UNIT IV

4.1 General

Strength evaluation of an existing structure or its portion may be required if it is considered

that there is:

a. Evidence of faulty design/construction

b. Structural deterioration due to ageing or otherwise
c. Need for changed use of structure for which it was not originally designed
d. New codal requirement to which the existing structure does not conform

Analysis and design process of a damaged structure has to be based on its actual existing
condition. Before taking it up, the in situ properties of material used and its structural
sizes have to be determined based on field investigations and measurements. Whereas,
in case of new structures, option of alternative standard materials and structural sizes
are open and the design process could be adopted to get the optimum results based on
loads as per its design use.

Basic principles of analysis and design of a distressed structure are same as in case of
new structures. However, these require extra inputs based on sound and experienced
engineering judgment of the structure and its materials.

4.1.Reserve Strength

The old structures have reserve strength due to:

1. Increased strength of concrete with ageing, which needs to be established by actual

assessment.
2. Conservative design approaches e.g., non-consideration of live load reduction factor
etc.
3. Steel reinforcement provided is quite often more than the actual requirement.
4. Based on engineering judgment, some higher stresses could be permitted for short
durations while carrying out repairs.
5. While taking the benefit of reserve strength, care shall however be taken, to ensure
that the structure is not subjected to higher stresses to impair its stability.

4.1.2 Analysis necessary to Identify Critical Section

There is loss of capacity of structural member due to damaged concrete and/or

reinforcement steel. The first step is the capacity determination of the structure by establishing the
existing in situ cross-sectional details of damaged structural members and
their material properties. The analysis of the structure can be done in accordance with the in-
situ relative stiffness. If the deflections exceed the permissible values, the same may be
allowed with caution, provided modified serviceability criteria of appearance and efficiency
is satisfied. The analysis should, however, identify the critical sections in the structure needing
structural strengthening.

4.1.3 Active and Passive Repairs

It is essential to halt its further deterioration and undertake strengthening, if required, for
additional anticipated loads. The repaired structure comprises of parent as well as new repair
material. The repairs can be termed as active or passive depending on the load sharing
mechanism of repair material and parent material. The passive repairs are those, which are
applied on existing loaded structural members and can share only a part of subsequent
additional loading. Whereas, in active repairs, the repaired structural member is initially
unloaded to relieve it of loads before the application of repairs. This is done basically to
ensure that the repair material and the parent material share the loads jointly.
The structural members can be repaired or strengthened for resisting excess shear and flexure
by providing additional steel reinforcement, carbon fibre wraps/mesh, section enlargement,
external pre-stressing, steel plate bonding etc. The sharing of load between old and new
materials need to be incorporated in the analysis and design. The type of stresses acting on
the repair system.

4.1.4 Modelling of Repaired Composite Structure

The behaviour of the repaired composite structure is difficult to model due to unpredictable
stress relieving and degree of integration with the existing structure. It will be necessary to
make some rational assumptions based on sound engineering judgment.
The procedure detailed in the following sections can be followed for assessment, evaluation
and design of repaired structures.

4.2. Structural System & Its Validations

The documents related to foundation conditions, soil report, analysis, design, execution and
maintenance of work shall be gathered. As built architectural /structural drawings are essential for
analysis and design. It is necessary to check and validate the sizes of structural members duly making
allowances for the finishes and damages. The diameter and location of reinforcement can be
validated using available non-destructive bar locator (Cover meter/bar locator, etc). The structural
system can be developed based on the validated available structural/architectural drawings.
Wherever such informations are not available, drawings based on actual measurement are to
be developed.
4.3 Mechanical Properties of Materials

The steel reinforcement is relatively consistent in quality. The mechanical properties can be
assessed based on the details available in the drawings or by exposing reinforcement at few
places and taking samples for testing. The losses of cross-sectional areas due to effect of
corrosion etc. need to be ascertained.

The assessment of mechanical properties of concrete is rather elaborate and requires detailed
investigations. The strength of the concrete can be evaluated by non-destructive methods like
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Tests (UPV), Rebound Hammer Test etc. in conjunction with core
test. Using the results of NDE investigations and methods of interpretation, the strength of concrete
can be evaluated with certain degree of confidence.

4.4 Evaluation of Damage to Concrete/Reinforcement

The condition survey of the structure will give an idea regarding extent of damage to concrete
due to spalling, original construction defects, loss of strength due to exposure to high temperature
and damage to reinforcement due to corrosion/fire. This can be done based on the field
measurements. The observation of the structure can be mapped on a suitable format and the
results incorporated in the analysis of structure.

