HAP Chap.1-9

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Scope of Anatomy and Physiology Definition of

various terminologies
Human Anatomy & Physiology
Chapter-1
In this Notes we provide you Human Anatomy & Physiology Notes Chapter – 1 Topic : Scope of Anatomy
and Physiology Definition of various terminologies
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HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Anatomy:
Anatomy is a branch of science in which deals with the internal organ
structure is called Anatomy.
• The word “Anatomy” comes from the Greek word
“ana” meaning “up” and “tome” meaning “a
cutting”.
• Father of Anatomy is referred as “Andreas Vesalius”.
Physiology:
 In the physiology we deals with the
working principle of different body systems and
interaction between each other.
 In the physiology we will discuss about metabolic
pathway of body system and their activities.
Scope of Anatomy and Physiology–
(A) Branch of Anatomy:
 Development biology/Embryology—
 In this branch of Anatomy we deals with the, structural changes
and structural development of sexual gametes and embryo development.
 Sequential development of embryo is.
Gamete formation—Fertilisation—Fallopian
development of fertilise egg—Implantation—Embryo
formation—Foetus development.
(2) Cell biology
 In the cell biology we will study
about structural changes and structural development of
cell during cell division or cell development.
 Cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit
of living things.
(3) Histology-
 Histology is the study of structural changes and structural development
of Tissues.
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 A group of cell having similar structure and act together to perform specific
person is
Called tissue. It is four types.
o Epithelial tissue.
o Connective tissue.
o Muscular tissue.
o Nervous tissue.
(4) Gross Anatomy
 In the gross anatomy we deals with the structure of the body that are visible to
naked eye.so it is also called Macroscopic Anatomy.
(5) Topographic Anatomy
 In this branch we discuss about layering structure of body part, projection present
on skin, and
interconnecting structure of muscle, nerves and Arteries. It is also called as surface
Anatomy.
(6) Radiographic Anatomy
 Study of Anatomical structural by using radiographic technique is known as
radiographic Anatomy.
In this procedure x-ray are used for the structural representation of three
dimensional object in two dimensional image.
(7) Systemic Anatomy
In the systemic Anatomy we deals with Eleven different body system of our
body.
 Integumentary/Exocrine system
 Endocrine system
 Nervous system
 Lymphatic/Immune system
 Muscular system
 Skeletal system
 Respiratory system
 Circulatory system
 Digestive system
 Urinary system
 Reproductive system
(B) Branch of physiology—
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(1) Cell physiology:

 Study of cells functions, working principle and interaction of cells with each other
is called cell physiology.
(2) Endocrinology:
 Study of hormonal substances and their functions, how to control our body is
known as Endocrinology.
(3) Neurophysiology
 Study of nerve cell and their functions is called Neurophysiology. It is also known
as messenger physiology.
(4) Immunology
 Study of defensive mechanism in our body against disease causing agent or during
disease conditions is called Immunology.
(5) Cardiovascular physiology
 Study of working principle/ functions of heart and blood vascular system is known
as cardiovascular physiology.
(6) Respiratory physiology
 Study of working principle/functions of lungs and air passageway is known
as Respiratory physiology.
(7) Pathophysiology
 Study of functions change during the disease conditions and aging is
called pathophysiology.
Definition of various terms used in Anatomy—
 Anterior/ventral—Direction towards front of the body.
 Posterior/Dorsal—Direction towards back of the body.
 Superior/Cranial— Towards the head or upper/highest most point of the body of
the body proper. Example – Head, Neck.
 Inferior/Caudal—Away from head or lower/lowest most point of the body of the
body proper. Example- feet
 Proximal end—Starting end of the joint or attachments.
 Distal end—Ending end of the joint or attachments and most distant region of
proximal end.
Symmetry related terms used in Anatomy—
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 Asymmetrical—When the body parts not divided into equal half by cutting any
plane.
 Radial symmetry—When the body parts divided into two equal half by cutting
any radial plane.
 Bilateral symmetry—When the body parts divided into two equal half by cutting
any one radial plane otherwise not.
Abdominal quadrants and including organs in Anatomy—
 Right Upper Quadrants(RUQ)—Gall bladder, major parts of liver, minor parts of
stomach, small intestine, parts of pancreas.
 Left Upper Quadrants(LUQ)—Tip of liver, Spleen, major parts of stomach, parts
of pancreas.
 Right Lower Quadrants(RLQ)—Ascending colon, caecum, appendix, right
ovary, small intestine, uterus.
 Left Lower Quadrants(LLQ)– Descending colon, sigmoid colon, left ovary,
small intestine, urinary bladder, anus.
Abdominal region and including organs in Anatomy—
 Right Hypochondriac Region—some part of liver, right kidney, gall bladder,
parts of large/small intestine.
 Epigastric Region—major parts of liver, stomach ,adrenal gland, some parts of
pancreas, spleen, duodenum.
 Left Hypochondriac Region—liver tips, stomach, spleen, pancreas, some part of
left kidney, large/small intestine.
 Right Lumber Region—gall bladder, ascending colon, small intestine, right
kidney.
 Umbilical Region—transverse colon, small intestine (duodenum), umbilicus
(navel).
 Left Lumber Region—descending colon, left kidney.
 Right Iliac Region—appendix, caecum, starting of ascending colon.
 Hypogastric Region—urinary bladder, sigmoid colon, reproductive organs,
rectum, anus.
 Left Iliac Region—descending colon.
Different positions in Anatomy—
 Anatomical position—The body is erect the head facing forwards arms by the side
and palms of the hand facing forward is kncalled Anatomical position.
 Supine position—when a person laying on his/her back arms by the side palm
facing upwards and feet put together is known as supine position.
 Prone position—when a person laying on his/her face and chest arms by the side
palm facing upwards and feet put together is known as prone position.
 Lithomy position—When a person laying on his/her back and legs are temporarily
fit supported by stripe is known as lithotomy.These position mostly used in
delivering of baby.
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Different plane in Anatomy—

 Mid sagittal plane—this plane divide our body in left and right parts.
 Coronal plane—Coronal plane divide our body into front and back.
 Transverse plane—It is a horizontal imaginary plane which divide our body
superior and inferior parts.
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Cell
Human Anatomy And Physiology
D.Pharma 1st year notes According to PCI new Syllabus
10/6/2021
In this Notes we provide you Human Anatomy & Physiology Notes Chapter – 2
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Cell
The cell has been variously defined as the unit of structure and function in
animals and plants.
The smallest living unit capable of independent existence as a small mass of living
matter containing a nucleus or nuclear material.
History of cell
The cell was first discover and named by Robert Hook (1665) and first Saw living
cell by – Leeuwenhoek cell theory proposed by Schwann – 1839.
Electron Microscopic Structure of Cell

All the cells are made up of protoplasm a viscid granular substance which consist
of water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.
The protoplasm remain differentiated into an outer cytoplasm and the denser
inner nucleus. Surrounding the cytoplasm there is covering called Cell Membrane.
CELL MEMBRANE
 Cell Membrane is thin elastic and has highly complex structure composed
of proteins and lipids. It is a semi – permeable membrane, containing
‘pores’ that allow the passage of water, oxygen, co2 & some solutes in and
out of the cell and plays a vital role in maintaining the homeostatic balance
of the cell.
 The cytoplasm consists of a number of structures called the Organells.
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Fig of Cell
Mitochondria
 It is largest cytoplasmic organelles and energy house of the cell as it consist
of enzymes which convert chemical energy of the food nutrients into usable
energy from (T.P.) which is internally available for cellular activity.
 It is also known as Power house of the cell. ·
 Mitochondria is discover by Albert von Kolliker
 It appears like filamentous structure or rod shaped. It consists of oxidative
enzymes which convert chemical energy of the nutrients into form of A.T.P.
and this energy is available for cellular activity. The mitochondria supply
95% of cell energy and so called power house of the cell.
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Cytoplasm
 It is the region lying between the cell membrane and nucleus. The
cytoplasm contain Cell organ like – Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies,
Mitochondria.
Endoplasmic reticulum
 These are scattered in cytoplasm. They are two types of endoplasmic
reticulum depending upon the presence or absence of ribosomes which are
responsible for protein synthesis.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum is two type
1. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: - Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum without

the presence of ribosomes. They found Lipid
2. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: - Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum with the
presence of ribosomes. They found Protein
Lysosomes
 They are minute structures containing enzymes that digest or remove the
particles which are useless or may be harmful to the cell. ·
 Lysosomes produce hydrolyzing enzymes such as phosphatase acid
ribonuclease.
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Golgi bodies
 They are the double membranous vacuolar channels which traverse the
cytoplasm. The membrane appears to be formed of phospholipids,
proteins, and a number of enzymes.
 Golgi bodies act as a sort of intercellular pump that regulates the
movement of fluids in the cell and expulsion of secretary products from the
cell.
 Golgi bodies synthesise polysaccharide part of glycoprotein secretion.
Centrosome
 This lies close to the nuclear and is made up of two centrioles, small
structures that play a major role in initiating cell division.
 It is enveloped by a porous nuclear membrane that separates it from the
surrounding cytoplasm.
 During cell divisions, it breaks up and soon after the mitosis it is
reconstituted.
Nucleus
 It is a vital center of the cell.
 It controls both chemical reactions and reproduction of cell.
Chromosomes
 They are minute threads like structure within the nucleus and appear as a
mass of darkly-staining material called chromatin. ·
 Chromosomes determine the specific characteristics of the cell and
hereditary characters pass from one generation to the next generation.
Cell Junction & Transport across Cell Membrane
Cell Junction
 Cell Junction are the modified structure of the cell membrane which
communicate the Neirbouring cell.
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 Cell Junctions are mostly abundant in Epithelial tissue and connect through
glycoproteins called cadherin
 Cell junction is true for the animal cell because plasmodesmal connations
are found in plant for commenieeting the Neighboring cell.
Type of Cell Junction

1. Tight Junction
2. Adhering Junction / Desmosomes
3. Gap Junction / Communicating junction
1. Tight Junction :-
 Adjacent plasma membranes are joined tightly together
 This help to stop substances from leaking.
 It is permeable in for many ions
 Pass the ion through diffusion or active transport.
2. Adhering Junction:-
 It performs cementing keep neighboring cells.
 Adhering junction is defined as a cell junction whose cytoplasmic face is
linked to the actin cytoskeleton.
 Protein forms the encircling bands and attach to the extracellular material
 It stabilizes the surface of epithelia.
3. Gap Junction:-
 Gap junctions facilitate the cells to communicate with each other, share
nutrients & transfer chemical / electrical signals
 Proteins form holes between adjacent animal cells allows various ions and
molecules to pass freely between cells.
 Abundant in cardiac muscle and smooth muscle where they transmit
electrical activity
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 Assembly of six proteins that create gap between two plasma membranes
called Conn exons.
Regulation of Gap Junction communication

I. Intra Cellular Calcium
II. pH
III. Voltage
IV. Extracellular signals
Cell membrane
 Cell Membrane is the universal structure present in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes
 Cell membrane possess lipid, Protein and carbohydrates
 Cell membrane contain lipid bilayer which is directly attached to protein
layer
 Total thickness of cell membrane is 75A.
Transportation through cell membrane-

 Passive Transport
 Active Transport
Passive transport
 Many molecules can move across the membrane without any energy
requirement
 Molecule transport higher concentration-> Lower concentration
 Water transport through membrane called diffusion
 Some carrier protein also help in the transportation and it is called facilitate
diffusion.
Active transport
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 Few molecules ions can move across the membrane by using the Energy
(A.T.P)
 Molecule move from lower concentration-> Higher concentration
 Example-> Sodium potassium pump (Na+/K+ Pump)
Endocytosis
 In this procedure bulk amount of solid & liquid material transports.
 Bulk structure are formed vesicles or bag like structures
 Easily diffuse to cell membrane
Exocytosis
 Removal of waste material from Cell through plasma membrane
 Maintain the Electrolytic balance
Cell Division
 Cell division is a very important process in all living organism.
 It is induce due to disturbing the ratio between the nucleus and cytoplasm
 The sequence procedure follow by the cell and eventually divides into two
daughter cells is termed cell cycle
 During the cell division DNA replication and cell growth also takes place.
On the basis of chromosome number cell follow two path for divisions
o Mitosis
o Meiosis
Mitosis
The cell cycle is devided into two basic phases
1. Inter Phase
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2. M Phase / Mitosis Phase
Inter Phase  Cell is metabolically active

 Cell growth also takes place
 Also called synthesis phase because DNA synthesis or

Inter Phase Inter Phase replication takes place in nucleus
 Centriole duplicate in cytoplasm
Inter Phase  Mitosis preparation phase.

