping
2 Soldier course, calcium
silicate 2 DF bricks
3 Titanium-zinc flashing
gravel
waterproofing
vapour barrier
180 mm reinforced
concrete slab
5 Steel angle, galvanized,
90 x 75 x 7 mm
6 Wooden window, red
cedar with insulating
glazing
7 Louvre blind
115 mm calcium silicate
2 DF bricks, without
rendering, with white
wash finish
15 mm air space
50 mm mineral fibre
thermal insulation
2 DF bricks, with white
wash finish
18 mm quarry tiles in
thin-bed mortar
70 mm screed with
underfloor heating pipes
damp proof membrane
100 mm reinforced
concrete slab
257
Example 6
House in Hellerup, Denmark
1995
Architects:
Frederiksen & Knudsen, Copenhagen
Assistants:
Ulrik Schwanenflugel,
Carsten Nohr Larsen
Kurt Thybo, Hellerup
The captivating design of this three-storey

detached house is due to its distinctive posi
tion within the streetscape, its forecourt en
closed by masonry walls, the capacious setting
of the entrance and the clear lines of the build
ing itself. The house was sited towards the rear
of the plot in order to retain an existing bay
which determined the atmosphere of the loca
tion. The simple plan layout results from a dis
tinct north-south zoning of the functional areas
of the house. Arranging the levels of the house
offset by half a storey with respect to the sur
rounding ground level places the entrance on
the level of the children's bedrooms. Dining
area and kitchen look out onto a sunken ter
race in the garden on the southern side. The
spacious living room with fireplace is located
on the second floor; it faces south and com
mands a good view across the waters of The
Sound. The second floor also contains a study
and the master bedroom.
The skill of the design is not apparent at first
sight. The external walls of the house are con
structed from two 110 mm leaves with 130 mm
cavity insulation, while the single-leaf load-
bearing transverse wall is 170 mm thick. Pre
cast concrete planks were used for the floors,
the roof structure is of timber. Large spans, like
over the window openings of the south eleva
tion, make use of additional steel members.
The other openings have been kept small and
correspond to the structural requirements of Location plan
the 110 mm masonry. The unorthodox facade scale 1:750
arrangement is explained by the fact that the Sections
Upper floor
fenestration was chosen to suit the atmosphere
Ground floor
of the interior and provide certain picturesque Basement
views. scale 1:200
The whitewashed masonry is left exposed
internally as well, with the exception of the blue
walls to the staircase.
This project shows that careful planning, par
ticularly with respect to the building services
normally encountered in the walls, and accu
rate structural analysis can provide a future for
masonry in a "slimline" construction as well.
258
House in Hellerup
1 Lobby
2 Hall
3 Room
4 Bathroom
5 Kitchen
6 Dining area
7 Guest's bedroom
8 Wine cellar
9 Living room
10 Bedroom
259
Example 6
Section through south facade

Horizontal section through corner glazing detail
Section through north facade
scale 1:20
260
House in Hellerup
1 Sheet zinc capping 15 Reinforced plaster 28 Wooden planks, courbaril

2 Laminated veneer lumber (LVL), 16 mm 16 Corner column, 60 x 60 x 4 mm steel hollow section 29 Lightweight concrete slab, 180 mm
3 Window frame, 17 Guard rail mounted on window frame 30 Chipboard, 20 mm
50 x 100 x 3.2 mm steel hollow section 18 Roof construction: 31 Doormat
4 Floor construction: waterproofing 32 Steel open-grid flooring
20 mm wooden planks 21 mm waterproof LVL 33 Steel angle, 80 x 80 mm
50 x 50 mm timber supporting construction Firring pieces 34 Reinforced concrete wall, 135 mm
timber levelling layer 75 x 200 mm rafters
180 mm lightweight concrete slab thermal insulation, 180 mm mineral wool
5 Column, 115 mm dia. steel circular hollow section vapour barrier
6 Wood/aluminium window, with insulating glazing 50 x 50 mm battens
7 Extending marquise 13 mm plasterboard, 2 layers
8 Sliding door fittings 19 Wall construction:
9 Sliding door 115 mm clay brickwork with whitewash finish
10 Concrete paving slabs 110 mm thermal insulation
11 Floor construction: 115 mm clay brickwork with whitewash finish
20 mm natural stone tiles in varying lengths 20 Steel angle, 100x 150x 10mm
30 mm mortar bed 21 Steel angle, 7 5 x 1 0 0 x 9 mm
100 mm reinforced concrete 22 Cavity closer, 2 mm aluminium sheet
75 mm rigid mineral wool 23 Cladding, aluminium sheet
200 mm gravel 24 Steel channel, 220 mm
12 Bitumen sheeting, welded on 25 Steel angle, 50 x 30 x 4 mm, with white coating
13 Lightweight concrete brickwork 26 Glass door to lobby
14 Insulating glazing, flush with outside face 27 Entrance doors
261
Example 7
House in Brühl, Germany
1997
Architect:
Heinz Bienefeld, Swisttal-Ollheim
R. Mertens, Cologne
The fully glazed east side, together with the

roof, seems to enclose and shelter the large,
stepped masonry block. Heinz Bienefeld's
house, completed in 1997, has also become
his legacy - the archetypal form of the house in
which the experiences and thoughts of the
architect are portrayed. The stepped form of
the masonry block, adjacent to the large open
hall rising to the roof, guarantees internal per
spectives which vary from floor to floor. Our
attention is drawn again and again to the solid
masonry block. The size of this hall is made all
the more obvious by the dramatic change
between this commodious volume and the rela
tively small, separate rooms. This experience is
reflected in the appearance of the structure, in
the immediate legibility from inside and out
side.
The setting directs our view to the essential
components, to the depth of the three-dimen
sional encounter and the spatial perception.
The two longitudinal elevations of the house
exhibit very different characters. To the south
west there is the regimental fenestration of the
clay brick facade with only minor differences in
the sizes of the openings. At almost 500 mm
thick, the mass of wall with its seemingly Location plan
detached roof and multilevel lintels has an scale 1:2000
almost physical presence.
Contrasting with this is the glazed lightness of South-west elevation
Attic floor
the north-east facade, which, paradoxically, 1st floor
supports the large roof of clay tiles, which con Ground floor
veys a more heavyweight impression. How Basement
ever, the glass facade is merely a "second scale 1:250
skin", a concession to the climatic conditions. 1 Master bedroom
Inside, behind the glass, there is the external 2 Bathroom
wall of the masonry structure with the "open-air 3 Child's bedroom
stairs" leading to the upper floors, and the cas 4 Kitchen
5 Living room
cade-like profile of the brickwork.
6 Study
Bienefeld's belief that "the effects of the sur 7 Hall
faces are part of the architecture" has been 8 WC
proved to still hold true in this building with its 9 Hobby room
10 Workshop
precise detailing.
11 Sauna
262
House in Brühl
263
Example 7
Longitudinal section
through hall
North-west elevation
Section
scale 1:200
264
House in Brühl
265
Example 7
Glazed door
Elevation • Section
Horizontal section floor heating pipes
scale 1:20 80 mm thermal insulation
separating membrane
200 m reinforced concrete slab
1 Cambered arch lintel, 6 Steel channel, 40 x 35 mm,
15 mm rise integrated in steel hollow
2 Galvanized steel glazed section, 50 x 25 mm
door, micaceous iron oxide 7 Fixing lug, bent steel flat,
finish, with insulatingglazing 200 mm long
3 Column, 120 x 40 x 8 mm 8 Wall construction:
galvanized steel channel, facing bricks
micaceous iron oxide Taunus stone, NF, 115 mm,
finish with 20 mm bed joints
4 Precast concrete step 20 mm mortar wall joint
5 Floor construction: lightweight clay brickwork
clay tiles 25 mm lime plaster
60 mm mortar bed neat lime finish with
60 mm screed with under marble dust
266
Housing complex in Lörrach
Housing complex in Lörrach, Germany
1993
Architect:
Günter Pfeifer
in partnership with Roland Mayer, Lδrrach
Assistants:
Peter Bahrle, Hermann Vester,
Elke Hudetz
Greschik & Falk, Lörrach
The building is situated on a main road leading

into the border town of Lörrach. The urban
approach and the triangular shape of the piot -
brought about by its position between a fork in
the road - led to the building's striking form of
a semicircle plus a straight wing placed tan-
gentially on one side.
In keeping with the geometrical appearance,
the building is divided into two parts. First, the
semicircular section contains seven housing
units. These are arranged radially so that living
rooms and balconies face more or less west,
while access is via the semicircular courtyard
1 st floor • Ground floor
to the east. Second, there are another five scale 1:600
housing units in the straight wing. These have
basically the same internal layout but here the
units are aligned in a north-south direction, with
access via an open walkway on the northern
side and the living rooms and balconies facing
south. The positions of the small, walled gar
dens change likewise. An open
passageway at the junction between the two
blocks links the basement garages with the
courtyard. This feature is both entrance and
link, and illustrates the reversal of the layouts in
an attractive, tangible manner. The different
finishes to the external walls clarify the chang
ing alignment and hence help the observer to
comprehend the internal zoning of the building.
The three-storey south elevation makes use of
rendered 300 mm lightweight clay brickwork,
while concrete brickwork with air space, insula
tion and a 175 mm calcium silicate loadbearing
leaf was preferred for the two-storey entrance
elevation facing north. The 240 mm thick divid
ing walls to the walled gardens repeat the
exposed masonry of the access zone.
267
Example 8
Sections
scale 1:200
Elevation • Section
Concrete brickwork facade
scale 1:50
1 Concrete lintel
2 Wooden window with insulating glazing
90 mm concrete bricks in stretcher bond
40 mm air space
175 mm calcium silicate bricks
15 mm lime-cement plaster
268
Housing complex in Lorrach
269
Example 8
270
Housing complex in Lörrach
1 Window sill, titanium-zinc 9 Roof construction: 55 mm screed Horizontal sections

sheet 50 mm gravel separating membrane Concrete brick facade
2 Letter box waterproofing 60 mm thermal insulation Rendered facade
3 Entrance door thermal insulation, waterproofing, bitumen Vertical sections
4 Door threshold, 100 mm rigid expanded foam sheeting scale 1:20
5 mm galvanized steel vapour barrier 200 mm RC slab
sheet 180 mm RC slab blinding
5 Cavity closer 15 mm lime-cement plaster 17 Wall construction:
6 Wall construction: 10 Thermal insulation, 25 mm 20 mm rendering
90 mm concrete bricks 11 Wooden window with thermal insulation, 50 mm
40 mm air space insulating glazing rigid expanded foam
60 mm thermal insulation 12 Wall construction: 240 mm RC wall
175 mm calcium silicate 20 mm rendering 15 mm lime-cement plaster
bricks 300 mm Itwt clay bricks 18 Flashing, titanium-zinc sheet
15 mm lime-cement 15 mm lime-cement plaster 19 Titanium-zinc sheet, plastic-
plaster 13 Floor construction: laminated
7 Parapet capping, linoleum 20 Monopitch roof construction:
titanium-zinc sheet 45 mm screed waterproofing
8 Parapet construction: separating membrane 24 mm timber boarding
20 mm rendering 30 mm thermal insulation 120 x 180 mm rafters
thermal insulation, 35 mm 200 mm RC slab 120 mm thermal insulation
rigid expanded foam 15 mm lime-cement plaster 25 mm timber battens
reinforced concrete wall 14 Precast concrete lintel 15 mm plasterboard
thermal insulation, 25 mm 15 Blind 21 Roller blind box,
rigid expanded foam 16 Floor construction: 100 x 1 0 0 mm
waterproofing linoleum 22 Steel angle, 120 x 80 x 8 mm
271
Example 9
Housing complex in Groningen,

The Netherlands
1993
Architects:
Felix Claus, Kees Kaan, Amsterdam
Assistant:
Andrew Dawes
Ingenieurburo Wassenaar, Haren
The surrounding streets and paths determine

the urban arrangement of the whole complex,
which forms an intermittent boundary on two
sides of a triangular park open at the west end.
On the south-west side there are terraced
houses with walled gardens, while on the north
east side there are three blocks containing
apartments. These form the backbone of the
complex, split up by the intervening access
paths and play areas. On the southern side
facing the park, the apartments are fully glazed
with slim balconies. On the other side, facing
the road, the open walkways on the upper
floors are well lit via the generous expanse of
glazing. The slim apartments contain two deep
rooms facing south-west, which can be used
as living room, bedroom or study as required.
The kitchen and a further room lie on the walk
way side.
The terraced houses on the southern boundary
of the site are arranged in groups of six, separ
ated from each other by narrow access
passageways.
The loadbearing construction consists of twin-
leaf masonry walls with precast concrete floors.
The external surfaces - red facing brickwork
adjacent the alleyways, vertical timber board
ing facing the gardens and on the gables - are
skilfully related to each other. On the ground
floor the almost square houses are divided into
an entrance lobby, kitchen and living/dining
area. A winding stair leads from the lobby up to
the first floor, which contains three rooms and a
small, separate toilet, plus bathroom. The plan
layouts are such that the houses could be
divided into separate apartments on ground
floor and first floor at a later date. The apart
ment blocks are differentiated in a similar fash
ion: storey-height sliding windows in front of
glass facades on the park side, clay brickwork
to the gables. The ground floor "plinth"
facing the road is likewise built in red brick
work. A partial-fill cavity wall is used through
out, with the stretcher bond also continuing
across the lintels. The windows, with wooden
subframes and inset casements, are positioned
in the plane of the thermal insulation and air
space. They employ a contrasting colour near
the entrances and are divided up with a few
reinforced concrete elements.
272
Housing complex in Groningen
Location plan scale 1:2000 1 Existing church

Sheltered housing 2 48 sheltered housing units
West elevation • Ground floor 3 24 houses with walled gardens
scale 1:250
273
Example 9
Houses will walled gardens

Section • Ground floor
scale 1:250
Sections
scale 1:20
1 Laminated veneer lumber (LVL)

board, with bitumen sheet water
proofing
2 Open perpend
102 mm facing clay brickwork
28 mm air space
100 mm calcium silicate brickwork
15 mm plaster
4 Damp proof course
5 Steel angle, 80 x 80 x 8 mm
6 Wooden window, with insulating
glazing
7 Window sill, aluminium sheet
8 Built-in bench, precast concrete
9 Bracket, bent steel sheet,
500 x 80 mm
10 Ventilation pipe, grille in facade
11 Waterproofing, bitumen sheeting, 1 layer
274
Housing complex in Groningen
12 Thermal insulation, 60-80 mm 18 Wall construction: 19 Reconstituted stone coping

13 Reinforced concrete slab, 150 mm profiled boarding, 19 mm western red cedar 20 Movement joint, 2-3 mm
14 Reinforced clay brickwork 28 x 46 mm timber battens with cut-outs for 21 Door element
15 Precast concrete element ventilation 22 Precast concrete element
16 Reconstituted stone window sill 44 x 63 mm timber studs with built-in lights
17 Wooden window, with external lining 60 mm thermal insulation 23 Thermal insulation, 60 mm
and insulating glazing 100 mm calcium silicate masonry, 15 mm plaster
275
Example 10
Two apartment blocks in Berlin, Germany
1997
Architects:
Tim Heide and Verena von Beckerath, Berlin
Assistants:
Rainer Schmitz (project manager),
Heike Lauterbach, Wolfgang Rehn
Site manager:
Wolfgang Garsch, Berlin
Jörg Wiese, Berlin
Following on from the inter-city housing develop

ments of the 1980s, housing estates continued
to be built and added to on the north-east
boundary of Berlin after German unification.
New urban development strategies were
intended to do justice to the great demand for
housing. These two isolated blocks are part of
a general plan. The four-storey buildings with
out basements both contain three apartments
on each upper floor (each with three rooms
plus kitchen, bathroom) and two smaller apart
ments on the ground floor, which leaves space
for ancillary rooms.
The simple two-apartment format was de
veloped within the scope of the guidelines for
publicly assisted housebuilding. The staircase
and the ground floor storage rooms, which
replace cellars, form the central core. This
arrangement enables a slim plan layout and
enables occupants to utilize the space to the
full. The spacious hallways can be used for
different purposes as required and may also
be subdivided by way of a sliding door. Bath
rooms and kitchens are placed on external
walls to permit natural lighting and ventilation.
Walls of calcium silicate masonry with rein
forced concrete floors and beams form the
loadbearing structure. The outer leaf, with air
space behind, of blue-brown, facing bricks,
hard-burned almost to vitrification, forms the
finish on three sides of each block; on the
garden elevation all floors have full-width bal
conies. The masonry facades are regular and
identical. The room-height glazing is positioned
in the plane of the thermal insulation and is
combined with a sliding shutter of perforated
stainless steel and a galvanized steel
balustrade. The shutter finishes flush with the
facade and can be slid into a shallow recess in
the masonry, which results from the outer leaf
of masonry being set back into the cavity.
276
Two apartment blocks in Berlin
Ground floor • Upper floor Facade details

Section Horizontal section • Vertical section
scale 1:400 scale 1.20
1 Titanium-zinc sheet capping 8 Galvanized steel angle, 20 x 30 x 3 mm

2 Cast-in slot 9 Stainless steel sheet with elongated per
3 Wall construction: forations, 1 mm, edges not perforated
115 mm facing brickwork 10 Spandrel element of 10 x 40 mm
40 mm air space galvanized steel sections
thermal insulation, 60 mm mineral wool 11 Plastic track
or 60 mm external insulation behind sliding 12 Support bracket fixed to cast-in slot
elements 13 External insulation, 60 mm rigid expanded
175 mm calcium silicate brickwork foam
15 mm plaster 14 Reinforced concrete ground slab
4 Open perpend 15 Waterproofing, bitumen sheeting
5 Galvanized steel angle, 80 x 130 x 10 mm 16 Timber boarding, 28 mm
6 Rustproof track for twin-wheel roller 17 Rafters, 100 x 160mm
7 Galvanized steel angle, 30 x 30 x 3 mm
277
Example 11
Housing complex in A m s t e r d a m ,
The Netherlands
1994
Architect:
Hans Kollhoff, Berlin
with Christian Rapp, Berlin/Amsterdam
Heijckmann Consulting Engineers, Amsterdam
This extensive building complex, on a former

docks and industry island not far from the cen
tre of Amsterdam, is part of an urban redevel
opment programme. This programme allows
for individual large buildings to respond differ
ently to the local conditions, existing buildings
and their position in relation to the water. The
basic outline of this four- to nine-storey struc
ture is determined by an existing building on
the southern side of the plot.
There are more than 300 apartments access
ible via a network of staircases, various open
walkways and individual stairs. The very deep
apartments in most cases receive daylight from
both sides when they are not located on one of
the - sometimes - very long access corridors.
The entire building complex was built using
twin-leaf facing masonry with 100 mm hard-
burned bricks. Standard stretcher bond was
used throughout, even for the single-leaf
240 mm facing masonry of the balcony walls
and the walls adjacent the open walkways. In
these instances two 115 mm walls were built,
one directly behind the other, and the under
sides of balconies and loggias adapted to suit
the window lintels. Therefore, the entire build
ing has been given a consistent masonry tex
ture which reinforces the placid immensity of
the complex. The edges of the roofs are fin
ished with folded aluminium sheet with the
gutters placed internally. The wooden windows
are set back in the plane of the insulation, while
the steel windows to the loggias are fitted flush
with the masonry facade in a steel lining with
peripheral ventilation joint. The folding mech
anism of these windows allows them to be
opened outwards and thus create an ever-
changing pattern, which animates this huge
sculpture.
278
Housing complex in Amsterdam
North elevation
4th floor • Ground floor
scale 1:1250
Section
scale 1:400
Sections through verge and eaves
scale 1:10
1 Aluminium sheet capping

2 Galvanized steel flat, 20 x 2 mm
3 Open perpend
100 mm variegated blue facing bricks, hard-burned
35 mm air space
thermal insulation, 65 mm rockwool
150 mm calcium silicate brickwork
5 Joints recessed 5 mm
6 Sheet aluminium roof covering,
with double-lock welted joints
7 Cleat
8 Laminated veneer lumber (LVL), 10 mm
9 Vapour barrier, 0.15 mm
10 Thermal insulation, 80 mm mineral wool
11 Aluminium sheet capping
12 Aluminium sheet gutter
13 LVL, 18 mm
14 Timber section, 146 x 71 mm
15 Galvanized steel flat, 40 x 6 mm
16 Calcium silicate brickwork, 150 mm
17 Thermal insulation, 40 mm rockwool
50 mm cement screed
19 Thermal insulation,
multilayer lightweight board,
with plaster, 60 mm
20 Rainwater downpipe, 125 mm NB
279
Example 11
280
Section through external wall

Horizontal sections through corners of building with steel
windows: 76.58° - 144.92° - 158.38°
Elevation on steel window
Horizontal section through steel window
scale 1:20
208 mm variegated blue facing bricks,
hard-burned
2 Joints recessed 5 mm
3 Open perpend
4 Rainwater downpipe, 125 mm NB
cement screed laid to falls, coated
cut-out for drainage
6 Steel angle
7 Titanium-zinc sheet flashing
8 Compressible sealing strip
9 Steel window, powder coated,
4 mm toughened safety glass
10 Steel angle, 150 x 150 x 15 mm, with slip joint
11 Steel angle, 4 0 x 2 0 x 4 mm
12 Steel channel, 40 x 20 x 4 mm
13 2 No. steel angles, 40 x 20 x 4 mm
281
Example 11

scale 1:20
1 Steel angle support bracket

2 Dolomite stone coping to balcony
wall, anchored
3 Balcony wall, 208 mm facing bricks
4 Balcony floor slab, precast concrete
element with 1.5% integral fall, with
thermal break
5 Wooden window, red cedar, with
insulating glazing
6 External window sill, dolomite stone
100 mm facing bricks
35 mm air space
thermal insulation, 65 mm rockwool
100 mm calcium silicate gauged
brickwork
8 Thermal insulation, lightweight build
ing board, with plaster, 180 mm
9 Loggia floor construction:
20 mm dolomite stone floor covering
thin-bed mortar
bitumen sheeting, 2 layers
282
283
Example 12
Extension to Hirschberg Palace near

