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EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Unit Structure

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Sources Acquiring Knowledge
1.3 Meaning, Steps and Scope of Educational Research
1.4 Scientific Method, aims and characteristics of research as a
scientific activity
1.5 Ethical considerations in Educational Research
1.6 Paradigms of Educational research
1.7 Types of Research
1.7.a Fundamental
1.7.b Applied Research
1.7.c. Action Research

1.0 OBJECTIVES :

After reading this unit, you will be able to:

 To explain the concept of Educational Research

 To describe the scope of Educational Research
 To state the purpose of Educational Research
 To explain what is scientific enquiry.
 To explain importance of theory development.
 To explain relationship among science, education and
educational research.
 To Identity fundamental research
 To Identity applied research
 To Identify action research
 To Differentiate between fundamental, applied, and action
research
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 To Identify different paradigms of research

1.1 INTRODUCTION :

Research purifies human life. It improves its quality. It is

search for knowledge. If shows how to Solve any problem
scientifically. It is a careful enquiry through search for any kind of
Knowledge. It is a journey from known to unknown. It is a
systematic effort to gain new knowledge in any kind of discipline.
When it Seeks a solution of any educational problem it leads to
educational research.

Curiosity, inquisitiveness are natural gifts secured by a man.

They inspire him to quest, increase his thirst for knowledge / truth.
After trial and error, he worked systematically in the direction of the
desired goal. His adjustment and coping with situation makes him
successful in his task. Thereby he learns something’s, becomes wise
and prepares his own scientific procedure while performing the same
task for second time. So is there any relationship among science,
education and educational Research?

“Research is the voyage of discovery”. It is the quest for

answers to unsolved problems.

Research is required in any field to come up with new

theories or modify, accept, or nullify the existing theory. From time
immemorial it has been seen so many discoveries and inventions
took place through research and world has got so many new theories
which help the human being to solve his problems. Graham Bell,
Thomas Edison, JC Bose, John Dewey, Skinner, Piaget Research
like have given us theories which may cause educational progress
research needs expertise.

1.2 SOURCES OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE :

From the time we were born and the present day, each one of
us has accumulated a body of knowledge. Curiosity, the desire to
learn about one’s environment and the desire to improve one’s life
through problem-solving is natural to all human beings. For this
purpose, human beings depend on several methods / sources of
acquiring knowledge as follows:

1. Learned Authority : Human beings refer to an authority such as

a teacher, a parent or the boss or an expert or consultant and seek
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his / her advice. Such an authority may be based on knowledge or
experience or both. For example, if a child has difficulty in
learning a particular subject, he / she may consult a teacher.
Learned authority could also be a book / dictionary /
encyclopaedia / journal / web-site on internet.

2. Tradition : Human beings easily accept many of the traditions of

their culture or forefathers. For example, in matters of food,
dress, communications, religion, home remedies for minor
ailments, the way a friend will react to an invitation, one relies on
family traditions. On the other hand, students, in case of
admission criteria and procedures, examination patterns and
procedures, methods of maintaining discipline, co-curricular
activities, acceptable manner of greeting teachers and peers rely
on school traditions. Long established customs or practices are
popular sources of acquiring knowledge. This is also known as
tenacity which implies holding on to a perspective without any
consideration of alternatives.

3. Experience : Our own prior personal experiences in matters of

problem-solving or understanding educational phenomena is the
most common, familiar and fundamental source of knowledge.
4. Scientific Method : In order to comprehend and accept learning
acquired through these sources, we use certain approaches which
are as follows:
(a) Empiricism : It implies relying on what our senses tell us.
Through a combination of hearing and seeing we come to
know the sound of a train. i.e. through these two senses, we
learn to associate specific sounds with specific objects. Our
senses also enable us to compare objects / phenomena /
events. They provide us with the means for studying and
understanding relationships between various concepts (eg.
level of education and income).
(b) Rationalism : It includes mental reflection. it places
emphasis on ideas rather than material substances. if we see
logical interconnectedness between two or more things, we
accept those things. For example, we may reason that
conducive school / college environment is expected to lead
to better teacher performance.

(c) Fideism : It implies the use of our beliefs, emotions or gut

reactions including religion. We believe in God because
our parents told us though we had not sensed God, seen or
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heard him nor had concluded that that his existence is
logically proved.
1.3 MEANING, STEPS AND SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH :

MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH :

Educational Research as nothing but cleansing of educational

Research is nothing but cleansing of educational process. Many
experts think Educational Research as under-

According to Mouly, “Educational Research is the systematic

application of scientific method for solving for solving educational
problem.”