 Protein synthesized during this phase
M-Phase (Mitosis Phase)

During M-Phase equal distribution of chromosome occurs in progeny cells
M.Phase divided in Four Stage (On the basis of Chromosomal arrangement)
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 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
Prophase
 Initiation of condensation of chromosomal material.
 Centrosome move towards opposite poles of cell & radiates out
microtubules called asters.
 End of Prophase Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear envelope
disappear.
Metaphase
 Easily study the morphology of chromosome
 Chromosome made up of two sister chromatids and join together by the
centromere.
 Small disc shaped structure present on the centromere called kinetochores.
 Spindle fiber attaches to the kinetochores and arranged the chromosome
at equator and forms the metaphase plate.
Anaphase
 Centromere split and chromatid separate with each other
 In the microscope single chromatid chromos structure appear on the
opposite poles.
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Telophase
 Chromosome lost their identity and form the cluster of chromatin
 Nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex reform
 Also called opposite of prophase.
Cytokinesis
 After the distribution of genetic material all form the furrow in the plasma
membrane.
 The furrow gradually deepens and ultimately divide the cell into two
daughter cell.
Meiosis
• Cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half results in
the production of haploid daughter cells.
• Into phase of this division some as mitosis division
M.Phase of this division divided into two parts
• Meiosis-I
• Meiosis-II
Meiosis-I :- further divided into four parts.

Prophase-I
• It is drvided into 5-steps.
• Leptotene
• zygotene
• Pachytene
• Diplotene
• Diakinesis
It this stage crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids of the

homologous chromosomes.
Site of crossing over form the x-shaped structure are called chiasmata.
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Metaphase-I
• Anaphase-I
• Telophase-I
Cytokinesis occur at the end & form the two cells.
Meiosis-II :- Further Meiosis-II start after cytokinesis. If is also divided into four
stage.
Mitosis
Mitosis
Human Cell
Daughter cell
Chromosome =46
Chromosome =46
Meiosis
Human Cell
Chromosome =46
Only germ cell Daughter cell

Chromosome = 23
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General principle of Cell communication
Signal Molecule Generate (Hormone, Neural effect)
Attach to the cell membrane receptors
Transducer -> Activate transcription Factor
Activate the Gene
Finally response generate (Protein Synthesis)
 All cells have some ability to sense and respond to specific chemical, Neural signals.
 Signal transmitted through chemical messenger and receptor which are located on
the surface of cell.
 Two main types of chemicals signals generate in the cells-
 Cytoplasmic connection between cells
 Hormones communication
 Receptors are molecule generally made up of protein, that recieues the signal for cell
 Chemical messenger are bind to the cell receptors and perform the function
 Mainly three types of Receptors are present on the cell
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Ion-Channel linked receptors/Ligand gated ion channels Inotropic receptors

Receptors
Hormone
Cytoplasmic Connection
Receptors are directly bound with legend (Specific)
Then receptors are activated (Conformational change)
Then signal molecule bind with the receptor
Finally signal reaches to cell nucleus
Signal molecule bind to the receptor
To Activated receptor bandito the G-Protein
Then G-Protein also activate and conformational change occurs
Then Signals receiver by cell Nucleus and give

response
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Initially two receptor domain are separated to each other
When signal molecule comes to contact then it form dimer
And finally conformational change occurs (activated enzymes)
Then signal receive by cell nucleus and give response
Forms of intracellular signaling

In the cell communication intracellular signaling is known as very important
expect for living organisms.
There are four basic types of signaling found in the organisms.
(1)Paracrine signaling.
(2)Autocrine signaling.
(3)Endocrine signaling.
(4)Direct contact signaling.
1. Paracrine signaling— In this signaling , cell are cordinated with the

neighbouring cell by generating the potential gradient and altering the
behaviour of those cells.Chemical which are involved in the signaling
process is known as paracrine factors and it is transfer by diffusion process.
Once a signaling molecule binds to its receptor it causes a conformational
change in it that results in a cellular response.
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• The same ligand can bind to different receptors causing different

responses (e.g.. acetylcholine). On the other hand, different ligands
binding to different receptors can produce the same cellular
response (e.g. glucagon, epinephrine).
• Example - Nerve and muscle signaling.
2. Autocrine signaling— It is also called as self signaling. Cell secrete the chemical
known as autocrine factors which co-ordinate the self cell and give the response.
• Example - Growth factors.
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3. Endocrine signaling— Hormone is required for this signaling. Hormones are

binding to the cell receptors and give the response.
4. Direct contact signaling — Cell are fuse to each other by the plasmodesmetal
connections in plant and transfer the signal from one cell to another cell. It is
mainly found in the plants.
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Tissue
Human Anatomy & Physiology
Chapter - 1
In this Notes we provide you Human Anatomy & Physiology Notes Chapter – 3 Tissue
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Tissue
Tissue is defined as collection of cells which are similar in origin structure and function.
OR
A group of cells having the same origin, similar shape and specific common general
function is known as Tissues.
Cell is the structural and functional unit of the body and group of cell which is similar in
origin structure and function called tissue.
Group of Tissues which perform the special function is known as organ.
OR
Biological tissue is a collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function

within an organism.
OR
Tissues are the group of similar cell and perform a similar function and
interconnected by the non-living intercellular material or matrix.
 Study of tissue is called Histology.

 The word Histology was given by Mayr (1891).
 Father of Histology is Marcello Malpighi.
 The term tissue was coined by the Bichat.
Classification of Tissues
They are classified into four types:
1. Epithelial Tissue
2. Connective Tissue
3. Muscular Tissue
4. Nervous Tissue
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A. Epithelial Tissue:
Epithelial tissue provides the protective covering to the other tissue. Basically all types
of epithelium consist of the cells with minimum intercellular space and so help in
protection absorption, excretion and secretion.
 Due to presence on outer surface it does not contain blood vessels or capillaries. It
absorbs nutrients from the lymph vessels or connective tissue.
 Epithelial tissue is present on the basal membrane and lower the basal membrane
connective tissue are present. Due to involvement of the junction cell communicate with
each other.
 The word epithelial was introduced by the Ruysch.
It is developed by three primary germinal layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm)
Epithelial tissue classified into two types.
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Classification of Simple Epithelial tissue
Simple Epithelial Tissue:

The Simple Epithelium a single layer of cell called Simple Epithelial Tissue.
It divided into five.
1. Squamous Epithelium:
 It consists of one layer of flat cell, nucleus usually placed in the center of the cells.
 It is generally situated on basement membrane.
 These are present in the alveoli of the lungs.
 Henle’s loop of the nephron, the inner lining of the heart and inner wall of blood vessels
etc.
 These cell help in the filtrations, exchange of gases from blood and protect the internal organs.
Fig: Squamous Epithelium

2. Columnar Epithelium:
 They are composed of single layer of tall and slender cells and height is more than its breadth.
 Their nuclei are located at the base. Free surface may have microvilli.
 It is found in lungs and duct of glands.
 It also found in the lining of stomach and intestine and help in secretion and absorption.
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3. Cuboidal epithelium.
 These cells protect the organ and help in the secretion.
 It is formed of one layer of cubical cells which has the same dimension from each side.
This is commonly found in ducts of glands and tubular parts of nephron in kidneys and its
main functions are secretion and absorption it also found in bronchioles, salivary glands,
thyroid etc.
 The proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) of nephron in the kidney has microvilli.
Fig: Cuboidal Epithelium

4. Ciliated epithelium.
 These cells consist of 12-15 hairy structure called cilia. These are usually present in
respiratory tract, fallopian tubes, etc.
 There function is to move particles or mucus in specific directions over the epithelium.
 These help in the flow of mucous, and prevent the entry of bacteria, particles etc.
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Fig: Ciliated Epithelium

Compound epithelium.
1. Transitional Epithelium.
 It consist 3-4 layer of cells. These are known transitional because its nature is migrating
from simple to stratified epithelia cells.
 They are found in the pelvis of kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, urethrae.
 These are helpful in protection of the organ. These also prevent reabsorption of excreted
material back to the system.
Fig: Transitional Epithelium

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2. Stratified squamous cornfield epithelium.

 It consists of many layers of squamous epithelial cells modified into keratinized cells due to
deposition of keratin.
 They are found in the skin, nails, and palms.
 These provide protection against atmospheric and mechanical pressure and injury etc.
3. Stratified squamous non- cornfield epithelium.
 They are similar in the structure as Stratified squamous cornfield epithelium except they do
not contain the keratinized cells.
 These are found in various mucous membranes. e.g. mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and
vaginal mucosa.
 These cells also provide protection and helpful in secretion of mucus etc.
4. Stratified columnar Epithelium.
 It consists of multiple layers of cells which has more height than the breath. These are
present in conjunctiva, pharynx and mucosa.
 These are helpful protection and secretion of various substances.
B. Connective tissue.
 Connective tissue is the type of primary tissues which provide the binding and supportive
function and provide the framework of the body.
 Connective tissues are most abundant and widely distributed in the body of multicellular
organisms.
 It is stored the fat and mainly present beneath the skin.