Beilngries, Germany
1992
Architects:
Karljosef Schattner
and Karl-Heinz Schmitz, Eichstatt
Sailer, Stepan, Bloos, Munich
The symmetrical palace structure dating from

the 18th century stands on a narrow hilltop and
therefore offered little scope for any extension.
This completely refurbished building is used by
the church for spiritual exercises and educa
tion. Besides extensive conversion work, a
new annex was built to accommodate kitchen,
dining hall and storage facilities.
The new section is positioned in front of the
south wing of the palace and is partly built into
the side of the hill. A row of tall concrete
columns supports the long, slim structure clear
of the slope and hence emphasizes the con
trast with the strictly uniform, rendered finish to
the palace. Fair-face concrete and concrete
bricks for the outer leaf of the partial-fill cavity
wall underline the independence of the new
structure. A long, narrow, steel-and-glass hall
provides a clear demarcation between old and
new.
The outer leaf is clearly distinguished from the
rest of the construction; there is an air space
behind and therefore the leaf is positioned
40 mm proud of the reinforced concrete wall
and the row of columns. Grey steel angles
mark the corners of the facing brickwork, and
a steel channel forms an elegant finish to the
top of the walls. The deeply recessed, narrow,
vertical window slits are also framed in grey
steel which projects beyond the facade and so
conveys the impression of very precisely locat
ed cut-outs. The steel external stair employs a
particularly delicate construction in order not to
disturb the careful balance between harmoniz
ation and independence.
All these clear, simple details lend the annex a
lightness and obvious language which is quite
distinct from that of the old palace.
284
Extension to Hirschberg Palace near Beilngries
Location plan scale 1:2000 1 Baroque entrance

Section scale 1:250 2 Glass hall
Ground floor 3 Kitchen
scale 1:500 4 Dining hall
285
Example 12
286
Extension to Hirschberg Palace near Beilngries
Vertical section through external wall 1 Steel channel, 280 mm

scale 1:20 2 External wall construction:
South elevation concrete bricks, 200 x 200 x 90 mm
scale 1:250 40 mm air space
Axonometric view 60 mm thermal insulation
not to scale 160 mm reinforced concrete
Detail of parapet 3 Steel angle, 100 x 65 x 9 mm
scale 1:5 4 Screw fixing, M12
Window 5 Steel channel, 140 mm
Elevation • Vertical section • 6 Steel T-section, 50 mm
Horizontal section 7 Sheet steel capping, galvanized, 2 mm
scale 1:20 8 Timber section, 100 x 60 mm
9 Thermal insulation, 60 mm
10 Reinforced concrete lintel
11 Window: steel frame with insulating
glazing in sheet steel lining
12 Steel angle support bracket
287
Example 13
Youth hostel in Dachau, Germany
1998
Architect:
Rudolf Hierl, Munich
Assistants:
Peter Hofman (project manager),
Dominik Fischer, Maleen Fromm,
Nadja Herrmann, Michaela Oswald,
Jeannette Quecke, Ulrike Rechler,
Bernhard Schambeck, Oliver Schubert,
Tanja Wienecke
Hans Tischner, Dachau
This facility, run by the German Youth Hostels

Association, is more than just a youth hostel.
Situated near the former Nazi concentration
and extermination camp, it acts as a centre for
getting to grips with the dark side of Germany's
history. The architectural form is intended to
reflect both the functions of the building but
also this special task. Apart from the main
building, there is also a building for the staff
and the separate "Raum der Stille" (Room of
Silence). These three structures frame a tran
quil inner courtyard - a garden and structured
space, which is ideal for understanding and
experiencing the serious issues that dominate
this place. The restrained architecture
responds to its surroundings by limiting the
materials used to timber and facing brickwork
of light-coloured concrete bricks. The texture
of the building emphasizes the low-rise, elon
gated form; both in terms of the size and the
style of the facade. The main building covers a
large area and so two storeys are adequate. It
measures 24.5 x 60 m and is arranged as two
parallel blocks either side of a central circu
lation zone. The architectural setting distin
guishes between the different materials. For
instance, on the west side of the building, the
wooden recesses for windows and sunshades
on the ground floor are juxtaposed with the
concrete masonry lintels and spandrel panels
of the upper floor. Placing the masonry above
the timber is a reversal of our customary ideas
and introduces a different reality to challenge
the perception of the observer. This is an artis
tic contrivance for reminding us of the special
importance of this place. The wall construction
is conventional - partial-fill cavity wall with
outer leaf supported on individual brackets -
but incorporates special details that emphasize
and preserve the restful uniformity of the
stretcher bond. Such details include the mortar
joints raked out to a depth of 15 mm and the
movement joints which zigzag to follow the
bond.
288
Youth hostel in Dachau
Ground floor 1 "Raum der Stille"

Upper floor 2 Staff accommodation
Sections 3 Hall
scale 1:600 4 Dining room
5 Seminar room
6 Cafeteria
7 Reception
8 Management
9 Library
289
Example 13
Section through east facade A

scale 1:20
1 Canopy construction:
0.7 mm titanium-zinc
sheet metal roof covering,
with standing seams
bitumenized non-woven glass fibre
sheeting
welded bitumen sheeting, 1 layer
24 mm timber boarding
battens to form fall
precast concrete element
2 Wedge-shaped insulation, with foil, 45°
3 Gravel, 40/50 mm
4 Flat roof construction:
80 mm vegetation layer
filter, 5 mm non-woven fabric
40 mm drainage layer
waterproofing, 2 mm PVC
thermal insulation, 140 mm rigid
expanded foam
welded bitumen sheeting, 1 layer
bituminous undercoat
5 Lining to opening, larch, 20 mm,
glazed finish
6 Wooden window, larch,
glazed finish, insulating glazing
7 Roll-over stop, steel channel,
70 x 60 x 1 mm
90 mm concrete bricks, water-repellent
60 mm air space
thermal insulation, 80 mm mineral fibre
9 Joints, water-repellent,
recessed 15 mm
reinforcement to some bed joints
10 Support for masonry outer leaf,
individual brackets
12 Insect screen,
perforated aluminium sheet
13 Multiplex board, veneered, 16 mm
14 Wooden window, oak, glazed finish,
nsulating glazing
15 Terrace construction:
20 mm reconstituted stone pavings
60 mm screed, reinforced
separating membrane, 0.2 mm poly
ethylene sheeting
expanded foam
welded sheeting, 2 layers
bituminous undercoat
screed laid to 1.5% fall
16 Grating, galvanized, 40 x 3 mm
18 Waterproof reinforced concrete,
300 mm
19 Plinth construction:
60 mm precast concrete element
expanded foam
welded bitumen sheeting
20 Precast concrete parapet
21 Wall construction, timber stud wall:
16 mm multiplex board
30 x 50 mm battens
0.2 mm airtight membrane
19 mm chipboard
140 x 60 mm timber studs
vapour barrier, aluminium foil
20 mm chipboard, maple veneer
290
Youth hostel in Dachau
Section through parapet 26 Removable lining to window 30 Wall construction

Horizontal sections opening, laminated veneer lumber 20 mm timber boarding
scale 1:20 (LVL), 136 x 1 5 mm 20 mm timber battens
27 Internal plaster, 20 mm airtight membrane
28 Built-in cupboard 120 x 80 mm timber studs
22 6 mm laminated safety glass + 29 Wall construction, return wall: thermal insulation,
8 mm toughened safety glass 20 mm multiplex board 120 mm mineral fibre
outside 0.2 mm airtight membrane vapour barrier, 0.4 mm poly
23 Precast concrete element, 120 x 100 mm timber studs ethylene sheeting
150 x 180 mm therm, insulation, 100 mm min. fibre 30 mm multiplex board
24 Thermal insulation, 60 mm rigid vapour barrier, 0.4 mm poly
expanded foam ethylene sheeting
25 Clay brickwork internal wall, 20 mm multiplex board, screwed
plastered both sides, 115 mm and glued to timber frame
291
Example 13
292
School in Munich
School in Munich, Germany
1999
Architects:
Schunck-Ullrich-Krausen, Munich
Project partner:
Norbert Krausen
Project manager:
Martin Kerling
Assistants:
Robert Kellner, Martina Wulf
Structural engineers
Sailer, Stepan & Partner, Munich
Location plan scale 1:4000
The ensemble of buildings forming this primary

school is well spaced out on this site on the
outskirts of Munich. To the south there is a
landscaped noise barrier screening the school
from the adjacent railway line, and to the east
and north-west the school is bounded by hous
ing. The random arrangement of the long, low-
rise buildings defines courtyards and semi-
enclosed spaces, thereby allowing the school
to mesh with its surroundings.
The quality of the architecture is evident on the
inside as well, with brightly lit passages and
corridors, which structure the layout and incor
porate the landscape, as well as in the careful
design and construction of the details.
The different facades are part of an energy
concept: while the classrooms facing south
employ full-height glazing (which leads to cor
responding solar gains), the other facades are
mainly built using a highly insulated solid con
struction. Their appearance is governed by the
partial-fill cavity wall with concrete brick (290 x
190 x 90 mm) outer leaf built in a variation of
raking stretcher bond.
The building materials used have essentially
been left untreated. Inside, the rough concrete
bricks contrast with the few wooden surfaces
and a number of coloured elements which
have been very carefully and discreetly incor
porated. Outside, the concrete surfaces, the
concrete bricks, the galvanized steel and the
light-coloured anodized aluminium window
frames enter into a dialogue with the green
surroundings.
Using minimal architectural means, the school
succeeds in conveying an impression of play
ful and charming attractiveness. The masonry
units of this building, left untreated, give the
school a "tangible" texture.
293
Example 14
1 Indoor play area 6 Workshop

2 Classroom 7 Sports hall
3 After-school supervision 8 Void
4 Multipurpose room 9 Staffroom
5 Music room 10 Management
294
School in Munich
Upper floor • Isometric view of buildings

Ground floor Isometric view of facade
scale 1:1000 not to scale
295
Example 14
1 Monopitch roof construction: 2 Flat roof construction:

corrugated aluminium sheeting, 100 mm vegetation layer
177 x 55 mm 20 mm drainage mat, with non-woven
50 mm battens and counterbattens fabric
waterproofing, 3 mm bitumen 15 mm structure protection mat
sheeting waterproofing, 5 mm plastic sheeting,
24 mm timber boarding resistant to root penetration
80 mm air space 120 mm rigid expanded polyurethane
thermal insulation, 160 mm mineral insulation
fibre vapour barrier
vapour barrier, polyethylene sheeting 200 mm reinforced concrete slab, top
28 mm timber boarding surface cast to 2% fall
glulam purlin, 1 4 x 8 mm 3 Internal wall, concrete bricks, white,
steel beam, IPE 270 290 x 190 x 190 mm
296
School in Munich
Section through hail

scale 1:400
Section through clerestory over internal wall
section through external wall
scale 1:20
Section through classroom wing
Section through sports hall
scale 1:400
5 mm linoleum
55 mm cement screed, reinforced
separating membrane, polyethylene
sheeting
10 mm impact sound insulation
5 Damp proof membrane on ground floor
slab, 200 mm reinforced concrete slab
6 Thermal insulation, 100 mm rigid
expanded foam
25 mm natural stone tiles laid in thin
bed
65 mm screed
separating membrane, polyethylene
sheeting
50 mm multiplex lightweight mineral
building board
8 Aluminium gutter
9 Post-and-rail facade:
50 mm laminated veneer lumber (LVL),
birch, clear lacquer to exposed face
insulating glazing, aluminium cover
profile, natural-colour anodized
10 Column, steel circular hollow section,
82.5 dia. x 3.6 mm
11 Aluminium sheet, natural-colour
anodized
12 LVL rail, birch, 530 x 50 mm
13 Reinforced concrete slab, 350 mm
outer leaf of concrete bricks, white,
raking stretcher bond 290 x 190 x 90 mm
50 mm air space
thermal insulation, 60 mm mineral wool
15 mm internal plaster
15 Open perpend
16 Precast concrete beam,
300 x 90 x 2585 mm
17 Reinforced concrete corbel,
210 x 250 x 250 mm
297
Example 15
School in Ostfildern, Germany
1999
Architects:
Arno Lederer, Jorunn Ragnarsdottir, Marc Oei,
Stuttgart/Karlsruhe
Assistants:
Judith Haas (project manager),
Alexander Mayer-Steudte (project manager),
Ulrike Hautau, Cornelia Hund
Muller + Muller, Ostfildern
Scharnhauser Park is a redevelopment scheme

on the site of a former military barracks. The
north-east boundary of the site is a sweeping
curve - determined by the new rapid transit
light railway line. The design for this new
school originated from a competition. The
curving boundary is integrated in the outside
facilities of the school and the structures clear
ly follow the grid of the development plan.
The school building itself, with three storeys in
the south and two in the north, is a simple twin
parallel block system with a central, longitud
inal circulation zone, which is broken up by the
single flights of stairs of fair-face concrete and
the circular rooflights. The bright upper floor
benefits from the rooflights in the V-shaped
roof, which like the stairs follows the longitud
inal axis. The windows to the classrooms are
no larger than is necessary to admit sufficient
daylight. This is both a contribution to thrifty
and energy-efficient construction, and this sim
ple, strict design rule leads to a clearly defined
interface between interior and exterior. For
reasons of cost, an inexpensive brick fired in a
circular kiln was chosen whose edges are not
so sharp and whose colour can vary from light
brown to light red. During bricklaying, attention
was given to producing wide joints finished in
one operation with the bricklaying. The sand-
coloured mortar was deliberately "smeared"
almost amateurishly, which resulted in a rough,
coarse surface finish. This texture was contin
ued internally along the corridors; merely at the
entrances to the classrooms was this surface
somewhat "improved". There is a large school
yard between the main building and the sports
hall, terraced to follow the slope of the land.
This resulted in a close harmony, partly brought
about by the homogeneity of the material.
298
School in Ostfildern
Location plan
scale 1:2500
Upper floor • Ground floor
East elevation
Section through school building
scale 1:800
299
Example 15
Section
scale 1:20
Section through school building
scale 1:400
Horizontal section
through northlight roof
scale 1:20
300
0.7 mm titanium-zinc sheet, with standing seams
80 x 80 mm counterbattens (80 mm air space
between)
200 x 120 mm rafters (200 mm mineral fibre
insulation between)
200 x 120 mm purlin
24-32 mm oriented strand board (OSB)
vapour barrier, 0.4 mm polyethylene sheeting
12.5 mm plasterboard
extensive planting,
min. 120 mm vegetation layer
protection and storage mat
waterproofing, bitumen sheeting, 2 layers, top layer
resistant ,to root penetration
vapour barrier
3 Parapet capping, 0.7 mm titanium-zinc sheet
4 Timber section
5 Thermal insulation, 60 mm mineral fibre
6 Open perpend
7 Blind, natural-colour aluminium, 50 mm
8 Bracket, stainless steel angle
9 Aluminium window with insulating glazing
10 Window sill, MDF board, lacquered
11 Window sill, bent 3 mm aluminium sheet,
front edge rounded
115 mm clay facing brickwork
45 mm air space
250 mm reinforced concrete wal
15 mm internal plaster
13 Movement joint
14 External insulation, 120 mm
15 Damp proof course
16 Parquet flooring, oak, 20 mm
17 Support bracket, stainless steel sheet
18 External insulation, 80 mm
301
Example 15
Section through sports hall

scale 1:400
Section through east facade of sports hall
scale 1:20
302
1 Roof construction: 9 Profiled structural glass

30 mm sports ground artificial piaying 10 Cover, stainless steel sheet, 3 mm
surface 11 Thermal insulation, 60 mm mineral fibre
separating membrane, non-woven 12 Waterproofing, welded bitumen
glass fibre, 1 layer sheeting, 2 layers
75 mm reinforced concrete plank 13 External insulation, 60 mm
drainage layer of 20 mm closed-cell 14 Concrete plinth
polyethylene foam 15 Junction with ground, with
waterproofing, welded bitumen surface drainage
sheeting, 2 layers, top layer resistant geotextile covering
to root penetration gravel
thermal insulation, 80 mm rigid protective layer to waterproofing
expanded polyurethane waterproofing, bitumen sheeting,
welded bitumen sheeting, diffusion- 2 layers, top layer resistant to root
resistant penetration
180 mm reinforced concrete slab thermal insulation, 100 mm foamed
2 Cover, stainless steel sheet, 3 mm glass
3 Timber section vapour barrier
4 Parapet capping, titanium-zinc, 250 mm reinforced concrete slab
1.5 mm 16 Wall construction:
5 Support bracket 60 mm laminated drainage board
6 Frost-resistant clay facing bricks, non-woven fabric protection
115 mm 80 mm external insulation
7 Reinforced concrete wall, 250 mm bitumen paint
8 Frost-resistant clay facing bricks, 240 mm 300 mm reinforced concrete wall
303
Example 16
Town hall in Fellbach, Germany
1987
Architect:
Ernst Gisel, Zurich
Assistants:
Othmar Brugger, Heinrich Gerster,
Harry Moor, Heinz Schmid, Leo Schweitzer
Site manager:
Peter Zimmermann, Filderstadt
Heinrich Bechert, Fellbach
"Architecture that creates the town." Ernst Gisel's

work in Fellbach could be viewed in this light.
The prosperous town of Fellbach with its fast-
growing population and the usual outgrowths
of the 1950s and 1960s, also not unknown in
other towns, was looking for a nucleus. The
area around the Lutheran church, once shield
ed by a fortified wall, provided an adequate Location plan
scale 1:1500
setting for the 1979 competition to redesign the
Section • Ground floor
centre of the town. The brief was to "create, scale 1:750
together with a marketplace, not only a centre
for the local authority but also a lively zone
which would be frequented by the citizens".
The jury chose Gisel's design because of its
"agreeable matter-of-factness". Well struc
tured, clearly arranged, decisive in its lan
guage, Ernst Gisel's solution makes excellent
use of both the internal and external spaces of
this urban node, clarifying and structuring the
outer contours. The configuration of the inner
courtyards with their small alleyways and the
square in front of the town hall themselves pro
vide a high urban quality.
It seemed a natural choice to opt for a twin-leaf
masonry construction with a 240 mm load-
bearing outer leaf. However, the thickness of
the thermal insulation used would these days
no longer satisfy the statutory requirements.
The building exploits the advantages of a self-
supporting masonry wall to the full: lesenes,
corbels and columns in real masonry bond,
robust detailing at the window reveals, plus
masonry stairs and semicircular arches.
The masonry is complemented by natural
stone for the window sills and lintels as well as
for the clearly differentiated plinth.
Designed in an age of flourishing post
modernism, the architect has created an authen
tic setting without superfluous comments which,
owing to its internal and external spatial quali
ties, its correct use of the materials and atten
tion to detail, has lost nothing of its topicality.
304
Town hall in Fellbach
1 Town square 8 Room for civil marriage

