CHAPTER 2: STEEL

HOW STEEL IS MADE?

Steel is primarily produced using one of two methods: Blast Furnace or Electric
Arc Furnace.
The blast furnace is the first step in producing steel from iron oxides. The first
blast furnaces appeared in the 14th century and produced one ton per day. Even
though equipment is improved, and higher production rates can be achieved, the
processes inside the blast furnace remain the same. The blast furnace uses coke,
iron ore and limestone to produce pig iron.
Coal traditionally has been a key part of the coke-making process. The coal is
crushed and ground into a powder and then charged into an oven where it is
heated to approximately 1800°F in the absence of oxygen. As the oven is
heated, the coal begins to melt so most of the volatile matter such as oil, tar,
hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur are removed. The cooked coal, called coke, is
removed from the oven after 18 to 24 hours of reaction time. The coke is cooled
and screened into pieces ranging from one inch to four inches. The coke is a
porous, hard black rock of concentrated carbon (contains 90 to 93 percent
carbon), which has some ash and sulfur but compared to raw coal is very strong.
The strong pieces of coke with a high energy value provide permeability, heat
and gases which are required to reduce and melt the iron ore, pellets and sinter.
Today, natural gas is increasingly being added in place of coke to the same
degree in the blast furnace to reduce carbon emissions.
The first electric arc furnaces (EAFs)
appeared in the late 19th Century. The
use of EAFs has expanded and now
accounts for over 70 percent of steel
production in the United States. The EAF
is different from the blast furnace as it
produces steel by using an electrical
current to melt scrap steel, direct
reduced iron, and/or pig iron, to produce
molten steel.
IRON-CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM (FIG.1)

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HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
 ANNEALING
 NORMALIZING
 HARDENING
 TEMPERING

1. ANNEALING
The purpose of annealing is to do the opposite of hardening. You anneal
metals to relieve stress, soften the metal, increase ductility, and improve their
grain structures. Without an appropriate preheating stage, welding can lead to a
metal with uneven temperatures, even molten areas next to areas that are at
room temperature. In those circumstances, welding can make the metal weaker:
as the weld gets cooler, internal stresses develop alongside hard and brittle
spots. Annealing is one way to fix common problems like these and relieve
internal stresses.

ANNEALING STEEL
To anneal steels and other ferrous metals to produce the highest level of
ductility, you must heat the metal slowly to the appropriate temperature, soak it,
and then allow it to cool slowly by either burying it in some sort of insulating
material or by simply turning off the furnace and letting both the furnace and the
part cool slowly together. The amount of time you let the metal soak depends on
both its type and its mass. If it’s low-carbon steel, it’ll require the highest
possible annealing temperature and, as the carbon content increases, its
annealing temperature will decrease. For more about annealing, you can review
our guide to annealing for a longer explanation.

2. NORMALIZING
The purpose of normalizing is to remove any internal stresses from heat
treatment, machining, forging, forming, welding, or casting. Metal failure can
result from uncontrolled stress, so normalizing steel before any hardening can
help ensure the success of projects.

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE OF ANNEALING AND NORMALIZING?

Normalizing only applies to ferrous metals like steel. But there’s another
key difference in the heat treatment process: when normalizing, after the metal
is heated to a higher temperature, it is air-cooled after removal from the
furnace. Normalized steel is stronger than annealed steel. With both high
strength and high ductility, it is tougher than annealed steel. If the metal part
needs to withstand impact or have maximum toughness to resist external

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stresses, it is usually recommended that it is normalized rather than annealed.
Since normalized metals are air-cooled, the mass of the metal is a key
determinant of the cooling rate and resulting part’s level of hardness. During
normalization, thinner pieces will cool faster in the air and become harder than
thicker pieces. But, with annealing and its furnace cooling, the hardness of both
thick and thin parts will be comparable.

3. HARDENING

The intent of hardening is not just to harden the steel, but also to make it
stronger. Unfortunately, there aren’t just plusses to hardening. While hardening
does increase strength, it also decreases ductility, making the metal more brittle.
After hardening, you may need to temper the metal to remove some of the
brittleness. To harden most steels, you would use the first two stages of heat
treatment (slow temperature heat followed by soaking by a specified time to a
uniform temperature), the third stage is different. When you harden metals, you
rapidly cool them by plunging them into water, oil, or brine. Most steels require
rapid cooling, called quenching, to be hardened, but there are a few that can be
successfully air-cooled. As alloys are added to steel, the cooling rate that’s
required to harden it decreases. There is a silver lining to this: the slower cooling
rate lessens the risk of either cracking or warping. The hardness of carbon steel
depends on its carbon content: up to .80% carbon, the ability to harden
increases alongside the carbon content. Beyond .80%, you can increase wear
resistance due to hard cementite forming, but you can’t increase hardness. When
you add alloys to steel to increase its hardness, you also increase the carbon’s
ability to harden and strengthen. That means that the carbon content needed to
produce the highest level of hardness is lower in alloyed steels versus plain
carbon steels. As a result, alloy steels typically offer better performance than
plain carbon steels. When carbon steel is hardened, the steel must be cooled to
under 1000°F in less than one second. But, once you add alloys to the steel and
increase the effectiveness of the carbon, you increase that time limit beyond one
second. That allows you to select a slower quenching medium to get the
specified hardness. Typically, carbon steels are quenched in brine or water,
whereas alloy steels are quenched in oil. Unfortunately, quenching is a process
that produces high internal stress and, to relieve the steel, one option is to
temper it. Right before the part becomes cold, you remove it from the quenching
bath at a temperature of 200°F and let it air cool. The range of temperature
from room temperature to 200°F is called the “cracking range,” and you don’t
want the steel in the quenching medium to pass through it. Read on to learn
more about tempering.

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4. TEMPERING

After you harden a metal, whether it’s by the case or flame, and introduce
internal stresses after the rapid cooling inherent in the process, steel is often
both harder than needed and too brittle. The answer may be to temper the steel
to reduce that brittleness and remove or relieve the internal stresses.

During tempering, you:

 Heating steel to a set temperature below its hardening temperature

 Hold the steel at that temperature for a specified period
 Cool the steel, typically in still air

If this sounds familiar, you’re right! Tempering consists of the same three stages
as heat treatment. The main difference is the temperature of tempering and its
effect on hardness, strength, and, of course, ductility.

When you temper a steel part, you reduce the hardness that was caused by
hardening and you develop certain physical properties. Tempering always follows
hardening and, while it reduces brittleness, it also softens steel. Unfortunately,
the softening of steel with tempering is unavoidable. But the amount of hardness
you will lose can be controlled based on the temperature during tempering.
While the other heat treatment processes of annealing, normalizing, and
hardening always include temperatures above the metal’s upper critical point,
tempering is always done at temperatures below it. When reheating steel that’s
been hardened, you start tempering at 212°F and continue until you’re
approaching the low-critical point. To select the hardness and strength you’d like,
you can preset the tempering temperature. The minimum for tempering should
be one hour if the part is less than one inch thick; if it is more than one inch
thick, you can add another hour for each additional inch of thickness. The rate of
cooling from tempering has no effect on most steels. After you remove a steel
part from the tempering furnace, you typically cool it in still air just as you would
in the normalizing process. But, as with all the different heat treatment
processes, there are some differences that are beyond the scope of this blog
post. If you’re interested in tempering, just know that tempering relieves
internal stresses from quenching, reduces brittleness and hardness, and can
increase the tensile strength of hardened steel as it is tempered up to a
temperature of 450°F; beyond 450°F, tensile strength decreases.