 In all connective tissue except blood, the cells secrete fibers provide strength, elasticity and flexibility
to the tissue.
 These cells also secrete modified polysaccharides, which accumulate between cells and fibers and act
as matrix (ground substances).
 On the basis of fibers arrangement it divided into two parts.
Loose connective tissue: - Cells and fibers loosely arrangement in a semi-fluid ground
substances. It contains the fibroblasts (fibers producing cells), microphages and mast cells.
Dense connective tissue: -Cells and fibers are compactly packed in this tissue.
Example—Tendons (join bone to muscle).
 Connective tissue can be divided into following groups:

1. Areolar tissue
2. Adipose tissue
3. Fibrous tissue
4. Elastic tissue
5. Lymphoid tissue
6. Reticular tissue
7. Cartilages
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8. Bone
9. Blood
10. Lymph
Areolar tissue :-
 It consist loosely arranged tissue and usually present throughout the body. These are present
in subcutaneous sub mucous between muscle and nerves.
Adipose tissue:-
 They are also known as dosing tissue and present in subcutaneous tissue. They usually
contain cells containing free fat inside the cell. The excess of nutrients which are not used
immediately are converted into fats and are stored in this tissue. The cells are generally
large rounded or oval in shape.
 Adipose tissues present the organs from injury and gives shapes to limbs, store the energy
and regulate the body temperature.
Fibrous tissue:-
 Fibrous tissue is also known as white ‘Fibrous’ tissue as they are composed of mainly
white Fiber of collagen cells like fibroblast, histiocytic, basophils, mast cells.
 Deprived the strong to the tissue and from the ligaments and tendons, diameter and neural
canal.
 It function is to connect the different tissues and the different part of the body to provide
mechanical protection against stretch and pressure.
Elastic tissue:-
 They are mainly consist elastic fibers and present in the walls of arteries and in the air
tubes of respiratory track and some ligament.
 They provide supportive muscular strength and help in the maintaining the erect position of
the spine.
Lymphoid tissue:-
 Lymphoid tissue contains lymph, lymph gland, lymphatic vessels and present in small
intestine, pharyngeal tonsils etc.
 They supply lymphocytes to the blood and provide the protection against bacterial
infections.
Reticular tissue:-
They are similar to the areolar tissue except lymphocyte cells presents in a very large number and forms
the bulk of tissue. They are present in spleen, liver, lymph gland, bone etc.
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Cartilages:-
 Cartilage is a connective tissue and elastic in nature. It contain large quantity of matrix. They
are usually found at the joints between the bones. These are covered by a membrane
perichondrium.
 Cartilage is present in the tip of nose, outer ear joints, between adjacent bones of the
vertebral column, limbs and hands in adults.
The Cartilage are three types.
1- Hyaline cartilage
2- Fibrocartilage
3- Elastic cartilage
Bone:-
 Bones are the hardest connective tissue which consistent the skeleton. It contains ground
substance and bone cells. Calcium salts are present in the ground substance.
 Bone cells are three types.
1. Osteoblast
2. Osteoclasts
3. Osteocyte
 Bone can also divided into two types:
1. Compact bone (e.g. Long bones)
2. Cancellous bone(Spongy bones)
 Compact bones consists of Haversian canals runs longitudinally. It contains blood and
lymph capillaries and nerves. Surrounding this canal layer of bones deposited in
concentric circles and space between two layers called lacunae contain lymph and bone
cells(Osteocytes).
 Canaliculi is present between lacunae and Haversian lymph carrying the nourishing
material through this canaliculi.
 Bones provided the frame work of the body and help in protection and locomotion.
Blood:-
 Blood is a fluid connective tissue distributed in blood vessels and pumped by heart.
 The ground substance of blood is watery fluid called plasma and various types of cells are suspended
in it. These are:-
A) Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
B) Leucocytes (White Blood Cells)
C) Blood platelets.
 Leucocytes are various types e.g. Neutrophils, acidophilus, monocytes and lymphocyte
etc.
 Blood is helpful in.
 Transportation of gases e.g. O2,CO2
 Transportation of nutritive substance and hormones etc.
Lymph:-
 Lymph is modified tissue containing 94% water and 6% solids and only lymphocytes are
present in the form of cells.
 Lymph is provides the protection against infection.
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C. Muscle tissue
Each muscle is made of many long, cylindrical fibres arranged in parallel manners. These fibres are
composed of numerous fine fibrils, called myofibrils.
 Muscle fibres contract (shorten) in response to stimulation, then relax (lengthen) and return to their
uncontracted state in a coordinated fashion
 Muscle tissue plays an active role in the movement of the body.
Muscle tissue divided into three types.
(1) Skeletal muscle tissue.
(2) Smooth muscle tissue.
(3) Cardiac muscle tissue
(1) Skeletal muscle tissue: - These tissues are closely attached to skeletal bones. In a typical
muscle such as the biceps, striated (striped) skeletal muscle fibres are bundled together in a
parallel fashion.
(2) Smooth muscle tissue: — Smooth fibres taper at both ends and do not show striations. Smooth
muscle as involuntary as their functioning cannot be directly controlled.
 The wall of internal organs such as blood vessels, stomach, and intestine contains this type of
muscle tissue.
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(3) Cardiac muscle tissue: —It is only present in the heart. It is also an involuntary tissue and it is
self-regulated. Cell junctions fuse the plasma membrane of cardiac muscle cell and appear like
striped muscle.
D. Nervous Tissue
 They are specialized tissue for reception discharge of stimuli and transmission. Nerve
Tissue consists the nerve cells and nervefibres.
 Neurons, the unit of neural system are excitable cells. The neuroglial cell which
constitute the rest of the neural system protect and support neurons.
 cell body -----The cell body contains cytoplasm with typical cell organelles and nucleus
and also certain granular bodies called Nissls granules which are helps in the stimulus
conduction.
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 Neurons, the unit of neural system are excitable cells. The neuroglial cell which constitute the rest of
the neural system protect and support neurons.
 cell body -----The cell body contains cytoplasm with typical cell organelles and nucleus and also
certain granular bodies called Nissls granules which are helps in the stimulus conduction.
 Nerves system is composed three type.
Nerve cell- Each nerve cell has a nucleus highly specialized protoplasm. The body of the nerve
cell gives rise to nervefibres.
 Axon – It is the main fiber when arises from the body of each nerve cell. Impulses pass
through the axon in one direction only.
 Dendrites – These are short fibres arising from the body of the nerve cell. They conduct
impulses towards the cell body synopses is the junction between axon of one nuroneand
dendrites of another called dendrites.
 Cell body— The cell body contains cytoplasm with typical cell organelles, nucleus, and certain
granular bodies called Nissls granules
Fig; Structure of neuron
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HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Chapter-4— Osseous System/Skeleton system.
The human skeleton is the internal framework of the human body and composed of
Bone, cartilage, joints, ligaments, tendons accounts for about 20% of body mass.
➢ Bone—Bone is rigid connective tissue that constitutes the minerals, calcium

phosphate, collagen. Bone protects the various organs of the body, produce
the blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body.
It is composed of around 270 bones and reduces to around 206 bones by
adulthood after some bones get fused together.
➢ Cartilage—Cartilage is the non vascular type or supporting connective
tissue which provide the flexibility to the body organs and joining the one
organ to another. Cartilage occurs only in isolated areas, such as the nose,
parts of ribs, and joints.
➢ Ligaments—Ligament is also a fibrous type of connective tissue and
connects the one bone to another bone.
➢ Joints—joint or articulation is connect the one bone to another and provide
the bending ability.
➢ Tendons— Tendon is a cord of strong flexible connective tissue, which
joins the bone to the body muscle.
Human skeleton system divided into two parts—
1. The Axial skeleton.

2. The Appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton.
Axial skeleton forms the longitudinal axis of the body and protects the brain, spinal
cord, and the organ in the thorax. It provides support to the head, neck, and trunk.
Axial skeleton are composed by the 80 bones segregated into three major regions.
Human Anatomy and Physiology Chapter-3 Noteskarts.com Page 1

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A. Skull.
B. Vertebral column.
C. Thoracic cage.
Skull bone.
Most of skull bone are flatted and firmly united by interlocking joints called
sutures but mandible bone which is connected to the rest of the skull freely
movable bones. The skull region articulates with the superior region of vertebral
column with the help of two occipital condyles (Dicondylic skull).
The skull is the most complex structure of the human body. It consists of 22 bones
and forms the hard protective outer covering for brain tissue. It is further divided
into two parts.
➢ The cranial bone— Cranial bone consists of 8 number of bones.

Frontal bone(1), Parietal bone(2), Temporal bone(2), Occipital bone(1),
Sphenoid(1), Ethmoid(1).
➢ The facial bone—Mandible(1), Vomer(1), maxilla(2), Zygomatic bone(2),

palatine bone(2), Nasal bone (2), Lacrimal bone(2), inferior nasal concha(2).
Functions of Skull bone—
➢ It provides the framework for the face and cranial.

➢ Provide the opening for food and air passage.
➢ Bones contains the cavities for special sense organ of sight, taste and smell.
➢ Socket formation for the teeth
➢ Protect the most important processing unit of brain.
Sutures of the skull bone—
➢ Coronal suture— Parietal bone and Frontal bone.

➢ Sagittal suture— Parietal bone and parietal bone.
➢ Lambdoid suture— Parietal bone and Occipital bone.
➢ Squamous suture—Parietal bone and Temporal bone.

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Note—Some associates bones are present in the skull. It does not count in the
skull bone.
➢ Ear ossicles/Auditory ossicles— Ear ossicles help in the hearing process. It

consists of three bones: - Malleus(hammer), Incus(Anvil), Stapes(Stirrup).
➢ Hyoid bone— It is small bone present at the joint end of tongue and
provide the joint surface for tongue.
Vertebral column.
Vertebral column also called as spine or spinal column, it consists of 26 irregular
serially arranged unit called as vertebrae and dorsally placed. In the fetus and
infants, the vertebral column consists of 33 separate bones or vertebrae. In adult
age , nine of these eventually fuse to form two composites bones, the sacrum and
coccyx the remaining 25 bones persists at individual vertebrae separates by
intervertebral discs.
All vertebrae have a common pattern. Each vertebra consists of a body or Centrum
anteriorly and a vertebrae arch posteriorly. Together, the body and vertebrae arch
enclose an opening called the vertebral foramen. Successive vertebrae foramen of
the articulated vertebrae from the long vertebrae canal, through which the spinal
cord passes.
➢ The Vertebral column differentiated into—

Cervical (7), Thoracic (12), Lumber (5), Sacral (1-Fused), Coccygeal (1-
Fused).
Functions of vertebral column—
➢ The vertebral column protects the spinal cord, supports the head and serves
as the point of attachment for the ribs and musculature of the back.
➢ The vertebral column extends from the skull to pelvis, where its transits the
weight of the trunk to the lower limbs.

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Thoracic cage bone.

Thoracic cage consists, thoracic vertebrae posteriorly, the ribs laterally, and
sternum anteriorly.
Sternum— It is also called breast bone. Sternum is a flat bone about 15cm long
present on the anterior position of the thoracic cage. it is forms by the fusion of
three bones- Manubrium, the body, and Xiphoid process.
➢ The manubrium articulates via its clavicular notches with the clavicle bone
laterally and just below this, it also articulates with the first two pairs of ribs.
➢ Body forms the major portion of the sternum and it’s providing the
attachment site for three to seven ribs.
➢ Xiphoid is the end or small portion of sternum and serve as an attachment
point for some abdominal muscles.
Ribs— 12 pairs of ribs present in the human body. Each rib is posteriorly
connected with vertebral column and anteriorly sternum.
➢ First seven pair of ribs are called true ribs or vertebrosternal ribs because
they are attached to the thoracic vertebrae anteriorly and sternum posteriorly
with the help of hyaline cartilage.
➢ The 8th , 9th and 10th pairs of ribs do not articulate directly with the sternum
but join the seven rib with the help of hyaline cartilage these are called
vertebrochondral (False) ribs.
➢ Last 2 pair (11th and 12th ) of ribs are not connected ventrally and are
therefore called floating ribs.
Function of thoracic cage— It protects the vital organs (Heart, lungs, and blood
vessels). It provide the support for shoulder , upper limbs and also provide
attachment points for many muscle of the neck, back, chest, shoulder.

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The Appendicular Skeleton.