2 Garden ceremonies
3 Marketplace 9 Council services
4 Lutheran church 10 Offices
5 Churchyard 11 Information centre
6 Main entrance 12 Restaurant
7 Foyer 13 Cafe
14 Shop
305
Example 16
bb
Section
scale 1:750
Part-elevation • Section
scale 1:20
1 Cold deck roof construction, 5.4° pitch:

copper sheet roof covering, 670 x 0.7 mm,
double-lock welted joints
roofing felt
160 x 80 mm rafters
air space
reinforced concrete waffle slab,
with white cement
2 Trim, 0.7 mm copper sheet
3 Closure strip, 60 x 40 mm
4 Lower trim, 0.7 mm copper sheet on
building paper
5 Flashing, 0.7 mm copper sheet
6 Wall plate, 120 x 120 mm
7 Soldier course, NF facing bricks
8 Reinforced concrete upstand beam
9 Stone coping to lesene, Lodrino gneiss
10 Thermal insulation, 50 mm mineral fibre
11 Damp proof membrane
12 Fixing plate, galvanized steel, 140 x 5 mm
13 Stone lintel, Lodrino gneiss
14 Box for sunshade, 1.5 mm copper sheet
15 Cavity closer as inspection flap, 1.5 mm copper
sheet, fixed with stainless steel screws in sleeves
16 Wooden window, with insulating glazing
17 Column, 300 mm dia.
18 Water channel
19 Stone window sill, Lodrino gneiss
240 mm yellow facing bricks in English bond
42 mm air space
100 mm in-situ concrete spandrel panel
steel sheet cladding to spandrel panel
21 Waffle slab, reinforced concrete,
with white cement
22 Guide cable for sunshade
23 Window sill, 1.5 mm copper sheet
24 Steel angle, 55 x 75 x 5 mm, galvanized
25 Cladding to plinth, Maggia granite, exposed
surfaces knapped, 50 mm
306
Town hall in Fellbach
307
Example 17
Office building in Lünen, Germany
1995
Architects:
Hillebrandt + Schulz, Cologne
Kleinwechter, Dortmund
This office building is located on a new busi

ness estate in Lunen on the north-eastern edge
of Germany's Ruhr district.
The design brief of the municipal building
authority called for "a road-side facade of fac
ing brickwork". The architects responded with
a long, low-rise building on this slightly elevat
ed plot in which the "facing brickwork" stipula
tion became an agenda: a subtly designed,
articulate building which attains a high quality
with respect to daylighting through the special
arrangement of the openings. Each elevation of
the structure responds differently to the envi
ronment. At the north-west corner the glass,
framed in steel, protrudes quite noticeably from
the building. On the south side the windows
extend over two storeys and are framed by
projecting brickwork. The small staircase foyer
has walls which vary in thickness and an over
sized window with splayed reveals, which pro
vides a special setting for the lighting and view
of the outside. The differentiated building
design is accompanied by well-thought-out
window details and rooflights in the form of
semi-cupolas at a regular spacing. The primary
loadbearing construction consists of 300 mm
lightweight concrete masonry which is given a
coat of gypsum plaster and in some areas fin
ished with several coats of lime plaster. The
window lintels are of in-situ concrete insulated
with polystyrene. Thin-format Wittmunder peat-
fired clay bricks in a random bond are
employed for the 115 mm facing brickwork of
the outer leaf. There is a 50 mm air space
behind the outer leaf. Located in front of the
ground floor meeting room is a
terraced pond feature with masonry walls; the
play of light on its surface is an agreeable
reflection of the atmosphere of the interior. The
use of a single masonry material throughout
fuses the building and the car park and
entrance steps into one entity and conveys the
notion of spaciousness as a subtle means of
representation.
308
Office building in Lünen
1st floor • Ground floor

scale 1:500
Sections
scale 1:250
scale 1:20
1 Masonry frame in trass cement

3 Steel window, with insulating
glazing
4 Panel construction:
15 mm cement rendering,
flush with window, painted
thermal insulation, multiplex
lightweight board, 50 mm
facing bricks, Wittmunder
peat-fired clay DF, 115 mm
50 mm air space
300 mm lightweight concrete
masonry, with skim plaster coat
309
Example 17
Section through east facade

Section through west facade
scale 1:20
cement rendering, reinforced,
finished with several coats of
smooth, coloured lime rendering
thermal insulation, multiplex light
weight board, 50 mm
250 mm reinforced concrete lintel
15 mm internal plaster, painted
2 Steel window, with tilting opening
light, insulating glazing
3 Bitumen waterproofing
carpet
60 mm screed
vapour barrier
5 Steel window in steel flat reveal
6 Wooden reveal, laminated with
damp proof membrane
7 Thermal insulation, 50 + 30 mm
rigid expanded foam
310
Computer centre in Karlsruhe
Computer centre in Karlsruhe, Germany
1992
Architect:
Heinz Mohl, Karlsruhe
Project manager:
Peter Litzlbauer
Assistants:
M. Bertram, K. Bohm, H. Dobbeling, G, Dδring,
N. Fostiropolous, S. Hirschfeld, R. Preisser,
S. Ozcam, J. Schneider, M. Wagner, I. Walser,
T. Weiler
Site management:
Stieff + Trunzler, Karlsruhe
Ingenieurgruppe Bauen, Karlsruhe
Location plan
scale 1:2000
The fan-shaped structure of the city of Karls

ruhe, radiating out from the palace, is domin
ated by this late-Baroque or classicistic ideal
istic plan. Within this historical radius, the
shape and proportions of every new develop
ment must comply with this overriding geo
metry. However, respect for the city does not
exclude the use of modern forms of construc
tion and modern materials, as the example of
the computer centre makes abundantly clear.
This striking building of facing masonry is situ
ated in the direct vicinity of the well-known
church designed by Friedrich Weinbrenner.
The number of storeys and height of the eaves
match the neighbouring buildings. But the
large rooftop structures and set-back features
of the surroundings are also reflected in the
new building, true to scale and with a new
interpretation.
The primary loadbearing construction consists
of a reinforced concrete frame with infill panels
of concrete bricks. The bricks are left exposed
on the spandrel panels and some of the intern
al walls. Concrete bricks were also chosen for
the 90 mm outer leaf (with air space behind),
The consistent masonry bond lends the facade
an even texture. Merely the lintels over win
dows, doors and other openings are empha
sized by the brick-on-end courses. The com
plex details at the junctions have been worked
out exactly and in harmony with the pattern of
the bond. This also applies to the overhanging
canopies at the top of the facade, the taller
building sections rising above roof level, and
the precast concrete elements, both decorative
and structural.
The restrained colouring of the different shades
of grey used - from the light grey concrete
bricks to the anthracite window frames - binds
this structure into the context of the city without
denying its independent character.
311
Example 18

scale 1:100
Isometric view of eaves cornice
not to scale
312
Computer centre in Karlsruhe

scale 1:20
1 Concrete bricks, white,

290 x190 x 9 0 mm
2 Precast concrete element
3 Rainwater hopper,
with overflow
4 Insulating glazing on steel
framework
5 Stainless steel wall tie with
insulation clip and drip disc
6 Concrete brick lintel, 90 mm
7 Support bracket, steel angle
8 Aluminium window, colour-
coated, with insulating glazing
concrete bricks, white,
290 x190 x 9 0 mm
50 mm air space
thermal insulation,
60 mm mineral fibre
240 mm concrete bricks as
infill panels in reinforced
concrete frame
10 Open perpend
11 Damp proof course, bitumen
sheeting on stainless steel
sheet as support
12 Waterproofing, bitumen
sheeting, 2 layers
13 Rigid thermal insulation
14 Loadbearing reinforced
concrete structure
313
Example 19
Mixed-use building in Zurich, Switzerland
1993
Architects:
Haessig + Partner, Zurich
Felix B. Haessig, Peter C. Haessig,
Bruno Clausen
Schubiger AG, Zurich
The north-west boundary of the grounds to

Zurich Hospital is denoted by a loosely spaced
row of buildings. One of the gaps was filled
with two new structures positioned at a slight
angle to each other, one with apartments, the
other with laboratories, joined by a glazed
access block. The geometry and alignment of
both buildings follow the existing lines of the
surrounding buildings. The architectural lan
guage of the two components is related but
varied slightly to reflect the different functions.
In terms of volume and scale they echo the
regular urban structure of the existing building
stock. Like the neighbouring structures, there
is a plinth which can adapt to the existing
topography. Clad in granite slabs, the plinth
forms a common foundation to the two build
ings; likewise, the large overhanging eaves
create a common termination to the walls. To
establish a difference, the western uppermost
story is set back and provided with a cladding
of corrugated aluminium sheeting. The remain
ing facades are, in the main, of calcium silicate
bricks, 120 mm thick, built in stretcher bond.
There is an air space and 100 mm of thermal
insulation between the facing brickwork of the
outer leaf and the reinforced concrete load-
bearing structure. Window lintels, mullions and
sills comprise precast concrete elements clad
in 30 mm thick calcium silicate brick slips. All
the masonry is pointed throughout with a grey
cement mortar, even at the junctions between
the prefabricated and in-situ walls, to create
the impression of a seamless masonry struc
ture. The interior of the building also employs
prefabricated facing masonry erected with the
same precision as the exterior.
314
Mixed-use building in Zurich
Section
1st floor • Ground floor
scale 1:400
315
Example 19
Horizontal section through windows

Horizontal section through plinth at entrance
Horizontal section through standard storey at entrance
Section through staircase wall
scale 1:20
1 Aluminium window,
micacious iron oxide
finish, with insulating
glazing
2 Window sill, calcium
silicate element
3 Reinforced concrete
mullion with calcium
silicate cladding
bricks
40 mm air space
thermal insulation,
100 mm mineral wool
5 Steel angle,
1 0 0 x 3 0 x 3 . 5 mm
6 Canopy construction:
titanium-zinc sheet roof
covering, 0.7 mm, with
double-lock welted
joints
roofing felt
100 x 40 mm timber
boarding screwed to fin
7 Steel angle,
30 x 30 x 4 mm
8 Corrugated aluminium
sheeting, mill-finished,
1 8 x 7 6 mm
steel beam, IPE 240
thermal insulation,
140 mm mineral wool
void
vapour barrier
18 mm plasterboard
10 Sunshade, fabric blind
11 Reinforced concrete
lintel with calcium
silicate cladding
12 Steel angle,
120 x 60 x 12 mm
13 Stainless steel bracket
316
Mixed-use building in Zurich
5 mm linoleum
95 mm cement screed
10 mm impact sound
insulation
280 mm reinforced
concrete slab
15 Calcium silicate
brickwork, 120 mm,
without plaster
16 Aluminium section, stove
enamelled, with insulat
ing glazing
17 Plinth wall construction:
40 mm granite slabs,
retaining
and fixing anchors of
stainless steel
100 mm thermal
insulation
180 mm reinforced
concrete
18 Steel beam, HEA 140
19 Steel circular hollow
section, 101.6 dia. x 5 mm
with 140 x 140 x 10 mm
plates top and bottom
20 Glascrete element
21 Copper sheet
22 Concrete paving slab,
40 mm
extensive planting
waterproofing, bitumen
sheeting, 3 layers
40 mm spruce boarding
tapering timber joists,
140-180 x 100 mm
steel beam, IPE 240
thermal insulation,
140 mm mineral wool
suspended ceiling
317
Example 20
Mixed-use development in Berlin, Germany
1996
Architects:
Petra and Paul Kahlfeldt, Berlin
Assistants:
Anja Herold, Christoph Haag,
Yves Minssart, Michael Fuchs,
Jörn Potting, Thomas Kalber, Conor Moran,
Frauke Hellweg, Martin Oestlund
Ingenieurburo Fink, Berlin
This ensemble of residential and commercial

buildings - "Engelhardt Hot" - lies in a densely
developed inner-city district in the immediate
proximity of Charlottenburg Palace.
The surrounding buildings originate from the
second half of the 19th century and survived
the war more or less undamaged. The plot
within this block belonged to a brewery up until
the mid-1980s. After production ceased, only
the original office building and warehouse
remained.
The new development is divided into three
parts. At the north-west corner a block with
offices forms the transition from the surround
ing housing to the inner courtyard, a U-shaped
commercial development joins on at the fire
walls, and an apartment building echoes the
historical perimeter block d e v e l o p m e n t - and
in so doing closes off the courtyard to the
south.
The common design feature linking all the
buildings is the masonry of light-yellow facing
bricks. The external walls are full-fill cavity
walls. The different facade treatments, corres
ponding to each building's utilization, distin
guish the appearance of the whole complex.
The office building has an outer leaf in header
bond with an inset steel-and-glass facade
which leads from the public road to the court
yard. The external, fixed glazing protects the
delicate wooden windows behind against the
effects of the weather and offers sound and
thermal insulation. The opening lights of the
inner leaf provide a means of natural ventilation
for the offices.
In contrast, the masonry construction of the
commercial block in the courtyard is reduced
to little more than a frame with infill panels
comprising generous expanses of glazing in
wooden frames. The outer leaf here on these
facades has become columns and lintels in
English bond. The side of the apartment block
facing the landscaped inner courtyard has
been given continuous balconies; the large Location plan
areas of glazing are broken up vertically by scale 1:4000
narrow columns of facing brickwork. On the Upper floor • Ground floor
road side the coupled windows are set into the scale 1:1000
Section
rendered facade. scale 1:500
318
Mixed-use development in Berlin
319
Example 20
Section through balcony • Insulating glazing to office building

Horizontal section • Vertical section
scale 1:20
1 Precast concrete element, 15 Waterproofing, bitumen

1203 mm sheeting
2 Thermal insulation, 100 mm 16 Roof waterproofing, bitumen
3 Wooden window, 3-part, sheeting, 3 layers
with insulating glazing 17 Thermal insulation, 140 mm
4 Divider, acrylic 18 Vapour barrier
5 Rainwater downpipe, 70 mm dia. 19 Reinforced concrete slab,
6 Steel section, 3 0 x 3 0 mm 200 mm
7 Steel section, 20 mm 20 Gutter
8 Steel section, 120 x 10 mm 21 Reinforced concrete upstand
9 Anchor plate, 150 x 100 x 10 mm 22 Thermal insulation, 30 + 30 mm
10 Grating, cast iron, to cover 23 Steel bracket for supporting
drainage channel outer leaf
11 Wall construction: 24 Blind
115 mm facing brickwork 25 2 No. steel sections, with single
100 mm thermal insulation glazing
vapour barrier 26 Ventilation
240 mm reinforced concrete wall 27 Wooden window, with
12 Parapet capping, zinc sheet insulating glazing
13 Timber section, 300 x 40 mm 28 Reinforced concrete column,
14 Concrete, 200 x200 mm, as 240 x 240 mm
crenellations at 900 mm centres
320
Mixed-use development in Berlin
321
Example 21
Extension to office building in Stuttgart,

Germany
1998
Architects:
Arno Lederer, Jorunn Ragnarsdottir, Marc Oei,
Stuttgart/Karlsruhe
Assistants:
Marko Garcia-Barth, Sabine Birk,
Andy Brauneis, Oliver Cyrus, Roland Göppel,
Alt Hoinkis, Thilo Holzer, Marc Losch,
Alexander Mayer-Steudte, Boris Miklautsch,
Dorothee Strauss
IBA - Acaturk + Kiesel, Stuttgart
The new building extends the headquarters of

the local power company, which dates from
the 1970s. That structure, by the architects
Kammerer, Belz, Kucher + Partner, was the
expression of a technically oriented architec
ture, which emphasized the very latest materi
als. The loadbearing framework is clad in glass
and dark, anodized aluminium panels. Ventil
ation and climate control are mechanical.
In contrast to this, the architects of the exten
sion designed a passive, ecological energy
concept. The great mass of the building with
its multilayer external skin - with clay facing
brickwork and reinforced concrete loadbearing
Location plan
structure - achieves, on the one hand, a high
scale 1: 2000
thermal inertia, and on the other, forms a ther Sections 2nd floor
mal buffer between interior and exterior by way scale 1: 1000
of the coupled windows.
The confines of this urban site made it neces
sary to accommodate the offices on the sides
with good lighting. Specially developed
coupled windows guarantee, besides addition
al protection against heat, the desired degree
of sound insulation and natural ventilation.
The building envelope is formed by a partial-fill
cavity wall with a 115 mm anthracite-colour
clay brickwork (KMz 28/1.8 NF) outer leaf. The
plinth makes use of particularly resistant bricks
and rounded specials are used adjacent the
entrance doors. Each storey of the stretcher-
bond masonry is supported on stainless steel
brackets adjustable for height. The cavity
measures 125 mm in total - 80 mm thermal
insulation plus 45 mm air space. Pointing of the
walls was carried out in a second operation
using coloured mortar - white for the bed joints
and black for the perpends. The anthracite
bricks with their light metallic sheen and the
two-colour pointing gives the extension a very
special character but also allows it to blend
1 New extension
harmoniously with the existing building, 2 Existing building
322
Extension to office building in Stuttgart
323
Example 21
324
Section through restaurant 3 Lighting units forming top of lobby:

scale 1: 100 2 panes of glass, sand-blasted
Entrance lobby fluorescent tubes
Vertical section 4 Steel angle as support to outer leaf
Horizontal section of facing brickwork
scale 1:50 5 Canopy with drainage channel,
in-situ reinforced concrete
115 mm facing brickwork
45 mm air space
1 Barrel-vault roof construction (with 15 mm internal plaster
extensive planting): 7 Floor construction:
200 mm vegetation and drainage layer mat in matwell (non-slip steel tray
non-woven fabric as protection and with drainage)
filter 60 mm thermal insulation
protective mat, granulated rubber 250 mm reinforced concrete slab
waterproofing, 2 layers 8 300 mm reinforced concrete wall
thermal insulation, 100 mm foamed glass 9 Lobby element:
waterproof sheeting as temporary roof doors in steel frame
covering door leaves of steel with wooden
150 mm lean-mix concrete planks and glass elements
2 Loadbearing column, 490 x 490 mm
facing brickwork
325
E x a m p l e 21
Section through corridor

adjacent offices
Horizontal section through alcove
in office
Horizontal section through
coupled window
scale 1:20
1 Acoustic ceiling panels:

removable slit MDF
boards laminated with
non-woven fabric, foam
absorber
2 Energy-saving fluores
cent bulbs
3 Plasterboard, 12.5 mm
4 Loudspeaker
5 Laminated veneer
lumber (LVL) board,
beech, removable for
inspection
6 Concrete lintel
7 Facing brickwork,
yellow, 115 mm
8 Cavity floor with carpet
floor covering, removable
access panels adjacent
doors
326
9 Fresh-air vent 15 Parapet capping, coated 18 Louvre blind

10 Pull-out "pharmacist's steel sheet, 4 mm 19 Glass louvres, 10 mm
cupboard", LVL board, 16 Wall construction: toughened safety glass
beech 115 mm facing brickwork 20 Aluminium section
11 Concrete column 45 mm air space 21 Insulating glazing
12 Door element, beech thermal insulation, 22 Window frame, LVL,
veneer, with side lights 80 mm mineral wool beech
13 Open shelving 250 mm reinforced concrete wall 23 Drive motor
14 Stainless steel section 17 Cover plate, powder-coated 24 Cupboard unit, LVL
with strip lighting aluminium, 2 mm, black board, beech
327
Example 22
Business premises in London, UK
1998
Architects:
MacCreanor Lavington Architects, London
Assistants:
Tim Anstey, Marie Brunborg, Alexis Burrus,
Nichola Dunlop, Jeremy King,
Richard Lavington, Gerard MacCreanor,
Aidan Williams
Andrew Greig, Graham Ling, London
This building is situated at the south-west

corner of Hoxton Square. It is integrated into
an existing block and is only visible on three
sides: to the east, facing the square, to the
north, facing the inner courtyard, and via a
narrow section facing Coronet Street to the
west.
The plan layout is skilfully organized on the
southern side of the plot between the three
opportunities for admitting daylight and the
small, additional lightwell. The retail premises
on the ground floor take the form of a semi
basement and so accommodate the different
heights of the adjoining streets. The extra-high
first floor compensates for these topographic
differences and therefore possesses a special
facade structure. Columns and lintels 325 mm
thick clad in dark clay brickwork were sus
pended in front of the reinforced concrete con
struction as prefabricated facade elements.
The bricks were in some cases formed as half-
channels in the production process for the pre
fabricated elements.
Additions to the lintels above the ground floor
and to a number of wall sections were con
structed using suspended half-brick-thick
cladding and at the parapet with 240 mm load-
bearing clay brickwork walls. The thermal
break is always positioned between the pre
fabricated facade and the loadbearing struc
ture. The lintels above the window openings
divide up the stretcher bond with horizontal
lines. Emphasizing the effect of the seemingly
continuous columns with the intervening win
dow lintels makes the nature of the assembly of
the cladding very clear. The choice of materi
als and the careful but restrained detailing
round off the architectural character.
328
Business premises in London
2nd floor • 1st floor

Ground floor • Section
scale 1: 400
Location plan
scale 1: 2500
329
E x a m p l e 22
Axonometric view of facade

structure 6
not to scale
Section through facade 7
scale 1: 20
1 Precast concrete column,

with brick cladding
2 Positioning/fixing bolts
3 Stainless steel brackets,
with elongated holes
4 Stainless steel section, 10
cast into precast element
5 Stainless steel bracket, 11
cast into precast element
6 Parapet coping, precast
concrete
7 Damp proof course
8 Beam, precast concrete, 12
with brick cladding,
325 x 450 mm
9 In-situ reinforced
concrete slab, 350 mm
10 Steel flat, galvanized,
200 x 8 mm, as load-
bearing rail at steel 14
window, frame galvan
ized and powder
coated, with insulating 15
glazing, 24 mm
11 Steel flat, galvanized,
150 x 8 mm, as load-
bearing post
12 Balustrade of steel flats,
galvanized and powder
coated
13 Heating pipes in floor
duct 16
14 Steel open-grid flooring,
galvanized
15 Aluminium plate, 4 mm
16 Sliding doors in frame of
steel sections, galvan
ized and powder coated,
with insulating glazing
17 Stainless steel support
bracket
18 Clay bricks with stainless
steel support system
17
18
330
Business start-up centre in Hamm
Business start-up centre in H a m m , Germany
1998
Architects:
Hegger Hegger Schleiff, Kassel
Project manager:
Gerhard Greiner
Assistants:
Achim Dahl, Berit Schaal, Tobias Schaffrin
Reinhold Meyer, Kassel
Services engineers:
Hausladen, Kirchheim bei Munchen
Sections
Ground floor
scale 1:1000
This business start-up centre was built on one

of the countless former industrial sites that
today are being put to new uses. The aim of
this project was to provide assistance for eco
logically oriented manual trades and service
companies in the building industry. The com
plex consists of a four-storey office block and a
number of two-storey units grouped around a
courtyard. These units can be divided in a vari
ety of ways and so can accommodate up to
24 businesses.
The four-storey office block, with circulation
zone along one side, consists of 240 mm calci
um silicate masonry with composite floors of
boards laid on edge cast in concrete. The
partial-fill cavity walls were constructed using
recycled bricks from demolished buildings.
The lintels were formed from bricks in stretcher
bond supported on a steel angle in order to
highlight the rows of windows. These are
placed in the plane of the thermal insulation.
Junctions with partitions are characterized by a
cladding of wooden panels. The sunshades
are clearly visible beneath the lintels in front of
the windows.
The units are based on a steel framework with
infill panels, also of recycled clay bricks. Their
barrel-vault roofs comprise curved glulam ribs
with thermal insulation between and extensive
planting as the roof finish.
This ecologically oriented project was investi
gated and optimized with respect to the energy
balance (consumption figures as well as pri
mary energy consumption during production of
building materials). One of the outcomes of this
was the use of a four-storey air collector over
the windowless south-east facade. An earth
channel ensures that the air is precooled in
summer. Thanks to the use of recycled facing
bricks with their vivid colouring and irregulari
ties, this building helps to remind us that this
location was once the home of the local colliery.
331
Example 23
Unit facade Section through office block