Travers thinks, “Educational Research is the activity for

developing science of behavior in educational situations. It allows
the educator to achieve his goals effectively.”

According to Whitney, “Educational Research aims at finding

out solution of educational problems by using scientific
philosophical method.”

Thus, Educational Research is to solve educational problem

in systematic and scientific manner, it is to understand, explain,
predict and control human behaviour.

Educational Research Characterizes as follows :

- It is highly purposeful.
- It deals with educational problems regarding students and
teachers as well.
- It is precise, objective, scientific and systematic process of
investigation.
- It attempts to organize data quantitatively and qualitatively to
arrive at statistical inferences.
- It discovers new facts in new perspective. i. e. It generates
new knowledge.
- It is based on some philosophic theory.
- It depends on the researchers ability, ingenuity and experience
for its interpretation and conclusions.
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- It needs interdisciplinary approach for solving educational
problem.
- It demands subjective interpretation and deductive reasoning in
some cases.
- It uses classrooms, schools, colleges department of education
as the laboratory for conducting researches.

STEPS OF RESEARCH :

The various steps involved in the research process can be

summarised as follows ;

Step 1 : Identifying the Gap in Knowledge

The researcher, on the basis of experience and observation

realises that some students in the class do not perform well in the
examination. So he / she poses an unanswered question : “Which
factors are associated with students’ academic performance?”

Step 2 : Identifying the Antecedent / Causes

On the basis of experience, observation and a review of

related literature, he / she realises that students who are either very
anxious or not at all anxious do not perform well in the examination.
Thus he / she identifies anxiety as one of the factors that could be
associated with students’ academic performance.

Step 3 : Stating the Goals

The researcher now states the goals of the study :

1. To ascertain the relationship of anxiety with academic
performance of students.
2. To ascertain the gender differences in the anxiety and
academic performance of students.
3. To ascertain the gender difference in the relationship of
anxiety with academic performance of students.

Step 4 : Formulating Hypotheses

The researcher may state his / her hypotheses as follows:

1. There is a significant relationship between anxiety and

academic performance of students.
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2. There is a significant gender difference in the anxiety and
academic performance of students.
3. There is a significant gender difference in the relationship of
anxiety with academic performance of students.

Step 5 : Collecting Relevant Information

The researcher uses appropriate tools and techniques to

measure anxiety and academic performance of students, selects a
sample of students and collects data from them.

Step 6 : Testing the Hypotheses

He / she now uses appropriate statistical techniques to verify

and test the hypotheses of the study stated in Step 4.

Step 7 : Interpreting the Findings

He / she interprets the findings in terms of whether the

relationship between anxiety and academic performance is positive
or negative, linear or curvilinear. He / she finds that this relationship
is curvilinear i.e. when a student’s anxiety is either very low or very
high, his / her academic performance is found to be low. But when a
student’s anxiety is moderate, his / her academic performance is
found to be high.

He / she now tries to explain this finding based on logic and

creativity.

Step 8 : Comparing the Findings with Prior researchers’

Findings

At this step, the researcher tries to find out whether his / her
conclusions match those of the prior researches or not. If not, then
the researcher attempts to find out why conclusions do not match
with other researches by analysing prior studies further.

Step 9 : Modifying Theory

On the basis of steps 7 and 8, the researcher speculates that

anxiety alone cannot influence academic performance of students.
There could be a third factor which influences the relationship
between anxiety and academic performance of students. This third
factor could be study habits of students. For instance, students who
have very low level of anxiety may have neglected their studies
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through out the year and hence their academic performance is poor.
On the other hand, students who have very high level of anxiety may
not be able to remember what they have learnt or cannot concentrate
on studies due to stress or may fall sick very often and hence cannot
study properly. Hence their academic performance is poor. However,
students with a moderate level of anxiety are motivated enough to
study regularly and systematically all through the year and hence
their academic performance is high.

Thus, the loosely structured theory on students’ academic

performance needs to incorporate one more variable, namely, study
habits of students. In other words, it needs to be modified.

Step 10 : Asking New Questions

Do study habits and anxiety interact with each other and

influence academic performance of students? i.e. we can now start
with a fresh topic of research involving three variables rather than
two.

Check your Progress (1)

1. What is the aim of Educational Research?

2. Name the method which is mainly applicable in Educational

Research?