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WHAT IS A STEEL ALLOY?

Alloy steel is an iron-based material, which, in addition to carbon, contains one

or more intentionally added elements. The alloying elements are added to the
steel to improve one or more of its physical and/or mechanical properties, such
as: hardness, strength, toughness, high-temperature performance, corrosion
resistance, and wear resistance. These elements typically comprise 1-50 wt% of
the metal’s composition. There are many ways to group alloy steels. They can be
grouped by their major alloying elements (e.g., stainless steels contain
considerable amounts of chromium), or by the percentage of all alloying
elements that the steel contains (e.g., high-alloys steel typically contains more
than 8 % alloying elements, while low-alloy steel has less than 8 %).

What is the composition of alloy steel?

Depending on the desired properties of the material, alloy steel can contain a
wide variety and variable amounts of alloying elements. Each of these elements
is added to enhance some properties of the steel, such as hardness or corrosion
resistance. Typical alloying elements include boron, chromium, molybdenum,
manganese, nickel, silicon, tungsten, and vanadium. Other less common
elements that may be added are aluminum, cobalt, copper, lead, tin, titanium,
and zirconium.
How much carbon in iron steel?
The carbon content of alloy steel will depend on the type of alloy steel used.
Most steels have a carbon content of below 0.35 wt% carbon. Low-carbon steel
designed for welding applications, for example, has a carbon content of below
0.25 wt%, and often, the carbon content is below 0.15 wt%. However, tool
steels are a type of alloy steel with high carbon content, usually between 0.7 and
1.5.
How is iron steel made?
Alloy steel is made by melting the base alloys in an electric furnace at over 1600
°C for 8-12 hours. It is then annealed at over 500 °C to alter the chemical and
physical properties and remove impurities. The mill scale (produced through
annealing) is removed from the surface using hydrofluoric acid. Annealing and
descaling are repeated until the steel is melted. Melted steel is cast for rolling
and shaping into the final form, depending on the required dimensions. In

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general, steel is created using one of two processes: an electric arc furnace
(EAF) or a blast furnace. The blast furnace is the initial process of turning iron
oxides into steel. Pig iron is produced in the blast furnace using coke, iron ore,
and limestone. The EAF differs from the blast furnace in that it creates molten
steel by melting scrap steel, direct reduction iron, and/or pig iron using an
electrical current.

The application of alloy steel is very wide and depends on the type of alloy steel.
Some alloy steels are used to manufacture pipes, particularly those for energy-
related uses. While others are utilized in the production of corrosion-resistant
containers, silverware, pots, pans, and heating components for toasters and
other kitchen equipment. Alloy steels can be divided into two primary categories:
low-alloy steels and high-alloy steels. The application of alloy steels is mainly
determined by the category that they fall into. Low-alloy steels are employed in a
variety of industrial sectors due to their strength, machinability, and affordability.
They can be found in ships, pipelines, pressure vessels, oil drilling platforms,
military vehicles, and construction equipment. High-alloy steels, on the other
hand, can be expensive to produce and challenging to work with. However, they
are perfect for automotive applications, chemical processing, and power
generation equipment due to their high strength, toughness, and corrosion
resistance.

WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OF ALLOY STEEL?

Alloy steel can have a wide range of properties, depending on the specific
alloying elements and the amounts of them added to the steel. Some of the key
properties associated with some alloy steels are high performance, durability,
high strength, good performance under harsh conditions, and corrosion
resistance.

WHAT TEMPERATURE REQUIRED HARDENING STEEL ALLOY?

Not all alloy steels are heat treatable. Examples of alloy steels that cannot be
heat treated include ferrites and austenitic stainless steels. For steel to be
hardenable enough, carbon is needed to harden it. Steels like martensitic steels,
for example, can be hardened to their relatively high carbon content. For alloy
steels that have enough carbon content to be hardened, the temperature
required to harden the alloy steel is usually between 760-1300 °C (depending on
the carbon content). Just like with other types of steel, hardening of alloy steel

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involves controlled heating at critical temperatures followed by a controlled
cooling step.

MAIN TYPES OF ALLOY STEEL:

1. Low-Alloy Steel

Low-alloy steel metals with alloying elements making up less than 8% of the
composition of the metal. These alloying elements are added to improve the
mechanical properties of the steel. For example: molybdenum improves the
strength; nickel increases the metal’s toughness, chromium adds high-
temperature strength, corrosion resistance, and hardness. Low-alloy steel is
widely used in the manufacturing and construction industry. Common uses for
this steel include military vehicles, construction equipment, ships, pipelines,
pressure vessels, structural steel, and oil drilling platforms.

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2. High-Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) Steel

High-strength low alloy (HSLA) steel, or micro alloyed steel, offers both high
strength and good atmospheric corrosion resistance. There are six main
categories of HSLA steel: weathering steel, acicular ferrite steels, pearlite-
reduced steels, dual-phase steels, control-rolled steels, and micro alloyed ferrite-
pearlite steels. Typically, copper, chromium, phosphorus, and silicon are used to
boost corrosion resistance, while vanadium, niobium, titanium, and copper are
used to increase strength. The great strength of HSLA steel can make them
difficult to form. In certain situations, zirconium or calcium are added to make
them easier to form. HSLA is widely used in the automotive industry. Hot-rolled
HSLA steel can be used for suspension systems, chassis, wheels, and seat
mechanisms. Whereas cold-rolled HSLA steel can be used for reinforcements and
seat brackets.

3. High-Alloy Steel

High-alloy steel is distinguished by its high alloy content of more than 8% of the
total composition of the steel. It can be expensive to manufacture high-alloy
steel and it can be challenging to work with. However, these grades are perfect
for automotive applications, structural components, chemical processing, and
power generation equipment due to their hardness, corrosion resistance, and
toughness.

4. Stainless Steel

Stainless steel is one of the most well-known alloy steels and the most corrosion
resistant. It typically has some combination of nickel, chromium, and
molybdenum as major alloying elements, which make up around 11-30 % of the
steel’s composition. Three types of stainless steel exist: austenitic, ferritic, and
martensitic.

Austenitic steels are typically used to contain corrosive liquids and machinery for
the mining, chemical, architectural, or pharmaceutical industries. High quantities
of nickel (up to 35%), molybdenum, chromium (16-26%), and niobium are found
in austenitic steels, with up to 0.15% carbon. Austenitic steels often have the
best corrosion resistance of all stainless steels. These steels also have high
formability and strength and are usually desired for their properties at extreme
temperatures. Ferritic steel, used in industrial machinery and cars, is a grade of
stainless steel with less than 0.10% carbon and more than 12% carbon. This

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grade of steel was developed to resist corrosion and oxidation, more specifically
stress cracking corrosion. These steels are essentially incapable of being
hardened through heat treatment, and they can only be slightly hardened by
cold rolling. Martensitic steels, mostly used for cutlery, have a typical chromium
content of 11.6 to 18% with 1.2 % carbon and nickel sometimes added. As a
group, the highest chromium content of martensitic steels is lower than the
highest chromium content for ferritic and austenitic steels. Martensitic steels are
recognized for their exceptional hardenability with mild corrosion resistance. This
makes them ideal for cutlery, wrenches, surgical instruments, and turbines.