Section • Elevation scale 1: 250
scale 1: 50 Section through facade
scale 1: 20
332
Business start-up centre in Hamm
1 Post-and-rail facade, glu- 12 Wall construction;

lam, cover strips of oiled 217 x 1 0 0 x 6 6 mm
oak, steel beams with recycled bricks
brackets 50 mm air space
2 Recycled bricks, 240 mm airtight membrane
3 Reinforced concrete 90 mm thermal insulation
ground slab, waterproof, 240 mm calcium
250 mm silicate brickwork
4 Dome rooflight 15 mm internal plaster
5 Parapet capping, zinc 13 Mortar filling, 50 mm
sheet 14 Thermal insulation,
6 Roof construction: 80 mm foamed glass
50 mm vegetation layer 15 Concrete, waterproof,
sheeting, resistant to root 220 mm
penetration 16 Roof construction:
waterproofing extensive planting
22 mm plywood sheeting, resistant to
240 mm thermal insulation root penetration
160 x 240 mm glulam rib, waterproofing
barrel-vault segment 100 mm thermal
vapour barrier insulation
22 mm plywood vapour barrier
7 Open perpend 260 mm timber-
8 Angle bracket reinforced concrete
9 Acrylic shell for aluminium composite roof
sunshade 17 Internal window sill,
10 Wooden window, grey laminated veneer
glazed finish, with insulat lumber (LVL) board,
ing glazing birch, 30 mm
11 External window sill, zinc
sheet
333
Example 24
Housing complex in A m s t e r d a m ,
The Netherlands
1998
Architects:
Atelier Zeinstra, van der Pol, Amsterdam
Project architect:
Herman Zeinstra
Assistants:
Harriet Dil, Martin Fredriks, Sjoerd Landmann,
Mechthild Stuhlmacher
Bouwstart, Amsterdam
Development of the two peninsulas of Sporen-

borg and Borneo for inner-city housing in the
eastern part of Amsterdam's dockyards began
in 1987. The docks here had not been used for
many years and the buildings were occupied
by squatters and artists. Refurbishment had
been planned since the 1970s and was long
overdue. The master plan rigorously pre
scribed a three-storey blanket development
disected by parallel streets every 30-40 m.
The development plan provided for a number
of different types of housing which, however,
had to comply with very strict rules. For
instance, the ground floor had to be 3.5 m high
in order to guarantee alternative uses, and
each building had to occupy an entire plot,
including parking and external facilities. And all
the facades had to be uniform - finished with
the same type of brick.
The "back-to-back" apartments do not have
individual carports but a garage within the
block instead. The constricted plan layouts
measuring 4.2 m wide and 14.5 m long are lit
via a patio. The second floor contains one bed
room, a small bathroom and a rooftop terrace.
The short spans enable the use of 190 mm
reinforced concrete slabs spanning transverse
ly which are supported on the 230 mm con
crete party walls. Consequently, the external
walls on the south and north elevations can be
of a lightweight timber construction.
Nevertheless, the stipulation to use bricks was
complied with by constructing the infill panels
between the glulam beams and columns in
110 mm facing brickwork. Opening panels are
incorporated in the side of a recess in the
south facade. Fixed windows are positioned
flush with the loadbearing timber members.
The elegant interplay between brickwork, tim
ber and glass lends these buildings their spe
cial character.
334
Location plan 1 Hall 4 Living room 7 Bedroom

scale 1: 7500 2 Storage 5 Kitchen 8 Bathroom
Sections 3 Garage 6 Patio 9 Terrace
Ground floor • 1st floor • 2nd floor
scale 1: 200
335
Example 24

Horizontal section through recess in facade
scale 1: 20
1 Parapet trim, aluminium section, 19 Thermal insulation, 50 mm rigid

40 mm dia., coated expanded foam
2 Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) 20 Sheeting, water-repellent
board, 18 mm 21 Capping, bent sheet steel
3 Fibre-reinforced cement 22 Upstand, gas concrete, 100 mm
board, 16 mm 23 Waterproofing, 2 layers
4 Open perpend 24 Thermal insulation, rigid
5 Foil, water-repellent expanded foam with integral
6 Thermal insulation, falls
75 mm mineral wool 25 Sheet steel brackets at
7 Wall construction: 1000 mm centres
100 mm facing brickwork 26 Steel angle, 100 x 120 x 10 mm
48 mm air space 27 Flashing, lead sheet
foil, water-repellent, open to 28 Steel angle, 90 x 90 x 10 mm
diffusion 29 Fixing bolts
timber post-and-rail construction, 30 Glulam beam, impregnated,
119 x 3 8 mm 353 x 110 mm
thermal insulation, 120 mm glass 31 Wall construction:
wool 100 mm facing brickwork
vapour barrier, polyethylene 45 mm air space
sheeting thermal insulation, 75 mm
12.5 mm plasterboard mineral wool
8 Sole plate 230 mm reinforced concrete
9 Thermal insulation, 32 Glulam column, 316 x 110 mm
80 mm mineral wool 33 Construction of opening panel:
10 Fixing anchor, steel angle, cast in 20 mm profiled boards
11 Reinforced concrete slab, 190 mm 15 mm air space
12 Steel angle, 1 4 0 x 4 0 x 8 mm, foil, water-repellent, open to
fixed to slab diffusion
13 Floor finish, 50 mm thermal insulation, 70 mm rigid
14 LVL board, 12 mm expanded foam
15 Steel angle support vapour barrier
16 LVL board, 15 mm LVL board, 12 mm
17 Ribbed reinforced concrete floor
18 Precast concrete element, 30 mm
336
337
Example 25
Housing development in Rungsted,

Denmark
1999
Architects:
Boje Lundgaard & Lene Tranberg,
Copenhagen
Assistants:
Henrik Schmidt, Niels Friis, Sδren Aabling,
Merete Adler
Birch & Krogboe, Copenhagen
Bel Colle Park is located near the town of H0rs-

holm in the vicinity of The Sound amid an
undulating landscape with a good stock of
large, mature trees. Locally, it is one of the
most sought-after areas among house-buyers.
The group of 18 two-storey semidetached
properties is arranged to follow the topography
of the site.
The land slopes down towards the south-east
and in doing so forms a shallow depression.
The houses have been carefully placed
between the existing trees towards the top of
the slope. Access is by means of a private
driveway (cul-de-sac) on the northern side
which curves to follow the topography.
Two types of house are available: semi
detached with or without bay. Further differ
ences are evident in the shape of the windows
and in slight variations to the living rooms,
which leads to minor differences in the usable
space available. Each block of two houses is
divided in the centre and the plan layouts are
mirrored. Only the rooms on the first floor could
be assigned alternative uses.
The loadbearing internal and external walls of
the buildings comprise 120 mm precast con
crete elements, the non-loadbearing walls gas
concrete panels. Hollow concrete planks form
the upper floors and the roof structures are of
timber. The loadbearing leaf of the external
wall is enclosed by 150 mm cavity insulation,
while the 115 mm outer leaf of facing brickwork
employs stretcher bond with flush joints. The
windows, partly fixed lights, partly opening out
wards, are positioned flush with the outside
face of the masonry. The cantilevering bays
are supported on steel columns and beams.
These buildings with their light-coloured facing
masonry, long overhanging eaves and simple
timber details blend in harmoniously with their
natural surroundings.
338
Housing development in Rungsted
Location plan
scale 1: 20000
Type 1
Upper floor
Ground floor
Type 2
Upper floor
Ground floor
scale 1: 250
339
Example 25
340
Housing development in Rungsted
Sections
scale 1: 250
scale 1: 20
1 Timber section, 95 x 45 mm 10 Wall construction:

2 Timber section, 240 x 35 mm 115 mm facing brickwork
3 Roof construction: 150 mm thermal insulation
standing seam roof covering, zinc vapour barrier
sheet 120 mm reinforced concrete
roofing felt 11 Damp proof course
laminated veneer lumber (LVL) 12 Shallow lintel, clay
board, 16 mm 13 Rendering, 20 mm
220 mm rafters 14 Lightweight clay bricks,
200 mm thermal insulation 150 x 90 mm
between rafters 15 Lightweight clay bricks,
vapour barrier 190x400mmm
20 mm boarding 16 Timber section, oak
20 mm battens 17 Floor construction:
13 mm plasterboard parquet flooring on supporting
4 Timber section, 50 x 50 mm members
5 LVL board, 12 mm, waterproof damp proof membrane
6 Zinc flashing reinforced concrete slab
7 Single glazing, fixed 18 Plasterboard, 13 mm
8 Hardwood frame, oiled, with 19 Window sill, MDF board, 30 mm
insulating glazing
9 Thermal insulation, 30 mm rigid
expanded foam
341
Example 26
Apartment block in Salamanca, Spain
1998
Architect:
Jesus Maria Aparicio Guisado, Madrid
Assistants:
Luis Ignacio Aguirre Lopez,
Daniel Huertas Nadel,
Hector Fernandez Elorza,
Carlos Pesqueira Calvo
Valeriano de Diego
This apartment block is situated in Santa Marta

de Tormes, a suburb of the Spanish university
town of Salamanca. Set amid the typical apart
ment block architecture, it stands out conspic
uously from its surroundings.
This is a crisp-outlined, five-storey block, one
side of which abuts a neighbouring building.
Four red-brick masonry storeys are supported
on a rough-finish concrete plinth. The central
section is characterized by the restrained
fenestration. The long ribbon windows at the
ends continue around the corners of the open
end of the building and terminate on the nar
row side. This four units per floor layout with its
elongated stair shaft contains well-structured
apartments, each with three large, separate
rooms of almost equal size plus a spacious liv
ing area with kitchen, bathroom, storage space
and built-in cupboards.
The entrance lobbies are small but functional
and well proportioned.
The top storey, with its large openings framed
in concrete, guarantees a conspicuous
appearance. Therefore, this storey stands out
clearly from the others, signalling a usage dif
ferent to that of the standard floors.
There are only two apartments on the top floor.
These were given an additional external zone,
with enough space for a rooftop garden and
even a small pool for each apartment, by plac
ing the external walls to the apartments back
within the building. The enclosing masonry
walls create a private, courtyard-type area. The
large openings in the outer walls permit gener
ous views of the surroundings. The quality of
this apartment block lies in such carefully
formulated, uncommon spatial situations. Their
effect is reinforced by the use of just a few,
coordinated materials and simple details.
342
Apartment block in Salamanca
Top storey
Standard storey
Sections through top storey
scale 1:400
Location plan
scale 1:3000
343
Example 26
344
Apartment block in Salamanca

scale 1:20
1 Upside-down roof construction: screed laid to falls, max. 120 mm

gravel 240 mm reinforced concrete slab
thermal insulation, 40 mm rigid 20 mm plaster
expanded foam 5 Balustrade, 12 mm laminated safety glass
waterproofing 6 Reveal, fair-face concrete
screed laid to falls, 140-80 mm 7 Wall construction:
240 mm reinforced concrete slab 115 mm clay brickwork, flush mortar joints
15 mm plaster 15 mm plaster fill, water-repellent
2 Fixed glazing, 12 mm laminated thermal insulation, 60 mm glass wool
safety glass 70 mm air space
3 Floor construction, top storey: 70 mm horizontally perforated clay bricks
natural stone slabs, 20 mm plaster
600 x 300 x 20 mm 8 Roller shutter box
20 mm mortar bed 9 Aluminium window, stove enamelled,
20 mm sand with insulating glazing
10 mm levelling mortar 10 Spandrel wall construction:
45 mm precast concrete tiles 115 mm clay brickwork, flush mortar joints
sleeper walls 15 mm plaster fill, water-repellent
240 mm reinforced concrete slab thermal insulation, 60 mm glass wool
20 mm plaster 70 mm horizontally perforated clay bricks
4 Roof construction, terrace: 20 mm plaster
natural stone slabs, 11 Floor construction, standard storey:
600 x 300 x 20 mm natural stone slabs, 600 x 300 x 20 mm
sleeper walls, precast concrete 20 mm mortar bed
elements 20 mm sand
thermal insulation, 30 mm rigid 240 mm reinforced concrete slab
expanded foam
expanded clay, max. 55 mm on
waterproofing
345
Example 27
Community centre in Lochau, Austria
1998
Architects:
Baumschlager & Eberle
Karl Baumschlager, Dietmar Eberle,
Lochau
Project manager:
Rainer Huchler
Ernst Mader, Bregenz
The centre of the rather rural-looking town of Location plan

Lochau at the eastern extremity of Lake Con scale 1:2000
2nd floor
stance is dominated by a busy throughroad 1 st floor
carrying traffic to and from the nearby border. Ground floor
Situated on this road are the church, the coun North elevation
cil offices, a number of small hotels and the South elevation
scale 1:400
new, detached vicarage. This clarifies in a sim
ple way the spatial relationships both to the
church and to the surrounding houses, lending
structure and intensity to the urban planning of
the centre of the town. This no-nonsense build
ing solves problems of function and architec
tural form within its simple structure.
Two arcades help to overcome the change in
levels at the edge of the church square, but 1 Arcade
2 Entrance
also create a reference point for the
3 Youth activities
streetscape, the open square. At street level 4 Shop
there is a shop behind the arcade; the floor 5 Forecourt to vicarage
above contains the large parish hall, which 6 Foyer
7 Parish hall
looks out onto the forecourt to the vicarage.
8 Kitchen
The hall can be divided into two sections by 9 Parish secretariat
way of a glazed sliding partition. The facades 10 Choir room
of the building are plain, without recesses or
projections, the windows flush with the outside
face. They convey the impression of a homo
geneous envelope enclosing the building.
Merely the arcades provide texture and depth.
The loadbearing construction of the building
consists of a reinforced concrete frame with
floors of hollow concrete planks. Timber stud
walls form the infill panels to the frame - with
columns on a 3.0 m grid. Therefore, the
120 mm outer skin had to be built as a free
standing masonry leaf extending the full height
of the building. The brickwork is connected to
the concrete frame via stainless steel anchors.
All lintels are carried on stainless steel angles
so that the stretcher bond of the facing brick
work and hence the structure of the envelope
is maintained throughout. Along the arcades
the brickwork skin is reduced to a 25 mm brick
slip cladding to the concrete lintels. This
cladding, in a slightly different colour, is also
carried around the corners of the building to
match.
346
C o m m u n i t y centre in Lochau
347
E x a m p l e 27
Sections
scale 1:400
348
C o m m u n i t y centre in Lochau
Horiz. section through door-pier junction Section

Horizontal section through pier-fixed scale 1:20
glazing junction
1 Wall construction: thermal insulation, 80 mm mineral wool

127 mm facing brickwork anchored to 360 mm hollow concrete planks, with
concrete frame skim coat and paint finish
40 mm air space 6 Ventilation slot
thermal insulation, 60 mm glass wool 7 Facing brickwork, 115 mm, with
concrete frame: 200m concrete horizontal reinforcement every
beams/columns 4th-5th course
15 mm thermal insulation 8 Timber stud wall construction:
12.5 mm plasterboard 5 mm hardboard
vapour barrier 120 x 60 mm timber studs
12.5 mm plasterboard, with skim coat thermal insulation, 120 mm mineral wool
and paint finish 18 mm oriented strand board (OSB)
2 Thermal insulation, 100 mm rigid services plane, with thermal insulation,
expanded foam 50 mm mineral wool
3 Silicone joint 12.5 mm plasterboard
4 Wooden window, opening light, oak, vapour barrier
with triple glazing 12.5 mm plasterboard, with skim coat
5 Floor construction: and paint finish
100 mm oak planking 9 Stainless steel Z-section, with
60 x 80 mm timber battens elongated holes
349
Example 27
350
Community centre in Lochau
Section through arcade facade

Horizontal section through window
Horizontal section through fixed glazing
scale 1:20
1 Parapet capping, stainless steel sheet 4 Concrete upstand

2 Multiplex board, 25 mm 5 Lintel, precast concrete, clad
3 Roof construction: in 25 mm brick slips
50 mm gravel 6 Concrete column,
waterproofing 230 x 250 mm, with facing
thermal insulation, 200 mm rigid brickwork cladding
expanded foam 7 Thermal insulation,
vapour barrier 120 mm rigid expanded foam
screed laid to falls 8 Reinforced concrete wall,
360 mm hollow concrete planks, with waterproof, 250 mm
skim coat and paint finish
351
Example 28
Church and community centre in

Neu-Anspach, Germany
1998
Architects:
Hahn Helten Architekten, Aachen
Assistants:
Harald Schafer (project manager),
Bettina Noppeney, Jutta Pieper, Dirk Lenzner,
Bettina Horn, Gregor Dewey
Stoffler-Abraham-Fath, Darmstadt
The new community centre with church and

parish hall is located in the immediate proxim
ity of the market-place. The scale of this large,
detached cube integrates well with the hetero
geneous architecture of the town centre. The
design and shape of the church structure pro
vides an unobtrusive setting for introspective
quietness.
The glazed foyer links the two blocks roughly
equal in size: the introverted church on one
side, the community centre with offices, meet
ing rooms and apartments on the other. The
internal layout is determined by the spacious
foyer. A glazed partition with large, glass slid
ing screens to the church, and the common
roof construction create a visual bond. When
the sliding screens are open, the foyer serves
as an extension to the church.
Besides the graphic configuration of the overall
building, the two parts are also distinguished
by the choice of facade material and the open
ings. Reinforced concrete walls constitute the
primary loadbearing structure. These enable
diverse openings for windows and loggias to
be positioned as required. The facades of the
two parts are different: the almost completely
plain surfaces of the church structure contrast
with the carefully worked rendered surfaces
with their precisely located windows. The ren
dered surfaces conceal a "thermoskin" with
mineral fibre insulation. Parapet cappings and
window reveals make use of narrow aluminium
sheets. The church employs a partial-fill cavity
wall construction; blocks of Norwegian white
concrete were used for the outer leaf.
One essential charm of this fine material differ
entiation lies in the treatment of the white mason
ry. The even stretcher bond is given a pattern
by the graphic arrangement of the necessary
movement joints. In each case the bond
restarts at the joint. The corners were built in
bond in such a way that the observer is given
the impression of a continuous external skin.
352
Church and community centre in Neu-Anspach
Section 1 Foyer
Upper floor 2 Church
Ground floor 3 Sacrament house
scale 1:500 4 Parish hall
Section 5 Parish secretariat
scale 1:200 6 Meeting room
7 Apartment
353
Example 28
Section through roof

Section through facade to church
Horizontal section through window slit
scale 1:20
354
Church and community centre in Neu-Anspach
1 Parapet capping, 0.8 mm zinc sheet 5 Aluminium sheet, 3 mm,

2 Wall construction: bent to suit
90 mm white concrete bricks 6 Floor construction:
60 mm air space 20 mm natural stone slabs
thermal insulation, 80 mm mineral fibre 20 mm mortar bed
250 mm reinforced concrete 50 mm cement screed
95 mm air space separating membrane, 0.2 mm
115 mm white concrete bricks polyethylene sheeting
3 Angle bracket, 8 mm stainless steel impact sound insulation, 60 mm
4 Aluminium window, with insulating glaz rigid expanded foam
ing, inner pane of 8 mm laminated 200 mm reinforced concrete slab
safety glass, sand-blasted 50 mm thermal insualtion
355
Example 28
Corner window to church 5 Fresh-air duct, 500 x 300 mm,