3. W hich approach is adopted in Educational Research?

4. Name the places which can act as lab oratory for conducting
Education Research..
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SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH :

Name of Educational Research changes with the gradual

development occurs with respect to knowledge and technology, so
Educational Research needs to extend its horizon. Being scientific
study of educational process, it involves :

- individuals (Student, teachers, educational managers, parents.)

- institutions (Schools, colleges, research – institutes)

It discovers facts and relationship in order to make

educational process more effective. It relates social sciences like
education.

It includes process like investigation, planning (design)

collecting data, processing of data, their analysis, interpretation and
drawing inferences.

It covers areas from formal education and conformal education as

well.

Check your Progress

1. Name disciplines on which education depends.

2. How education is an art?

3. How education is a science?

4. Name the areas of Educational Research in addition to formal

education?
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5. Name the aspects in which Educational Research can seek

improvement?

6. Name the human elements involved in Educational Research?

7. Name the institutions involved in Educational Research?

8. Name the essential qualities of Educational Researches.

9. What is the goal of Educational Research with respect to new

knowledge?

LET US SUM UP :

- Educational Research is systematic application of scientific

method for solving educational problems, regarding students
and teachers as well.

- Results democratic education are slow and sometimes defective.

So it needs Educational Research to solve educational problems.
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- Educational Research involves individuals like teachers /
students and educational institutions. It covers areas from
formal education to nonformal education.

- Educational Research solves educational problems, purifies

educative process and generates new knowledge.

UNIT END EXERCISE :

(1) What is meant by Educational Research?

(2) What is the need of Educational Research?
(3) What is its scope?
(4) State the purpose of Education Research?

Question-1

(i) to solve education problem

(ii) scientific method
(iii) interdisciplinary approach
(iv) classroom, school, college, department of education.

Question-2
(v) Philosophy, Psychology, Sociology, History, Economics.
(vi) Since it imparts knowledge
(vii) It explains working of human mind/growth, educational
program
(viii) Nonformal education, educational technology.
(ix) Curriculum, textbooks, teaching methods.
(x) Teachers, Students, Educational managers, Parents.
(xi) School, college, research-institutes.
(xii) Updated knowledge, imagination, insight, scientific attitude.
(xiii) to generate new knowledge.

References / Suggested readings.

1) Best Kahn (1955), Research in Education, New Delhi, Prentice
Hall of India.
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2) Kaul L. (1984) Methodology of Education research, New Delhi,
Vikas Publishing House.

1.4 SCIENTIFIC METHOD, AIMS AND

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH AS A
SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITY :

RELATIONSHIP AMONG SCIENCE, EDUCATION AND

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH :

Science helps to find out the truth behind the phenomenon. It

is an approach to gathering of knowledge rather than mere subject
matter. It has following two main functions:

- to develop a theory.

- to deduce hypothesis from that theory.

Scientist uses an empirical approach for data collection and

rational approach for development of the theory.

Research shows a way to solve life – problems scientifically.

It is a reliable tool for progress of knowledge. Being systematic and
methodological, it is treated as a science. It also helps to derive the
truth behind the knowledge. It offers methods of improving quality
of the process and the product as well. Ultimately, Science and
research go hand in hand to find out solution of the problem.

Since Philosophy offers a sound basis to education, Education

is considered as an art. However, Scientific progress makes
education inclining towards a science rather than an art.

Science belongs to precision and exactness. It suffers hardly

from any variable. But education as a social science suffers from
many variables, so goes away from exactness. Educational Research
tries to make educative process more scientific. But education is
softening from multivariable, so it can’t be as exact as physical
sciences. If the study is systematically designed to achieve
educational goals, it will be an educational research. Let us
summaries this discussion with Good’s thought –

“If we wish wisdom, we must expect science. If we wish in increase

in wisdom, we must expect research”
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Knowledge is educator’s need. Curiosity and thirst for search
makes him to follow scientific way wisely. Indirectly, he plays a role
of educational researcher. Ultimately he is able to solve the
educational problem and generate new knowledge. All the three
aspects. (Science, education and educational research) have truth as
a common basis, More or less, they need exactness and precision.
While solving a problem.

AIMS AND CHARACTERISTICS :

An enquiry is a natural technique for a search. But when it’s

used systematically and scientifically, it takes the form of a method.
So scientific enquiry is also known as Scientific Method.