Bones of the limbs and their girdle are collectively called the Appendicular
skeleton. Appendicular skeleton consists of—
1. Pectoral girdle.
2. Upper limbs.
3. Pelvic girdle.
4. Lower limbs.
Pectoral girdle.
Each pectoral girdle consists of a clavicle bone (anterior) and a scapula (posterior).
➢ Clavicles or collar bone are slender S-shaped bone. They are articulate
posterioraly with scapula and arms and anterioraly with sternum.
➢ Scapula is a large triangular flat bone situated in the dorsal parts of the
thorax between the second and seventh ribs.
➢ Scapula consists of three structure—Spine, acromian process, coracoid
process.
➢ The acromian articulates with the acromial end of the clavicle forming the
acromioclavicular joints.
➢ Below the acromian present a depression called the glenoid cavity which
articulates with the head of the humerus to form the shoulder joints.
Functions of pectoral girdle—
➢ The pectoral girdle attaches the upper limbs to the axial skeleton and
provides attachment site for many muscles that move the upper limbs.
➢ The socket of shoulder joint allows the upper limbs articulation and degree
of mobility.

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Upper limbs.
Each upper limbs consists 30 bones. It is categories into three parts.
a. Arm—Humerus is sole bone of arm, its proximal end articulate to the

glenoid cavity of the scapula.
Humerus head consists of lesser tubercle, and just inferior to this lateral
greater tubercle. It helps in muscle attachment.
V-shaped deltoid tuberosity are present in the midway, they provide the
roughed attachment site for the deltoid muscle of the shoulder.
b. Fore arm— Forearm consists of two parallel bone radius and ulna. Their
proximal end articulate with the humerus and distal end forms joints with
bones of wrist.
The radius and ulna articulate with each other by radioulnar joints and they
are connected along their entire length by a flat flexible ligament, the
interosseous membrane.
c. Hand— Its consists of 3 types of bone.

• Carpal— Carpal consists of eight numbers of bones which are
closely united by the ligaments. [Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum,
pisiform] [trapezium, trapezoid, capitates, hamate].
• Metacarpals—Metacarpal consists of five bones. The base of the
metacarpals articulates with the carpals and head articulate with the
phalanges of fingers.
• Phalanges— Phalanges consist of 14 bones. Except for the thumb
each fingers has three phalanges- Distal, middle, and proximal. The
thumb has no middle phalange.

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Pelvic Girdle/Hip girdle.

Pelvic girdle consists of irregularly shaped three separated bones during childhood,
the ileum, ischium, and pubis. In adults, these bones are firmly fused and their
boundaries are indistinguishable. Each hip unites with its partner anteriorly and
with the sacrum posteriorly.
➢ Ilium— the Ilium is a large flaring bone that forms the superior region of the
hip bone. The broad posterolateral surface of the ilium, the gluteal surface is
crossed by three ridges, posterior, anterior, and inferior gluteal line, to which
the gluteal muscle attaches.
➢ Ischium— it is the general l-shaped or arc shaped bone. It has a thicker
superior body adjoining the ilium and a thinner inferior ramus. The ramus
joins the pubis anteriorly.
➢ Pubis—it forms the anterior portion of the hip bone. It is V- shaped bone.
The body of the two pubis bones are joined by a fibro cartilage, disc forming
the midline pubis symphysis joints.
Functions of pelvic girdle—
The pelvic girdle attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton transmits the
complete weight of the upper body to the lower limb, and supports the visceral
organs.
It also support provide during the birth of baby.
The Lower Limb bone.

Each Lower limb consists of 30 bones. It is divided into three segments.
1. Thigh— The femur is the sole bone of the thigh, it is the longest, largest
bone of the body. It length is roughly ¼ of a person height.
➢ Proximally the femur articulates with the hip bone. The ball like head of
femur has a small central pit called fovea capitis.

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➢ Thigh consists of lateral greater trochanter and posteromedial lesser

trochanter, these projection serve as sites of attachment for thigh muscles.
Note: - The patella is a cup shaped bone enclosed in the tendon that secures the
anterior thigh muscles to the tibia. It protects the knee joints anteriorly and
improves the leverage of the thigh muscles acting across the knee.
2. Leg—Leg consists of the two parallel bone, the tibia and fibula, these
bones are connected with each other by the help of interosseous membrane.
Proximally tibia attach to the femur bone and distally with the talus bone of
the foot at the ankle.
3. Foot— It consists of the three bones.
• Tarsals— it consists of the seven bones that form the posterior half of
the foot. Body weight is carried primarily by the two largest posterior
tarsal.
The talus which articulate with the tibia and fibula superiorly and
strong calcaneous , which form the heel of the foot and carries the
talus on its superior surface.
• Metatarsals— The metatarsus consists of five small bone called
metatarsals. The first metatarsal, which play an important role in the
supporting body weight.
• Phalanges— 14 phalanges of the toes are present in the foot. These
are three phalanges in each digit except for the great toe the hallux.
The hallux has only two, proximal and distal.
Movement.
Movement is the characteristic feature of the living organisms, by the movement
of limbs, jaws, eyelids, tongue, etc human beings perform walking, running,
climbing, flying, swimming, locomotion.
Locomotion and movement are linked term but all locomotion’s are movement but
all movement are not locomotion.

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Types of movement present in human being—

A. Amoeboid movement— Some specialized cells in our body like
microphages and leucocytes in blood exhibit amoeboid movement. It is
perform by the pseudopodia formation by the streaming of protoplasm.
Cytoskeleton elements like microfilaments are also involved in amoeboid
movements.
B. Ciliary movement— Ciliary movement occurs in the most of our
internal tubular organs which are lined by ciliated epithelium. The co-
ordinate movement of cilia in trachea helps us in removing dust particles.
Passage of ova through the female reproductive tract is also facilitated by the
ciliary movements.
C. Muscular movement—Movement of our limbs jaws, tongue, etc require
muscular movement. The contractile property of muscle is effectively
participating in the locomotion and other movements by human being and
majority of multi cellular organisms.
Joints/Articulations.
The study of joints is called→Anthrology.

Replacing diseased joints with an Artificial joint is called→Arthroplasty.
Joints are point of contact between bones or between bones and cartilage. Forces
generated by the muscles are used to carry out movement through joints. Where
the joint act as a fulcrum. Our joints have two fundamental functions, they give our
skeletal mobility and they hold it together. Joints are divided into two categories—
A. On the basis of function of joint it is divided into three parts.

I. Synarthroses— It is the immovable type of joint present in the
fibrous joints. It is mainly present in the axial skeleton.
II. Amphiarthroses— It is the slightly movable type of joint present in
the cartilaginous joint. It is also restricted in the axial skeleton.

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III. Diarthroses— It is the movable type of joint present in the synovial

joints. Movable joint predominate in the appendicular skeleton
(limbs).
B. On the basis of structure of joint it is divided into three parts— The
structural classification mainly based on the material binding the bone
together and whether, or not a joint cavity is present. Only synovial joints
have a joint cavity.
I. Fibrous joint— In this joint bones are joined by the collagen
fibers of connective tissue and do not allow any movement. Fibrous
joint further classified into three parts—
➢ Sutures— This type of joint is shown by the flat skull bones
which fuse end- to- end with the help of dense fibrous
connective tissue. The wavy articulating bone edge interlock
and the junction is completely filled by a less amount of very
short connective tissue fibers. During middle age the fibrous
tissue ossifies and the skull bones fuse into a single unit. At
the puberty stage, the closed sutures are called synostoses.
➢ Syndesmoses— In syndesmoses the bones are connected
exclusively by ligaments cord or band of fibrous tissue. The
connecting fibers are always longer than those in suture and
allowed large amount of movement than suture.
➢ Gomphosis— A gomphosis is a peg- in –socket fibrous joint.
The only example is the articulation of the tooth with its bony
alveolar socket.
II. Cartilaginous joint— In this joint bone are joined together with the
help of cartilage. Like, fibrous joints, they lack a joint cavity and are
not highly movable. The two types of cartilaginous joint shows—
➢ Synchondroses— The hyaline cartilage plate are joined the
bone to each other.
Example- Joint between the costal cartilage of the first rib and
the manubrium.
Epiphyseal plate in long bone of children.
Noteskarts.
➢ Symphyses— A joint where fibro cartilage unites the bone as a

symphyses, since fibro cartilage is compressible and acts as a
shock absorber and permits a limited amount of movement of
joint.
Example- Joint between the adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral
column (Intervertebral joint).
Pubic symphysis of the pelvis.
III. Synovial joint— Synovial joint are characterized by the presence of

a fluid filled synovial cavity between the articulating surfaces of the
two bones. This arrangement permits the considerable movements.
Synovial cavity contains a small amount of slippery synovial fluid
occupies all free spaces within the joint capsules. Synovial fluid has a
viscous due to hyaluronic acid secreted by cells in the synovial
membrane, but it thins and become less viscous during joint activity.
On the basis of movement synovial joints are classified in many

parts-
a) Ball and socket joint— The head of one bone is ball-shaped are articulates
with a cup shaped socket of another bone. These joint are allow wide range
of movements including, Flexon, extension, adduction, abduction, rotation,
and circulation. Example: - Between humerus and pectoral girdle, between
femur and pelvic girdle.
b) Hinge joint— The articulating ends of the bone fits together like a hinge
on a door, and movement is therefore restricted to flexon, extension.
Example: - Knee joint, Elbow joint, Ankle joint, inter phalangeal joint.
c) Gliding joint— The articular surface are flat or very slightly curved and
slide over one another, but the amount of movement possible is very
restricted, this group of joints is the least movable of all the synovial joints.
Example: - between carpal bone, between tarsal bone, between vertebral
body and cartilaginous disc.

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d) Pivot joint— These joints allow a bone or a limb to rotate. One bone fit
into a hoop-shaped ligament that holds it close to another bone and allows
it to rotate in the ring. Example- between atlas and axis of cervical
vertebrae.
e) Condyloid joint— A condyle is a smooth rounded projection on a bone
and in a condyloid joint, it sits within a cup-shaped depression on the other
bone. Example: - Metacarpals and phalanges of hand, Metatarsals and
phalanges of foot, Condylar process of the mandible and the temporal bone.
f) Saddle joint— The articulating bones fit together like a man sitting on a
saddle. The most important saddle joint is at the base of the thumb,
between the trapezium of the wrist and the first metacarpal bone.
Disorders of the bone and joints.
1. Arthritis—Inflammation of the joint.

2. Rheumatoid Arthritis— It is the chronic progressive inflammatory
autoimmune disorder in which the body immune system attacks its own
tissue. The initial trigger for this reaction is unknown but various bacteria
and viruses have been suspected.
➢ Rheumatoid arthritis begins with inflammatory of the synovial
membrane of the affected joints. Inflammatory cells migrate
into the joint cavity from the blood and unleash a deluge of
inflammatory chemicals that destroy body tissue when release
in large amount.
➢ For the Rheumatoid treatment many steroidal and non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs helps in decreasing pain and
inflammation, increasing joint mobility. More powerful
immune suppressants (Methotrexate) act to slow the auto
immune reaction.

