COMPREHENSIVE EXAM REVIEWER (PONCE, 2021)

A. Basic Courses distinction between nonexperimental methods

is that nonexperimental methods do not set
EDUC 200- Research Methodology out, nor can they test, any causal relationships
between variables.
Research
1. Descriptive Research- Describes the
- The word research is derived from the old characteristics of an existing phenomenon.
French word cerchier, which It focuses on events that occur in the
means to “seek or search”. Search meaning present. Descriptive research can
to investigate. stand on its own, but it can also serve as a
basis for other types of research in that a
- The prefix “re” means again ang signifies of group’s characteristics often need to be
the search. Literally, described before the meaningfulness of any
research means to “investigate again”. differences can be addressed.
- A purposive, systematic and scientific 2. Correlational Research- Correlational
process of gathering, analyzing, research examines the relationship between
classifying, organizing, presenting and variables. Researchers may begin discussing
interpreting data for the solution the relationship that certain events might
of a problem, for prediction, for invention, have to one another.
for the discovery of truth, or
for the expansion or verification of existing 3. Qualitative Research- Qualitative
knowledge, all for the research methods are placed in this general
preservation and improvement of the category of no experimental methods
quality of human life. because they do not directly test for cause
and effect. Its general purpose is to examine
- Research generates new questions or is human behavior in the social,
cyclical in nature. What goes cultural, and political context in which they
around comes around. The answers to occur.
today’s research questions
provide the foundation for research EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH- examines the
questions that will be asked cause-and-effect relationship between
tomorrow. variables. When a course of action is
actually tried or carried out and its effects
Scientific Inquiry observed and measured objectively and
differently from the effects of extraneous
- “Doing science” means following a model variables, we are conducting experiment.
that begins with a question
and ends with asking new questions. 1. True Experimental Research- examines
direct cause-effect relationship. In this
- The goal of the model is to find out the method participants are assigned to groups
truth (whatever it means) or, in based on some criterion, often called
other words, to use a scientific method that treatment variable or treatment
results in a reasonable and sound condition.
answer to important questions that will
further our understanding of behavior. 2. Quasi-Experimental Research- Also focus
on cause and effect, but they use pre-
MODEL OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY assigned groups. In quasi-experimental
research, participants are pre-assigned to
1. Asking the question groups based on some pre-determined
2. Identifying the Important Factors characteristics or quality. Differences in
3. Formulating a Hypothesis gender, race, religion, age, grade in school,
4. Collecting Relevant Information neighborhood of residence, type of job,
5. Testing Hypothesis and even experiences.
6. Working with hypothesis
7. Reconsidering the theory PARTS OF A RESEARCH MANUSCRIPT
8. Asking New Questions
1. Title Page
TYPES OF RESEARCH 2. Abstract
3. Introduction (Chapter 1)
Research methods differ primarily on three 4. Research Methods (Chapter 2)
dimensions: 5. Participants
1. The nature of the questions asked 6. Apparatus
2. The method used to answer it 7. Procedure
3. The degree of precision the methods 8. Results (Chapter 3)
bring to answering the questions. 9. Discussion (Chapter 4)
10. References
NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH- includes a 11. Author’s Note
variety of different methods that describe 12. Tables
relationships between variables. The important 13. Figure Captions
 COMPREHENSIVE EXAM REVIEWER (PONCE, 2021)

EDUC 202- Philosophical, Psychological, and the greater the effort exerted and the
Socio-Historical Foundations of Education possibility of success is greater.

PHILOSOPHY- a person’s “sum of his Capacities and special aptitudes - These

fundamental beliefs and convictions”. include all those latent potentialities that an
individual possesses which are developed
- The word philosophy comes from a through the process of education. Besides
combination of two Greek words- “philos” general capacity and intelligence, an
meaning “love” and “sophi” meaning individual possess certain special talents or
“wisdom.” aptitudes, such as those for mathematics,
sciences, art, music and the like. In addition,
FEATURES effort making capacity is also an important
trait of san individual. Taking all other things
1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs equal, one with greater effort making
about life and the universe, which are often capacity learns and develops faster than
held uncritically. one with lesser; making capacity.

2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on Temperament or emotion- This refers to

and criticizing our most deeply held certain emotional predispositions of an
conceptions and beliefs. individual. Some emotional patters such as
rage, some forms of fear, and lust (sex) are
3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at inborn. One with a poor temperament, one
the world as a whole. who is easily irritated and emotionalized
even with trivial matters, will have many
4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of social as well as learning problems that may
language and the clarification of the retard his learning progress. Emotional
meaning of words and concepts. stability and emotional maturity are
important assets in the development of
5. Philosophy is a group of perennial one’s capabilities.
problems that interest people and for which
philosophers always have sought answers. THE BIOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNER:
MAIN BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
- The prenatal period
The five branches of philosophy are: - The period of infancy or babyhood
- Early childhood
1. Metaphysics (the true nature of reality) - Late childhood
2. Epistemology (the true nature of - Puberty stage
knowledge and belief) - Early adolescence
3. Politics (how human beings function - Late adolescence
within a society) - Early adulthood
4. Ethics (values and decision-making - Middle age
process) - Old age
5. Esthetics/Aesthetics (the nature of beauty
and art) THEORIES OF LEARNING