4.5 Service Loads including due to Change of Building Use

Based on building use, its region of location and the related structural/architectural drawings,
the design loads shall be worked out based on the applicable standards for earthquake and
wind (refer IS: 875- Part 1 to 5 and IS: 1893). The loading as per original building use and
also due to its changed use in the past and future, shall be ascertained and appropriately
considered in the design process.

4.6 Evaluation of Building Configuration

The existing building may

a. Not comply with the requirements of current codal provisions of design and construction
b. Also require upgrading to satisfy the changed functional requirements.

These may necessitate structural modification. These could be identified based on the period
of construction of the building and the then prevalent codal practices.
The configuration of the building in plan and elevation provide adequate information regarding
structural dynamic response in the event of earthquakes etc. The locations of stress
concentration need to be identified based on analysis of as constructed structure. These
points of stress concentrations are to be examined in detail. The deficiency if any, in the
original construction should be identified. Particular attention must be given to the non-structural/
structural cracks in the structure to identify the cause of distress including improper construction
joints / separation joints, if any.

4.7 Analysis and Design

Analysis and design of the building shall be done taking into consideration of:

a. Structural sizes and material properties established based on the investigations.

b. The reduction in member dimensions, changes in end conditions, the sequence of
construction and subsequent changes in sizes of element, shall also be taken into
account.
c. All the geometric & material characteristics and end conditions of the existing building
while modelling the structure for analysis.

d. The theoretical model may be checked to compare the analytical results with the actual
observations.
e. The structural safety and load transfer shall be ensured at all the stages of repair.

Some of issues to be considered in the analysis/design/repair process without compromising

the stability of structure as a whole are:

a. The removal of concrete during repair may reduce the effective size of the structural
member and consequently affect its stiffness. Also the stability of the structure
may be endangered due to transfer of load to adjoining members.

b. The removal of a structural member may increase the effective length of a

compression member affecting its stability.

c. In case of indeterminate the beam / slab element, it may be safe to assume the
member as simply supported in the design and proceed accordingly. It would also
give flexibility during execution of repair work.

d. Effectiveness of fully exposed reinforcement in the structural member be assessed.

 SELECTION OF REPAIR MATERIALS
FOR CONCRETE

1 General

Selection of repair material is one of the most important tasks for ensuring durable and trust
worthy repair. Though, the pre-requisite for a sound repair system is the detailed investigation
and determining the exact cause of distress, yet an understanding of the process of deterioration
of the repair materials (such as concrete and other auxiliary materials i.e. plastics, resins, etc)
under service conditions is vital. Of course, availability of materials of relevance, equipment
and skilled labour have to be explored before deciding upon the repair material.
The analogy for selection of repair material is similar to repairing of a torn garment with sound
fibre/fabric but of similar performance characteristics (i.e. pre-shrunk and similar fibre/fabric)
as that of the original garment. Had the patch repair been done with un-shrunk or dissimilar
fibre/fabric, it would have inflicted a greater damage to the repaired garment due to its pulling
away on a subsequent shrinking after washing. Exactly this is applicable to selection of materials
for repair of concrete/plaster. Also, the selection of the repair material has a chemical angle
and the manufacturer’s literature normally highlights the composition of the material rather
than performance characteristics. Since, cementitious products have a tendency to shrink
and hardening with age, it is essential that the repair material for repairing concrete or plaster
should be of non-shrink type and compatible with parent material.

5.2 Essential Parameters For Repair Materials

Besides being of compatible properties, repair materials for cement concrete/mortar shall
also be easy to apply and require no attention after the repair has been applied. The essential
parameters for deciding upon a repair material for concrete are :

• Low shrinkage properties

• Requisite setting/hardening properties
• Workability
• Good bond strength with existing sub-strate
• Compatible coefficient of thermal expansion
• Compatible mechanical properties and strength to that of the sub-strate
• Should allow relative movement, if expected, particularly in case of sealing of cracks or
dealing with expansion joints.
• Minimal or no curing requirement
Alkaline character
• Low air and water permeability
• Aesthetics to match with surroundings
• Cost
• Durable, non degradable or non-biodegradable due to various forms of energy, life,
• UV rays, heat etc
• Non-hazardous/non-polluting
 5.2.1 Low Shrinkage

It is well known that the cementitious repair materials shrink with passage of time. Most of
the shrinkage generally takes place in the initial period from the time of casting to 21 days.
Therefore, cementitious repair material in its original form, if used for repair to concrete/
mortar, is likely to get either delaminated due to de-bonding or develop shrinkage cracks on
its surface due to shrinkage strains and stresses. Shrinkage cracks so developed in the repair
patch would allow the easy access of atmospheric air and water, which could be harmful for
concrete and reinforcement.