Bacon’s inductive method contributes to human knowledge.

It is difficult to solve many problems either by inductive or by
deductive method. So Charles Darwin seeks happy blending of
inductive and deductive method in his scientific method. In this
method, initially knowledge gained from previous knowledge,
experience, reflective thinking and observation is unorganized. Later
on it proceeds inductively from part to whole and particular to
general and ultimately to meaningful hypothesis. Thereafter, it
proceeds deductively from whole to part, general to particular and
hypothesis to logical conclusion.

This method is different from the methods of knowledge –

generation like trial and error, experience, authority and intuition. It
is a parallel to Dewey’s reflective thinking; because the researcher
himself is engrossed in reflective thinking while conducting
research.

Scientific method follows five steps as under :

Identification and definition of the problem: The researcher states

the identified problem in such a manner that it can b solved through
experimentation or observation.

Formulation of hypothesis: It allows to have an intelligent

guess for the solution of the problem.

Implication of hypothesis through deductive reasoning : Here,

the researcher deduces the implications of suggested hypothesis,
which may be true.
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Collection and analysis of evidence: The researcher is expected
here to test the deduced implications of the hypothesis by collecting
concerned evidence related to them through experimentation and
observation.

Verification of the hypothesis: Later on the researcher verifies

whether the evidence support hypothesis. If it supports, the
hypothesis is accepted, if it doesn’t the hypothesis is not accepted
and later on it is modified if it is necessary.

A peculiar feature of this method is not to prove the

hypothesis as an absolute truth but to conclude that the evidence
does or doesn’t support the hypothesis.

LET US SUM UP :

- Scientific enquiry / Scientific method is happy blending of

Inductive and deductive method. Initially it proceeds from part to
whole to state meaningful hypothesis. Later on it proceeds from
whole to part and hypothesis to logical conclusion.

- A theory is general explanation of phenomenon.

It can e refined and modified as factual knowledge. It is

developed on the basis of results of scientific method.

Unit End Exercise

i) What are the steps of scientific enquiry / method?

ii) Explain how scientific method relates theory development?
iii) What is theory? What are the principles to be considered while
stating a theory?
iv) Explain the relationship among Science, Education and
Educational Research?

Suggested Readings / References:

1) Best – Kahn, (1995), Research in education. New Delhi, Prentice

Hall of India.
2) Ebel R.L. (1969), ‘Encyclopedia of Educational Research,’
London, The Macmillan Co.
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3) Kaul L. (1984), ‘Methodology of Educational Research,’ New
Delhi, Vikas Publishing House.

1.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF RESEARCH :

Research exerts a significant influence over educational

systems. Hence a researcher needs to adhere to an ethical code of
conduct. These ethical considerations are as follows :

 While a researcher may have some obligations to his / her

client in case of sponsored research where the sponsoring
agency has given him / her financial aid for conducting the
research, he / she has obligations to the users, the larger
society, the subjects (sample / respondents) and professional
colleagues. He / she should not discard data that can lead to
unfavourable conclusions and interpretations for the sponsoring
agency.
 The researcher should maintain strict confidentiality about the
information obtained from the respondents. No information
about the personal details of the respondents should be revealed
in any of the records, reports or to other individuals without the
respondents’ permission.
 The researcher should not make use of hidden cameras,
microphones, tape-recorders or observers without the
respondents’ permission. Similarly, private correspondence
should not be used without the concerned respondent’s
permission.
 In an experimental study, when volunteers are used as subjects,
the researcher should explain the procedures completely (eg.
the experiment will go on for six months) along with the risks
involved and the demands that he / she would make upon the
participants of the study (such as the subjects will be required
to stay back for one hour after school hours etc.). If possible,
the subjects should be informed about the purpose of the
experiment / research. While dealing with school children
(minors) or mentally challenged students, parents’ or
guardians’ consent should be obtained. This phenomenon is
known as ‘informed consent’.
 The researcher should accept the fact that the subjects have the
freedom to decline to participate or to withdraw from the
experiment.
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 In order to ensure the subjects’ inclusion and continuation in

the experiment, the researcher should never try to make undue
efforts giving favourable treatment after the experiment, more
(additional marks) in a school subject, money and so on.
 In an experimental research which may have a temporary or
permanent effect on the subjects, the researcher must take all
precautions to protect the subjects from mental and physical
harm, danger and stress.
 The researcher should make his / her data available to peers for
scrutiny.
 The respondents / subjects / participants should be provided
with the reasons for the experimental procedures as well as the
findings of the study if they so demand.
 The researcher should give due credit to all those who have
helped him / her in the research procedure, tool construction,
data collection, data analysis or preparation of the research
report.
 If at all the researcher has made some promise to the
participants, it must be honoured and fulfilled.