5. Micro alloyed Steel

High-strength low alloy (HSLA) steels are often referred to as micro alloyed
steels.

6. Advanced High-Strength Steel (AHSS)

Advanced high-strength steel (AHSS) is primarily used in the automotive

industry. This metal alloy is a key player in reducing the total weight of vehicles.
It has unique properties, such as: high strength and optimized formability–
making it ideal for automotive applications.

7. Maraging Steel

Maraging steel is a special kind of steel alloy with low carbon content. This ultra-
high-strength steel has superior toughness and good ductility compared to most
steel. In contrast to other steel alloys, maraging steel is hardened by the
precipitation of intermetallic compounds, not by the presence of carbon.
Maraging steel combines high strength and hardness with relatively high ductility
thanks to the lack of carbon and the use of intermetallic precipitation. The
principal precipitate types are Ni3Mo, Ni3Ti, Ni3Al, and Fe2Mo, which also occur
in high-volume fractions. Maraging steels are mainly used in the aerospace
sector as well as the manufacture of tools and weaponry.

8. Tool Steel

Tools steel is a term used to describe a range of carbon and alloy steels that are
well-suited for the production of tools. These steels are distinguished by their
hardness, resistance to wear, toughness, and resistance to softening at high

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temperatures. Tool steel’s ideal application is for tool manufacturing, including
(but not limited to) machine dies and hand tools.

Is Alloy Steel Suitable for Injection Molding?

Yes, alloy steel is suitable for injection molding. Low-alloy steels are one of the
materials used in the injection molding process. Alloy steel grade P20, for
example, is used for molds that are used for common plastics as they do not
cause corrosion or much wear.

 STRUCTURAL STEEL
Structural steel, one of the other widely used building materials in the
construction industry, is also the most studied and best understood. Its behavior
is predictable and is subject to various standards and codes established by
agencies such as the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) that define
its specific shape, cross-section, chemical composition, and mechanical
properties. Steel’s primary purpose in the building industry is to form a skeleton
that holds everything together. Structural steel is mainly used as a reinforcement
material to counter concrete’s low tensile strength and ductility. Ductility is an
important property of structural steel. It allows for the redistribution of stresses
in continuous members and at points of high local stresses, such as at holes or
other discontinuities. As a rule of thumb, although structural steel is always used
below its yield point (in the elastic region), ductility is an important property
because it provides a warning signal before actual failure, thus making the failure
less catastrophic. Structural steel is 100% recyclable and one of the most reused
materials in the world. Steel can be classified as carbon steel, high-strength low-
alloy (HSLA) steel, heat-treated carbon steel, and heat-treated constructional
alloy steel. Structural steel under the prolonged influence of operational factors
such as pressure, temperature, cyclic loads, radiation, and the environment can
lead to embrittlement as a result of thermal aging and fatigue as well as
corrosion damage. This can lead to the degradation of mechanical properties and
eventually failure.

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  REINFORCING BAR
Rebar (short for reinforcing bar),
known when massed as reinforcing
steel or reinforcement steel, is
a steel bar used as a tension device
in reinforced concrete and
reinforced masonry structures to
strengthen and aid the concrete under

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tension. Concrete is strong under compression, but has low tensile strength.
Rebar significantly increases the tensile strength of the structure. Rebar's surface
features a continuous series of ribs, lugs or indentations to promote a better
bond with the concrete and reduce the risk of slippage. The most common type
of rebar is carbon steel, typically consisting of hot-rolled round bars with
deformation patterns embossed into its surface. Steel and concrete have
similar coefficients of thermal expansion, so a concrete structural member
reinforced with steel will experience minimal differential stress as the
temperature changes. Other readily available types of rebar are manufactured
of stainless steel, and composite bars made of glass fiber, carbon fiber, or basalt
fiber. The carbon steel reinforcing bars may also be coated in zinc or an epoxy
resin designed to resist the effects of corrosion, especially when used in
saltwater environments. Bamboo has been shown to be a viable alternative to
reinforcing steel in concrete construction. These alternative types tend to be
more expensive or may have lesser mechanical properties and are thus more
often used in specialty construction where their physical characteristics fulfill a
specific performance requirement that carbon steel does not provide.
 MECHANICAL TESTING OF STEEL
1. TENSILE TESTING
The most frequent method of determining steel’s tensile strength is to place a
test piece in the jaws of a tensile machine. By gradually separating the jaws, the
tensile machine delivers stretching stress. Then, we calculate and record the
time to break the test piece.
2. TORSION TESTING
A torsion test twists the mild steel rod by attaching one end to the machine and
applying a moment to the other end, causing the sample to spin around its axis.
Both ends of the rod can be revolved in opposite directions.
3. CHARPY V NOTCH IMPACT TESTING
The Charpy impact test, also known as the Charpy V-notch test, is a high strain-
rate test that involves striking a standard notched specimen with a controlled
weight pendulum swung from a set height. The impact test helps measure the
amount of energy absorbed by the specimen during fracture.
4. BEND TESTING
In the bend test, the rebar is bend to 180 degrees as per IS 1599 in a mandrel
(Mandrel specification as per IS 1786). Check for cracks or rupture on the
tension side of the bent bar. If there are no such issues, the rebar has passed
the bend test. In the re-bend test, the bar is bending at an angle of 135 degrees.

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5. HARDEN TESTING
The Brinell test was the first broadly utilized standardized steel hardness test. It
requires a large test piece and leaves a considerable space; hence, it is
constrained in its usefulness. Brinelling has come to mean the permanent
indentation of any hard surface.
 WELDING
Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials,
usually metals or thermoplastics, by using high heat to
melt the parts together and allowing them to cool,
causing fusion. Welding is distinct from lower temper
ature techniques such as brazing and soldering, which
do not melt the base metal (parent metal).
In addition to melting the base metal, a filler material
is typically added to the joint to form a pool of molten
material (the weld pool) that cools to form a joint that,
based on weld configuration (butt, full penetration,
fillet, etc.), can be stronger than the base material.
Pressure may also be used in conjunction with heat or
by itself to produce a weld. Welding also requires a
form of shield to protect the filler metals or melted
metals from being contaminated or oxidized.
Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame
(chemical), an electric arc (electrical), a laser, an electron beam, friction, and
ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding may be performed in many
different environments, including in open air, under water, and in outer space.
Welding is a hazardous undertaking and precautions are required to avoid burns,
electric shock, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes, and
exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation. Until the end of the 19th century, the
only welding process was forge welding, which blacksmiths had used for
millennia to join iron and steel by heating and hammering. Arc welding and oxy-
fuel welding were among the first processes to develop late in the century, and
electric resistance welding followed soon after. Welding technology advanced
quickly during the early 20th century as world wars drove the demand for
reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Following the wars, several modern
welding techniques were developed, including manual methods like shielded
metal arc welding, now one of the most popular welding methods, as well as
semi-automatic and automatic processes such as gas metal arc welding,
submerged arc welding, flux-cored arc welding and electroslag welding.
Developments continued with the invention of laser beam welding, electron