Horizontal section • Vertical section sheet steel, galvanized
scale 1:20 6 Wall construction:
15 mm mineral rendering
1 Stainless steel angle, 8 mm 120 mm thermal insulation
2 Aluminium sheet, 3 mm, bent to suit 240 mm reinforced concrete wall
3 Aluminium window, with insulating glazing, 15 mm internal plaster
inner pane of 8 mm laminated safety glass,
sand blasted
4 Ventilation grille, 50 x 15 x 2 mm aluminium
sections
356
Community buildings in Iragna
Community buildings in Iragna, Switzerland
1995
Architects:
Raffaele Cavadini, Locarno
Assistants:
FabioTrisconi, Silvana Marzari
Giorgio Masotti, Bellinzona (town hall),
Paolo Regolati, Minusio (chapel),
Walter Perlini, Lodrino (square design)
Located between St Gotthard and Bellinzona

in the Ticino Alps, a traditional granite mining
district, this community was given several new
buildings to meet the needs of today's infra
structure but provide a respectful complement
to the old, intact, village structure. One after
the other, the chapel, the town hall and the
square in the southern part of Iragna were
realized by the same architects. The use of
the local stone with its powerful texture illus
trates the bond between the new structures
and the history of the village. Using simple
building geometries they relate to the character
of the village, although the structures them
selves are a deliberate, contemporary com
ment on their surroundings.
The highlighting of structural elements, like the

plinth in fair-face concrete or the exposed
edges of the floors, serve as a stylized archi
tectural link between tradition and modernism.
This approach makes possible large ribbon
windows on the town hall, likewise large panels
of glass bricks. With outer leaves of natural
stone, the buildings generate a reference to
the authenticity of the village without intruding.
The twin-leaf external walls are made from
squared gneiss stones, insulation and plas
tered clay brickwork. The hammer-dressed
natural stone masonry in Roman bond is built
using cement mortar and a galvanized rein
forcing lattice in front of the 80 mm thick ther
mal insulation. The floors which pass through
the walls and act as supports are provided with
strips of insulation internally (a form of con
struction which is hardly feasible on the north
side of the Alps owing to the climate and the
strict regulations). Therefore, it is possible to
see the stone masonry wall not as a mere
envelope but also in its structural capacity.
Location plan
scale 1:3000
1 Piazza della Posta Vecchia
2 Chapel
3 Town hall
357
Example 29
Town hall
2nd floor
1st floor
Ground floor
North elevation
Sections
scale 1:400

scale 1:20
60 mm gravel
protective membrane, non-woven fabric
waterproofing and thermal insulation of 80 mm in-situ
plastic foam
15 mm gypsum plaster
2 Capping, 0.2 mm copper sheet
3 MDF board, 15 mm
gneiss stone, 200-500 x 100-170 x 100-250 mm
cement mortar with galvanized reinforcing lattice
thermal insulation, 80 mm in-situ foam
10 mm parquet flooring
70 mm cement screed
separating membrane
6 Fair-face concrete surface
7 Thermal insulation, 30 mm rigid expanded foam
8 Window sill, 40 mm reconstituted stone
9 Column, steel circular hollow section, 200 dia, x 5.6 mm
10 Glass bricks, 200 x 200 x 80 mm
11 Steel channel, 1 2 0 x 8 0 x 5 mm
12 Precast concrete threshold
13 Granite slabs, 40 mm, on sand or cement bed
358
Community buildings in Iragna
359
Example 30
Bank extension in Schonaich, Germany
1999
Architects:
Kaag + Schwarz, Stuttgart
Werner Kaag, Rudolf Schwarz
Assistants:
Thorsten Kock, Almut Schwabe,
Horst Fischer, Marcus Lembach
Merkt + Le, Bδblingen
The special feature of this extension to an

existing bank building lies in the unusual con
struction of the natural stone facade. It is built
from 115 mm thick Gauinger travertine stone.
In contrast to conventional techniques using as
thin as possible a cladding of slabs , there are
currently few examples of the use of this mater
ial in a proper and structurally lucid form.
The proportions of the extension are derived
from the existing urban relationships and build
ing lines. The building is made up of a stone-
faced structure and a glass link which contains
the vertical and horizontal access routes. The
new facades embrace the forecourt adjacent
the street and clearly assign this to the bank
complex.
The loadbearing construction consists of rein
forced concrete walls 200 mm thick and flat
slabs, which can be used as heat storage
media. The outermost layer of the partial-fill
cavity wall construction employs large natural
stone blocks with thin joints built in stretcher
bond. The sizes of the stones decrease towards
the tops of the walls. Near the parapet in par
ticular, the stones are shallower and narrower.
This has an economic advantage because
there is less wastage, but another benefit is that
this form of construction reinforces the natural
and animated effect of the bush-hammered
stone surfaces. Lintels to doors and windows
are made from a single stone in each case.
The relieving lintel above is slightly cambered,
which makes it visible as a structural element
and illustrates the jointing principles of a stone
facade.
360
Bank extension in Schonaich
Section 1 Wall construction, external: 3 Mortar filling, 20 mm

2nd floor 115 mm Gauinger travertine stone in masonry bond, 4 Reinforced concrete wall
scale 1:500 bush-hammered surface 5 Steel-and-glass facade of welded steel flats, with
Horizontal section through door to meeting room - 20 mm air space insulating glazing
internal wall on 2nd floor thermal insulation, 100 mm mineral wool 6 Floor construction, ground floor to central hall
Section through glass roof to central hall - parapet 200 mm reinforced concrete 20 mm natural stone, "Tauern" green
scale 1:10 2 Gauinger travertine stone in masonry bond, 115 mm, 20 mm mortar bed
bush-hammered surface, door lintel provided with 60 mm anhydrite screed with underfloor heating
camber for structural relief 50 mm thermal and impact sound insulation
361
Example 30
West facade
Horizontal sections • Vertical section
scale 1:10
1 Parapet coping, Gauinger travertine stone, 6 Fixed glazing in aluminium sections, 8 mm + 16 mm

smooth surface cavity + 12 mm laminated safety glass
2 Lintel to uppermost row of windows, provided with 7 Floor duct for heating
camber, Gauinger travertine stone in masonry bond, 8 Roof construction:
115 mm, bush-hammered surface extensive planting / 100 mm gravel
3 Opening lights for night-time ventilation, opened sheeting, resistant to root penetration
individually as required, 10 mm toughened safety filter, non-woven fabric
glass + 18 mm cavity with sunshading light- waterproofing, bitumen sheeting, 2 layers, top layer
deflecting grid + 10 mm toughened safety glass, in with slate granule surfacing
black anodized aluminium sections, plus anti-intruder thermal insulation, 140 mm rigid expanded foam
bars at ground floor only vapour barrier
4 Revolving light, black anodized aluminium, 250 mm reinforced concrete slab, with undercoat
8 mm + 16 mm cavity + 12 mm laminated safety glass 15 mm internal plaster
5 Guide track for sunshade blind
362
Bank extension in Schönaich
363
Example 31
Library of the Technological Institute in

Cork, Ireland
1996
Architects:
Shane de Blacam & John Meagher
with Boyd Barrett, Murphy O'Connor, Dublin
Horgan Lynch & Partners, Cork
Location plan
scale 1:5000
Ground floor • 1st floor
scale 1:500
The library building is part of the overall urban
plan for the Technological Institute. The shape 1 Entrance foyer
of the building with its sweeping south facade 2 Information desk
3 Reading room
is explained by the geometry of the overall 4 Bookstack
complex. 5 Librarians
There is a very strict organization of the internal 6 Deliveries
7 Periodicals gallery
functions from south to north, which starts with
8 Seminar rooms
the two-storey reading room and unfolds by
way of lively interventions with stairs and
galleries. Up to 500 students can be accom
modated in the large reading room and on the
galleries. The shelves have space for about
70,000 books, periodicals and video films.
Likewise integrated in the linear structure are
rooms for seminars and the library manage
ment. The different heights of the building and
the associated changing lighting conditions
give the interior an even more pronounced
three-dimensional effect. Local, traditional
building materials were used for the construc
tion: clay and calcium silicate, oak for the win
dow frames, panelling and furniture. Concrete
bricks alternating with clay bricks create
impressive patterns on walls and columns.
Clay brickwork cladding was positioned in the
formwork before casting the in-situ reinforced
concrete columns and arches. The diaphragm
wall construction (max. spacing between
leaves 550 mm) offers numerous opportunities
for projections and recesses which can be
used for built-in furniture. The curving south
elevation almost devoid of windows presents a
stark contrast to the brightly lit and contrasting
interior of the library.
364
Library of the Technological Institute in Cork
365
Example 31
Section scale 1:250 5 Wall construction: 12 Waterproofing, bitumen sheeting

Facade 100 mm clay brickwork 13 Window lintel, calcium silicate block, 65 mm
Elevation • Horizontal section • Vertical section 310 mm cavity 14 Roofing slates, several layers
scale 1:20 50 mm thermal insulation 15 Roofing slates, 2 layers, laid to fall
100 mm concrete brickwork 16 Floor construction:
1 Parapet capping, calcium silicate slab, 450 x 20 mm 6 Floor construction, gallery: coconut fibre carpet
2 Drip plate, stainless steel, bent to suit coconut fibre carpet 150 mm in-situ concrete
3 Roof construction: 150 mm in-situ concrete separating membrane
20 mm mastic asphalt on separating membrane 75 mm precast concrete planks thermal insulation, 50 mm rigid expanded foam
60 mm thermal insulation 7 Built-in bookshelves, MDF board, coated cement levelling coat
vapour barrier 8 Precast concrete peripheral frame hardcore
150 mm in-situ reinforced concrete 9 Perforated plate element for permanent ventilation 17 Lean mix concrete filling
75 mm precast concrete planks 10 Lining to reveal, oak, 150 x 25 mm 18 Calcium silicate pavings externally
4 Cross-ribs of concrete brickwork 11 Wooden window, oak, with insulating glazing
366
Library of the Technological Institute in Cork
367
Example 31
368
Mechanical Engineering Faculty Building of the University of Aveiro
Mechanical Engineering Faculty Building of

the University of Aveiro, Portugal
1996
Architect:
Adalberto Dias, Porto
Assistants:
A. Teixeira, C. Veloso, J. Eusebio, V. Gama,
J. Miguelote, N. Rocha
A. Dinis
Since 1985 a general plan has been in force

for all newly erected buildings on the new cam
pus of the University of Aveiro. One of the
prime considerations was to limit the choice of
architect, if feasible, to members of the "Porto
School" in order to give the buildings by differ
ent architects an inner architectural coherency.
The effect of this strategy is that the campus is
now also a showcase for Porto's most notable
architects.
The building designed by Adalberto Dias for
the Mechanical Engineering Faculty is in the
immediate vicinity of the buildings for geology
(Eduardo Souto de Moura) and mathematics
(Carlos Prata).
The predefined interior layout of the building
led to an obvious solution. The south-west ele
vation - with virtually no openings - forms one
wall to the access zone, which incorporates the
stairs and is lit from above via a long, continu
ous rooflight. The loadbearing structure of the
building consists of reinforced concrete in con
junction with steel beams and columns for
walls and floors, some of which have to span
quite considerable distances above the lecture
theatres. The external walls are provided with a
masonry outer leaf of approx. 70 mm high
courses of facing brickwork built in stretcher
bond. In order to emphasize the radical nature
of the concept, the external masonry is given a
horizontal profile. This is achieved by recess
ing every second course by 30 mm. To do this,
the bricks were sawn to 80 mm width. Steel
sections at the transition between masonry and
glass facade and along the edge of the roof
stress the horizontal format of the structure.
The external wall alongside the rooflight also
features facing brickwork on the inside; the 3rd floor • 2nd floor • Ground floor
scale 1:750
irregularities of this masonry produce a very
lively texture when illuminated by the dramatic
diagonal, overhead lighting.
369
Example 32
South-west elevation 1 Clay bricks 12 mm air space 10 Floor construction:

Sections 2 Capping, zinc sheet on cork board thermal insulation, 40 mm rigid 40 mm natural stone alsbs
scale 1:500 3 Steel channel, 180 mm expanded foam levelling mortar bed
Section through facade 4 Steel round section, 75 mm dia. 195 mm reinforced concrete thermal insulation, 30 mm rigid
scale 1:20 5 Spandrel panel capping, zinc sheet clay bricks expanded foam
on cork board 30 mm synthetic resin plaster damp proof membrane
6 Steel channel, 160 mm 8 Steel window, with insulating glazing screed laid to falls
7 Spandrel panel: 9 Window sill, natural stone thermal insulation, 50 mm rigid
clay brickwork expanded foam
180 mm reinforced concrete
370
11 Roof construction: 13 Synthetic resin plaster, 50 mm

40 mm reconstituted stone pavings 14 Clay bricks
levelling bed 15 Internal plaster, 20 mm
thermal insulation, 30 mm rigid 16 Floor construction:
expanded foam floor finish of stone slabs
waterproofing 20 mm mortar bed
screed laid to falls 40 mm screed
180 mm reinforced concrete slab 180 mm reinforced concrete
40 mm synthetic resin plaster 40 mm timber battens
12 Wood/steel window 40 mm synthetic resin plaster
371
Example 32
372
Sections
North-east elevation
scale 1:500
scale 1:20
17 Wall construction: 19 Plinth construction:

110 x 80 mm clay bricks in stretcher clay brickwork
bond 50 mm mortar filling
12 mm air space 195 mm reinforced concrete
thermal insulation, 40 mm rigid 20 Horizontal glazing, laminated safety
expanded foam glass in steel frame
195 mm reinforced concrete 21 Steel angle, 60 x 70 x 8 mm
clay bricks in stretcher bond, 22 Guide rail for inspection cradle
115 mm 23 Plasterboard
18 Glazed steel door
373
Example 33
Office building in Essen, Germany

1996
Architect:
Detlef Sommer of
Eckert Negwer Sommer Suselbeek, Berlin
Assistant:
Marc Jordi
Site manager:
Helmut Heimeshoff, Essen
A. Bruns, B. Szafranski, Berlin
This office building at the Christine Colliery pro

vides a link between the once separate offices
and the existing production building. The small
plot made it necessary to erect a four-storey
building. This contains simple plan layouts with
six offices per floor as well as the associated
vertical and horizontal access zones and ser
vice core. The rooms are arranged alongside a
central corridor. The offset between the two
halves of the building gives rise to an interest
ing spatial effect.
Storey-height, narrow windows break up the
simple cube, while the piers provide a rhythmic
structure to the facade. The layout of the
masonry is such that the observer gets the
impression of a framework. However, the quali
ty of the design concept manifests itself in the
skilful balance between piers and openings.
Consequently, special attention was paid to
careful detailing of the openings.
The facing brickwork of the outer leaf consists
of Wittmunder peat-fired bricks with the Olden
burg format. Cavity insulation and loadbearing
calcium silicate masonry complete the external
wall construction. The window reveals are car
ried around the corners with a one-brick-deep Location plan
bond. scale 1:1250
East elevation
The window sills consist of brick-on-edge 3rd floor
courses, the lintels of reinforced concrete clad Ground floor
in facing brickwork. The windows with their scale 1:250
fixed glazing, wooden reveals and wooden
openings lights fitted behind the outer leaf form
a distinct contrast to the piers in order to rein
force their effect.
Ironically, the closed openings lights, offset
from the plane of the window, form their own
pier within the opening and hence consum
mate the architectural setting.
The loadbearing walls adjacent the internal
corridors are made from the same material as
the outer leaves of the external walls. They illu
strate the simple structural system: the ex
posed in-situ concrete floors spanning between
external wall and corridor wall. Masonry archi
tecture becomes contemporary when used in
such an exciting, simple yet subtle way.
374
Office building in Essen
1 Lobby
2 Reception
3 Office
4 Tea kitchen
5 Meeting room
6 Existing building
375
Example 33
376
Office building in Essen
Sections
scale 1:250
Window
Elevation • Horizontal section
Section through facade 8 Floor construction:
scale 1:20 13 mm carpet
60 mm screed
separating membrane
1 Roof construction: 220 reinforced concrete slab, soffit exposed,
50 mm gravel rough formwork finish
waterproofing, bitumen sheeting, 3 layers 9 Brick-on-edge window sill, Wittmunder peat-fired
thermal insulation, rigid expanded foam, with bricks, Oldenburg format, 52 x 105 x 220 mm
integral falls, 300-120 mm 10 Thermal insulation, 110 mm mineral fibre
220 reinforced concrete slab, soffit exposed, rough 11 Reinforced concrete lintel, brick slip cladding
formwork finish 12 Peripheral timber cover strip, 125 x 15 mm
2 Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) board, 450 x 25 mm 13 Convector heating under grating
3 Timber section, 220 x 70 mm 14 Opening panel with timber infill, meranti with
4 Flashing, 1 mm zinc sheet, pre-weathered glazed finish
5 Parapet capping, 1 mm zinc sheet, pre-weathered, 15 Wall construction:
on separating membrane V 13 facing brickwork, Wittmunder peat-fired bricks,
6 Concrete upstand, 160 x 400 mm Oldenburg format, 52 x 105 x 220 mm
7 Wooden window, meranti with glazed finish, fixed thermal insulation, 110 mm mineral fibre
glazing, insulating glazing with laminated safety 240 mm calcium silicate brickwork
glass 15 mm gypsum plaster
377
Example 34
Housing complex in Hannover, Germany
1999
Architects:
Fink + Jocher, Munich
Assistants:
Ivan Grafl, Ulrike Wietzorrek, Rudiger Krisch
Bergmann + Partner, Hannover
Situated on the north-western edge of the

development built to coincide with EXPO 2000,
this urban component with 87 apartments,
public amenities and shops forms the gateway
to Kronsberg, an entirely new city suburb, The
two main facades of the building have been
given different treatments: a brickwork facade
with peat-fired facing bricks and room-height
French windows with folding shutters facing
the city, and a timber facade behind continu
ous, deep loggias facing the inner courtyard.
The sculptured form of the block with equal-
sized window elements distributed evenly over
the facade in an intriguing staggered arrange
ment lends the building both stability and
vitality. A large number of different apartments,
from simple layout with hall to open plan, offers
diverse possibilities with a constant basic
structure.
The entire loadbearing structure of the building
was built in precast concrete. This resulted in
fast erection and low building costs. There is
an outer leaf of 115 mm facing bricks with a
10 mm air space and 120 mm thermal insula
tion. A contrasting precast concrete coping
completes the parapet. The window lintels,
also precast, are clad with clay bricks in
stretcher bond in order to match the depth and
appearance of the 240 mm reveals. Fitted into
the reveals are wooden folding shutters which
help to assert the character of the building. The
precast concrete window sills round off the
homogeneous appearance of the complex.
The facades to the inner courtyard, with their
deep loggias, are clad in birch plywood. These
loggias raise the living standards of the com
plex and form the transition to the landscaped
inner courtyard, generating a contrast to the
urban environment.
378
Housing complex in Hannover
Location plan
scale 1:3000
Standard floor
scale 1:1000
Apartment layouts
scale 1:500
Standard layout Hall
Variable Semi-open plan
Island Open plan
379
Example 34
Section
scale 1:250
Horizontal section through junction between facing brick
work and timber panel facade
Horizontal section through apartment window
Horizontal section through staircase window
Section through street facade
scale 1:20
1 Plywood panel, 18 mm birch, both sides coated