It is, therefore, essential that the low shrinkage property of repair material shall be looked
for
while selecting a material for concrete repair. Cementitious materials need additional non-
shrink compounds to be effective in achieving the desired property. Therefore, the
formulation of the patch mortar incorporates, in the cement matrix, several special
chemicals
to mitigate the shrinkage. Using low cement content and low water cement ratio will also
reduce the drying shrinkage.

5.2.2 Requisite setting/hardening Properties

It is desirable that the repaired structure shall be put to use at the earliest possible to reduce
the down time of plant, machinery, building or road. It is, therefore, essential that repaired
patch shall harden in the minimum possible time. However, in exceptional cases, it could also
be essential to have the slow setting property as a desirable property for repair material.
Such situation could be where more working time is required to work on repair materials or
the repair process is intricate that more working time is required.

5.2.3 Workability

The repair material is to be applied by the field workers and hence its acceptability by them
is very important. The property desired by the field workers is good workability. Hence
optimum workability is to be achieved without sacrificing the other desirable properties by
use of suitable additives/admixtures.

5.2.4 Bond with the Substrate

The bond strength of repair patch with the substrate is essential to have a successful repair
system. If it is felt that the bond strength of the repair material with the base material is
inadequate or less than the strength of the base material, then some other suitable means
could be explored to improve bond strength between repair material and substrate. These
could be use of:
• Adhesive,
• Surface interlocking system, and/or
• Mechanical bonding

A variety of adhesives, in the range of epoxies, polymer modified cement slurries including
unmodified polymer applications are available. The selection depends upon available open
Time for bonding etc, which are being specified for different applications. Surface interlocking
system and methods of mechanical bonding are, however, detailed out in the subsequent
chapter on Repair Methods.

5.2.5 Compatible Coefficient of thermal Expansion:

The difference in volume change because of temperature variation can cause failure either atthe bond line or
within the section of lower strength material. Therefore, in the areas exposedto temperature variations, the
patches of repair should have same coefficient of thermal expansion to ensure that no undue stresses are
transferred to bonding interface or the substrate. Due to similar coefficient of thermal expansion, cementitious
materials are preferred over epoxy materials.

5.2.6 Compatible Mechanical Properties & Strength

The hardened material shall have compatible mechanical properties or rather slightly betterstrength than that
of base material. This property is desirable to ensure uniform flow of stressesand strains in loaded structures. It
is well known that the elastic modulus of two concreteswould be different for different crushing strength so if
repair concrete is having strength much different than the base, it could lead to non-uniform flow of stresses and
may result in an earlyfailure of the repair patch.

5.2.7 Relative movement, if expected

Particularly in case of sealing of such cracks where movement is expected or at
expansion joints, the repair material selected shall be resilient and elastic to be able
to absorb the anticipated relative movements of the structure without any signs of
distress or crack.

5.2.8 Minimal or no curing Requirement

It is desirable that the repair material shall not have any curing requirement after the repair
has been applied or even if it is required, it should be minimal to ensure that the
repair patch hardens and attains the desired strength without much post-repair-care.
Only epoxies don’t need any curing. Other material applications need nominal to
moderate curing, which need to be specified. Such materials have several other merits,
which are to be kept in view, whilemaking a selection. Curing compound can be applied
over cementitious materials used forrepairs but after examining its compatibility.

5.2.9 Alkalinity
In case of RCC, it is important to maintain the alkalinity of concrete around
reinforcement with its pH above 11.5 from corrosion protection point of view. In this
context, it is necessary for the repair material to have chemical characteristics such that it
does not adversely affect the alkalinity of the base concrete at a later date. The chemical
characteristics of the repair material and its after effect on the pH of RCC shall be
examined beforehand. In addition, the pH of reinforcement protection applications,
bonding coats and that of the repair material must also be similarly alkaline. This would
ensure inbuilt compatibility.

5.2.10 Low air & water permeability

Permeable material allows easy permeation of environmental chemicals including
carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, industrial gases/vapours etc. It is essential that repair
materials should have a very low air/water permeability to provide protection to the
reinforced concrete against ingress of harmful environmental chemicals.