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3. Osteoarthritis— This is a degenerative non-inflammatory disease that

results in pain and restricted movement of affected joints in which,
progressively loss or degeneration of articular cartilage, resulting in the cyst
formation, limitation of motion, deformity, and progressive disability at the
margin of joints. Inflammation may or may not be present in the affected
joints.
4. Psoriasis arthritis— Psoriasis is one of a group of disorders known as the
spondylo arthropathis. Psoriatic arthritis affects some people who have
psoriasis, a disease that cause red patches of skin topped with silvery scales
at the joint points. It also causes the itching and some time inflammations
are appear.
5. Bursitis—Bursitis is a painful condition that affects the small fluid filled

sacs called bursae. Bursae are fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane
and containing synovial fluid. The most common locations for bursitis are in
the shoulder, elbow and hip.
6. Gout— Uric acid is the normal waste products of nucleic acid metabolism is
ordinarily excreted in urine without any problems. However, when blood
levels of uric acid rise excessively, it may be deposited as needle-shaped
urate crystal in the soft tissue of joints.
➢ An inflammatory response follow, leading to agonizingly painful
attacks of gouty arthritis or gout. The initial attack typically affects on
joint often at the base of the great toe.
➢ Gout is for more common in men than in women because men
naturally have higher blood levels of uric acid. Untreated gout can be
very destructive, the articulating bone ends fuse and immobilize the
joints.
➢ Patients are advised to drink plenty of water and to avoid excessive
alcohol consumption. Several drugs colchicines, non-steroidal, anti-
inflammatory drugs, glucocorticoids, and others the terminate or
prevent gout attacks.
Noteskarts.
7. Lyme disease— Lyme disease is an inflammatory disease caused by

spirochete bacteria transmitted by the bite of ticks that live on mice and deer.
It often results in joint pain and arthritis especially in the knees, and is
characterized by a skin rash, flu-like symptoms and foggy thinking.
Antibiotic therapy is the useful treatment.
8. Osteoporasis— Age related disorder characterized by decreased bone mass

and increased chances of fractures. It is widely seen in the female than male
due to decreased levels of estrogen in female.
9. Paget’s disease— Paget’s disease is a disorder of bone remodeling, where

the normal balance between bone building and bone breakdown becomes
disorganized and both osteoblasts and osteoclasts become abnormally active.
The bone deposited is soft and structurally abnormal. This predisposes to
deformities and fractures, commonly of the pelvis, femur, tibia and skull.
10.Reiter’s syndromes— This syndrome may be precipitated by Chlamydia

trachomatis infection that affected joints are usually those of the lower limb.

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Hematopoietic System
Introduction:- Hematopoietic System is consists of the blood and
blood components forming elements (tissue, organ) which include the
bone marrow, thymus, lymph nodes etc. in this chapter we will
discussed about blood and their composition and their role in our body.
Hematopoietic System regulates in transportation of nutrients materials
and gaseous exchange and it is also acts as connecting link between the
one organ to another organs.
Haemopoetic system also participates in the defense mechanism by
producing the different types of immune regulating materials
(antibodies), and prevents the microbial growth during any infection or
manifestation.
 Consisting materials—
 Haemopoetic organ— Bone marrow, lymph nodes, Thymus,
Spleen, Haemopoetic glands.
 Haemopoetic material—
 Connecting link— Arteries and veins
 Fluid material— Blood, lymph
Composition and functions of bloods

-:Blood:-
 Blood is a special type of fluid connective tissue which consisting

of clear straw colored watery non- living fluid matrix (Plasma) and
living blood cells (formed elements).
 Blood is the most commonly used body fluid for circulating any
materials from one organ to another organ.
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 Blood constitutes about 8 percent of the total body mass and it has
a slightly alkaline PH ranging from 7-7.5. The color of blood
varies with its oxygen content, when saturated with oxygen it is
bright red, when unsaturated with oxygen it is dark red.
 The blood volume is 5-6 liters in adult male and 4-5 liters in adult
female.
Composition of blood —
Blood plasma—plasma proteins, inorganic salts, nutrients,
principally from digested foods, waste materials, hormones, gases.
Formed elements— RBCs, WBCs, Platelets.
Blood Plasma
Plasma is the straw colored fluid constituting nearly 55 percent of the
blood. 90-92 percent of plasma is water and proteins contribute 6-8
percent of it. Blood cells and plasma can be separated by centrifugation
or by gravity when blood is allowed to stand. The cells are heavier than
plasma and sink to the bottom of any sample.
Plasma proteins—
1. Albumins—These are most abundant plasma proteins about 60
percent of total and their main function is to maintain normal
plasma osmotic pressure.
2. Globulins— Globulins primarily are involved in defense
mechanism of the body and play an important role in immunity.
3. Fibrinogen— These proteins are responsible for the coagulation of
the blood.
SERUM—Serum is plasma from which clotting factors have been
removed.

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Function of blood— Blood performs a number of functions, all

concerned in one
way or another with transporting substances, regulating blood
levels of particular substances, or protecting the body.
 Transport—
Transporting the oxygen and carbon dioxide from the lungs to
other parts of organ.
Transports the nutrients and wastes material from metabolic sites
to eliminating sites.
Transports hormones from the endocrine organs to their target
organs.
 Regulation—
It regulates the fluid volume by releasing the inorganic salts (Na+,
Ca2+, K+, HCO3- etc.) and maintain the normal PH in body tissue.
Maintain body temperature by absorbing and distributing heat
throughout the body and to the skin surface to encourage heat loss.
 Protection—
Prevent blood loss, when a blood vessel is damaged, platelets
and plasma proteins initiate clot formation, halting blood loss.
Prevent the infection by producing the antibodies and leukocytes
cell, which help defend the body against foreign invaders such as
bacteria and viruses.

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RBC
Characteristics of RBC—
 Erythrocytes or Red Blood Cells are the most abundant of all the
cells in blood. These are devoid of nucleus in most of the
mammals.
 Healthy adult man has on an average 4.5-5.5 millions of RBC/mm3
of blood. They are about 7.5µm in diameter and shape like
biconcave discs with depressed center. They have a red colored,
iron containing complex protein called hemoglobin, hence the
color and name of these cells. A healthy individual has 12-16gm of
hemoglobin every 100ml of blood.
 RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow in the adults
(development of red blood cells is called erythropoiesis) and have
an average life span of 120 days after which they are destroyed in
the spleen (graveyard of RBCs).
Functions of RBC—
 RBC helps in the transportation of the gaseous from lungs to tissue
and tissue to lungs in the form of oxy-hemoglobin (oxygen binds
to the hemoglobin) and carbamino-hemoglobin (carbon dioxide
binds to the hemoglobin) respectively.
 RBCs contain the antigens (A, B and RH factor) on the surface and
helps in the blood groups determination.
WBC
Characteristics of WBC— White blood cells are also known are
leukocytes, these cells have an important function in defense and
immunity, they are colorless due to lack of heomoglobin.

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Leucocytes are the largest blood cell but they account for only about 1%
of the blood volume. They contain nuclei and some have contains
granules in their cytoplasm. The average number of WBCs present in the
human blood about 6000-8000 leucocytes mm-3 .
Leucocytes are generally short lived. We have divided into two main
categories—
1. Granulocytes (Polymorphonuclear leucocytes) —All
granulocytes have multilobed nuclei in their cytoplasm. Their
names represent the dyes they take up when stained in the
laboratory. Eosinophils take up the red acid dye (eosin), basophils
take up alkaline methylene blue and neutrophils are purple
because they take up both dyes. Granulocytes are divided into
three parts—
a. Neutrophils— These are active scavengers of the body and
protect the infection and remove the debris and dead cells
from damaged tissue by engulfing or phagocytosis.
Neutrophils are the most abundant cell 60-65 percent.
b. Basophils— Basophils are closely related with allergic
reactions. It also secretes the histamine, serotonin, heparin
etc, and is involved in inflammatory reactions. Basophils are
least in number about 0.5-1 percent.
c. Eosinophils— Eosinophils number about 2-3 percent, resist
infections and are also associated with allergic reactions.
2. Agranulocytes— They have a large nucleus and no cytoplasmic

granules. It is also divide into two parts—

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a. Monocytes— These are largest of the white blood cells. The

number of monocytes about 6-8 percent. It prevent the
infection by engulfing or phagocytosis the microbes.
b. Lymphocytes— Lymphocytes are of two major types-
B-lymphocytes, T- lymphocytes are responsible for immune
response of the body. The number of lymphocytes about 20-
25 percent.
Functions of WBC—
 WBCs play an important role in the defensive mechanism and
protects our body from the invading organisms or foreign bodies.
Platelets
Characteristics of Platelets—
Platelets are also called thrombocytes, are very small discs 2-4µm in
diameter cell fragment derived from the cytoplasm of megakaryocytes in
red bone marrow. Platelets cytoplasm is packed with granules containing
a variety of substances that promote blood clotting, which cause
hemostasis. Blood normally contain the 150000-350000 platelets mm-3
The life span of platelets is between 8 and 11 days and those not used in
hemostasis are destroyed by macrophages, mainly in the spleen. Some of
platelets are stored within the spleen rather than in the circulation, this is
an emergency store that can be released as required to control excessive
bleeding.
Functions of Platelets—
✓ Platelets are the responsible for blood coagulation/blood cloating by

the formation of fibrin net.

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✓ Platelets is useful for the repair of the endothelium and other

structure of the ruptured blood vessels.
✓ by the property of agglutination, platelets encircle the foreign bodies

and destroy them.
Hemopoiesis
The process by which the formed elements of blood develop is called
hemopoiesis or hematopoiesis. Before birth, hemopoiesis first occurs in
the yolk sac of an embryo and later in the liver, spleen, thymus, and
lymph nodes of a fetus. Red bone marrow becomes the primary site of
hemopoiesis in the last 3 months before birth, and continues as the
source of blood cells after birth and throughout life.
Process of Hemopoiesis—
 Erythrocyte production begins when the myeloid stem cells
(Haemopoetic stem cell) transforms into proerythroblast.
 After maturation on proerythroblast in turn give rise to basophilic
erythroblasts that produce huge number of ribosomes.
 Basophilic erythroblasts synthesis huge amount of haemoglobin
and iron and transforms into a poly chromatic erythroblast and
finally matures into orthochromatic erythrocyte.
 After the maturation or processing of orthochromatic erythroblast,
its nucleus degenerates and is pinched off , allowing the cell to
collapse inward and eventually assume the biconcave shape and
finally convert into reticulocyte.
 Fully mature reticulocyte converts into erythrocyte within two
days.

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 The entire process from Haemopoetic stem cell to reticulocyte

takes about 15 days. Reticulocytes account for 1-2 percent of all
erythrocytes in the blood of healthy people.
Regulation of the haemopoiesis— Red cell numbers remain fairly
constant, because the bone marrow produces erythrocytes at the rate at
which they are destroyed. This is due to a homeostatic negative feedback
mechanism. The hormone that regulates red blood cell production is
erythropoietin, produced mainly by the kidney. The primary stimulus to
increased erythropoiesis is hypoxia, i.e. deficient oxygen supply to body
cells. Hypoxia can result from anaemia, low blood volume, poor blood
flow, reduced oxygen content of inspired air (as at altitude) or lung
disease. Each of these leads to erythropoietin production in an attempt to
restore oxygen supplies to the tissues
Blood Clotting
Blood clotting is a mechanism by which the blood loss restricted during
the injury or trauma by the formation of fibrins mesh or blood clot (dark
reddish brown color scum). During this process platelets play a vital role
because it contains the clotting factors. Blood clot prevents the microbial
activity at the infected area.
Blood clotting helps in the haemostatic mechanism of the blood by the
formation of the fibrin mesh. Haemostatic mechanism divided into three
steps during any injury or trauma.
 Vasoconstriction—
 Platelet plug formation—
 Blood clotting or coagulation.
Factor of blood clotting—

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In our all (except tissue factor) normally circulate in blood in inactive

form. Although vitamin K is not directly involved in coagulation but
responsible for synthesis in many coagulating factors. In our body
various clotting factors are responsible for blood clot and it works on
many steps—
Clotting factors
S.No Clotting factors Sources
I Fibrinogen. Liver
II Prothrombin. Liver
III Tissue factor (thromboplastin) Damaged tissue cells
IV Calcium ion (Ca+2 ) Bone,
plasma,supplement
V Proaccelerin or labile factor or AcG Liver, platelets
VII Proconvertin or stable factor or Liver
SPCA
VIII Antihaemophilic factor-A (AHF-A) Liver
IX Christmas factor, PTC, AHF-B. Liver, lung capillaries
X Stuart factor, Prower factor, Liver
thrombokinase
XI PTA, AHF-C Liver
XII Hageman factor, AHF-D Liver
XIII Fibrin stabilizing factor (FSF) Liver, bone marrow.