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beam welding, magnetic pulse welding, and friction stir welding in the latter half
of the century. Today, as the science continues to advance, robot welding is
commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new
welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld quality.
 STEEL CORROSION
Steel corrosion can be defined as
deterioration due to electrochemical
reactions with the metal and its
environment. Specifically for steel, rusting
occurs when the iron in the metal oxidises.
In most cases, in order for corrosion to
occur, both oxygen and water must be
present.
1. BARRIER COATINGS
One of the easiest and cheapest ways to
prevent corrosion is to use barrier coatings like paint, plastic, or powder.
Powders, including epoxy, nylon, and urethane, adhere to the metal surface to
create a thin film. Plastic and waxes are often sprayed onto metal surfaces. Paint
acts as a coating to protect the metal surface from the electrochemical charge
that comes from corrosive compounds. Today’s paint systems are a combination
of different paint layers that serve different functions. The primer coat acts as an
inhibitor, the intermediate coat adds to the paint’s overall thickness, and the
finish coat provides resistance to environmental factors. The biggest drawback
with coatings is that they often need to be stripped and reapplied. Coatings that
aren’t applied properly can quickly fail and lead to increased levels of corrosion.
Coatings contain volatile organic compounds, which make them hazardous to
people and the environment.
2. HOT-DIP GALVANIZATION
This corrosion prevention method involves dipping steel into molten zinc. The
iron in the steel reacts with zinc to create a tightly bonded alloy coating which
serves as protection. The process has been around for more than 250 years and
has been used for corrosion protection of things like artistic sculptures and
playground equipment. Unfortunately, galvanization can’t be done on-site,
meaning companies must pull equipment out of work to be treated. Some
equipment may simply be too large for the process, forcing companies to
abandon the idea altogether. In addition, zinc can chip or peel. And high

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exposure to environmental elements can speed up the process of zinc wear,
leading to increased maintenance. Lastly, the zinc fumes that are released from
the galvanizing process are highly toxic.
3. ALLOYED STEEL (STAINLESS)
Alloyed steel is one of the most effective corrosion prevention methods around,
combining the properties of various metals to provide added strength and
resistance to the resulting product. Corrosion-resistant nickel, for example,
combined with oxidation-resistant chromium results in an alloy that can be used
in oxidized and reduced chemical environments. Different alloys provide
resistance to different conditions, giving companies greater flexibility. Despite its
effectiveness, alloyed steel is very expensive.
4. CATHODIC PROTECTION
Cathodic protection protects by electrochemical means. To prevent corrosion, the
active sites on the metal surface are converted to passive sites by providing
electrons from another source, typically with galvanic anodes attached on or
near the surface. Metals used for anodes include aluminum, magnesium, or zinc.
While cathodic protection is highly effective, anodes get used up and need to be
checked and/or replaced often which can drive up costs of maintenance. They
also increase the weight of the attached structure and aren’t always effective in
high-resistivity environments.
5. EONCOAT
Choosing the right corrosion prevention for your equipment isn’t easy. Each of
the above methods has its pros and cons. EonCoat is a cost-effective,
maintenance-free, and easily applied solution which protects the life of the asset.
It works by a combination of the above methods. First, it alloys the metal, then
provides a thick layer of inhibitors that will repair any damage to the alloy layer.
EonCoat uses no toxic chemicals and has no VOC’s so it is the most
environmentally friendly solution. Independent testing shows this solution to be
the most effective and long-lasting of all the alternatives. The 30-year warranty
ensures your equipment stays protected.

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CHAPTER 3: ALUMINUM

HOW ALUMINUM IS MADE?

The aluminum production process can be broken down into three stages; first
bauxites, which contain aluminum, are extracted from the ground. Second,
bauxites are processed into alumina or aluminum oxide, and finally in stage
three, pure aluminum is produced using electrolytic reduction, a process in which
aluminum oxide is broken down into its components using electric current. About
4-5 tons of bauxites get processed into 2 tons of alumina from which about 1 ton
of aluminum can be made. There are several minerals available in the world from
which aluminum can be obtained, but the most common raw material is bauxite.
Bauxite is a mineral made up primarily of aluminum oxide mixed with some other
minerals. Bauxite is regarded as high quality if it contains more than 50%
aluminum oxide. There is a lot of variation in bauxites. Structurally they can be
solid and dense or crumbly. The usual color is brick red, flaming red or brown
because of iron oxide. If iron content is low, bauxite can be grey or white. But
yellow, dark green and even multi-colored bauxites with bluish, purple, red and
black strains occur too. About 90% of global bauxite supplies are found in
tropical and subtropical areas, with 73% found in just five countries: Guinea,
Brazil, Jamaica, Australia, and India. Guinea has the largest supply of bauxites,
5.3 billion tons (28.4% of the global supply) and the Guinean bauxites are very
high quality, containing minimal amounts of admixtures. They're also found very
near to the surface, which makes mining them very easy.

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The most common way to mine for bauxites is by using open pit mines. Special
equipment is used to cut one layer after another off the surface, with the rock
then being transported elsewhere for further processing. However, there are
places where aluminum ore has to be mined from deep underground which
require underground mines to be built to get at it. One of the deepest mines is
the Cheremkhovskaya-Deep mine in the Urals in Russia, its shafts run 1550
meters deep.

Aluminum has many favorable characteristics and a wide variety of applications.

The advantages of aluminum are that it:

1. has one-third the density of steel.

2. has good thermal and electrical conductivity.
3. has high strength to weight ratio
4. can be given a hard surface by anodizing and hard coating.
5. Has alloys that are weldable.
6. will not rust.
7. has high reflectivity.
8. can be die cast.
9. is easily machined,
10. has a good formability.
11. is non-magnetic, and
12. is non-toxic
Understanding the Aluminum Alloy Designation System

Aluminum is typically alloyed with different elements to change and improve its
chemical or mechanical properties. As a result, there is a wide range of
combinations of alloying elements available. These are all categorized into a
designation system to help welders make sense of them and choose the
appropriate combination. Here’s what you need to know when it comes to
understanding the aluminum alloy designation system, including wrought and
cast alloy designations and designations for alloys and tempers.

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Wrought Aluminum Alloy Designation System

Wrought alloys have a 4-digit number

system. The first digit (Xxxx) indicates
the principal or major alloying
element, which has been added to the
aluminum alloy and is often used to
describe the aluminum alloy series,
i.e. 1000 series, 2000 series, 3000
series, up to 8000 series (see table 1).

The second single digit (xXxx), if

different from 0, indicates a
modification of the specific alloy, and
the third and fourth digits (xxXX) are
arbitrary numbers given to identify a
specific alloy in the series. For
instance, In alloy 5183, the number 5 indicates that it is of the magnesium alloy
series, the 1 indicates that it is the 1st modification to the original alloy 5083,
and the 83 identifies it in the 5xxx series. The only exception to this alloy
numbering system is with the 1xxx series aluminum alloys (pure aluminums). In
this case, the last 2 digits provide the minimum aluminum percentage above
99%, i.e. Alloy 1350 (99.50% minimum aluminum).