5.2.11 Aesthetics
It is desirable that colour and texture of the repair material should match with the
structure and give aesthetically pleasant appearance. If need be, this could be
achieved throughappropriate finishes.

5.2.12 Cost
Economics is important while considering various options for repair materials but
cheaperrepair material should not be selected at the cost of performance characteristics.

5.2.13 Durability & Bio non-degradability:

The repair material selected should be durable under its exposure conditions during the
servicelife against chemical attack, resistant to any form of energy like ultra violet rays, infra
red rays,heat etc and should be bio non-degradable.
Non-Hazardous / Non –Polluting :
The repair materials should not be hazardous to field workers. However adequate
Safety measures are required to be taken for repair Materials, which are
hazardous to workers involved with their application, etc. These should also be
environment friendly.

5.3 Materials For Repair

Wide range of materials for repair of concrete is available differing in cost and
theirperformance. Their application range covers:
• Materials for Surface Preparation
• Chemical Rust removers for corroded reinforcement
• Passivators for reinforcement protection
• Bonding Agents
• Structural Repair Materials,
• Non-structural Repair Materials,
• Injection grouts,
• Joint sealants,
• Surface coatings for protection of RCC
Products available in the market are generally in pre-proportioned and in pre-weighed
packs together with accompanying instructions regarding mixing procedure, pot
life, dosage and application procedure etc. It is desirable that the manufacturer
indicates the generic nameand proportion of the components in the products on the
packs.
Though, these materials are being marketed under their brand names, yet these
could beclassified in the following categories:
• Premixed Cement concrete/mortars (modified with non-polymeric admixtures/additives).
• Polymers/latex modified cement additives for mortars/concrete/cement
slurry [styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) latex, Poly (Vinylidene Chloride-
Vinyl Chloride) (PVDC),acrylics and modified acrylics)]
• Epoxy resins
 • Chemicals for corrosion inhibitor, removal of rust

5.3.1 Premixed Cement concrete/mortars

Though, the cement concrete and mortars are most natural repair materials for
carrying out the repairs to RCC. Yet, they are not favoured as a repair material due to its
inherent undesirable properties like drying shrinkage, slow setting, low workability,
prolonged curing requirement,permeability, etc.

5.3.1.1 Cements:
Cement paste, being a binder in concrete or mortar holds fine aggregates, coarse
aggregates and other constituents together in a hardened matrix. Cement forms one of
the most basic material used for not only in new construction but also as repair material.
Therefore, selection of the appropriate type of cement for new construction as well as
repair work is important and determines the final efficacy and durability of the structure. The
portland cements generallyconsist of Tricalcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2), Dicalcium Silicate
(2CaO.SiO2), Tricalcium aluminate (3CaO. Al2O3.Fe2O3) and tetracalcium aluminoferrite
(4Cao.Al2O3). These minerals are more often denoted as C3S, C2S, C3AF, C4A
respectively.
5.3.1.2 Mineral Additives
Fly Ash (FA), Silica Fume (SF), Rice Husk Ash (RHA), Ground Granulated Blast
Furnace Slag (GGBS) and metakaoline, which have good pozzolanic properties are
being used as mineral additives in concrete and mortars with certain advantages in
regard to their impermeability, resistance to leaching, resistance to chloride & sulphate
attack and better crushing strength. As already explained, the pozzolanic reaction results
in reduction of free lime and pH of hydrated cement paste. Such additives are to be
used with caution, while repairing flexural structural members requiring protection of
reinforcement againstcorrosion.

5.3.1.3 Chemical Admixtures

It is a material, other than water, aggregates, hydraulic cement, mineral additives and
fibre reinforcement, used as ingredients of concrete or mortar and added to the batch
immediately before or during its mixing to modify one or more properties of the repair
concrete/mortar/ slurry in plastic or hardened state. As per IS: 9103, the
admixtures are classified as under:-
• Retarding admixtures
• Water reducing admixtures
• Air entraining admixtures, and
• Super-plasticising admixtures

5.3.1.3 Water Cement Ratio:

Water cement ratio plays a vital role in controlling shrinkage, water permeability,
percentageof capillary pores and enhancing strength. As it is very difficult to control water
cement ratiowhile producing concrete or mortars in scattered works, a mechanical control
of quantity of water is essential to ensure consistently uniform quality of concrete/mortar
batch after batch with the use of Mechanical Water Dozer. Details of the one
developed by Central Design Organisation are given in Fig 5.1. The plasticisers
and super plasticisers can be gainfully used to control water/cement ratio without
any compromise on the workability.