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Mechanism of blood clotting—
Blood groups
Types of blood groups.
ABO Grouping
ABO Blood group--In ABO system two types of antigens are present in
the surface of RBCs (antigen A and antigen B) and two types of
antibody are present in the plasma (antibody A and antibody B).
Blood group system are discovered by the Karl landsteiner in 1901.
Determination of ABO blood groups depends upon the immunological
reactions between the antigen and antibody. Based on the presence or
absence of antigen A and antigen B, blood is divided into four groups
given in the table.

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Blood Antigens Antibodies Donor’s

Group on RBCs in Plasma Group
A A B A,O
B B A B,O
AB A,B × AB,A,B,O
O × A,B O
 RH (Rhesus) Grouping—
Rh factor- Rh factor is an antigen, present on the RBCs. This
antigen was discovered by Landsteiner and Wiener. It was first
discovered in the Rhesus monkey and hence the name Rh factor.
The person whose contains the Rh antigen, then their blood group is
define as Rh positive blood group and whose person not contains the
Rh antigen, then their blood group is define as Rh negative blood
group.
Among Indian population 85% of people are Rh positive and 15% of
people Rh negative.
Importance of Blood Group
 By the blood group determination we find out suitable donor and
suitable recepient and remove the agglutinations problem with any
other groups of blood.
 By the the group determination we conclude that-
A-O- is the universal donor blood group because it does not contains any
antigen (A and B) and Rh factors on the RBCs surface.
B- AB+ is the universal acceptor blood group because it does not
contains any antibody (A and B) and Rh factor in the plasma of blood.

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 In the blood transfusion blood group play an important role and

prevent the severe diseases like Agglutinations, jaundice, Cardiac
shock, kidney arrest etc.
Deficiency disease of blood and blood groups

I. Anemia- Anemia is the blood disorder characterized by the
reduction in RBCs and hemoglobin content. It is induce due to the
excess loss of blood from the body, decrease production of RBCs
or Increased destruction of RBCs.
 Common symptom include- discolor in skin(pale yellow), leg
cramps, dizziness, easy fatique and loss of energy etc. It is many
types-
1- Hemorrhagic anemia.
2- Hemolytic anemia.
3- Aplastic anemia.
4- Nutrition deficiency anemia.
II. Hemophilia - It is an inherited(x-linked congenital) bleeding

disorder arises due to lack of plasma coagulation factors (VIII-type
A and IX-type B) . In hemophilic condition patient looses their
blood clotting ability so the excessive blood loss appear in the
body.
III. Polycythemia vera - It is also a blood disorder in which the body

produce more amount of blood cell. It is arises both by the

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physiological activity (exercise, hypoxia) as well as pathological

activity (cancer of Bone marrow).
IV. Sickle cell disease - It is a type of autosomal recessive disorder. It

is caused by the mutation in the hemoglobin β- gene found on
chromosome 11. This result in a defective hemoglobin formation
and RBCs become stiff and assume sickle shape. Due to their
abnormal shape it is not utilised by the body and easily distructed
by spleen.
V. Leukemia- Leukemia is a cancer of blood forming cells in the

bone marrow. It is arising from a single lymphoid stem cell with
impaired maturation and accumulation of the malignant cells in the
bone marrow.
VI. Thalassemia- Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder in which

the body produces an abnormal form of hemoglobin which results
in excessive destruction of red blood cells and further leads to
anemia. Thalassemia is of two types-
1. Alpha (α) thalassemia.
2. Beta(β) thalassemia.
VII. Erythroblastosis Foetalis-

 It is a mismatching blood group disorder observed between the Rh
-ve blood of a pregnant mother with Rh +ve blood of the foetus.
Rh antigens of the foetus do not get exposed to the Rh-ve blood of
the mother in the first pregnancy as the two bloods are well
separated by the placenta. However, during the delivery of the first

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child, there is a possibility of exposure of the maternal blood to

small amounts of the Rh+ve blood from the foetus. In such cases,
the mother starts preparing antibodies against Rh antigen in her
blood.
 In case of her subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from the
mother (Rh-ve) can leak into the blood of the foetus (Rh+ve) and
destroy the foetal RBCs.
 This could be fatal to the foetus or could cause severe anaemia and
jaundice to the baby.
 This condition is called erythroblastosis foetalis.
 This can be avoided by administering anti-Rh antibodies to the
mother immediately after the delivery of the first child.

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Human Anatomy And Physiology Chapter – 6

Lymphatic System
Lymph and lymphatic system, composition, function and its
formation.
Structure and functions of spleen and lymph node.
Lymphatic system
Lymphatic system is a closed system of lymph channels or
lymph vessels through which the lymph flows. It arises from the tissue
spaces and allows the lymph flow towards the blood.
Lymphatic system works as one way system because lymphatic vessels
are more porous and allows the fluid to move into the lymph capillaries
and not allows in the opposite direction.
Lymphatic system participate in our immunity system and prevent
against any infections or disease because it contains the lymphocytes
cell and other antibodies molecules.
Lymph-
Lymph is a clear to white fluid formed from intestinal fluid and flow in
the lymphatic system. About 120ml of lymph flows into blood per hour.
Out of this, about 100ml/hour flow through thoracic duct and 20ml/hour
flow through the right lymphatic duct.

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Composition of Lymph-
It is formed by 96% water and 4% solids. Some blood cell are also
present in lymph. Solid substances present in the form of--
Organic substances- proteins, lipids, aminoacids, carbohydrates,
enzymes, clotting factors
Inorganic substances- Na+,Ca+2,Cl-, HCO3-
Cellular compounds- Macrophages,monocytes,plasma cells.
Formation of Lymph-
When the blood passes through blood capillaries in the tissue to venous
end of capillaries from the arterial end. Then major part of fluid flow
and small amount of fluid passes into lymph capillaries, which have
more permeability than blood capillaries.
Factor responsible for lymph formation-

 Interstitial fluid pressure.
 Blood capillaries pressure.
 Permeability of lymph capillaries.
 Function activities of tissue.
Functions of lymph-
 Lymph contains the lymphocytes and macrophages and other
phagocytosis cell which helps in removing the bacteria, foreign
bodies and helps in the immunity.
 Lymph is rich source of protein and minerals so it helps in the
redistribution of fluid in the body parts.
 Lymph flow is responsible for the maintence of structural and
functional integrity of tissue. Obstruction to lymph flow affects

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various tissue, particularly myocardium, nephrons, and hepatic

cells.
Spleen
Introduction - Spleen is highly vascular lymphoid organ present in the
body. It is situated in left hypochondriac region that is upper left part of
the abdomen, behind the stomach and just below the diaphragm.
The spleen is part of our lymphatic system, which fights against the
infection and keeps your body fluids in balance.
Structure of Spleen-
It is the similar structure to lymph node and covered by an outer serous
coat and an inner fibromuscular capsule. From the capsule, trabeculae
and trabecular network arises.
The parenchyma of spleen is divided into red pulp and white pulp.
Red pulp- Red pulp consists of venous sinus and cord of structures such
as blood cells, macrophages and mesenchymal cells.
White pulp- The structure of white pulp is similar to that of lymphoid
tissue. It has a central artery, which is surrounded by splenic corpuscles
or Malpighian corpuscles. These corpuscles are formed by lymphatic
sheath containing lymphocytes and Macrophages.
Functions of Spleen-
 Spleen play an important role in the hematopoietic function in
embryo.
 Spleen are also called graveyard of RBCs because it participate in
the destruction of RBCs and other old blood cells.

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 Spleen stored the large amount of RBCs so it act as reservoir

function. The RBCs are released from spleen into circulation
during the emergency conditions like hypoxia and hemorrhage.
 It plays important role in the defense mechanism. The microphages
in splenic pulp destroy the microbes and other foreign bodies by
phagocytosis.
 It is also participate in the the excretory process and helps in the
ions balance.
Lymph nodes-
 Lymph nodes are small glandular structures located in the course
of lymph vessels. The lymph nodes are also called lymph glands or
lymphatic nodes.
 Lymph node receives lymph by one or two lymphatic vessels
called afferent vessels.
 Lymph nodes are present along the course of lymphatic vessels in
axilla, elbow, knee, and groin. Lymph nodes are also present in
certain points in abdomen, thorax, and neck, where many lymph
vessels join.
Structure Of Lymph Nodes.

Lymph nodes are generally bean in shaped. Each lymph nodes
constitutes masses of lymphatic tissue, covered by a dense connective
tissue capsule. The structures are arranged in three layers namely cortex,
paracortex and medulla.
Cortex- Cortex of lymph consists of the lymphoid follicles. During any
antigens entry follicles starts proliferation and distribute to different

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different area where cause the infection. Cortex also contain some B
lymphoid cell and macrophages which also participate against infection.
Paracortex- paracortex is in between the cortex and medulla. Paracortex
contain T lymphocytes.
Medulla- Medulla contains B and T lymphocytes and macrophages.
Blood vessels of lymph node pass through medulla.
Functions of lymph nodes-

✓ When lymph passes through the lymph nodes, it is filtered that is the
water and electrolytes are removed. But, the proteins and lipids are
retained in the lymph.
✓Bacteria and other toxic substances are destroyed by macrophages of

lymph nodes are called barriers.

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Chapter-7 | Cardiovascular
system
 ● Anatomy and Physiology of heart
 ● Blood vessels and circulation (Pulmonary, coronary and systemic
circulation)
 ● Cardiac cycle and Heart sounds, Basics of ECG
 ● Blood pressure and its regulation
Cardiovascular system:
 The cardiovascular system consists of the blood, the heart and blood vessels.
 The heart beats about 100,0000 times every day.
 Which adds up to about 35 million beats in a year and approximately 2.5
billion times in an average lifetime.
Anatomy of heart:
 The heart is located in the mediastinum about two thirds of its mass is to the
left of the midline.
 It apex is the pointed inferior part its base is the broad superior part.
 The heart shape is relatively small roughly the same size (but not the same
shape) as our closed fist.
 It is about Long-12cm & Wide- 9cm
 Its Broadest point and 6cm thick with an average mass of 250g in adult
female and 300g in adult males.
 The heart chambers include two superior chambers the right and left atria
and two inferior chambers the right and heart include the auricles (Flaps of
each atrium that slightly increase their volume)

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 The coronary sulcus between the atria and ventricles and the anterior and
posterior sulci between the ventricles on the anterior and posterior surfaces
of the heart respectively.
 The right atrium receive blood from the superior vena cava, inferior vena
cava and coronary sinus. It is separated internally from the left atrium by the
interatrial septum which contains the fassa ovalis. Blood exits the right
atrium through the tricuspid value.
 The right ventricle receives blood from the right atrium. It is separated
internally from the left ventricle by the interventricular septum and pumps
blood through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary trunk.
 Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium from the pulmonary veins and exits
through the bicuspid (mitral) valve.
 The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood through the aortic valve into the
aorta.
 The thikness of the myocardium of the four chambers varies according to the
chamber's function. The left ventricle with the highest work load has the
thickest wall.
 The fibrous skeleton of the heart is dense connective tissue that surrounds
and supports the values of the heart.
Chambers of the Heart:-

The heart has four chambers.
1. Right Atrium
2. Left Atrium
3. Right Ventricle
4. Left Ventricle

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Blood vessels:
 A vessel in the human or animal body in which blood circulates.
 They help deliver oxygen to vital organs and tissues, and also remove waste
products.
 The vessels that carry blood away from the heart are called arterioles.
 Your body contains about 60000 miles of blood vessels.
There are three types of blood vessels:-
1. Arteries: they carry blood away from your heart.
2. Veins: They carry blood back toward your heart.
3. Capillaries: The smallest blood vessels, connect arteries and veins.