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF EDUCATION BEHAVIORISM- (John B. Watson and B.F

Skinner) an approach to psychology that
Factors that Condition the Intellectual and combines elements of philosophy,
Behavioral Development of an Individual: methodology, and theory. It implies that
psychology should concern itself with the
Reflexes - These are inborn automatic observable behavior of people and
responses to simple localized stimulation animals, not with unobservable events that
involving particular muscles and parts of the take place in their minds.
body. The automatic withdrawal of a foot
upon steeping on a live charcoal is an CLASSICAL CONDITIONING- (Ivan Pavlov) a
example. An individual with quick reflexes kind of learning that occurs when a
learns fast action skills such as dancing, conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an
calisthenics, games of volleyball, basketball, unconditioned stimulus (US).
and the like.
OPERANT CONDITIONING- (B. F. Skinner) or
Drives, needs, wants, urges -These are inborn instrumental conditioning is a type of
urges and tendencies and wants. Some learning in which an individual's behavior is
refer to these instincts as drives. Drives modified by its antecedents and
include hunger, thirst, lust or sex, rest, etc. consequences. Mechanisms of instrumental
which creates tensions in the individual. conditioning suggest that the behavior may
change in form, frequency, or strength.
These tendencies develop motives which
determine the actions and reactions of an SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY- (Albert Bandura)
individual towards certain situations. These states that learning is a cognitive process
motives give rise to ambitions which that takes place in a social context and can
motivate individuals to exert efforts to attain occur purely through observation or direct
their goals. The greater the urge or desire, instruction, even in the absence of motor
 COMPREHENSIVE EXAM REVIEWER (PONCE, 2021)

reproduction or direct reinforcement. In 3. be able to have meaningful experiences

addition to the observation of behavior, considering their interests and capabilities.
learning also occurs through the observation
of rewards and punishments, a process DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE
known as vicarious reinforcement.
Social learning theory draws heavily on the (also known as DAP) is a teaching
concept of modeling, or learning by perspective in early childhood education
observing a behavior. Bandura outlined where a teacher nurtures a child’s
three types of modeling stimuli: development (social, emotional, physical,
and cognitive) based on the following:
Live model in which an actual person is
demonstrating the desired behavior 1. theories of child development;
2. what is individually important
Verbal instruction in which an individual uncovered through assessment;
describes the desired behavior in 3. the child’s cultural background
detail and instructs the participant in how to (community, family history, and
engage in the behavior family structure).

Symbolic in which modeling occurs by The National Association for the Education
means of the media, including of Young Children (NAEYC) adopted this
movies, television, Internet, literature, and approach in 1987. NAEYC outlines five key
radio. Stimuli can be either real areas of early learning practices for
or fictional characters. effective teaching, which include:

STAGE THEORY OF COGNITIVE 1. creating a caring community of

DEVELOPMENT- (Jean Piaget) a description learners,
of cognitive development as four distinct 2. teaching to enhance development
stages in children: sensorimotor, and learning,
preoperational, concrete, and 3. planning curriculum to achieve
formal. important goals,
4. assessing children’s development
DISCOVERY LEARNING- (Jerome Bruner) an and learning and
inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory 5. establishing reciprocal relationships
that takes place in problem solving with families.
situations where the learner draws on his or
her own past experience and existing Three Core Considerations of
knowledge to discover facts and Developmentally Appropriate Practice
relationships and new truths to be learned.
Students interact with the world by exploring 1. Knowledge of Childhood
and manipulating objects, wrestling with Development
questions and controversies, or performing 2. Knowing what is individually
experiments. As a result, students may be appropriate for each child through
more likely to remember concepts and assessment
knowledge discovered on their own (in 3. Knowing what is culturally important
contrast to a transmissionist model).
Examples of Developmentally Appropriate
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY- Practice – Setting up Your Classroom
(Lev Vygotsky) argues that social interaction
precedes development; consciousness and 1. Provide age-appropriate and
cognition are the end product of culturally appropriate materials (ex.
socialization and social behavior. infant, toddler or preschool)
Key terms: Zone of Proximal Development 2. Have materials and equipment at
(ZPD), More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) children’s height (ex. chairs,
bookshelves, activity shelves)
B. Major Courses 3. Spaces should accommodate
movement of children
ECED 201- Foundations of Early Childhood 4. Have play areas that provide
Education manipulatives, puzzles, music and
(refer to theories of learning on page 3) movement, books, dramatic play,
blocks, physical materials for large
ECED 202- Early Childhood Education muscles (ex. push toys) and sensory
Curriculum Development materials (ex. sand and water)

Preschool education at the kindergarten 5. Frequently change materials and

level (age group 5 years) must aim to equipment to reflect children’s
develop children in all aspects (physical, interests and needs
social, emotional and cognitive).