1.6 PARADIGMS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH :

The idea of social construction of rationality can be pursued

by considering Kuhn’s idea of scientific paradigm. Thomas Kuhn,
himself a historian of science, contributed to a fruitful development
in the philosophy of science with his book “The Structure of
Scientific Revolutions” published in 1962. It brought into focus two
streams of thinking about what could be regarded as ‘scientific’, the
Aristotelian tradition with its teleological approach and the Galilean
with its causal and mechanistic approach. It introduced the concept
of ‘paradigm’ into the philosophical debate.

Definition and Meaning of Paradigm of Research :

“Paradigm” derives from the Greek verb for “exhibiting side

by side”. In lexica it is given with the translations “examples” or
table of changes in form and differences in form. Thus, Paradigms
are ways of organizing information so that fundamental, abstract
relationships can be clearly understood.
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The idea of paradigm directs attention to science as having
recognized patterns of commitments, questions, methods, and
procedures that underlie and give direction to scientific work. Kuhn
focuses upon the paradigmatic elements of research when he
suggests that science has emotional and political as well as cognitive
elements. We can distinguish the underlying assumptions of a
paradigm by viewing its discourse as having different layers of
abstractions. The layers exists simultaneously and are superimposed
upon one another.

The concept of paradigm provides a way to consider the

divergence in vision, custom, and tradition. It enables us to consider
science as having different sets of assumptions, commitments,
procedures and theories of social affairs.

A paradigm determines the criteria according to which one

selects and defines problems for inquiry and how one approaches
them theoretically and methodologically.

A paradigm could be regarded as a cultural man made object,

reflecting the dominant notions about scientific behaviour in a
particular scientific community, be it national or international, and at
a particular pointing time. Paradigms determine scientific
approaches and procedures which stand out as exemplary to the new
generation of scientists – as long as they do not oppose them.

A “revolution” in the world of scientific paradigms occurs

when one or several researchers at a given time encounter anomalies
or differences, for instance, make observations, which in a striking
way to not fit the prevailing paradigm. Such anomalies can give rise
to a crisis after which the universe under study is perceived in an
entirely new light. Previous theories and facts become subject to
thorough rethinking and revaluation.

History of Paradigms of Research :

Educational research faces a particular problem, since

education, is not a well defined, unitary discipline but a practical art.
Research into educational problems is conducted by scholars with
many disciplinary affiliations. Most of them have a background in
psychology or other behavioural sciences, but quite a few of them
have a humanistic background in philosophy and history. Thus, there
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cannot be any prevailing paradigm or ‘normal science’ in the very
multifaceted field of educational research. However, when empirical
research conducted by behavioural scientists, particularly in the
Anglo-Saxon countries, in the 1960’s and early 1970’s began to be
accused of dominating research with a positivist quantitatively
oriented paradigm that prevented other paradigms of a humanistic or
dialectical nature being employed, the accusations were directed at
those with a behavioural science background.

During twentieth century two main paradigms were employed

in researching educational problems. The one is modeled on the
natural sciences with an emphasis on empirical quantifiable
observations which lend themselves to analyses by means of
mathematical tools. The task of research is to establish causal
relationships, to explain. The other paradigm is derived from the
humanities with an emphasis on holistic and qualitative information
and interpretive approaches.

The two paradigms in educational research developed

historically as follows. By the mid-nineteenth century, when August
come \91798-1857) developed positivism in sociology and John
Stuart Mill (1806-1873) empiricism in psychology. They came to
serve as models and their prevailing paradigm was taken over by
social scientists, particularly in the Anglo Saxon countries. In
European Continent there was another from German idealism and
Hegelianism. The “Galilean” mechanistic conception became the
dominant one particularly with mathematical physics as the
methodological ideal.

There are three strands for the other main paradigm in

educational research. According to the first strand, Wilhelm Dilthey
(1833-1911) maintained that the humanities had their own logic of
research and pointed out that the difference between natural sciences
and humanities was that the former tried to explain, whereas the
latter tried to understand the unique individual in his or her entire,
concrete setting.