Cast Aluminum Alloy Designation

System

The cast alloy designation system is

based on a 3 digit-plus decimal
designation xxx.x (i.e. 356.0). The first
digit (Xxx.x) indicates the principal
alloying element, which has been added
to the aluminum alloy (see table 2).

The second and third digits (xXX.x) are

arbitrary numbers given to identify a
specific alloy in the series. The number
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following the decimal point indicates whether the alloy is a casting (.0) or an
ingot (.1 or .2). A capital letter prefix indicates a modification to a specific alloy.
For example, Alloy - A356.0 the capital A (Axxx.x) indicates a modification of
alloy 356.0. The number 3 (A3xx.x) indicates that it is of the silicon plus copper
and/or magnesium series. The 56 (Ax56.0) identifies the alloy within the 3xx.x
series, and the .0 (Axxx.0) indicates that it is a final shape casting and not an
ingot.

The Aluminum Temper Designation System

There are considerable differences in the characteristics and consequent

application of each series. For instance, there are two distinctly different types of
aluminum within the series mentioned above. These are the Heat-Treatable
Aluminum alloys (those which can gain strength through the addition of heat)
and the Non-Heat Treatable Aluminum alloys. The 1xxx, 3xxx, and 5xxx series
wrought aluminum alloys are non-heat-treatable and are strain hardenable only.
The 2xxx, 6xxx, and 7xxx series wrought aluminum alloys are heat treatable and
the 4xxx series consist of both heat treatable and non-heat-treatable alloys. The
2xx.x, 3xx.x, 4xx.x, and 7xx.x series cast alloys are heat treatable. Strain
hardening is not generally applied to castings. The heat-treatable alloys acquire
their optimum mechanical properties through a process of thermal treatment, the
most common being solution heat treatment, and artificial aging. Solution heat
treatment is the process of heating the alloy to an elevated temperature (around
990 Deg. F) to put the alloying elements or compounds into solution. This is
followed by quenching, usually in water, to produce a supersaturated solution at
room temperature. Solution heat treatment is usually followed by aging. Aging is
the precipitation of a portion of the elements or compounds from a
supersaturated solution in order to yield desirable properties. The aging process
is divided into two types: aging at room temperature, or “natural aging,” and
aging at elevated temperatures, or “artificial aging.” Artificial aging temperatures
are typically about 320 Deg. F. Many heat treatable aluminum alloys are used for
welding fabrication in their solution, heat-treated, and artificially aged conditions.
The non-heat-treatable alloys acquire their optimum mechanical properties
through strain hardening. Strain hardening is the method of increasing strength
through the application of cold working. The Temper Designation System (see
Table 3) addresses the material conditions, called tempers. The Temper

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Designation System is an extension of the alloy numbering system and consists
of a series of letters and numbers which follow the alloy designation number and
are connected by a hyphen. Examples: 6061-T6, 6063-T4, 5052-H32, 5083-
H112.

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TEMPER TREATMENTS

The mechanical properties of aluminum are greatly altered by both heat

treatment and strain hardening. Therefore, specification of an aluminum material
must include how the product was tempered. The processes described in table 3
define the types of tempering aluminum products undergo. Aluminum alloy used
for structural applications are classified as being either heat treatable or not.
Non-heat treatable or “common” alloys contain elements that remain
substantially in solid solution or that form insoluble constituents. Thus heat
treatment does not influence their mechanical properties. The properties of those
alloy is dependent on the amount of cold working introduced after annealing.
Heat treatable or “strong” alloys contain elements, groups of elements, or
constituents that have a considerable solid solubility at elevated temperatures
and limited solubility at lower temperatures. The strength of these alloys is
increased and primarily by heat treatment.

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Aluminum testing and properties

Test performed on aluminum are similar

to those describe for steel. These
typically include stress-strain tensile tests
to determine elastic modulus, yield
strength, ultimate strength, and percent
elongation. In contrast to steel,
aluminum alloys do not display an upper
and lower yield point. Instead the stress-
strain curve is linear up to the
proportional limit and then is a smooth
curve up to the ultimate strength. Yield strength is defined based on the 0.20%
strain offset method, as shown on the figure:

WELDING AND FASTENING

Aluminum pieces can be joined either by welding or by using fasteners. Welding

requires that the tough oxide coating on aluminum be broken and kept from
reforming during welding, so are welding is generally performed in the presence
of inert gas that shields the weld from oxygen in the atmosphere. The two
common processes by which aluminum is welded are gas metal arc welding,
GMAW, and gas tungsten arc welding, GTAW. In the GMAW process the filter
wire also serves as the electrode. GTAW uses a tungsten electrode and a
separate filler wire. Welding can alter the tempering of the aluminum in the area
of the weld.

CORROSION

Aluminum develops a thin oxidation layer immediately upon exposure to the

atmosphere. This tough oxide film protects the surface from further oxidation.
The alloying elements alter the corrosion resistance of the aluminum. The alloys
used for airplanes are usually given extra protection by painting or “cladding”
with a thin coat of a corrosion-resistant alloy. Painting is generally not needed for
medium strength alloys used for structural application.

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CHAPTER 4: AGGREGATES

WHAT IS A CONSTRUCTION AGGREGATES?

Construction aggregate, or simply

aggregate, is a broad category of
course- to medium-grained
particulate material used in
construction, including sand, gravel,
crushed stone, slag, recycled
concrete and geosynthetic
aggregates. Aggregates are the
most mined materials in the world.
Aggregates are a component of
composite materials such as concrete and asphalt; the aggregate serves as
reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite material. Due to the
relatively high hydraulic conductivity value as compared to most soils,
aggregates are widely used in drainage applications such as foundation and
French drains, septic drain fields, retaining wall drains, and roadside edge drains.
Aggregates are also used as base material under foundations, roads, and
railroads. In other words, aggregates are used as a stable foundation or road/rail
base with predictable, uniform properties (e.g. to help prevent differential
settling under the road or building), or as a low-cost extender that binds with
more expensive cement or asphalt to form concrete. Although most kinds of
aggregate require a form of binding agent, there are types of self-binding
aggregate which do not require any form of binding agent. In Europe, sizing
ranges are specified as d/D, where the d shows the smallest and D shows the
largest square mesh grating that the particles can pass. Application-specific
preferred sizing are covered in European Standard EN 13043 for road
construction, EN 13383 for larger amour stone, EN 12620 for concrete
aggregate, EN 13242 for base layers of road construction, and EN 13450 for
railway ballast. The American Society for Testing and Materials publishes an
exhaustive listing of specifications including ASTM D 692 and ASTM D 1073 for
various construction aggregate products, which, by their individual design, are
suitable for specific construction purposes. These products include specific types

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of course and fine aggregate designed for such uses as additives to asphalt and
concrete mixes, as well as other construction uses. State transportation
departments further refine aggregate material specifications to tailor aggregate
use to the needs and available supply in their particular locations. Sources for
these basic materials can be grouped into three main areas: mining of mineral
aggregate deposits, including sand, gravel, and stone; use of waste slag from
the manufacture of iron and steel; and recycling of concrete, which is itself
chiefly manufactured from mineral aggregates. In addition, there are some
(minor) materials that are used as specialty lightweight aggregates: clay,
pumice, perlite, and vermiculite.