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Pulmonary Circulations/ Systemic Circulations:

 The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood into the Systemic
Circulations to all tissue of the body except the air sacs (alveoli) of the
lungs.
 The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary
circulation to the air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs.

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Coronary Circulation:
 Nutrients are not able to diffuse quickly enough from blood in the chambers
of the heart to supply all the layers of cells that make up the heart wall.
 For this reason the myocardium has its own network of blood vessels.
 The coronary arteries branch from the ascending aorta and encircle the heart
like a crown encircles the head.
 The right and left coronary arteries deliver blood to the heart. The coronary
veins drain blood from the heart into the coronary sinus.
Cardiac cycle:
 A single cardiac cycle includes all the events associated with one
heartbeat/min 72-75.
 A cardiac cycle lasts 0.8 sec.
 A cardiac cycle consists of systole and diastole of the atria plus systole and
diastole of the ventricles.
 There are typical changes in pressure and blood flow during the cardiac
cycle in large veins such as the vena cava.
 Such oscillations in pressure and flow may, at times, be transmitted to more
peripheral vessels.
 There are three positive pressure waves (a, c, v) in the central veins
corresponding to changes in pressure changes in the atria. Thea wave is
caused by atrial contraction at end diastole.

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Heart sounds:
 The sound of the heart beat comes primarily from blood turbulence caused
by the closing of the heart values. Smoothly flowing blood is silent.
 There are four heart sounds but in a normal heart only the first and second
heart sounds (S1 and S2) are loud enough to be heard through a stethoscope.
 The timing of heart sounds relative to other event in the cardiac cycle.
 The first sound (S1) which can be described as a Lubb sound is louder and a
bit longer than second sound.
 S1 is caused by blood turbulence associated with closure of the AV values
soon after ventricular systole begins.
 The second sound (S2) which is shorter and not as loud as the first sound can
be described as a Dupp sound.
Basics of ECG (Electrocardiogram) :-

 They generate electrical currents that can be detected at the surface of the
body. An ECG is recording of these electrical signals.

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 The ECG is a composite record of action potentials produced by all the heart
muscle fibers during each heart beat.
 There are two ways to learn ECG interpretation — Pattern recognition (the
most common) and understanding the exact electrical vectors recorded by an
ECG as they relate to cardiac electrophysiology — and most people learn a
combination of both.
Blood pressure and its regulation

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Blood pressure:
 Blood pressure is the pressure of blood pushing against the walls
of your arteries. Arteries carry blood from your heart to other parts
of your body.
 Your blood pressure normally rises and falls throughout the day.
 Blood pressure is determined both by the amount of blood your
heart pumps and the amount of resistance to blood flow in your
arteries.
 The more blood your heart pumps and the narrower your arteries,
the higher your blood pressure.
 A blood pressure reading is given in millimeters of mercury (mm
Hg). It has two numbers.
 Systolic pressure. The first, or upper, number measures the
pressure in your arteries when your heart beats.
 Diastolic pressure. The second, or lower, number measures
the pressure in your arteries between beats.

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Respiratory system
 Respiration is the action of breathing.
 Exchange of gases during internal and external respiration is the major function of the respiration
system
 Respiration system includes the vocal cords for producing sound ,lungs for controlling body ph
level and olfactory bulbs for smelling.
 Respiration include the ventilation of lungs for inward and outward movement of air alveolar air.
 Excretion of water vapour.
 Supplying air to the larynx for voice production.
Anatomy of respiratory organs and their functions.

Parts of respiratory system
The human respiratory system consists of following organs-
1. Nose
1. 2.pharynx(throat)
2. Larynx (voice box)
3. Trachea(windpipe)
4. Bronchi and bronchioles
5. Lungs
6. Alveoli
1. Nose
 Nose is present between the forehead and the upper limp, which receive the inhaled air and forms
a passage for the air to reach the nasal cavity or nasal chamber.
 Nose performs the process of worming , moistening and filtering of the inhaled air .
Structure-
 The nose is divided into an external (the nose ) and an internal (nasal activity)
 Nose is the bony and a carillaginous structure .
 Its bony part is made up of the frontal ,nasal and maxillae bone.
 Nasal cavity is a large irregular shoped cavity . divided by septum.
 At the base of nose , two opening seoerated by nasal septum cartilage.
Diagram

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Function -
 Respiration is the major pathway for the inhaled air is middle meatus this produce nasal cycle.
 Air conditioning
 Air at - 5°to 55° temperature reach the nasopharynx at 31°-37° temp .the turbinates make the
inhaled air water saturated so that the lungs receive 100 % humid air
Defence-
The mucociliary system hold back 95% of the air particles (including )bacteria and viruses and convey
them to the nasopharynx.
2. Pharynx
 Pharynx is a funnel shaped tube extending from the internal nares to the posterior part of
oesophagus and anterior part of larynx .
 It is made up with skeleton muscles
Structure -
It can be divided into three parts
1. Nasopharynx -
It is the part of pharynx lies immediately posterior to the nasal cavity .
2. Oropharynx -
This is part of pharynx lies immediately posterior to the oral cavity .
3. Hyoopharynx or laryngopharynx -
This part of pharynx lies just inferior to the oropharynx and superior to the oesopharynx.
Function -
 It have the respiratory or digestive both function so it provide passageway for the air and food.
 The epithelium of the oral and pharyngeal part is supplied with olfactory nerve ending for
sensation of taste .

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 The tonsils (part of lymphatic system from a ring where the oral cavity joins the pharynx and
provides protution against foreign attacks of antigens.
3. Larynx
 It is present as a triangular chamber in the front upper part of neck.
 A prominent elevation called the adom's apple.
Structure
 Larynx is present in the anterior neck at the 3rd to 6th cervical vertebral level . it joins the
hypopharynx with trachea.
 It skeleton is made up of 3 single (thyroid , cricoid and epiglottis ) and 3 paired (arytenoid ,
corniculated , and cuneiform ) cartilages.
Epiglottis:- It is the leaf like cartilage which cerves the larynx.
Diagram
Function
Sound production -
 Sound possesses pitch , volume and resonance (or tone)

 This pathway is present between larynx and trachea .
 The air inhaled is humidified filtered and warmed as it passes through the larynx.
4. Trachea-
 Trachea is known as windpipe .
 It is 10-11 cm long continuous poathway from the larynx .
 It lies in the median plane in front of the oseophagus

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Structure
 Trachea is composed of 16-20 C -shaped structure
 The trachea are covered by following three tissue layer-
1. Outerlayer- Made up of fibrous and elastic tissue.
2. Middle layer - Made up of cartilage and bands.
3. Inner layer- Made up of ciliated columnar epithelium containing goblet cells
Diagram
Function
 The cartilage and elastic tissue of trachea are arranged such that they prevent kinking and
obstruction of the airway.
 It act as a mucociliary .
 It warms ,humidified and filter the inhaled air .
5. Bronchi and bronchioles

 Bronchi (Singal bronches are airway passage in the respiratory tract .they carry the inhaled air
into lungs.
Structure
 Bronchi are made up of complete cartilage rings the right left bronchus are different from each
other as the format is shatter and wider.

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Diagram
Function
 They provide a passageway for the air .
 They warms and humidify particulate matter
 They generate cough reflex.
6. Lungs
 Lungs are present in the thoracic cavity as two cone -shaped lobes separated by the heart and
other structure of mediastinum.
 Lungs extending from the diaphragm reach up to slightly above the clavicles .
 In the medial surface of left lung , cardiac notch ,is present , which is a concave area holding the
heart.
Structure
It have the following parts -
1.Apex- Lungs have a round apex which extend up to the root of neck .
2.Base- Lungs have a concave and semilunar base which is associated with the thoracic surface of the
diaghromy.
3.costal surface – Lungs have a concave costal surface which is associated with the costal cartilages , ribs
and intercostal muscles.
4. Medial surface - Lungs have a concave medial surface which has a somewhat triangular shaped hilium

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Diagram
Functions
 They alter the blood pH by altering the partial pressure of carbon dioxide .
 They filter out small blood clots formed in the veins .
 They filter out gad micro-bubble formed in the venous blood stream
 They alter the blood concentration of some biological substance and drugs .
 They form a soft, shock-absorbent protective layer for the heart.
 The bronchial secretion contains immunoglobulin-A , which provides protection against
respiratory infection.
7. Aleoli
 The final termination of respiratory bronchioles are the alveolar ducts which is turn from alveoli
surrounded by capillaries .
 These are the hollow cavity found in the mammalian lunga .
 Pulmonary alveoli are the spherical projection of respiratory bronchioles.
Structure
 A human lung has around 300 million alveoli each of them covered with a thin capillary
occupying 70% of its area some alveolar walls have pores between the alveoli , these pores are
called kohn.

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Diagram
Function
 They functionalise external resoiration means resoiration occurs between alveoli or blood by
diffusion .
 It works for projection against microbes.
Regulation Mechanism or respiration

 The process by which the respiratory organs allow the air to move in and out of the lungs is
termed as breathing .it is a simple give and take process , since oxygen -rich air is taken in form
the atmosphere and in exchange carbon dioxide -rich air is given out to the atmosphere to be
utilise by the plants for photosynthesis .breathing process continues throughout the life of an
organism.
 Breathing rate is the number of times an individual breathes in a minutes.
 For example, breathing rate increases on walking fast ,running ,ir after a heavy exercise ,
and decrease when in a relaxed state.
The two phases of breathing process are discussed here.
1. Inhalation or inspiration- The series of event includes
 On contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostals , the thoracic cavity increases in size.
 The lungs also attain the new increases size of the thoracic cavity as they are tightly adhered to
the thorax walls
 As a result. the gas pressure with in the lungs decreases and a partial vaccume is produced to
suck air into lungs.
 Air moves into to the lungs till the intrpulmonary and the atmospheric pressure attains
equilibrium.

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2. Expiration or Exhalation -This includs-
 On relaxation the inspiratory muscles gains back their resting length , the rib cage descends, and
the lungs recoil.
 Thus, the gases form with in flow out to equalise the pressure both inside and outside the lungs.
Diagram
 The interpleural pressure is always negative ,and prevent the lungs from collapsing.