The second strand was represented by the phenomenological

philosophy developed by Edmund Husserl in Germany. It
emphasized the importance of taking a widened perspective and of
trying to “get to the roots” of human activity. The third strand in he
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humanistic paradigm consists of the critical philosophy, which
developed with certain amount of neo-Marxism.

The paradigm determines how a problem is formulated and

methodologically handled. According to the traditional positivist
conception, problems related to, for example, to classroom behviour
should be investigated primarily in terms of the individual actor,
either the pupils, who might be neurotic, or the teacher who might be
ill prepared for this her job. The other conception is to formulate the
problem in terms of the larger setting, that of the school, or rather
that of the society at large. By means of such mechanisms as testing,
observation and the like, one does not try to find out why the pupil
or the teacher deviates from the normal. Rather an attempt is made to
study the particular individual as a goal directed human being with
particular and unique motives.

Interdependence of the Paradigms :

One can distinguish between two main paradigms in

educational research planning and with different basis of knowledge.
On one hand there is functional- structural, objective – rational,
goal-directed, manipulative, hierarchical, and technocratic approach.
On the other hand, there is the interpretivist, humanistic, consensual,
subjective, and collegial one.

The first approach is derived from classical positivism. The

second one, more popular now, partly derived from the critical
theory of the Frankfurt school, particularly from Habermas’s theory
of communicative action. The first approach is “linear” and consists
of a straight forward rational action toward preconceived problem.
The second approach leaves room for reinterpretation and reshaping
of the problem during the process of dialogue prior to action and
even during action.

Keeves (1988) argues that the various research paradigms

employed in education, the empirical-positivist, the hermeneutic or
phenomenological, and the ethnographic-anthropological are
complementary to each other. He talks about the “unity of
educational research,” makes a distinction between paradigms and
approaches, and contends that there is, in the final analysis, only one
paradigm but many approaches.
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For example, the teaching-learning process can be observed
and /or video recorded. The observations can be quantified and the
data analyzed by means of advanced statistical method. Content can
be studied in the light of national traditions, and the philosophy
underlying curriculum constructions. Both the teaching-learning
process and its outcomes can be studied in a comparative, cross-
national perspective.

Depending upon the objective of a particular research project,

emphasis is laid more on the one or on the error paradigm. Thus
qualitative and quantitative paradigms are more often than not
complementing each other. For example, it is not possible to arrive
at any valid information about a school or national system
concerning the level of competence achieved in, for instance, science
by visiting a number of classrooms and thereby trying to collect
impressions. Sample surveys like one collected by IEA
(International Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement) would be an important tool. But such surveys are not
much useful if it comes to accounting for factors behind the
differences between school systems. Here the qualitative
information of different kinds is required.

Policymakers, planners, and administrators want

generalizations and rules which apply to a wide variety of
institutions with children of rather diverse backgrounds. The
policymaker and planner is more interested in collectivity than in the
individual child. They operate from the perspective of the whole
system. Whereas, the classroom practitioners are not very much
helped by generalizations which apply “on the whole” or “by and
large” because they are concerned with the timely, the particular
child here and now.

Need for contemporary approaches :

The behavioural sciences have equipped educational

researchers with a store of research tools, such as observational
methods and tests, which helps them to systematize observation
which would otherwise would not have been considered in the more
holistic and intuitive attempts to make, for instance, informal
observations or to conduct personal interviews.
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Those who turn to social science research in order to find the
“best” pedagogy or the most “efficient” methods of teaching are in a
way victims of traditional science which claimed to be able to arrive
at generalizations applicable in practically every context. But,
through critical philosophy researchers have become increasingly
aware that education does not take place in a social vacuum.
Educational researchers have also begun to realize that educational
practices are not independent of the cultural and social context in
which they operate. Nor they are neutral to educational policies.
Thus the two main paradigms are not exclusive, but complementary
to each other.

Check your progress :

Answer the following questions.

Q.1 Define the term paradigm?

Q.2 List the two paradigms of research?

LET US SUM UP :

Fundamental Research is a basic research which is for the

sake of knowledge. Applied research to solve an immediate
practical problem. Action research seeks effective way to solve a
problem of the concerned area without using a particular
methodology / paradigm. Paradigm of research is way to select,
define and solve the problem methodically.

Unit End Exercise :

1. Why do we need a conduct fundamental researches?

2. In which situations can applied research be conducted?

3. How is action research different from the other types?

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4. What benefits can teachers get from action research?