5.3.2 Polymer Modified Mortars and Concrete (PMM/PMC)

The process technology of making the latex-modified mortar and concrete is similar to that
of the conventional binding systems. Most polymers, such as latexes, are in the dispersed
form.These are initially mixed in water in required proportion and then added to the cement
mortar or concrete. The latex-modified mortar or concrete, are placed similar to normal
concretingand cured under optimum conditions.

5.3.2.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Polymer Modified Mortars/Concretes:

Admixing of polymer latex in cementitious mixtures modifies the following physical
andmechanical properties:
I. Workability: Generally polymer mortars/polymers modified concrete
(PMM/PMC) have better workability compared to conventional
mortar/concrete.
II. Water retention: PMM/PMC have remarkably improved water retention
property over ordinary mortar/concrete. The water-curing requirement is
substantially reduced and needs to be specified accordingly to suit the
polymer type, its proportion andmethod of curing.
III. Bleeding and Segregation: A better resistance to bleeding and segregation even
thoughthey have better flowability.
IV. Increased Resistance to Crack Propagation: Micro cracks occur easily in the
ordinary stressed hardened cement paste. This leads to poor tensile strength and
fracture toughness. Whereas, in the latex-modified mortar and concrete, it
appears that themicro cracks are bridged by the polymer films or membranes,
which prevent crack propagation and simultaneously, a strong cement hydrate-
aggregate bond is developed.
V. Strength: PMM/PMC with styrene butadiene polymer (SBR) latexes have a
noticeable increase in tensile and flexural strength but there is hardly any
improvement in its compressive strength compared to ordinary mortar/concrete.
An increase in the polymer content or polymer-cement ratio (defined as the
weight ratio of the amount of total solids in polymer latex to the amount of
cement in a latex-modified mortar or concrete)leads to increase in flexural tensile
strength and fracture toughness. However, excess air entrainment and polymer
inclusion cause discontinuities of the formed monolithic network structure, whose
strength is reduced.
VI. Chemical resistance of PMM/PMC: This depends on the type of polymer,
polymer cement ratio and type of chemicals. Most PMM & PMC with styrene
butadiene polymers(includes other like modified acrylics etc.) are attacked by
strong organic and inorganic acids and sulphate but these resist alkalis and
salts other than sulphates. Their resistance to chlorides, fats and oils is also
 rated as good while they have a poor resistance to organic solvents.
VII. Temperature effect: The strength of PMM/PMC depends on
temperature. They generally show a rapid reduction in strength with
increase in temperature. Most thermoplastic polymers have a glass
transition temperature of 80 deg. to 100 deg.Centigrade.
VIII. Shrinkage: The drying shrinkage of PMM/PMC may be larger or smaller
than that ofstandard mortar or concrete depending on type of polymer and
polymer: cement ratio used. More is the polymer ratio, lesser is drying
shrinkage.
IX. Water proofing Quality or permeability: PMM/ PMC have a structure in
which the larger pores are filled by polymer or these are sealed by
continuous polymer flow. The sealing effect and porosity due to the
polymer films or membranes formed in the structure also provides a
considerable increase in water proofness or water tightness as well as
resistance to chloride ion penetration, moisture transmission, carbonation
and oxygen diffusion chemical resistance, and freeze-thaw durability.
Such an effect is promoted with increasing polymer- cement ratio upto a
certain level of polymerloading.
X. Adhesion or bond strength: A very useful aspect of PMM/PMC is their
improved adhesion or bond strength to various sub-strata compared to
conventional mortar/concrete.
XI. Abrasion Resistance: PMM/PMCs have abrasion resistance better than
the conventional mortar/concrete.