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Respiratory volumes and capacities –

Respiratory volumes:
 Lung volumes are also known as respiratory volumes.
 It refers to the volume of gas in the lungs at a given time during the respiratory cycle.
 Lung capacities are derived from a summation of different lung volumes.
 The average total lung capacity of an adult human male is about 6 litres of air.
 Lung volumes measurement is an integral part of pulmonary function test.
Respiratory capacities:
 Respiratory capacity (pulmonary capacity) is the sum of two or more volumes.
 Factors such as age, sex, body build, and physical conditioning have an influence
on lung volumes and capacities.
 Lungs usually reach their maximumin capacity in early adulthood and decline with age after that.

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Chapter-9 Human Anatomy & Physiology
Digestive System
 The food provides nutrients are utilised by the cell for the production of
energy. The digestive system transfer nutrients from the external
environment ( in the form of food ) to the internal environment (via
ingestion of food )
Anatomy and physiology of GIT

The gastrointestinal or digestive tract or alimentary canal begin at the mouth and
terminates at the anus.
Different part of alimentary canal includes -
1. Oral cavity (mouth)

2. Oesophagus
3. Pharynx
4. Stomach
5. Small intestine
6. Large intestine
7. Accesary organs
1. Oral cavity
 Oral cavity forms the first part of canal surrounded by various muscles and
bones.
 The roof of oral cavity form by palate.
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Teeth - Food is taken in the mouth and chewed with the help of teeth to convert it
in smaller particle.
The process is known as mastification.
Teeth can functionally divided in two parts -
a) Deciduous teeth ( baby or milk teeth ,20 in no.)

b) Permanent teeth(adult teeth ,32 in no.)
Types and function of teeth
Incisors - These teeth aid in biting off large pieces of food.
Cupsids/canins - These conical shaped teeth aid in grasping and tearing of food.
Biscuspids/ premolars - These teeth help in grinding the food ,they are absent in
the children (after 9 year of age)
Molars - These are the largest teeth and are present at the back of the mouth .
Tongue - It is muscular organ situated on the floor of mouth , which help in

chewing and swallowing the food (deglutition).
A test bud is a saclike oval shaped structure of about 50 micron meter in size.
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Diagram of teeth and tongue
Pharynx
Pharynx (throat) is a funnel shaped tube extending from the internal nares to the
posterior parts of oesophagus and anterior of larynx .
Function -
 Passageway for the air and food.

 Taste sensation.
 Warming and humidifying.
 Hearing.
Oesophagus
 Food pipe is cv a long muscular tube which forms a passage for the food to
pass from the pharynx to the stomach.
 The oesophagus joins the stomach at the gastro-oesophageal junction
Function-
 A wave of peristalsis is stimulated when the bolus is present in the pharynx

thus, it is propelled to the stomach via oesophagus .
Stomach
 Stomach is a hollow ,muscular, bag like structure .
 Stomach lies between the oesophagus and the small intestine .
 The second phase of digestion (after mastification ) takes place in the
stomach.
Function -
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 It provides highly acidic environment due to gastric acid production and

secretion , which is able to breakdown large molecules in to smaller
molecules .
Small intestine
 Sall intestine is a portion between the stomach and the large intestine .
 In adult it measure about 7 cm in length and 2-3 cm in diameter .
 It is a long ,highly convoluted tubes in the digestive system that absorbs
about 90% of the nutrients from the ingested food.
 It is the main site of absorption .
 The presence of villi and microvilli increase the surface area available for
nutrients absorption.
Structurally the small intestine can be divided into 3 parts-
- Duodenum
- Jejunum
- Ileum
Function -
 It provide site for absorption for the process of chemical digestion of

carbohydrates.
 It secrets the significant hormones , cholecystokinin and secretin.
Large intestine
 large intestine forms the last part of alimentary canal .it extent caecum to the
anus while.including the ascending colon , transverse colon , descending
colon sigmoid colon and the rectum .
 It is about 1.5 m in length and 6-7 in diameter.
Comprises of following parts
o Rectum - It act to store the faecus temporarily

o Anus - It is the external opening of rectum .it surrounded by spincter
muscles, which control its opening and closing.
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Function -
o It forms the site for absorption of water, glucose and salt.

o Its walls form the site for excretion of excess amount of calcium, iron and
drugs of heavy metals.
Anatomy and function of accessory glands
 Accessory organ of digestion are organ that secrets substances needed for
the chemical digestion of food but through which food does not actually pass
as it is digested .
 The accessory glands of digestive system consist of salivary glands ,
pancreas , liver and gall bladder.
Salivary glands
 Salivary glands present in the form of 3 large multicellular pairs-
a) Parotid glands - It is largest salivary gland located anterior to the ear on

either side and responsible to produces serous secretion . secretion is occur
through the parotid duct.
b) Submandibular glands - These are second largest glands and are also
paired ,located below mandible .secretion of these gland is mix type both
serous and mucous secretion .
c) Sublingual glands - It is smallest and also paired . these glands secrets
mucous .these are ductless glands , each gland opens into the flow of the oral
cavity.
Function of salivary glands -
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 Cleaning effect of washing away food debris.

 Make swallowing food easier.
 Antibacterial effect of fighting off bacteria entering the mouth.
 pH buffering effect that prevents caries effect of promoting remineralization
of teeth.
Pancreas
 Pancreas is an organ and a gland that produce and release substance in the
body.
 It is an elongated digestive gland .its size 6-10 inch and its weight is 65 gm.
 It is located behind the stomach in the upper left abdomen and close to the
duodenum.
 It is largest gland of digestive system.
 It is the mixed gland producing both endocrine (Insulin, glucagon) and
exocrine ( pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes ) secretion .
Structure -
Pancreas has a head the part lying with in duodenal curvature , a body and a tail
connecting the pancreas to the spleen.
pancreatic islets , also known as islets of Langer Hans make up endocrine portion
of the pancreas .
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Diagram of Pancreas
Function -
 The enzyme secreted in the pancreas help in breakdown of carbohydrates,

fats, proteins and acid in the duodenum.
 The pancreas also secrets a bicarbonate to neutralise stomach acid in the
duodenum.
 The hormones secreted in the pancreas are insuline and glucagon ( which
regulate the level of glucose in the blood .
Liver
 Liver is the largest gland of the human body .

 It form the second largest organ which performs many essential biological
function such as detoxification of organism , synthesis of protein ,
biochemicals necessary for digestion and growth .
 It also filters the blood coming from the digestive tract , before passing it to
the rest of the body .
Structure -
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 Liver is divided into two major lobes and two minor lobes .
 On the inferior surface of the liver , a porta is located which forms an entry
and exit point for various vessels , ducts and nerves .
Function-
 The liver has a wide range of function processes of nutrients from food .
 Stores sugars for later use.
 Production of biles and cholesterol.
 Removing various toxins and combating infection .
 Processing and stroage of vitamins and other essential nutrients .
 Maintaing level of fats , amino acid and glucose in the blood .
 Proteine synthesis .
 Manufacturing and regulating hormones including these that helps platelets
(blood clotting ) formation .
Gall bladder
 Gall bladder is a pear shaped organ .

 This membranous muscular sac like structure is nearly 8 cm in length and 4
cm in width .
 Gall bladder function to store and concentrate bile which is produce by the
liver and helps in digestion process.
 It has a capacity of about 70 ml
Structure
 Gall bladder comprises of a fundus (broad part) the body (central part) and
the neck (tapered parts).
 Wall of gall bladder is lined by three layer of tisssue-
- An inner mucosal layer
- A muscularis layer
- An outer Layer of serosa
Function -
 It store the bile till required by the intestine for digestion.
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 Gall bladder can remove toxins from the blood and ingested food.
 The alkaline nature of bile helps in neutralization of the hydrochloric acid in
stomach during starvation.
 It can also emulsify the dietary lipid or fatty substances.
Physiology of digestion and absorption-
The process of digestion can be divided into the following steps;
Ingestion:
- In this step, food enters into the alimentary canal throughs the mouth and is
chewed and mixed with saliva containing enzymes ptyalin or amylase
.Breakdown of carbohydrates and lipid starts. The process of chewing
increase the surface area of the food and the food mixed with saliva is called
bolus.
Propulsion-
Tongue and pharyngeal muscles propel the bolus into the oesophagus. This
phenomenon of swallowing is the last voluntary acts up to defecation and is an
example of propulsion.
Mechanical and chemical digestion -
- Mechanical digestion is a physical process that does not affect the chemical
nature of the food instead, it breaks food in smaller particles to increase both
surface area and mobility.
- Chemical digestion of the food starts in the mouth. In this process, the
complex food particles are broken down into their chemical building blocks
by the various digestive secretions.
 Absorption - The food that has been disintegrated into simpler units is of no
value unless it enters the blood circulation and its nutrients are utilised.
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 Active transport - Movement from an area of lower concentration to the

area of higher concentration.
 Passive diffusion - In this types of absorption substances moves from an
area of lower concentration to the area of higher concentration.
 Facilitated diffusion - Movements of substance form the region of higher
concentration to the region of lower concentration .
 Defecation - It is the final step in which the undigested material are
voluntarily removed from the body as faecus.
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Scope of Anatomy and Physiology Definition of

HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

(1) Cell physiology:

Different plane in Anatomy—

Electron Microscopic Structure of Cell

1. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: - Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum without

Cell Junction & Transport across Cell Membrane

Type of Cell Junction

Regulation of Gap Junction communication

Transportation through cell membrane-

2. M Phase / Mitosis Phase

Inter Phase  Cell is metabolically active

 Also called synthesis phase because DNA synthesis or

Inter Phase  Mitosis preparation phase.

M-Phase (Mitosis Phase)

M.Phase divided in Four Stage (On the basis of Chromosomal arrangement)

M.Phase of this division divided into two parts

Meiosis-I :- further divided into four parts.

It this stage crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids of the

Cytokinesis occur at the end & form the two cells.

Only germ cell Daughter cell

General principle of Cell communication

Signal Molecule Generate (Hormone, Neural effect)

Attach to the cell membrane receptors

Transducer -> Activate transcription Factor

Activate the Gene

Finally response generate (Protein Synthesis)

Ion-Channel linked receptors/Ligand gated ion channels Inotropic receptors

Receptors are directly bound with legend (Specific)

Then receptors are activated (Conformational change)

Then signal molecule bind with the receptor

Finally signal reaches to cell nucleus

Signal molecule bind to the receptor

To Activated receptor bandito the G-Protein

Then G-Protein also activate and conformational change occurs

Then Signals receiver by cell Nucleus and give

Initially two receptor domain are separated to each other

When signal molecule comes to contact then it form dimer

And finally conformational change occurs (activated enzymes)

Then signal receive by cell nucleus and give response

Forms of intracellular signaling

There are four basic types of signaling found in the organisms.

(4)Direct contact signaling.

1. Paracrine signaling— In this signaling , cell are cordinated with the

• The same ligand can bind to different receptors causing different

• Example - Nerve and muscle signaling.

• Example - Growth factors.

3. Endocrine signaling— Hormone is required for this signaling. Hormones are

Group of Tissues which perform the special function is known as organ.

Biological tissue is a collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function

 Study of tissue is called Histology.

It is developed by three primary germinal layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm)

Epithelial tissue classified into two types.

Classification of Simple Epithelial tissue

Simple Epithelial Tissue:

Fig: Squamous Epithelium

Fig: Cuboidal Epithelium

Fig: Ciliated Epithelium