5. How are the paradigms dependent on each other illustrate?

References :
Thomas H. Popkewitz, Paradigms and Ideologies of Research in
Education.
John W. Best and James V. Kahn (1996) Research in Education
L. R. Gay (1990) Research in Education

1.7 TYPES OF RESEARCH :

1.7.a FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH :

It is basic approach which is for the sake of knowledge.

Fundamental research is usually carried on in a laboratory or other
sterile environment, sometimes with animals. This type of research,
which has no immediate or planned application, may later result in
further research of an applied nature. Basic researches involve the
development of theory. It is not concerned with practical
applicability and most closely resembles the laboratory conditions
and controls usually associated with scientific research. It is concerned
establishing generally principles of learning.

For example, much basic research has been conducted with

animals to determine principles of reinforcement and their effect on
learning. Like the experiment of skinner on cats gave the principle of
conditioning and reinforcement.

According to Travers, basic research is designed to add to an

organized body of scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce
results of immediate practical value. Basic research is primarily
concerned with the formulation of the theory or a contribution to the
existing body of knowledge. Its major aim is to obtain and use the
empirical data to formulate, expand or evaluate theory. This type of
research draws its pattern and spirit from the physical sciences. It
represents a rigorous and structured type of analysis. It employs careful
sampling procedures in order to extend the findings beyond the group or
situations and thus develops theories by discovering proved
generalizations or principles. The main aim of basic research is the
discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge.
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Another system for classification is sometimes used for the
research dealing with these who types of questions. This
classification is based on goal or objective of the research. The first
type of research, which has its aim obtaining the empirical data that
can be used to formulate, expand or evaluate theory is called basic
research. This type of study is not oriented in design or purpose
towards the solution of practical problem.

Its essential aim is to expand the frontiers of knowledge

without regard to practical application. Of course, the findings may
eventually apply to practical problems that have social value.

For example, advances in the practice of medicine are

dependent upon basic research in biochemistry and microbiology.
Likewise, progress in educational practices has been related to
progress in the discovery of general laws through psychological,
educational, sociological research.

Check your progress – 1 :

Answer the following questions :

Q.1 What is fundamental research?

Q.2 Where can the basic researches be conducted?

1.7.b APPLIED RESEARCH :

The second type of research which aims to solve an

immediate practical problem, is referred to as applied research.
According to Travers, “applied research is undertaken to solve an
immediate practical problem and the goal of adding to scientific
knowledge is secondary.”

It is research performed in relation to actual problems and

under the conditions in which they are found in practice. Through
applied research, educators are often able to solve their problems at
 23
the appropriate level of complexity, that is, in the classroom teaching
learning situations. We may depend upon basic research for the
discovery of more general laws of learning, but applied research
much is conducted in the order to determine how these laws operate
in the classroom. This approach is essential if scientific changes in
teaching practice are to be effected. Unless educators undertake to
solve their own practical problems of this type no one else will. It
should be pointed out that applied research also uses the scientific
method of enquiry. We find that there is not always a sharp line of
demarcation between basic and applied research. Certainly
applications are made from theory to help in the solution of practical
problems. We attempt to apply the theories of learning in the
classroom. On the other hand, basic research may depend upon the
findings of the applied research to complete its theoretical
formulations. A classroom learning experiment can throw some
light on the learning theory. Furthermore, observations in the
practical situations serve to test theories and may lead to the
formulation of new theories.

Most educational research studies are classified at the applied

end of the continuum; they are more concerned with “what” works
best than with “why”. For example, applied research tests the
principle of reinforcement to determine their effectiveness in
improving learning (e.g. programmed instruction) and behaviour
(e.g. behaviour modification). Applied research has most of the
characteristics of fundamental research, including the use of
sampling techniques and the subsequent inferences about the target
population. Its purpose, however, is improving a product or a
process – testing theoretical concepts in actual problem situations.
Most educational research is applied research, for it attempts to
develop generalizations about teaching – learning processes and
instructional materials.

The applied research may also be employed a university or

research institute or may be found in private industry or working for
a government agency. In the field of education such a person might
be employed by a curriculum publishing company, a state
department of education, or a college of education at a university.
Applied researches are also found in the settings in which the
application or practitioner’s role is primary. This is where the
 24
teachers, clinical psychologists, school psychologists, social workers
physicians, civil engineers, managers, advertising specialists and so
on are found. Many of theses people receive training in doing
research, and they use this knowledge for two purpose.