with phenolic resin
2 Wooden lining, 200 x 40 mm
3 Wooden glazed door, with insulating glazing
4 Supporting construction, 40 x 40 mm timber sections
peat-fired facing bricks, NF 115 mm
10 mm air space
180 mm reinforced concrete
6 4-part folding shutters of 3-piy timber boarding, with
edge beading in weatherproof glue, guide tracks top
and bottom, 2 No. 15 mm
7 Balustrade of steel flats, galvanized, micacious
iron oxide coating, 35 x 8 mm
8 Window sill, precast concrete, overhang with drip,
50 mm
9 Wooden window, 2 lights, with insulating glazing
10 Horizontal-pivot window, with insulating glazing,
spandrel pane fixed, inner pane of laminated
safety glass
11 Plasterboard, 12.5 mm
12 Thermal insulation, 80 mm
13 Ring beam, autoclaved aerated concrete
channel block
14 Rendering, 25 mm
15 Terrace construction:
pavings in gravel bed
waterproofing
vapour barrier
16 Sheet metal flashing
17 Parapet/spandrel panel:
peat-burned facing bricks in stretcher bond,
NF115mm
10 mm air space
175 mm aerated concrete
18 Open perpend
19 Thermal insulation, 60 mm rigid expanded foam
20 Horizontal groove, with fall to outside
21 Ventilation element
22 Steel angle as support for window sill
380
381
Example 34
Section
scale 1:20
1 Parapet coping, precast 5 Wall construction: 10 Horizontal-pivot wooden win vapour barrier
concrete peat-burned facing bricks, dow, with insulating glazing, 220 mm reinforced
2 Reinforced concrete lintel, with NF115mm spandrel pane fixed, inner concrete slab
clay brick slip cladding 10 mm air space pane of laminated safety glass 16 Roof to balcony, precast
3 Flashing, 1 mm titanium-zinc thermal insulation, 120 mm 11 Thermal insulation, 80 mm concrete element
sheet mineral fibre 12 Plasterboard, 12.5 mm 17 Wall construction:
4 Roof construction with extensive 180 mm reinforced concrete wall 13 Timber section, 180 x 70 mm plywood, 18 mm birch, both
planting: 6 Lighting, 450 x 100 x 100 mm 14 Laminated veneer lumber sides coated with phenolic
vegetation layer 7 Wooden frame door, with inset (LVL) board, with solid wood resin
filter layer steel frame and insulating edge beading, 28 mm 40 mm air space
120 mm drainage layer glazing 15 Terrace construction: thermal insulation, 120 mm
waterproofing 8 Kicker plate, 1 mm brushed pavings in gravel bed mineral fibre
200 mm thermal insulation stainless steel 15 mm impact sound 180 mm reinforced concrete
waterproofing 9 Reinforced concrete, water insulation wall
220 mm reinforced proof, 250 mm waterproofing 18 Mat in steel angle frame
concrete slab 200 mm thermal insulation 19 220 mm reinforced concrete slab
382
383
Statutory instruments, directives and standards
Statutory instruments, directives DIN 18555 pt 3 Testing of mortars containing mineral Thermal Insulation
and standards binders; hardened mortars; determina DIN 18165 pt 1 Fibre insulation materials; thermal
tion of flexural strength, compressive insulation materials. Jul 1991
strength and bulk density. Sept 1982 DIN EN 1745 Masonry and masonry products -
Standards for masonry materials DIN 18555 pt 4 Testing of mortars containing mineral methods for determining declared and
DIN 105 pt 1 Clay bricks; solid bricks and vertically binders; hardened mortars; determina design thermal values
perforated bricks. Aug 1989 tion of linear and transverse strain and DIN EN 12664 Thermal performance of building
DIN 105 pt 2 Clay bricks; lightweight vertically deformation characteristics of masonry materials and products - determination
perforated bricks. Aug 1989 mortars by the static pressure test. of thermal resistance by means of
DIN 105 pt 3 Clay bricks; high-strength bricks and high- Mar 1986 guarded hot plate and heat flow meter
strength engineering bricks. May 1984 DIN 18555 pt 5 Testing of mortars containing mineral methods - dry and moist products with
DIN 105 pt 4 Clay bricks; ceramic engineering bricks. binders; hardened mortars; determina medium and low thermal resistance
May 1984 tion of bond shear strength of masonry DIN EN Building materials and products - pro
DIN 105 pt 5 Clay bricks; lightweight horizontally mortars. Mar 1986 ISO 10456 cedures for determining declared and
perforated bricks and lightweight hori DIN 18555 pt 8 Testing of mortars containing mineral design thermal values (ISO 10456: 1999)
zontally perforated brick panels. binders; freshly mixed mortar; determina
May 1984 tion of workability time and correction Moisture control
DIN 105 pt 6 Clay masonry units - high precision time of thin-bed mortar for use with DIN 1101 Wood-wool slabs and multilayered slabs
(draft) units. Aug 1999 masonry. Nov 1987 as insulating materials in building -
DIN 106 pt 1 Sand-lime bricks and blocks; solid DIN 18555 pt 9 Testing of mortars containing mineral requirements, testing
bricks, perforated bricks, solid blocks, binders - pt 9: hardened mortars; deter DIN 1102 Installation of DIN 1101 wood-wool slabs
hollow blocks. Sept 1980 mination of compressive strength in the and sandwich composite panels
DIN 106 pt 2 Sand-lime bricks and blocks; facing bed joint. Sept 1999 DIN 4108 pt 3 Thermal insulation and energy economy
bricks and hard-burned facing bricks DIN 18557 Factory mortar - production, control and in buildings - pt 3: protection against
DIN 278 Hollow Clay tiles (Hourdis) and hollow delivery. Nov 1997 moisture subject to climate conditions;
bricks, statically loaded. Sept 1978 DIN 18558 Synthetic resin plasters; terminology, requirements and directions for design
DIN 398 Granulated slag aggregate concrete requirements, application. Jan 1985 and construction
blocks; solid, perforated, hollow blocks. DIN 4108 pt 4 Thermal insulation and energy economy
Jun 1976 in buildings - pt 4: characteristic values
Application standards
DIN 4159 Floor bricks and plasterboards, statically DIN 1045 Structural use of concrete; design and relating to thermal insulation and protec
active. Apr 1999 construction. Jul 1988 tion against moisture
DIN 4165 Autoclaved aerated concrete blocks and DIN 1053 pt 1 Masonry - pt 1: design and construction DIN 4223 Reinforced roofing slabs and ceiling tiles
flat elements. Nov 1996 Nov1996 of steam-cured aerated and foamed con
DIN 4166 Autoclaved aerated concrete slabs and crete; guidelines for dimensioning, pro
DIN 1053 pt 2 Masonry - pt 2: masonry strength
panels. Oct 1997 classes on the basis of suitability tests. duction, utilization and testing
DIN 18148 Lightweight concrete hollow boards. Nov1996 DIN 18515 pt 1 Cladding for external walls - pt 1: tiles
Dec 1998 DIN 1053 pt 3 Reinforced masonry; design and fixed with mortar; principles of design
DIN 18151 Lightweight concrete hollow blocks. construction. Feb 1990 and application
Sept 1987 DIN 1053 pt 4 Masonry; buildings of prefabricated DIN 18516 pt 1 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at
DIN 18152 Lightweight concrete solid bricks and rear - pt 1: requirements, principles of
brickwork components. Aug 1999
blocks. Apr 1987 DIN 1055 pt 3 Design loads for buildings; live loads. testing
DIN 18153 Normal-weight concrete masonry units. DIN 18550 pt 1 Plaster; terminology and requirements.
Jun 1971
Sept 1989 DIN 1055 pt 3 Action on structures - pt 3: self-weight Jan 1985
DIN 18162 Lightweight concrete wall-boards, DIN 18550 pt 2 Plaster; plasters made of mortars con
(draft) and imposed load in building. Mar 2000
unreinforced. Dec 1998 DIN 4103 pt 1 Internal non-loadbearing partitions; taining mineral binders; application.
DIN 18554 pt 1 Testing of masonry; determination of Jan 1985
requirements, testing. Jul 1984
compressive strength and elastic Buildings in German earthquake zones; DIN 18550 pt 3 Rendering; rendering systems for
modulus. Dec 1985 thermal insulation purposes made of
DIN 52252 pt 1 Testing the frost resistance of facing DIN 4149 pt 1 design loads, dimensioning, design and mortars consisting of mineral binders
construction of conventional buildings.
bricks and clinker blocks; freezing of Apr 1981 and expanded polystyrene (EPS) as
single bricks on all sides. Dec 1986 Eurocode 6: design of masonry aggregate. Mar 1991
DIN EN 1926 Natural stone test methods - DIN 18558 Synthetic resin plasters; terminology,
determination of compressive strength ENV 1996-1-1 structures, pt 1-1: general rules for requirements, application. Jan 1985
buildings - rules for reinforced and
May 1999 DIN 68800 pt 2 Protection of timber - pt 2: preventive
unreinforced masonry. June 1995
DIN EN 12372 Natural stone test methods - constructional measures in buildings
determination of flexural strength under DIN EN 12524 Building materials and products - hygro-
concentrated load. Jun 1999 Masonry bonds thermal properties - tabulated design
DIN 1057 pt 1 Building materials for free-standing values
Standards for masonry mortar, plasters, binders chimneys; compass bricks; require DIN EN Building materials - determination of
ments, testing, inspection. Jul 1985 ISO 12572 water vapour transmission properties
DIN 1060 pt 1 Building lime - pt 1: definitions, DIN 4172 Modular coordination in building (ISO/DIS 12572: 1997)
specifications, control. Mar 1995
construction. Jul 1955 DIN EN Building materials - determination of
DIN 1164 pt 1 Cement - pt 1: composition, DIN 18000 Modular coordination in building. ISO 15148 water absorption coefficient
specifications. Oct 1994
May 1984 (ISO/DIS 15148: 1996)
DIN 4211 Masonry cement - specifications,
DIN 18100 Doors; wall openings for doors with
control. Mar 1995
dimensions in accordance with
DIN 18550 pt 1 Plaster; terminology and requirements. Sound insulation
DIN 4172. Oct 1983
Jan 1985 DIN 4109 Sound insulation in buildings; require
DIN 18201 Tolerances in building -terminology,
DIN 18550 pt 2 Plaster; plasters made of mortars principles, application, testing. Dec 1984
ments and testing. Nov 1989
containing mineral binders; application. DIN 4109 Amendment 1: amendments to DIN 4109
DIN 18202 Dimensional tolerances in building
Jan 1985 (Nov 1989), DIN 4109 supp. 1 (Nov 1989)
construction - buildings. May 1986
DIN 18550 pt 3 Rendering; rendering systems for and DIN 4109 supp. 2 (Nov 1989).
thermal insulation purposes made of Aug 1992
mortars consisting of mineral binders DIN 4109 Sound insulation in buildings; construc
and expanded polystyrene (EPS) as supp. 1 tion examples and calculation methods.
aggregate. Mar 1991 Nov1989
DIN 18550 pt 4 Plasters and rendering; lightweight DIN 4109 Sound insulation in buildings; guidelines
plasters and rendering; execution. supp. 2 for planning and execution; proposals for
Aug 1993 increased sound insulation; recommen
DIN 18555 pt 1 Testing of mortars containing mineral dations for sound insulation in personal
binders; general, sampling, test mortar. living and working areas. Nov 1989
Sept 1982
384
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calculation methods [3] Achtziger, J.: Bestimmung der Rechenwerte der Flachsturzen. August 1977
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Fire protection
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building components
Innendammung; wksb special issue 1985 2nd edition, Leipzig, 1997
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requirements and tests
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compressive strength and elastic
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modulus. Dec 1985
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[167] Salzer, E.: Schallschutz mit Fassaden, Teil 1; von Mauerwerk senkrecht und parallel zur Lager- Stuttgart/Holzkirchen/Berlin
Bauphysik, issue 5, 1993 fuge. Building Research Institute, Aachen; [220] Zilch, K.: Bemessung von Bauwerken gegen
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tektur von Liibeck bis Marienburg, Cologne, 1995 issue 5 (1974), pp. 3-12
387
Subject index
Subject index Boulder → 37, 46 Colour scales → 31

Bracing → 27, 3 1 , 98-100, 129, 147, 151,200 Colours → 8, 10, 3 1 , 33, 37-39, 152
Abrasion resistance → 67, 69 Brick cornice → 24 Columns → 8, 14, 18, 22, 24, 26, 36, 42, 44, 75, 77,80,
Acoustic brick → 75 Brick element → 39, 56-59, 73, 74 97, 98, 100, 101, 111, 129, 130, 132, 134, 141, 142,
Actual deviation → 77 Brick manufacture → 15, 17, 22 145, 165, 172, 198
Actual size → 77 Brick slip → 75 Composite panel → 67, 119, 120, 121, 159
Additive → 10, 39, 40, 55, 57, 59, 60, 64-67, 144, 145, 150 Brick to brick → 73, 93, 95, 115, 146 Compression zone → 75, 94, 114, 116, 118-120, 138, 146
Adhesive shear strength → 66, 67, 94, 95, 104, 146, 153 Brick-on-edge course → 46, 48, 78, 132, 224, 226, 232 Compressive failure → 95, 105
Adhesive tensile strength → 93, 94, 95, 105, 108 Bricklayer → 55, 64, 127, 128, 144, 156-159 Compressive strength → 22, 37, 55-63, 65-69, 79, 92-95,
Adjustable brick → 74 Bricklaying → 58, 60, 115, 127, 140, 150, 156, 157, 159 97, 100-103, 105-108, 112-114, 116, 123, 126, 127,
Admixture → 64, 65, 66, 68, 144, 145 Brickwork panel → 119, 120, 121, 159 134, 135, 137, 145, 146, 153
Aerated lightweight clay → 122 Brickworks → 15 Concentrated load → 80, 118
Aggregate → 10, 38, 39, 55, 60, 6 1 , 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, Brickyard → 22 Concentric compression → 101
69, 70, 78, 93, 107, 114, 144, 145, 162, 163, 164, 181, Bridge construction → 16 Concrete cover → 114, 116, 142
182, 190, 192 Brittle failure → 94 Concrete units → 31, 34, 50, 58-62, 73, 75, 78, 94,107,
Air brick → 221, 222,225,227 Bronze → 10 110, 131, 132, 152, 164, 165, 190, 192,201
Air change rate → 174, 175, 176, 177, 178,202 Buckling → 96, 100-103, 117, 120, 122, 125, 129, 148, Condensation → 68, 75, 124, 126, 165, 172-174,179-184
Air entrainer → 57, 59, 64 159, 198 Conduction → 161, 163, 168, 172, 173, 177, 179, 202
Air humidity → 10 Buckling length → 100-103, 117, 120, 129, 159 Conglomerates → 37
Air space → 126, 127, 164, 165, 184, 195,204-206, 210, Building authority certificate → 55, 62, 63, 64, 66, 69, 74, Construction joint → 135, 152
213, 214, 217, 221, 222, 225, 227, 229, 231, 232, 234 103, 114, 115, 116, 119, 125, 127, 130, 133, 153, 159, Continuous ring kiln → 22
Airborne sound → 186, 187, 188, 191, 192 200, 201 Convection → 163, 168, 174, 184
Airborne sound insulation index → 187-195, 202 Building materials class → 196, 197, 199-201 Coping → 46, 50, 74, 132, 149, 205, 212, 218, 230, 234
Airtightness → 174, 175, 177, 184, 204 Burial mounds → 13 Corbel brick → 44
Alluvial deposits → 10 Bush hammering → 38 Corbelled → 42
American bond → 34 Butt joints → 46, 147, 183 Corrosion → 64, 113-115, 117, 119, 125, 142,147,179,182
Anchor plate → 113, 154 Butt-jointed junction → 147, 156 Coursed random rubble masonry → 3 7 , 135, 136
Anhydrite → 59, 67, 68, 69, 181 Cover strip → 152
Arch → 20, 42, 43, 74, 120, 134, 137-141, 142, 159, 222, Calcareous sediment → 37 Coving → 38
224, 226, 227 Calcite → 37 Cownose brick → 74
Arch action → 137 Calcium silicate → 38, 46, 50, 55, 57-59, 6 1 , 62, 67, 73, Crack formation → 105, 106, 107, 109, 111, 113
Arch floor → 139, 140, 159 74, 78, 94, 103, 106, 107, 110, 131, 138, 156, 158, Cracked cross-section → 101, 104
Arched vault → 18 164, 166, 167, 180-183, 190, 193-195, 201 Cracked section → 133, 134, 135, 139
Arching action → 131, 132, 134, 135, 137, 138 Calcium silicate block → 58, 103 Creep → 57, 58, 60, 61, 71, 93, 98, 103, 106-108, 110,
Ashlar masonry → 14, 15,20,40,47, 112, 135-137 Calcium silicate facing brick → 58, 124, 183 111, 131, 151, 152
Ashlar stone → 10, 14, 17,38,44,63 Calcium silicate gauged brick → 58 Creep coefficient → 98, 106, 107
Attached colonnettes → 19 Calcium silicate masonry → 22, 58, 123 Creep strain → 106
Autoclave → 59 Calcium silicate prefabricated brick element → 58 Creep stress → 106
Autoclaved aerated concrete → 55, 59, 73, 131, 154, Calcium silicate units → 22, 30, 3 1 , 35, 48, 57, 58-60, 67, Cromlechs → 13
155, 158, 165, 166, 180-182, 190, 191,201 78, 103, 131, 152 Cross-knots → 36
Automation → 22, 119 Cambered arch → 43, 44, 139 Crystalline primary rock → 37
Average crack width → 118 Cantilevered projections → 11 Crystalline structure → 10, 37
Axial stress → 95, 104, 117 Capillary effect → 39 Curtain wall → 9, 24, 29, 35, 39, 122-124, 126, 129, 153,
Capital → 18 159, 166, 167, 169, 172,200,201
Backfilling → 35, 135 Capping → 46, 132, 205, 206, 212-214, 217-219, 227, 234 Cylinder press → 22
Background → 9, 66, 68-70, 71 Capping beam → 98, 111, 138, 141 -143, 159
Backing → 3 1 , 32, 35, 124, 136-138, 152 Carbonation → 115 Damp proof course → 125, 126, 132, 135, 136, 184,
Balcony → 22, 153, 172, 174, 228, 229 Cast panel → 119, 120, 121, 159 212, 213, 223, 226, 227, 231, 233
Barrows → 13, 20 Cavity wall → 125, 126, 128, 184, 204- 206, 208, 210, Dead load → 139
Basalt → 37, 63, 64, 113, 162 214, 216, 221, 230 Dead weight → 10
Basement wall → 67, 68, 93, 113, 119, 122, 133-136, Cellular unit → 141 Decoration → 36, 51
146, 183, 233 Centering bearing → 97, 98, 101 Deformation → 55, 69, 70, 71, 79, 92, 93, 98-100, 103,
Batter → 20, 37 Ceramic finish → 69 105-111, 113, 115, 117, 118, 121, 124, 125, 129-132,
Battlement wail → 39 Chaff → 10 141-143, 146, 148, 151-153, 228
Beam-like wall → 104 Channel block → 75, 100, 134, 138, 142, 143, 148, 200, Deformation behaviour → 55, 71, 79, 105, 115, 146
Beam-type lintel → 138 222 Diabase → 37, 64, 113
Bearing stress → 141 Charring → 38 Diagonal crack → 79, 80, 94,95, 108, 110, 111, 119
Bed face → 56-63, 135, 137, 153, 159 Chase → 69, 75, 80, 97, 129, 132. 148, 149 Differential deformation → 110, 111, 118, 124, 142,146,
Bed joint reinforcement → 109-111, 113, 118 Chemical swelling → 105, 107, 108, 111 152, 228
Bed joints → 15, 17, 26, 38, 40, 63, 66, 67, 78-80, 92-95, Chimney → 47, 79, 148, 159, 204, 207, 220, 221 Differential thermal expansion → 110
104, 105, 107, 108, 110, 112, 113, 115-120, 125, 129, Chimney jamb → 148 Diffusion-equivalent air layer thickness → 180, 184,185
133-137, 139, 141, 146, 147, 150, 151, 153, 156, 159, Cladding → 15, 16, 2 1 , 3 5 , 3 7 , 3 8 , 5 1 , 67, 75,93, 124, Dimensional coordination → 72-77
191,200 130, 137, 146, 149, 167, 182-185, 189, 191, 192, 194, Dimensional stability → 10, 98, 99, 120, 141
Bending moment → 94, 96-99, 100, 103, 133, 134, 139, 197, 199-201, 234 Diorite → 37, 63, 64, 113
142, 148 Clay → 10, 11, 17, 26, 30, 3 1 , 35, 38, 55-57, 60-62, 64, Dog-leg brick → 74
Bending strength → 94, 100, 113, 148 65,74, 75, 106, 107, 131, 132, 138, 159, 162, 164, Dog-toothing → 27
Biaxial plate effect → 94 167, 182, 183, 190, 192, 201, 220, 222 Dolmens → 13
Binder → 10, 65, 67 Clay brick → 8, 10, 11, 13, 15, 30, 3 1 , 35, 38, 50, 5 1 , 55- Dolomite → 63, 64, 113
Binding agent → 39, 57, 58, 59, 60, 6 1 , 64-70, 144 57, 62, 63, 65, 69, 71, 78, 93, 94, 103, 105, 107, 110, Dome → 137, 139
Bitumen → 10, 46, 129, 135, 152, 181, 231 114, 119-121, 148, 152, 164, 165, 172, 180-183, 190, Door opening → 74, 130, 153, 226, 227, 232
Blind vault → 42 201 Drained joint → 152, 185
Blocking → 2 1 , 35 Clay brickwork → 38, 150, 152 Drip disc → 125
Blower door → 174 Clay facing brick → 184, 185 Drive screw → 153, 155
Bond → 8, 15, 17, 20,24,27,31-39,42,43,44-46, 49, Clay hollow pot floor → 121 Driving rain load → 184, 185
50, 69, 72, 74, 78-80, 92, 94, 95, 117, 132, 135, 138- Clay tablets → 12 Dry gross density → 55, 62, 65-67, 70
140, 147, 149, 151, 154, 155, 159, 220,230,232,233 Cleaning → 144, 149, 150, 151, 156 Dry walling → 37, 78,93, 112, 119, 135, 136, 159
Bond stress → 117 Clerestory → 19 Dubbing out plaster coat → 71
Bonded junction → 147 Clinker disease → 39 Ductile failure → 95
Bonded wall → 9 Coarse stuff → 64, 144 Dummy joint → 151, 152
Bonding dimension → 78-80, 94, 95, 104, 112 Coating material → 67, 68, 70, 71, 181 Duplex system → 115
Bossage → 38 Coefficient of thermal expansion → 106, 107, 108, 113 Durability → 39, 63, 67, 113, 117, 149, 151
Bottom ash → 65 Cold weather → 145, 149 Dutch bond → 34
388
Subject index
Dynamic load → 121, 154 Format → 8, 9, 11, 15, 20, 30-34, 38, 39, 42, 52, 56, 58- Imposed load → 92, 97, 98, 105, 109, 130, 133, 139, 140
6 1 , 67, 72-74, 76, 79, 138, 148, 156-158, 190, 191, 232 Incrustation → 51
Earth brick → 31 Format code → 61 Infill panel → 49, 93, 104, 111, 118, 119, 127-129, 175
Earth pressure → 92-95, 98, 103, 113, 119, 133, 134, 146 Foundation → 10, 12, 21,37,45, 99, 121, 132, 133, 135, Injected grout → 113
Earthquake → 94, 98, 113, 121, 142 143, 151, 152, 182, 191, 193,231,232 Injection anchor → 153, 154, 155
Eaves → 97, 149,215, 217-219 Framework → 8, 11, 49, 5 1 , 98, 121, 156, 160, 175, 191 Internal plaster → 68-71, 167, 174, 182, 185
Eccentric compression → 97, 98, 101, 104, 105, 132 Free-standing wall → 8, 50, 93, 100, 132,204,211,234 Internal stress → 108
Eccentricity → 98, 101, 103, 104, 117, 120, 134, 148,200 Freeze-thaw cycle → 55, 58, 63 Internal tanking → 135
Efflorescence → 58, 63, 69, 113, 144, 145, 149, 150, 179 Friction coefficient → 104, 105 Internal wall → 19, 57
Elastic strain → 105, 106 Friction failure → 94, 95 lntrados → 139
Elasticity → 59, 70, 92, 98, 99, 102, 105-108, 113, 115, 130 Frost → 55, 69, 71, 113, 124, 132, 133, 145, 179 Iron → 22, 24, 44, 49, 56, 115, 150
Embedded joints → 17 Frost protection → 50
Enclosing wall → 198, 201 Frost resistance → 57, 63, 64, 117, 122, 126 Jamb → 38, 43, 44, 69, 148, 204, 209, 227
Energy conservation → 51 Fuel → 22, 59, 60, 67, 133, 160, 175 Jointers → 39
Energy consumption → 163, 171, 175, 177 Full-fill cavity wall → 126, 171, 183, 184, 201,204-206, Jointing → 9, 11, 16, 38, 40, 51, 110, 149-151, 159
Energy economy → 160, 174, 175 208, 210, 214, 216, 221-223, 227, 230
Energy requirement → 160, 172, 174-178, 202 Keystone → 20, 42, 43, 139
Engineering brick → 26, 27, 34, 36, 56, 57, 63, 75, 124, Gable → 19, 36,40, 47,98, 119, 125, 129, 142, 159, Kiln → 15, 22, 56
159, 181, 183, 185, 201 199, 215
English bond → 32-34, 49, 56, 57, 79, 80, 95 Galvanized reinforcement → 115 L-unit → 75
English cross bond → 32-34, 43, 55-57, 80 Galvanized sheet iron → 46 Laboratory test → 76, 97, 104, 173, 183
English garden wall bond → 34 Gas concrete → 192 Large-format unit → 74, 79,80, 108, 144, 158
Enlightenment → 21 Gauge box → 144 Lateral perpend → 48
Environmental protection → 28, 160 Gauged arch → 139 Lateral restraint → 100, 129, 142, 146, 148
Epoxy resin coating → 115 Gauged brickwork → 146, 153, 191,200, 201 Lateral secant modulus → 63, 65, 67
Erection → 73, 77, 115, 118-121, 147, 148, 158, 159 Glazed brick → 10, 12,32, 36 Levelling unit → 153
Erosion → 10, 13 Glazing → 167, 168, 169, 177, 193, 198, 200, 202 Lever pumps → 22
Erratic block → 37 Gneiss → 10, 63, 64 Lightweight aggregate → 60, 65, 67, 69, 93, 164
Expanding agent → 59 Gothic bond → 32-34, 36, 50 Lightweight concrete → 55, 60, 61, 62, 74, 75, 78, 131,
Expansion joint → 46, 151, 152, 212, 213 Grade curve → 187 138, 167, 180, 181, 183, 190, 192, 201
Exposed masonry → 63, 150 Graffiti → 150 Lightweight mortar → 59, 65-67, 69, 73,93, 114, 122,
External tanking → 135 Granite → 10, 16,37, 46,63, 64, 113, 162 125, 129, 146, 153, 164, 190, 191, 200,201
External wail → 46, 50, 57, 63, 65, 68-70, 75, 79, 92, 96- Granulated slag aggregate → 55, 6 1 , 78, 181 Lightweight plaster → 69, 70, 123, 181
98, 101, 102, 103, 108-111, 122-124, 126-130, 132, Gravel → 16, 39, 230 Lime mortar → 38, 39, 67, 68
135, 142, 148, 149, 152, 155, 165-168, 170-174, 176, Gravity retaining wall → 135 Lime staining → 149, 150
177, 182-185, 193-195, 198, 199, 201, 228, 233 "Green" bricks → 22, 56 Lime wash → 31
Extrados → 139 Grinding → 38, 66 Lime-bonded grit → 39
Extrusion press → 22, 31 Grip aid → 156, 158, 164 Limestone → 18, 37,47,58,63,64, 113, 162
Grip opening → 58, 60-63 Limit deviation → 77
Fabric → 27, 31, 34, 114, 135, 142 Grooves → 20, 3 1 , 56,60,93, 132, 146 Lintel → 8, 22, 34, 42, 43, 44, 46, 50, 75, 79, 80, 109,
Faced wall → 12, 124, 128, 149, 150 Gross density class → 56, 58-62, 192, 193, 200, 201 114, 118, 119, 126, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 146, 148,
Facing brickwork → 15, 58, 65, 108, 118, 124, 192,212- Grout → 75, 113, 119, 149, 153, 154 153, 159, 200, 222-228
214, 215, 217, 219-223, 225, 227, 229-234 Gutter → 48, 145, 214, 215, 217-219 Lintel block → 75
Facing masonry → 22, 3 1 , 32, 35, 38, 40, 46, 50, 63, 72, Gypsum (mortar) → 58, 59, 62, 67-69, 113, 123, 180, 181, Load transfer → 44, 98, 111, 113, 131
75, 109, 113, 114, 118, 123, 124, 126, 128, 129, 138, 192 Loadbearing behaviour → 62, 92, 105, 112, 138, 146-149
139, 144, 149-152, 154, 184, 185, 204, 218, 221 Loadbearing leaf → 125, 126, 155, 204, 213, 215, 221,
Factor of safety → 101, 109 Half-brick masonry → 33 222, 226, 233, 234
Failure mechanism → 92, 101 Half-rounds → 39 Loadbearing masonry → 57, 58, 60, 78, 80, 116, 122,
False wall → 149, 174 Hammer-dressed masonry → 136 129, 130, 213, 214, 217, 219, 221, 222, 225, 227, 229,
Falsework → 44 Hammered plug → 155 231, 232, 234
Feldspar → 10, 162 Hand-beading → 11 Loadbearing outer leaf → 65, 137,214
Fibre-reinforced mortar → 47, 220 Hand-moulded brick → 3 1 , 57 Loadbearing wall → 57, 59, 60, 80, 98, 100, 104, 112,
Filler → 10, 16, 22,68, 129 Handling device → 156-158 122, 129, 130, 147-149, 155, 167, 169, 194, 197-199
Filling of concrete → 117 Hardened mortar → 69 Loading capacity → 96, 97
Final coat → 68, 70, 123, 170 Header bond → 32, 33, 55, 79 Loam → 10, 55, 144
Finish coat → 67-71 Header course → 15, 16, 33, 34, 40, 78-80 Longitudinal forces → 35
Fire compartment → 196, 199 Header face → 55, 56, 59, 6 1 , 62, 72, 73, 79 Longitudinal secant modulus → 67
Fire protection → 67, 69, 122, 124, 129, 132, 138, 146, Heat flow → 125, 160-165, 170, 171, 173, 202 Low-grade mortar → 93
151, 196-201 Heat loss → 122-124, 160, 162, 166-172, 174-177, 202
Fire resistance → 10, 196-201 Heat storage (capacity → 122, 124, 171, 177 Make-up unit → 148
Fire resistance class → 196-201 Heat transfer → 54, 161, 166, 167, 170, 173, 175, 176 Manufacture → 8, 10, 14, 17, 22,30,31,38,39,46, 51
Fired brick → 10, 15,22,31,48 Heating requirement → 161, 171, 172, 175-178, 202 55,57, 61, 62, 66, 75,76, 107, 119-121, 145, 150, 158,
Firing chamber → 22 Herringbone bond → 140 159, 162, 193
Firing process → 22, 3 1 , 55, 56, 107 High-grade mortar → 93 Marble → 11,37, 162
Fissures → 39 High-strength engineering brick → 57, 181, 201 Margin of safety → 96, 97, 101, 102, 113
Fixed-cycle operation → 22 Hollow block → 55, 58-61, 75, 114, 119, 164, 190, 201 Masonry according to suitability test → 102, 103, 145, 146
Flanking transmission → 124, 187, 188, 191-193 Hollow calcium silicate block → 58, 103 Masonry anchor → 100, 129
Flashing → 47, 218, 219, 220 Hollow concrete block → 60, 122 Masonry backing → 20
Flat roof → 46, 172,213, 230 Hollow masonry → 35, 154 Masonry cement → 64, 68
Flatness tolerance → 77 Hollow wall element → 60, 201 Masonry stairs → 232
Flemish bond → 33, 34,35 Horizontal crack → 108-111 Masonry vaulting → 140
Flemish garden wall bond → 34 Horizontal force → 92, 95, 98, 99, 110, 113, 121, 129, 132 Mass-related moisture content → 165, 166, 179, 182, 202
Flood barrier → 50 Horizontal restraint → 141 Material strength → 97, 105
Floor load → 98, 138, 159 Horizontal thrust → 42, 63, 131, 134, 138-140 Maximum crack width → 118
Floor slab deflection → 111, 118, 131 Horizontally perforated brick → 56, 57 Maximum dimensions → 130, 148
Flue block → 220, 221 Hydrated lime → 58, 65, 66, 68 Maximum size → 77
Flue lining → 220, 221 Hydration → 60, 93, 197 Mechanical damage → 57, 122, 124, 135, 149
Flush pointing → 39, 124, 125 Hydraulic lime → 10, 68, 70, 181 Medium-bed mortar → 66, 93, 146
Flying bond → 32-34, 37, 46 Hygroscopicity → 165, 182, 183 Membrane → 19, 135, 204, 228
Flying buttress → 48 Metal capping → 46, 205, 206, 212-214, 217-219, 234
Foam strip → 132 Igneous rock → 37, 63 Metal lining → 46, 204, 209, 225-227
Folding press → 46 Impact sound → 186, 187 Mineral pitch → 10
389
Subject index
Minimum reinforcement → 117, 118 Plasticizer → 64 Rigid junction → 132