So that they will be:

1. better prepared to adjust.
2. able to cope with life situations and the
demands of formal schooling.
 COMPREHENSIVE EXAM REVIEWER (PONCE, 2021)

ECED 203- Early Childhood Education learned in the process. The teacher's role is
Programs and Pedagogical Approaches designing the environment and as a support
to students. Focus is on providing materials
TYPES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAMS and activities that allow children exposure
to these key experiences.
1. FAMILY CHILDCARE HOMES- Child care is
provided in a private home with a small 10. REGGIO EMILIA- fosters intellectual
number of children. Often it is conveniently development through a focus on symbolic
located in the child’s own neighborhood. representation. The primary curriculum is in-
depth project work based on the interests of
2. CHILD CARE CENTERS- Facilities that offer the children. Children are encouraged to
full-day children’s programs. The focus of express themselves through 'natural
most of these centers is to provide care and languages', including drawing, painting,
education to meet the child’s basic working in clay, sculpting, constructing,
nutrition, health, and safety needs. conversing, and dramatic play. Reggio
educators believe these languages are to
3. HOME-BASED DAYCARE- a small childcare be cherished, celebrated, nurtured, and
business operated inside someone’s home. documented, and provide children with a
wide variety of materials to explore the
4. CENTER-BASED DAYCARE- located in possibilities of expression with.
commercial buildings and usually much
larger than home-based daycare centers ECED 204- Reading and Literacy
and can accommodate more kids. Development for Young Children

5. KINDERGARTEN- a preschool educational - Literacy is the foundation for reading,

approach traditionally based on playing, writing, communicating and socializing.
singing, practical activities such as drawing, - Early literacy is learning about sounds,
and social interaction as part of the words and language.
transition from home to school. The first - You can support early literacy
kindergarten was opened by Frederick development by communicating with
Froebel in Germany on 1837. children, reading, and playing with rhyme.
- Children develop and learn best through
6. HEADSTART- provides child care and every day, fun activities like singing, talking
education for four- and five-year old and games.
children from low-income families. More
recently, it has added some programs for Encouraging literacy development
infants and toddlers.
Literacy development is a vital part of your
7. NURSERY- an educational establishment child’s overall development. It’s the
or learning space offering early childhood foundation for doing well at school,
education to children before they begin socializing with others, problem-solving,
compulsory education at primary school. making decisions, developing
independence, managing money and
8. MONTESSORI- centers on a child-sized working.
classroom, full of specially designed and
sequenced learning materials that were But before children can learn to read and
progressively complex. The teacher's role write, they need to develop the building
was not that of a teacher, but that of an blocks for literacy – the ability to speak,
observer and a guide, hence Montessori listen, understand, watch and draw.
teachers are often referred to as directors or
directress. The Montessori classroom is And as children get older, they also need to
divided by 3-year age groups; 0-3, 3-6, and learn about the connection between letters
6-12. on a page and spoken sounds. For this to
happen, your child needs plenty of
Children learn through experience, by experience with:
observing and doing. They practice 1. pictures and objects – how you can
practical life skills like buttoning, zipping, use words to talk about them
cutting, and gardening, enabling children 2. letters and words – how they look
to care for themselves as well as their and sound, and what they’re called
environment, building skills that will stay with 3. sounds – how words can rhyme,
them throughout their lives. Learning in the begin and end with the same letters,
Montessori classroom is cumulative, be broken up into parts like syllables,
constantly building on what was learned be formed by blending different
prior. sounds and so on.

9. HIGH/SCOPE PROGRAM- students are You can help with all these areas of your
engaged in learning 'centers', including child’s early literacy development by:
building, dramatic play, math, reading,
music, writing, art, science, and motor 1. communicating with your child
development. The environment is planned in 2. reading together
such a way to allow children to manipulate 3. playing with rhyme and other sounds
and explore the materials and then to later with your child.
reflect and demonstrate what they have
 COMPREHENSIVE EXAM REVIEWER (PONCE, 2021)

Reading: its importance in literacy

development

Reading with children from an early age

helps them develop a solid foundation for
literacy. It also promotes bonding and is
good for your relationship with your child.

Reading with children:

1. shows them that books can give

both pleasure and information
2. helps them learn the sounds of letters
in spoken language
3. helps them understand that stories
aren’t coming from you, but from
the words on the page – this teaches
them about how the printed word
works
4. helps them develop a larger
vocabulary – books might use new
or unfamiliar words
5. improves their thinking and problem-
solving skills
6. can get children thinking and talking
about a new concept, an event or
something that interests them
7. helps them learn about the wider
community, society and the world.