(1) To help practitioners understand, evaluate, and use the research

produced by basic and applied researches in their own fields and,

(2) To develop a systematic way of addressing the practical

problems and questions that arise as they practice their
professions.

For example, a teacher who notices that a segment of the

class is not adequately motivated in science might look at the
research literature on teaching science and then systematically try
some of the findings suggested by the research.

Some of the recent focus of applied educational research have

been grading practices, collective bargaining for school personnel,
curriculum content, instructional procedures, educational
technology, and assessment of achievement. The topics have been
investigated with an applied research because the questions raised in
these areas generally have limited or no concrete knowledge of
theory we can draw upon directly to aid in decision making.

Check your progress – 2 :

Answer the following questions :

Q.1 What do you mean by applied research?

Q.2 Applied research be conducted?

1.7.c ACTION RESEARCH :

Research designed to uncover effective ways of dealing with

problems in the real world can be referred to as action research.
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This kind of research is not confined to a particular methodology or
paradigm. For example, a study of the effectiveness of training
teenage parents to care for their infants. The study is based on
statistical and other evidence that infants of teenage mothers seemed
to be exposed to more risks than other infants. The mother and
children were recruited for participation in the study while the
children were still in neonate period. Mothers were trained at home
or in an infant nursery. A controlled group received no training.
The mothers trained at home were visited at 2-weeks interval over a
12-month period. Those trained in nursery setting attended 3-days
per week for 6 months, were paid minimum wage, and assisted as
staff in centre. Results of the study suggested that the children of
both group of trained mothers benefited more in terms of their health
and cognitive measures than did the controlled children. Generally
greater benefits were realized by the children of the mothers trained
in the nursery that with the mothers trained at home.

Thus the study shows that such researches have direct

application to real world problems. Second, elements of both
quantitative and qualitative approaches can be found in the study.
For example, quantitative measure of weight, height, and cognitive
skills were obtained in this study. However, at the start itself from
the personal impressions and observations without the benefit of
systematic quantitative data, the researches was able to say that the
mother in the nursery centre showed some unexpected vocational
aspirations to become nurses. Third, treatments and methods that
are investigated are flexible and might change during the study in
response to the results as they are obtained. Thus, action research is
more systematic and empirical than some other approaches to
innovation and change, but it does not lead to careful controlled
scientific experiments that are generalizable to a wide variety of
situations and settings.

The purpose of action research is to solve classroom problems

through the application of scientific methods. It is concerned with a
local problem and is conducted in a local setting. It is not concerned
with whether the results are generalizable to any other setting and is
not characterized by the same kind of control evidence in other
categories of research. The primary goal of action research is the
solution of a given problem, not contribution to science. Whether
 26
the research is conducted in one classroom or many classrooms, the
teacher is very much a part of the process. The more research
trainings the teacher involved have had, the more likely it is that the
research will produce valid, if not generalizable research.

The value of action research is confined primarily to those

who are conducting it. Despite its shortcomings, it does represents a
scientific approach to the problem solving that is considerably better
than changed based on the alleged effectiveness of untried
procedures, and infinitely better than no changes at all. It is a means
by which concerned school personnel can attempt to improve the
educational process, at least within their environment. Of course,
the true value of action research to true scientific progress is limited.
True progress requires the development of sound theories having
implications for many classrooms, not just one or two. One sound
theory that includes ten principles of learning may eliminate the
need of hundreds of would – be action research studies. Given the
current status of educational theory, however, action research
provides immediate answers to problem that can not wait for
theoretical solutions.

As John Best puts it, action research is focused on immediate

applications. Its purposes is to improve school practices and at the
same time, to improve those who try to improve the practices, to
combine the research processes, habits of thinking, ability to work
harmoniously with others, and professional spirit.

If most classroom teachers are to be involved in research

activity, it will probably be in the area of action research. Many
observers have projected action research nothing more than the
application of common sense or good management. Whether or not
it is worthy of the term research it does not apply scientific thinking
and methods to real life problems and represents a greater
improvement over teachers’ subjective judgments and decision
based upon stereotype thinking and limited personal experience.

The concept of action research under the leadership of Corey

has been instrumental in bringing educational research nearer to
educational practitioners. Action research is research undertaken by
practitioners in order that they may attempt to solve their local,
practical problems by using the method of science.
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Check your progress – 3

Answer the following questions :

Q.1 What do you mean by action research?

Q.2 What benefits can teachers get from action research?

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