Minimum wall thickness → 112, 124, 129, 155 Plate shear → 94, 95, 104, 117 Ring beam → m, 113, 121, 129, 141-143,212-217,219,
Misaligned perpends → 149 Platform → 12, 148, 157 221,227, 229, 231, 240, 380
Mixing mortar → 144, 156 Plinth → 8, 10, 14,20,40,45,46, 67,69, 135,204,211, Rising damp → 126, 132, 165
Mixing water → 56, 145, 149 219, 228, 231, 242, 255, 272, 290, 303, 304, 306, 314, Risk of cracking → 105-107, 109,-111, 124, 131, 132,146
Modular masonry → 158 316,317,322,342, 357, 373 Roller-blind box → 75, 76
Modulus of elasticity → 59, 98, 102, 105-108, 113, 115 Plutonic rock → 37 Roman bond → 357
Moisture content → 55, 57-61, 71,92,93, 104, 106-108, Point load → 138, 141 Roof junctions → 47, 174
162-167, 179-182 Pointed arch → 139 Roof slab → 47, 98, 110, 111, 141, 148
Moisture control → 105, 108, 117, 179 Pointing → 38, 65-67, 113, 124, 150, 151, 322 Roofing felt → 129, 181, 204, 213-217, 219, 220, 221,
Moisture strain → 105-108 Pointing mortar → 67, 113, 124, 151 231,240,306,316,341
Monk's bond → 34 Polishing → 38 Roofing tile → 47
More accurate method of analysis → 96-98, 101, 103- Porphyry → 37 Rough-hewn ashlar → 20, 51
105, 117, 129, 132, 134, 141, 155 Position of reinforcement → 115 Roughness → 18, 39, 71, 93, 94
Mortar group → 65,-68, 70,93, 101, 103, 112, 114, 117, Precast concrete floor → 100, 272 Rubble → 16, 18,37,63, 112, 113, 135, 136
120, 129-131, 144-146, 151,200, 216, 219, 231 Pre-chased unit → 75, 148 Rubble stone → 63, 135
Mortar prism → 67 Prefabricated element → 22, 75, 120, 139, 152, 157, 159, Rubble-filled masonry wall → 113
Mortar sledge → 133, 144, 153, 156, 157 212, 328 Rusticated ashlar → 20
Moss → 45 Preformed sealing gasket → 152 Rustication → 20, 24
Mould → 10, 1 8 , 2 2 , 3 1 , 34,39,44, 56, 57,59, 60, 120, Premixed clay → 22
150, 173, 174, 179, 182, 183 Premixed dry mortar → 64, 66, 70, 144 Safety concept → 54, 96, 97, 199
Moulded bricks → 18, 3 1 , 39, 57 Prescribed masonry → 96, 101, 102, 145, 146 Safety factor → 96, 97, 101-103, 132, 134
Movement joint → 109-111, 117, 118, 125, 126, 132, 151- Prescribed mix → 64-67 Sandstone → 37, 44, 63, 64, 113, 162
153,234 Pressure load → 133 Saturation → 179, 181-183, 202
Multi-chamber silo mortar → 64, 144 Prestressed masonry → 119 Scaffold → 3 1 , 68, 69, 147-149, 156, 157
Multi-layer wall → 122 Prestressing tendon → 119 Sealing compound → 127, 135, 152
Muntins → 40, 44 Prewetting → 69, 7 1 , 127, 144, 149, 150 Secant modulus → 63, 67, 105
Primary rock → 10, 37 Second plaster undercoat → 68, 71
Nagelfluh → 37 Projecting pilasters → 20 Security function → 122
Nail anchor → 155 Protective layer → 135 Segmental arch → 28, 42, 43, 232
National standard → 163, 174 Protective organic coating → 115 Seismic design → 121
Natural resonance → 10 Prussian Cap → 42, 139 Seismic load → 98, 113, 119, 121
Natural stone → 8, 10, 14, 15, 17,20, 2 2 , 3 0 , 3 5 , 3 7 , 3 8 , Pulverized fuel ash → 59, 60, 67 Semicircular arch → 126, 304
40, 51,55,63-66,67, 112, 113, 119, 135-137, 166, Pyramid → 12, 21 Separating membrane → 135, 221
167,212, 218,224,230 Separating membrane → 245, 248, 255, 266, 271, 290,
Needling → 113, 119 Quality control → 55, 57, 59, 64, 67, 145, 146 297, 303, 355, 358, 366, 377
Net density → 62, 63 Quality standard → 22, 144 Service duct unit → 75
Node moment → 98, 103 Quality test → 145, 146 Service penetration → 135, 184, 187, 199
Nominal size → 11 Quartzite → 37, 162 Service shaft → 149
Nominal strength → 103 Queen closer → 73 Serviceability → 69, 96, 97, 101, 102, 104, 105, 108,116-
Non-enclosing wall → 198, 201 Quicklime → 58, 59 118, 125, 126, 132, 144, 145, 149, 183, 184
Non-frost-resistant masonry unit → 122, 124 Quoin → 20 Settlement → 10, 118, 135, 142, 151, 152, 163
Non-hydraulic lime → 68, 70 Settlement joint → 151
Non-loadbearing masonry → 57, 58, 60, 130 Racking → 79, 80, 147, 157, 158 Shallow lintel → 75, 114, 118, 119, 138, 146,200,222-
Non-loadbearing partition → 118, 131 Radiation → 67, 152, 161-164, 168-171, 177, 182 225, 227, 341
Non-structural reinforcement → 114, 117, 118 Rain protection → 3 1 , 184, 185 Shape factor → 62
Normal-weight mortar → 65-67, 192, 200, 201 Raking out the joint → 150, 151 Shear failure → 94, 95
Nozzle → 31 Raking stretcher bond → 35, 36, 79, 293, 297 Shear force → 99, 117, 134, 138
Rammed earth → 11 Shear strength → 67, 78, 93, 94, 95, 100, 104, 105,108,
Oldenburg format → 374, 377 Rammed earth screed → 10 111, 119
One-brick masonry → 80 Random bond → 20, 308 Shear stress → 94, 95, 104, 108, 110, 111, 117, 120, 121,
One-hand lift → 3 1 , 158 Random rubble masonry → 37, 135, 136 141, 146
Open perpend → 222, 224-227, 229-232, 274, 277, 279, Rationalization → 15, 17, 29, 52, 55, 73,77, 122, 144, Shear wall → 92, 94, 99, 104, 120-122, 129, 142, 143,
281, 297, 301, 313, 333, 336, 380 153, 155-158 146, 155
Opus caementitium → 16 Ready-mixed mortar → 64, 65, 144 Shell → 11, 1 5 , 3 1 , 3 7 , 5 1 , 113,333
Oriels → 22, 46 Recess → 19, 20, 24, 26, 27, 32-34, 36, 39, 45, 46, 48, Short wall → 79, 97, 101
Ornament → 52 56, 75, 78, 80, 97, 99, 101, 115-117, 119, 129, 132, Shrinkage → 10, 22, 58, 60,70,93,99, 100, 105-111,
Ornamental bonds → 36, 49 148, 149, 220, 230, 334, 336, 346, 364, 369 113, 118, 129, 131, 142, 145, 149, 151, 152
Overturning → 100, 101, 125 Recessed columns → 24 Shrinkage crack → 70, 149
Oxygen → 22, 56, 115, 180 Reed matting → 10 Silesian bond → 34
Re-entrant corner → 204, 211, 233 Silica sand → 57, 59
Packed stone → 10 Reference size → 76-78 Siliceous sand → 10
Parapet → 10, 46,50, 153, 172,204-207,212-215, 218, Refurbishment → 69, 124, 139, 176,334 Simplified method of analysis → 96-98, 101, 103, 105,
230, 234, 382 Regional formats → 31 124, 141
Partial-fill cavity wall → 126, 204-206, 208, 210, 216, 221 Reinforcement system → 114, 115 Single-leaf external wall → 69, 79, 122, 123, 124, 128,
Partial-fill cavity wall → 237, 272, 284, 288, 293, 322, Reinforcing bar → 113-117, 119, 121, 142, 143, 172 155, 166, 173, 193,201
331,352,360 Relief → 12, 13, 20, 3 1 , 33, 34, 36-38, 182, 361 Single-leaf faced wall → 124, 128
Partition → 111, 118, 124, 130-132, 155, 173, 178,331, Relieving lintel → 360 Single-leaf wall → 122, 166, 172, 177, 183, 190,250
346, 352 Rendered buildings → 46 Sintering → 26, 31
Party wall → 97, 133, 141, 142, 188, 190-193, 198-200, 334 Rendering → 65, 68-71, 122-124, 135, 138, 142, 146, Sintering traces → 31
Peat-fired → 308, 309, 374, 377, 378, 380 167, 182, 184, 185, 194, 213-217, 219, 221-223, 225, Site-mixed mortar → 64
Pebbled sandstone → 44 227-229, 231, 236, 238, 240, 242, 245, 271, 309, 310, Skim coat → 156, 349, 351
Perforated calcium silicate brick → 58 341, 356, 380 Skyscrapers → 24
Permissible stress → 96-98, 101, 112, 124, 137, 141 Residual stress → 108 Slab shear → 104, 105, 117, 134
Perpend without mortar → 146 Residual wall thickness → 148 Slag marks → 31
Pier → 8, 17,20,37,44, 46, 77, 79,80, 100, 110, 129, Restraint moment → 98, 101 Slate → 37, 56, 63,362,366
132, 134, 139, 142, 148, 149, 246, 374 Restraint stress → 108, 110, 118, 151 Slenderness ratio → 102, 103, 111, 112, 116, 117, 120,
Plasterer's rule → 70, 71 Return wall → 100, 102, 120, 122, 291 131, 156, 200,201
Plastering mix → 67-69, 7 1 , 164, 181, 182 Reverse toothing → 147 Sliding bearing → 111, 132, 141, 142
Plastering system → 67-71, 122 Rib pillars → 44 Sliding connection → 129, 132
Plastic anchor → 154, 155 Ribbed panel → 119, 120 Slip joint → 213, 214, 227, 229, 231
Plasticity → 11, 14, 18, 20, 26, 34, 37, 56, 92, 127, 149 Rigid joint → 151, 152 Soiling → 149
390
Subject index
Solar heat gain → 168, 170, 176 161-169, 171, 172, 175, 182,202,212 Vertical crack → 92, 108, 111, 141
Solar radiation → 168-171, 177 Thermal diffusivity → 171 Vertical joints → 44, 78, 120, 121, 126
Soldier course → 34, 45, 46, 78, 118, 138, 139,218,230, Thermal insulation → 55, 57, 59, 60, 62, 63, 65, 67-71, Vertical reinforcement → 113-116, 135
234, 256, 257, 306 73, 75, 76, 106, 110, 111, 117, 122-129, 133, 135, 138, Vertically perforated brick → 56, 57, 66
Solid block → 60, 6 1 , 74, 232 142, 146, 149, 153-155, 160-179, 181-185, 191, 193- Vertically perforated unit → 57, 74
Solid brick → 56-58, 60, 6 1 , 164, 201 195, 199, 201, 204, 213, 214, 217, 219, 221-224, 227- Volume-related moisture content → 163, 166, 202
Sound insulation → 10, 55, 67, 69, 122, 124, 129, 132, 133, 229, 231, 232, 234, 236, 240, 245, 248, 253, 255, 257, Voussoir → 15, 139
146, 151, 155, 174, 186-195,202,221,222,225,227, 261, 266, 268, 271, 272, 274-277, 279, 282, 287, 290,
229, 232, 245, 297, 322, 355, 358, 361, 377, 380, 382 291, 296, 297, 301, 303, 304, 306, 309, 310, 313, 314, W/C ratio → 115
Sound pressure level → 186-188, 202 316-318, 320, 322, 325, 327, 331, 333, 336, 341, 345, Wall element → 60, 62, 74, 130, 142, 159, 201
Sound reduction index → 187-191, 193, 195, 202 349, 351, 355, 356, 358, 361, 362, 366, 370, 373, 377, Wall joint → 123, 124, 128, 149, 266
Spalling → 58, 63, 71, 145 378, 380, 382 Wall tie → 35, 115, 122, 125-128, 154,213,214,217,
Spandrel panel → 75, 109, 110, 126, 134, 141, 145, 288, Thermal insulation composite system → 68-71, 123, 153, 219, 221, 222, 225, 227, 229, 231-234, 313
306, 311,370,380 154, 166, 172, 177, 182, 184, 185, 193, 194, 201 Washout → 10, 31
Specific heat capacity → 162, 171, 182,202 Thermal insulation plastering system → 69-71, 122, 123 Water absorption → 55, 57, 63,67-69, 179, 180, 181,
Spherical vault → 28 Thermal resistance → 5 1 , 161-164, 166-168, 171-174, 184, 185, 202
Splatterdash → 69-71 182,202 Water retention → 92, 93, 144, 247
Splitting tensile strength → 57-59, 61 Thermal storage → 10, 51 Water vapour diffusion → 179-182, 202
Spring stiffness → 99 Thermal strain → 105, 106 Water/cement ratio → 115
Springing → 19, 28, 42, 139 Thermal transmission → 73, 176 Waterproof mortar → 124
Squint → 74 Thermal transmittance → 122, 123, 127, 161-163, 166- Waterproof paint → 132, 135
St Andrew's bond → 32, 80 172, 174, 176, 177, 183,202 Waterproofer → 64
Stability → 9, 11, 15, 32, 35,45, 63, 66,71,94,96,98- Thick-bed mortar → 93 Waterproofing → 125, 126, 134, 135, 231, 248, 253, 257,
100, 104, 105, 108, 113, 117, 119, 121, 124, 125, 129, Thin-bed mortar → 58, 59, 62, 64-67, 73, 76, 77, 93, 106- 261, 271, 274, 277, 290, 296, 301, 303, 310, 313, 317,
130, 133-135, 142, 148, 155, 159, 197, 198, 219, 378 108, 122, 129-131, 133, 144-146, 153, 156-159, 185, 320, 325, 333, 336, 345, 351, 358, 362, 366, 371, 377,
Stainless steel → 113-115, 125, 127, 129, 132, 147, 167, 191, 200, 201, 257,282 380, 382
193, 240, 248, 276, 277, 301, 303, 306, 313, 316, 317, Three-quarter bat → 73, 79, 80 Water-repellent mortar → 69, 132, 185, 234
322, 327, 330, 346, 349, 351, 355, 356, 366, 382 Threshold → 63, 65, 66, 123, 153, 168, 174, 175, 177, Water-repellent plaster → 67, 68
Staircase → 42, 142, 188, 198, 199, 242, 258, 276, 278, 178, 187, 226,229,271,358 Weather-resistant → 26, 112
308,316,380 Through-stone → 135 Wedge-shaped brick → 15
Stairway → 12, 13 Tie plate → 113 Weep hole → 126, 128, 184
Statically indeterminate → 98, 99 Tie rod → 113 Whitewash → 256, 258, 261
Steel → construction 49 Tipped and tailed → 146, 200 Wind load → 92, 95, 96, 98, 103, 104, 125, 129, 130,
Steel cores → 24, 35 Tolerance → 55, 58, 59, 65, 66, 77 142, 198
Stiffening wall → 79, 122, 141 Tongue and groove → 58-62, 69, 73, 77, 93, 95, 127, Window opening → 43, 75, 118, 134, 225, 226, 246, 250,
Stocky member → 117 129, 146, 156, 157, 158, 200 258, 328
Stop bead → 213, 219, 225 Toothed brick → 240 Window reveal → 20, 43, 74, 168, 170, 223, 224, 304,
Stratified → rock 37 Toothing → 78, 80, 140, 147, 148, 193, 246 352, 374
Straw → 10 Torsion → 95, 99, 111, 121 Window sill → 38, 40, 44, 46, 48, 168, 224, 225, 245, 255,
Strength class → 56, 58-62,96, 101, 103, 114, 120, 121, Tower → 12, 13, 17-19, 22,47,49,51 271, 274, 275, 282, 301, 304, 306, 316, 333, 341, 358,
124, 127, 145, 146 Tracery → 18, 19, 42 370, 374, 377, 378, 380
Stress concentration → 92, 118, 146 Transfer structure → 99, 121, 125 Work size → 76-78
Stress condition → 92-95, 101 Translucent thermal insulation → 167, 169-171, 177 Workability → 10, 30, 55, 63, 64, 66, 67, 144
Stress distribution → 95, 96, 101, 103, 116 Transport → 17, 18,57-59, 119-121, 149, 157-159, 163, Workmanship → 71, 92-95, 104, 112, 127, 128, 144, 149,
Stretcher bond → 34-37, 55, 79, 95, 268, 272, 278, 288, 168, 180-183 151, 168, 173, 186, 216,218,234
314, 328, 331, 338, 346, 352, 360, 369, 373, 378, 380 Transverse bond → 33 Woven reed → 31
Stretcher course → 33, 34, 36, 78-80, 112 Transverse deformability → 67, 92, 93
Stretcher face → 3, 56, 62, 63, 74, 80 Transverse tensile stress → 92, 93, 118, 146 Yield stress → 118
Structural fire protection → 196, 199 Transverse wall → 98, 258 Yorkshire bond → 34
Structure-borne sound → 186, 187, 189 Trass → 16, 60, 64, 66, 67, 309
Stucco vaulting → 20 Travertine → 64, 113 Ziggurat → 12, 13,22
Subsoil → 98, 99, 122, 142, 151 Triaxial stress condition → 92
Substrate → 68, 69-71, 74, 75, 118, 123, 138, 142, 143, Tripartite division → 40
146, 151, 152, 154, 155, 166, 167, 169, 191, 215, 216, Trough-shaped special → 115, 138
221, 228 Tufa → 37 Index of names
Suction rate → 92, 93, 149 Tuff → 60, 63
Suitability test → 96, 101-103, 106, 108, 145, 189 Tunnel kiln → 22 Aalto, Alvar → 28
Support reaction → 98, 109, 117, 120, 129, 137, 140, 143 Twin-leaf external wall → 124, 133, 155, 194, 357 Alberti, Leon Battista → 23
Surface resistance → 160, 161, 162, 164, 170, 173, 202 Twin-leaf masonry → 124, 129, 135, 154, 163, 177, 181- Alberts, Andrew → 276
Swelling → 14, 60, 71, 105-108, 110, 113 184, 192, 199, 212, 215, 216, 218, 219, 222-226, 229, Aparicio Guisado, Jesus Maria → 342
Synthetic resin → 113, 181, 185,370, 371 230, 231, 234
Twin-leaf masonry → 272, 304 Baumschlager, Carlo → 346
Tectonic plates → 26 Twin-leaf wall → 22, 65,79, 122, 124, 128, 129, 133, 137, Bienefeld, Heinz → 262
Tectonics → 26, 38, 52 147, 166, 183, 184, 190, 191, 192,200, 212, 213,227, Behrens, Peter → 24, 32, 45, 49
Template → 155-158 231 Beckerath, Verena von → 276
Temple → 12-15, 20,21 Two-coat plaster → 123 Bloch, Ernst → 29
Tensile bending strength → 59, 60, 92, 94, 120, 134 Two-hand lift → 158 Boullee, Etienne-Louis → 21
Tensile failure → 93, 95, 105 Bramante, Donato → 23
Tensile strength → 10, 57-59, 61-63, 66, 7 1 , 79, 92, 93- Uncoursed random rubble masonry → 135, 136 Burkard, Urs → 250
95, 104-106, 108, 110, 111, 113, 116, 129, 141 Uncracked section → 98, 104 Buttel, Friedrich Wilhelm → 43
Tension anchor → 113, 129, 143 Undercoat → 68-71, 290, 362
Tension failure → 93-95 Undercutting → 40 Cavadini, Raffaele → 357
Tension flange → 75, 114, 118, 119, 138 Unfired bnck → 11, 14,35 Claus, Felix → 272
Tension reinforcement → 75, 118 Unit/mortar combination → 101, 102, 118, 134 Clausen, Bruno → 314
Terrace → 98, 113, 133, 188,200,204,210,226, 227, Unreinforced masonry → 96, 100
230, 231, 256, 258, 272, 290, 298, 308, 334, 335, 345, Unsupported edge → 102, 148 De Blacam, Shane → 364
380, 382 U-value → 161, 162, 167, 168, 170, 171, 174, 176, 250 de Klerk, Michel → 26
Testing → 62, 63, 67, 96, 146, 160, 187, 196 de Mans, Paul → 29
Thermal break → 167, 168, 169, 221, 229, 242, 282, 328 Vault → 8, 13-16, 18, 19,20, 28, 31,42-44, 65, 113, 137, Dias, Adalberto → 369
Thermal bridge (catalogue) → 118, 123, 125, 148, 161, 139, 140, 159, 325,331,333
166, 167, 168, 169, 171-177, 179, 212, 228 Vault ribs → 19 Eberle, Dietmar → 346
Thermal conductivity → 55-66, 69,74, 122, 123, 127, Verge → 36, 46, 47, 204, 206, 207, 215-218, 238, 240, 279 Eckert, Dieter → 374
391
Index of names/Picture credits/Acknowledgments
Ramcke, Rolf → 7, 45, 47, 49, 50, 246 Berlin State Museums, Prussian Culture/Egyptology
Fink, Dieter → 378 Museum & Papyrus Collection: 1.1.45
Rietveld, Gerrit → 26, 27
Fischer von Erlach, Johann Bernhard → 21 Berlin State Museums, Prussian Culture / Near East
Frederiksen, Bo → 258 Schattner, Karljosef → 47, 49, 237, 284, 287 Museum/J. Liepe: 1.1.7
Schinkel, Karl Friedrich → 14, 23, 39 Hannover Public Libraries: 1.1.33
Gisel, Ernst → 304
Schleiff, Gunter → 331 Berlin Technical University, Collection of Drawings: 1.1.39
Gartner, Friedrich von → 39
Schlickeysen, Carl → 22 Werner, Heike; Munich: 1.1.41
Gaudi, Antoni → 26, 27, 39
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von → 40 Schmitz, Karl-Heinz → 284
Schneider, Hartwig N. → 242 Part 2 • Fundamentals
Gropius, Walter → 24-26, 32, 39, 43, 47 Foto Kalksandstein-lnformation; Hannover: p. 146
Schulz, Gernot → 308
Schumacher, Fritz → 26, 27, 44, 45, 233 Ziegel Klimaton; Brunnthal: p. 158, 159 left
Hahn, Ulrich → 352 Preton; Switzerland: p. 159 right
Schunck, Eberhard → 293
Haessig, Felix B. und Peter C → 314 Schupp, Fritz → 49
Hase, Conrad Wilhelm → 39 Part 4 • Built examples in detail
Schwarz, Rudolf → 360 Binet, Helene; London: pp. 328-330
Hegger, Manfred → 331 Semper, Gottfried → 38, 51
Hegger-Luhnen, Doris → 331 Blonk, Arthur/arcasa; Wanneperveen, NL: pp. 272-275
Sommer, Detlef → 374
Heide, Tim → 276 Buttner, Dominic; Zurich: pp. 278, 280, 281, 283
Stolz, Walter → 238 Cook, PeterA/iew; London: pp. 365, 367, 368
Helten, Gunter → 352 Stiller, Friedrch August → 22
Hertlein, Hans → 49 Ferreira Alves, Luis Seixas; Porto: pp. 369-373
Sullivan, Robert Louis → 24 Frederiksen, Jens; Copenhagen: pp. 258-261
Hertzberger, Herman → 28 Suselbeek, Wouter → 374
Hierl, Rudolf → 288 Gabriel, Andreas; Munich: p. 288
Hillebrandt, Annette → 308 Gahl, Christian; Berlin: pp. 276, 277
Theoderic → 16
Hoffmann, E.T.A. → 42 Giovanelli, Francesca; Weiningen, Switzerland: pp. 267-271
Titz, Wolff, Breune → 35
Hoffmann, Friedrich → 22, 58 Gisel, Georg; Zurich: pp. 304, 306
Tranberg, Lene → 338
Hoffmann, Ludwig → 40 Halbe, Roland; Stuttgart: pp. 242, 245,
Twain, Mark → 22
Hbger, Fritz → 24, 26, 27, 33-35, 39, 44, 233 Halbe, Roland/artur; Cologne: pp. 298-303, 322, 323, 325
Henz, Hannes; Zurich: p. 305
Ulrich, Dieter → 293 Hueber, Eduard/archphoto; New York: pp. 347-351
Jefferson, Thomas → 34
Jocher, Thomas → 378 Job, Roman; Munich: pp. 238, 239
Van der Pol, Lisbeth → 334
Kaltenbach, Frank; Munich: p. 362
van Doesburg, Theo → 26
Kaag , Werner → 360 Kandzia, Christian; Esslingen: p. 244
Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene → 14, 15
Kinold, Klaus; Munich: pp. 262-266, 284-286, 289,
Kaan, Kees → 272 Vitruvius → 14, 16, 37, 45
292-297, 311-313,315-317
Kafka, Franz → 13
Kramer, Luuk; Amsterdam: pp. 334, 335, 337
Kahlfeldt, Paul und Petra → 33, 237, 318 Wright, Frank Lloyd → 28 Kubitza, Manuel; Cologne: pp. 308-310
Kahn, Louis I. → 28, 50
Lindhe, Jens; Copenhagen: pp. 338-341
Knudsen,Jan → 258 Zeinstra, Herman → 334 Lurman, Wolfgang; Munich: p. 291
Koch, Kai-Michael → 37
Muller, Stefan; Berlin: pp. 319-321
Kollhoff, Hans → 278
von Quast, Siegfried; Mumau: pp. 247, 249
Korff-Laage, Paul → 33
Richter, Ralph/architekturphoto; Dusseldorf: pp. 324,326-327
Kramer, Piet → 26, 27
Krausen, Norbert → 293 Picture credits Roth, Lukas; Cologne: pp. 243, 378-383
Schldtzer, Gerhard; Bamberg: p. 241
Kremmer, Martin → 49 Schmitz, Arjen; Maastricht: pp. 352-356
Part 1 • Masonry in architecture
Archiv fur Kunst und Geschichte Berlin:1.1.10, 1.1.25 Schuster, Oliver; Stuttgart: pp. 360, 361, 363
Lavington, Richard → 328 Seewald, Heike; Hemmingen: pp. 246, 248
Atelier Kinold; Munich: 1,1.44
Le Corbusier → 28, 37, 42, 43 Simonetti, Filippo; Brunate, Italy: pp. 357-359
Bildarchiv Foto Marburg: 1.1.21
Lederer, Arno → 298, 322 Sorgedrager, Bart; Amsterdam: pp. 374-376
Bildarchiv Monheim; Meerbusch: 1.1.12, 1.1.13, 1.1.20,
Lewerentz, Sigurd → 28 Suzuki, Hisao; Premia de Dalt, Barcelona: pp. 342-345
1.1.24, 1.1.73
Lilienthal, Gustav → 22 Willebrand, Jens; Cologne: pp. 331-333
Blaser, Werner; Basel: 1.1.32, 1.1.37, 1.1.78, 1.1.108
Loos, Adolf → 24, 26 Willig, Hajo; Hamburg: pp. 256, 257
Budeit, Hans Joachim; Dortmund: 1.1.17-19, 1.1.22,
Lundgaard, Boje → 338 Zimmermann, Reinhard; Zurich: pp. 250, 252, 253
1.1.87, 1.1.106
Burkle, Christoph; Sulgen, Switzerland: 1.1.88
MacCreanor, Gerard → 328 Casals, Lluis; Barcelona: 1.1.118 Full page plates
Mayer, Roland → 267 Citterio, Antonio: 1.1.116 Page 7 Ornamental masonry on the Samanide Mauso
Meagher, John → 364 Conrad, Dietrich; Dresden: 1.1.16 leum in Buchara, Usbekistan, 10th century
Mendelssohn, Erich → 51 Derwig, Jan; Amsterdam: 1.1.40 Photo: Christian Schittlich, Munich
Meyer, Adolf → 25, 32, 33, 39, 43, 47 German Archaeological Institute, Athens: 1.1.9 Page 53 Northlight roofs to the Aymerich Wool Weaving
Meyer, Adrian → 250 Enders, Ulrike; Hannover: 1.1.3, 1.1.4, 1.1.46, 1.1.47 Works, "Amati i Jover", inTerrassa, Spain, 1907.
Meyer, Gabriele → 242 Fondation Le Corbusier/© VG Bild-Kunst; Bonn: 1.1.89 Photo: Manfred Hamm, Berlin
Michelangelo → 23 Frahm, Klaus/artur; Cologne: 1.1.35 Page 203 Kuhnen House, Kevelaer;
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig → 25ff, 28, 34, 35, 40, 43, 49 Funk, Susanne; Munich: 1.1.56 architect: Heinz Bienefeld, 1988.
Mohl, Heinz → 311 Gabriel, Andreas; Munich: 1.1.1, 1.1.84 Photo: Klaus Kinold, Munich
Muller, Hans Heinrich → 40 Helle, Jochen/artur; Cologne: 1.1.112 Page 235 Housing complex in Amsterdam;
Hirmer Fotoarchiv Munchen: 1.1.5, 1.1.6 architects: Zeinstra, van der Pol, Amsterdam,
Neb uchadnezzar ll → 12 Hannover Municipal Building Authority: 1.1,34 1988. Photo: Luuk Kramer, Amsterdam
Negwer, Hubertus → 374 Kahlfeldt Architekten; Berlin: 1.1.101
Neumann, Johann Balthasar → 42 Kaltenbach, Frank; Munich: 1.1.8
Novalis → 527 Kleiner, S.: Wiener Ansichten, part III, pi. 18: 1.1.27
Muller, Bernd; Hannover: 1.1.64
Acknowledgements
Oei, Marc → 298, 322 Berlin State Archives: 1.1.30
Lessing, Erich/Archiv fur Kunst u. Geschichte Berlin: 1.1.10 The publishers would like to express their gratitude to the
Palladio, Andrea → 20, 2 1 , 23 Oudsten, Frank den; Amsterdam: 1.1.36 following persons for their suggestions and advice during
Parler, Peter → 19 Pehnt, Wolfgang; Cologne: 1.1.31 the production of this book:
Perrault, Claude → 44 Petersen, Knud; Berlin: 1.1.86
Pfeifer, Gunter → 256, 267 Plunger, Max; S-Saltsjö Durnas: 1.1.43 Prof. Dr.-lng. Walter Haas, Munich
PleCnik, Josef → 34, 35 Ramcke, Rolf; Hannover: 1.1.23, 1.1.26, 1.1.54, 1.1.57, Dipl.-lng. Edgar Haupt, Odental
Poelzig, Hans → 33, 49 1.1.65,1.1.66,1.1.72,1.1.74-77,1.1.79,1.1.80-1.1.83, Dipl-lng. Christine Peter, Munich
Popper, Karl → 30 1.1.85, 1.1.90-95, 1.1.97-100, 1.1.102-105, 1.1.107, Dipl-lng. Christian Peter, Munich
Posener, Julius → 32 1.1.109-111, 1.1.113-115 Prof. Dr.-lng. Jurgen J. Rasch, Karlsruhe
Schittich, Christian; Munich: 1.1.2, 1.1.14, 1.1.42 Prof. Eberhard Schunck, Munich
Raphael → 23 Schumacher, Fritz; Hamburg: 1.1.96
Ragnarsdottir, Jorunn → 298, 322 Seewald, Heike; Hemmingen: 1.1.55, 1.1.117
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Masonry