MODERN PRODUCTION

The advent of modern blasting

methods enabled the development
of quarries, which are now used
throughout the world, wherever
competent bedrock deposits of
aggregate quality exist. In many
places, good limestone, granite,
marble or other quality stone
bedrock deposits do not exist. In
these areas, natural sand and
gravel are mined for use as
aggregate. Where neither stone, nor sand and gravel, are available, construction
demand is usually satisfied by shipping in aggregate by rail, barge or truck.
Additionally, demand for aggregates can be partially satisfied through the use of
slag and recycled concrete. However, the available tonnages and lesser quality of
these materials prevent them from being a viable replacement for mined
aggregates on a large scale. Large stone quarry and sand and gravel operations
exist near virtually all population centers due to the high cost of transportation
relative to the low value of the product. A truck aggregate more than 40
kilometers is typically uneconomical. These are capital-intensive operations,
utilizing large earth-moving equipment, belt conveyors, and machines specifically
designed for crushing and separating various sizes of aggregate, to create
distinct product stockpiles. According to the USGS, 2006 U.S. crushed stone

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production was 1.72 billion tons valued at $13.8 billion (compared to 1.69 billion
tons valued at $12.1 billion in 2005), of which limestone was 1,080 million tons
valued at $8.19 billion from 1,896 quarries, granite was 268 million tons valued
at $2.59 billion from 378 quarries, traprock was 148 million tons valued at $1.04
billion from 355 quarries, and the balance other kinds of stone from 729
quarries. Limestone and granite are also produced in large amounts as
dimension stone. The great majority of crushed stone is moved by heavy truck
from the quarry/plant to the first point of sale or use. According to the USGS,
2006 U.S. sand and gravel production was 1.32 billion tons valued at $8.54
billion (compared to 1.27 billion tons valued at $7.46 billion in 2005), of which
264 million tons valued at $1.92 billion was used as concrete aggregates. The
great majority of this was again done by truck, instead of by electric train.
Currently, total U.S. aggregate demand by final market sector was 30%–35% for
non-residential building (offices, hotels, stores, manufacturing plants,
government and institutional buildings, and others), 25% for highways, and 25%
for housing.

RECYCLED MATERIAL

Recycled material such as blast

furnace and steel furnace slag can be
used as aggregate or partly
substitute for Portland cement. Blast
furnace and steel slag is either air-
cooled or water-cooled. Air-cooled
slag can be used as aggregate. Water-cooled slag produces sand-sized glass-like
particles (granulated). Adding free lime to the water during cooling gives
granulated slag hydraulic cementitious properties. In 2006, according to the
USGS, air-cooled blast furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was 7.3 million tons
valued at $49 million, granulated blast furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was
4.2 million tons valued at $318 million, and steel furnace slag sold or used in the
U.S. was 8.7 million tons valued at $40 million. Air-cooled blast furnace slag sales
in 2006 were for use in road bases and surfaces (41%), asphaltic concrete
(13%), ready-mixed concrete (16%), and the balance for other uses. Granulated
blast furnace slag sales in 2006 were for use in cementitious materials (94%),
and the balance for other uses. Steel furnace slag sales in 2006 were for use in

25 | P a g e
road bases and surfaces (51%), asphaltic concrete (12%), for fill (18%), and the
balance for other uses. Recycled glass aggregate crushed to a small size is
substituted for many construction and utility projects in place of pea gravel or
crushed rock. Glass aggregate is not dangerous to handle. It can be used as pipe
bedding—placed around sewer, storm water or drinking water pipes to transfer
weight from the surface and protect the pipe. Another common use is as fill to
bring the level of a concrete floor even with a foundation. Use of glass aggregate
helps close the loop in glass recycling in many places where glass cannot be
smelted into new glass. Aggregates themselves can be recycled as aggregates.
Recyclable aggregate tends to be concentrated in urban areas. The supply of
recycled aggregate depends on physical decay and demolition of structures.
Mobile recycling plants eliminate the cost of transporting the material to a central
site. The recycled material is typically of variable quality. Many aggregate
products are recycled for other industrial purposes. Contractors save on disposal
costs and less aggregate is buried or piled and abandoned. In Bay City, Michigan,
for example, a recycle program exists for unused products such as mixed
concrete, block, brick, gravel, pea stone, and other used materials.[citation
needed] The material is crushed to provide subbase for roads and driveways,
among other purposes. According to the USGS in 2006, 2.9 million tonnes of
Portland cement concrete (including aggregate) worth $21.9 million was
recycled, and 1.6 million tonnes of asphalt concrete (including aggregate) worth
$11.8 million was recycled, both by crushed stone operations. Much more of
both materials are recycled by construction and demolition firms not included in
the USGS survey. For sand and gravel, the survey showed that 4.7 million tonnes
of cement concrete valued at $32.0 million was recycled, and 6.17 million tonnes
of asphalt concrete valued at $45.1 million was recycled. Again, more of both
materials are recycled by construction and demolition firms not in this USGS
survey. The Construction Materials Recycling Association indicates that there are
325 million tonnes of recoverable construction and demolition materials produced
annually.

Organic materials

Many geosynthetic aggregates are made from recycled materials. Recyclable

plastics can be reused in aggregates. For example, Ring Industrial Group's
EZflow[6] product lines are produced with geosynthetic aggregate pieces that

26 | P a g e
are more than 99.9% recycled polystyrene. This polystyrene, otherwise destined
for a landfill, is gathered, melted, mixed, reformulated and expanded to create
low density aggregates that maintain high strength properties under compressive
loads. Such geosynthetic aggregates replace conventional gravel while
simultaneously increasing porosity, increasing hydraulic conductivity and
eliminating the fine dust "fines" inherent to gravel aggregates which otherwise
serve to clog and disrupt the operation of many drainage applications. Several
groups have attempted to use minced tires as part of concrete aggregate. The
result is tougher than regular concrete, because it can bend instead of breaking
under pressure. However, tires reduce compressive strength partially because
the cement bonds poorly with the rubber. Pores in the rubber fill with water
when the concrete is mixed, but become voids as the concrete sets. One group
put the concrete under pressure as it sets, reducing pore volumes.

Recycled aggregates in the UK

Recycled aggregate in the UK results from the processing of construction

material. To ensure the aggregate is inert, it is manufactured from material
tested and characterised under European Waste Codes. In 2008, 210 million
tonnes of aggregate were produced including 67 million tonnes of recycled
product, according to the Quarry Products Association. The Waste and Resource
Action Programme has produced a Quality Protocol for the regulated production
of recycled aggregates.

GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

TYPES OF NATURAL AGGREGATES;

According to origin:

Igneous – rocks formed originally by cooling from a molten mass and are
commonly found in areas of former volcanic activity. Examples of materials of
igneous origin are granite, basalt, diorite, gabbro, peridotite and diabase.

Sedimentary – stratified rocks formed from sediments deposited for the most
part underwater but occasionally as the result of wind action. Limestone,

27 | P a g e
dolomite, shale, sandstone, chert, conglomerate, and breccia are rocks of
sedimentary origin.