5.3.3 General Guidelines & Precautions for use of polymer

modified cement Mortar/ concrete
• The speed and time of mixing should be properly selected to avoid
unnecessary entrapment of air.
• The PMM/PMC have excellent adhesion even to metal and hence
all equipment should be washed immediately after use.
• For resurfacing, flooring and patching, all loose and non-durable
materials including laitence must be removed either by
sandblasting, wire brushing and blowing with compressed air. The
cleaned surface should be thoroughly wetted well before
placement of PMM/PMC. Before application, surface should be in
saturated dry (wet but no standing water) condition.
• The choice of type of PMM/PMC depends on thickness of coating
to be applied.
• It is advisable to finish the surface by trowling 2-3 times. Over
trawling is not advisable.
• PMM/PMC should never be placed below 5o C and above 30o C.
The surface of newly placed material should be protected from
rainfall or other source of water. The surface should be
 immediately covered with burlap or plastic sheet.
• In large area of application, it is advisable to provide joints of 15
mm width at intervals of 3-4 meter.
• Curing under water immersion or under wet condition is
detrimental to PMM/PMC. It should be moist cured for 1-3 days
followed by curing at ambient temperature. Steam curing is not
recommended.
• Polymers and Latexes are non-toxic and safe for handling.
• Polymers should be stored in a cool dry room & should not be kept in exposed areas.
• Polymers should be mixed with cement slurry or mortar in the proportions
recommendedby the manufacturers for various uses.

5.3.3.1Fields of Application:
1. Structural repairs to RCC: PMM/PMC are used to make up the
damaged/lost cover concrete due to their better bond with substrate,
including the reinforcement.
2. Ultra Rapid Hardening Polymer Modified Shotcrete:
Ultra Rapid Hardening Polymer Modified Shotcrete system can be
classified in to two categories:
One, which uses a polymerizable monomer that reacts with Ordinary
Portland cement at ambient temperature. This system is used as repair
and protective material for concrete structures with leaking and
flowing water. It uses magnesium acrylate monomer and its setting
time can be controlled within few seconds or less.
Second, which uses ultra rapid hardening cement concrete with SBR
latex and is often used for urgent construction and repair works.
3. Polymer Ferrocements:
For the purpose of improving the flexural behaviour and durability of
conventional ferrocement, polymer-ferrocements have been developed using
latex modified mortars instead of ordinary cement-sand mortars. Use of SBR
and EVA modified mortars is found to be very effective in improving their
flexural behaviour, impact resistance, drying shrinkage and durability.
Incorporation of short fibres such as steel and carbon fibres in the latex modified
mortars is found to be further effective in improving such characteristics.
4. Bond Coats (Structural Adhesives) and Grouts: Polymer modified cement mortars
as well as slurries are used as bond coats and grouts due to their very good
adhesivequalities on cementitious as well as metallic surface.

5.3.4 Epoxies
Epoxies also come in the category of polymers but in the case of epoxies, the
polymerization process takes place when two materials called the epoxy resin and hardener
come in contact by thoroughly mixing in specified proportion. The epoxy resin materials have
good mechanicalstrength, chemical resistance and ease of working. These are being used in
civil engineering for high performance coatings, adhesives, injection grouting, high
performance systems, industrial flooring or grouting etc.
5.3.4.1 Precautions to be taken:
Epoxies are generally toxic in nature and these require lot of care in their handling.
The special care required to be taken during their mixing and applications are as
under:
I. They should not come in contact with the skin. Workers should be provided
with rubbergloves.
II. The utensils/ equipments used for the mixing resin and hardener should
be cleanedimmediately after their use.
III. The pot life of the mixed epoxy is generally very limited, ½ to 2 hours. It
should be finally applied as adhesive within pot life period. Therefore,
material should be prepared just sufficient to cover the area within the
pot life period as recommended by themanufacturers.
IV. The epoxies are generally used as an adhesive to act as bond coat
between the old concrete and repaired concrete. The epoxies have a glass
transition range at temperatures at 60 to 80o C depending upon the epoxy
type. Therefore, they should not be used inthe exposed environment.
V. Epoxies have much higher bond strength than other polymers, but at the
same time,these are costlier.

5.3.4.2 Field of Applications:

I. Anti Corrosive and Water Proofing Protective Coatings:
Fusion Bonded Epoxy Powder Coatings(FBEC) as well as IPN Coatings are
being used for protection to reinforcing bars against corrosion in RCC
structures located in highly aggressive environment. FBEC process provides a
tough film, which can withstand bar bending without cracking, whereas IPN
coatings are used for new constructions for in situ coatings to steel
reinforcement.
Epoxy coatings in conjunction with epoxy grouting have been used to
render leaking roofs, toilets, bath rooms as impervious. However, their use in
exposed locations directlyexposed to sunlight is to be avoided.
II. Bond Coats (Structural Adhesives) and Grouts: Epoxies are used as
bond coats and grouts due to their excellent adhesive qualities on
cementitious as well as metallicsurface.
III. Structural repairs to concrete: Due to excellent Mechanical
properties and bond characterstics with most of the materials epoxy
mortars/concrete are used to make up the damaged or lost cover
concrete etc.