Gunter Pfeifer, Professor, freelance architect

Rolf Ramcke, Prof. Dipl.-lng., architect

Joachim Achtziger, Dr.-lng.

Konrad Zilch, Prof. Dr.-lng.

Deutsche Bibliothek - Cataloging-in-Publication Data

This book is also available in a German language edition (ISBN 3-7643-6478-5).

Printed on acid-free paper produced from chlorine-free pulp. TCF ~

Part 1 • Masonry in architecture 8

Masonry bonds 72 Thermal insulation 160

Masonry details 122 Part 4 • Built examples in detail 236

External walls 122 Built examples in detail

"The brick is a different master.

Masonry materials • Clay brick masonry •

Basics • Manufacture • Formats • Colours

Masonry - today and t o m o r r o w

What is masonry? In each instance, we aim to answer the ques-

Positions in history moulding or shaping them with moisture. They

A simple means of rain protection is to build

In addition to hand-beading techniques and

The history of advanced civilizations abounds

1.1.1 Tunnel entrance to the stadium at Olympia,

frequently explored this symbol as a metaphor

Architecture owes one of its most significant

1.1.5 Ishtar Gate of Babylon, circa 570 BC

reacting to life's uncertainties by creating per-

The plastic spirit in Greek and Roman architecture

The architectural knowledge of Mesopotamia,

Masonry laid in courses of fired and unfired

Hellenic buildings, especially their isodose

Technical advances in Roman antiquity

The basis for the development and outstanding

1.1.8 Poseidon Temple, Paestum, 460-450 BC

monolith of massive proportions, appears

Technical development in the Middle Ages

We cannot describe here the full range of

1.1.13 Roman masonry, Imperial Baths, Trier

1.1.17 St Martin, Chapaise, Burgundy, 1030/1040 AD

Chapel at St Philibert shows the same capital

1.1.21 1.1.22 1.1.23

The same can be said of the two-storey-high

differentiated by no more than a few centi-

passionate as it was unremitting. Had senti-

Jugendstil - a new path

Style had now been freed from the context of

1.1.32 1.1.33 1.1.34

1.1.32 Monadnock Building, Chicago, 1890-91,

vacuity that marked the pose of the latter, these

To Gropius, however, they were appeals worth

The purifying intent of the Bauhaus is expressed

Ultimately, historicism was rejected out of the

1.1.41 Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad,

materials is the direct expression of a complex

The planning laws and building regulations of

mental protection, opening up new design con-

The situation hasn't changed, but the condi-

Design has less and less to do with realizing

a unit is the combined effect of colour and sur-

When it comes to evaluating the cubic, plastic

2.2.18 Non-permissible bond