Metamorphic – rocks that may have igneous or sedimentary origins but, as a

result of prolonged intense pressure over geologic times, have been altered or
metamorphosed into rocks with significantly different properties. Examples of
these materials are gneiss, schist, amphibolite, slate, quartzite, marble, and
anthracite.

According to density or weight:

Lightweight aggregate – These are aggregates used to make concrete with a

density range from 160 kg/cu.m. to 1920 kg/cu.m, and a compressive strength
range from 2,500 psi to 6,000 psi. Concrete produced from this type of
aggregates are used as:

 walls, dividers, or in any non-load-bearing structural parts

 heat insulation
 toppings or masonry
 aquifers for rooftop gardens, and
 nailing concrete.

Lightweight natural aggregates include volcanic cinders, scoria, pumice,

diatomite, coquina, and perlite.

Normal weight aggregates – The density of concrete using normal-weight

aggregates ranges from 2.2 mt/cu.m. to 2.9 mt/cu.m., and these aggregates are
commonly used in all types of general construction. When not particularly
specified, the term aggregates usually refer to this type of material. Gravel-sized
materials derived from igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks are
generally normal weight aggregates.

Heavyweight aggregates – These aggregates are characterized by a concrete

density ranging from 2.9 mt/cu.m. to 3.6 mt/cu.m. Concrete produced with this
type of aggregates are used as nuclear or radiation shielding, as counterweights
in movable bridges, and submerged pipelines for gas, air, liquids, and as wear-

28 | P a g e
resistant flooring in heavy-industrial factories. Heavy-weight aggregates are
usually derived from magnetite, barite, and scrap iron.

According to size:

Coarse Aggregates – Materials bigger than 4.75 mm (No. 4 sieve) are

considered coarse. They are classified further into their more specific dimensions
such as:

1) Boulders – rock fragments with an average dimension of 12 inches or more.

These are used for massive backfill, filter beds, soil stabilization, massive
foundations, dams, dikes, embankments, etc.

2) Cobbles – aggregates with average dimensions from 3 inches to 12 inches.

Used for embankments, backfills, foundations, dikes, soil stabilization of smaller
magnitudes, backfill, ripraps, canal linings, decorative units, etc.

3) Gravel – includes sizes from 3 in. down to that retained in a No. 4 (4.75 mm.)
sieve. These are used as ingredients for concrete and asphalt, pre-cast concrete,
base and sub-base courses for roads, granular bedding, filler, railroad ballast,
ornaments, etc.

Fine Aggregates or Sand – These are particles that pass the No. 4 (4.75 mm)
sieve and be retained on a No. 200 (75 micron) sieve and are used as a vital
ingredient for concrete and asphalt mixes, pavement seal coat, sand bedding,
fairways sand cap, masonry, etc. These are commercially known as S-1, S-3,
manufactured sand, natural sand, or white sand.

Silts and clays – Materials that pass the No. 200 (75 micron) sieve size and
below and are distinguished from one another more by their ability to exhibit
plasticity when wet. Some coarser silt are tolerated in aggregates, but clays are
undesirable. Presently, in the construction industry, aggregates are prescribed by
their sizes and whether they are “manufactured” or natural.

Manufactured Aggregates – Aggregates from substantial deposits (such as

mountains), which are extracted through quarrying and processed to be of
commercial value.

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Natural aggregates – Those which need only be removed from their natural
deposits as unconsolidated sediments (gravel, sand, stone from the river).
Other classifications:
Aggregates are also classified according to their shape (angular, cubical,
rounded, flat, flaky elongated), their surface texture (smooth, rough), and their
applications. However, these are usually included in the aggregate quality
considerations.
Particle Shape and Surface Texture
Aggregate particle shape and surface texture are important for proper
compaction, deformation resistance, and workability. However, the ideal shape
for HMA and PCC is different because aggregates serve different purposes in
each material. In HMA, since aggregates are relied upon to provide stiffness and
strength by interlocking with one another, cubic angular-shaped particles with a
rough surface texture are best. However, in PCC, where aggregates are used as
an inexpensive high-strength material to occupy volume, workability is the major
issue regarding particle shape. Therefore, in PCC rounded particles are better.
Relevant particle shape/texture characteristics are discussed below.
Particle Shape
Rounded particles create less particle-to-particle interlock than angular particles
and thus provide better workability and easier compaction. However, in HMA less
interlock is generally a disadvantage as rounded aggregate will continue to
compact, shove and rut after construction. Thus angular particles are desirable
for HMA (despite their poorer workability), while rounded particles are desirable
for PCC because of their better workability (although particle smoothness will not
appreciably affect strength) (PCA, 1988[1]).
Flat or Elongated Particles
These particles tend to impede compaction or break during compaction and thus,
may decrease strength.
Smooth-Surfaced Particles
These particles have a lower surface-to-volume ratio than rough-surfaced
particles and thus may be easier to coat with binder. However, in HMA asphalt
tends to bond more effectively with rough-surfaced particles, and in PCC rough-
surfaced particles provide more area to which the cement paste can bond. Thus,
rough-surface particles are desirable for both HMA and PCC.

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Test Methods
There are several common tests used to identify and quantify aggregate particle
shape and surface texture. Among the most popular are:
 Particle index
 Percent fractured face (or coarse aggregate angularity)
 Fine aggregate angularity
 Flat and Elongated Particles
Other tests, using automated machines equipped with video cameras and lasers
are under development.
Durability and Soundness
The soundness test determines an aggregate’s resistance to disintegration by
weathering and, in particular, freeze-thaw cycles. Aggregates that are durable
(resistant to weathering) are less likely to degrade in the field and cause
premature HMA pavement distress and potentially, failure. The soundness test
repeatedly submerges an aggregate sample in a sodium sulfate or magnesium
sulfate solution. This process causes salt crystals to form in the aggregate’s
water permeable pores. The formation of these crystals creates internal forces
that apply pressure on aggregate pores and tend to break the aggregate (Figure
1). After a specified number of submerging and drying repetitions, the aggregate
is sieved to determine the percent loss of material.
The formation of salt crystals is supposed to mimic the formation of ice crystals
in the field and could therefore be used as a surrogate to predict an aggregate’s
freeze-thaw performance.
The standard soundness test is:
 AASHTO T 104 and ASTM C 88: Soundness of Aggregate by Use of Sodium
Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate
Background
Aggregates must be resistant to breakdown and disintegration from weathering
(wetting/drying and freezing/thawing) or they may break apart and cause
premature pavement distress. Durability and soundness are terms typically given
to an aggregate’s weathering resistance characteristic.
Typical Soundness Tests
There are several tests for aggregate soundness used in the U.S. These tests,
described in decending order of popularity, are briefly described here.
Sulfate Soundness (Figure 1)

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This test, described in the Test Description section, subjects aggregate samples
to repeated imersion in either sodium sulfate or magnesium sulfate solution. Salt
crystals that form during this test are intended to mimic ice crystals formed in
the normal water freeze-thaw process in the field. Wu, Parker and Kandhal
(1998[1]) report that just over half of the states have a sodium sulfate
soundness requirement, while about one-fifth have a magnesium sulfate
soundness requirement.
Issues with Sufate Soundness Tests
In general, sulfate soundness tests can serve as a useful first evaulation of a
particular aggregate or as a confirming test for an aggregate with a long test and
performance record. However, issues with applicability, variability and relation to
actual performance prevent the test from being meaningful beyond this:
Applicability. While aggregates used in unbound base courses usually contain
small amounts of water (usually 0.1 to 3 percent by weight), aggregates used in
HMA usually do not contain appreciable water because they are dried during
production and are, if incorporated in a proper HMA mix design, coated with a
waterproofing film of asphalt binder (Roberts et al., 1996[2]). Therefore, while
freezing and thawing conditions may be important to unbound base course
aggregate, they may not be of concern to aggregate used in HMA. There is some
question as to whether or not soundness tests are applicable to HMA. Despite
this, they seem to be at least somewhat capable of differentiating between poor
performing and well performing HMA pavement aggregate (Wu, Parker and
Kandhal, 1998[1]).
Variability. Testing variability is poor for both the sodium and magnesium
sulfate tests (it is worse for the sodium sulfate test). The coefficient of variation
for the sodium sulfate soundness test is 41% for tests done in different
laboratories meaning that it is unlikely two different laboratories will closely
agree on test results. The implication is that soundness testing should be done in
one central laboratory where close control over testing elements like
temperature, timing controls, types of containers and sieving methods can be
maintained (Meininger, 2002).
Relation to HMA Pavement Performance. The sodium and magnesium
sulfate tests have been widely criticized and many reports exist which describe
their inability to accurately predict field performance for specific aggregates
(Roberts, et al., 1996[2]). For instance, some aggregates containing carbonates

32 | P a g e
of calcium or magnesium are chemically attacked by the sulfate solution resulting
in erroneously high measured losses (Meininger, 2002).
Freezing and Thawing Soundness
This test, specified in AASHTO T 103, is similar to the sulfate soundess tests,
however it uses actual freeze-thaw cycles with water or a weak ethyl alcohol –
water solution. Wu, Parker and Kandhal (1998[1]) report that about 10 percent
of states have a freeze-thaw soundness requirement.
Aggregate Durability Index
This test, specified in AASHTO T 210, measures the relative resistance of an
aggregate to produce detrimental clay-like fines when subjected to mechanical
methods of degradation (AASHTO, 2000b[4]). It is not widely used; its chief use
has been by western states to identify weathered basalt containing interstitial
montmorillonite, which will not maintain strength when used as unbound
aggregate base (Wu, Parker and Kandhal, 1998[1]).
Test Description
The following is a brief summary of the test. It is not a complete procedure and
should not be used to perform the test. The complete test procedure can be
found in:
 AASHTO T 104 and ASTM C 88: Soundness of Aggregate by Use of Sodium
Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate
TOUGHNESS
Toughness of aggregates is defined as the ability to resist impact loading. The
aggregate impact value test on aggregate is used to determine the toughness of
the aggregates. In this test, aggregate sample is subjected to 15 blows by a
metallic hammer of mass 14 kg and a free fall height of 38 cm.
ABRASION
Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates. The
principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to
relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive
charge.
HARDNESS
Aggregate hardness is a variable needed to investigate in determining its effect
on the critical stress intensity factors (KIC), dissipated fracture energy (Gf) and
compressive strength (fc') of the concrete.
RESISTANCE

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The resistance of an aggregate to sudden compressive forces is called impact
value.
ABSORPTION
Aggregate absorption is the increase in mass due to water in the pores of the
material. Aggregate absorption is a useful quality because: High values can
indicate non-durable aggregate. Absorption can indicate the amount of asphalt
binder the aggregate will absorb.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in construction ranges from
about 2.5 to 3.0 with an average value of about 2.68. 2. Specific gravity of
aggregates is considered as an indication of strength.
AGGREGATE MODULUS
In relation to biomechanics, the aggregate modulus (Ha) is a measurement of
the stiffness of a material at equilibrium when fluid has ceased flowing through
it. The aggregate modulus can be calculated from Young's modulus (E) and the
Poisson ratio (v).
STRENGTH OF AGGREGATE
The aggregate strength is usually not a factor except in lightweight and high
strength concrete. However, aggregate characteristics other than strength, such
as the size, shape, surface texture, grading and mineralogy are known to affect
concrete strength in varying degrees.
GRADATION OF AGGREGATES
The particle size distribution of an aggregate as determined by sieve analysis is
termed as gradation of aggregates. If all the particles of an aggregate are of
uniform size, the compacted mass will contain more voids whereas aggregate
comprising particles of various sizes will give a mass with lesser voids.The
particle size distribution of a mass of aggregate should be such that the smaller
particles fill the voids between the larger particles. The proper grading of an
aggregate produces dense concrete and needs less quantity of fine aggregate
and cement waste, therefore, it is essential that coarse and fine aggregates be
well graded to produce quality concrete. Grading limits and maximum aggregate
size are specified because these properties affect the amount of aggregate used
as well as cement and water requirements, workability, pumpability, and
durability of concrete. In general, if the water-cement ratio is chosen correctly, a
wide range in grading can be used without a major effect on strength.

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HANDLING AGGREGATES
 Do not heap different sizes of aggregates in such a way that they overflow
into each other. This can cause different sized aggregates to get mixed,
making it difficult to obtain the expected mix design.
 Keep the aggregate piles covered with plastic sheets or tarpaulin.
 Store the aggregates on clean, hard ground away from trees to avoid
contamination
Aggregate Sampling
 Aggregate sampling is the process of taking a sample of aggregate that is
truly representative of the nature and condition of the aggregate in the
stockpile. The size of the field sample is large to ensure that it is truly
representative. Special effort must be made to ensure that the sample is
not skewed by the effects of segregation. The required size of the field
sample and the sampling procedures are specified in ASTM D75.
 Obtaining unbiased field samples from stockpiles is notoriously difficult,
but it can be done with care and attention to detail. A bucket loader makes
the process easier and assures a more representative sample. The loader
can quickly extract material from a number of locations and elevations in
the pile then combine and mix the portions in a smaller pile for direct
sampling.
 If you need to sample a stockpile manually, start at the top and take at
least three samples from the top, middle and bottom of the pile. Remove
and discard the surface material and collect the samples from the
underlying material with a shovel or scoop. Pushing a board into the uphill
side of the sampling point prevents additional material from falling into the
sampling area.

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CHAPTER 5: PORTLAND CEMENT
Portland cement
Is a complex product obtained from unprocessed common natural materials:
limestone and clay. Consequently, the characteristics of Portland cement clinker
may vary from one cement plant to another. To limit the variations of the
technological properties of Portland cement, acceptance standards have been
developed, but presently these standards are not satisfactory for the whole
concrete market. Low w/c cements are increasingly used; these concretes are
made using large dosage of super plasticizers to disperse cement particles. It is
therefore urgent for the cement industry to produce a clinker that will facilitate
the production of the low w/c concretes that are more sustainable than normal-
strength concretes. The production of the old Type I/II clinker must continue to
satisfy the needs of this very profitable market, because now that we know how
to increase concrete compressive strength, it is very important that we focus on
how to improve the rheology of these concretes in order to transform concrete
into a quasi-liquid material that can be poured without any problem.
Portland cement is the main cementitious component of foamed concrete. It has
been used at dosages varying from as high as 1400 kg/m3 to as low as 75
kg/m3 but in practice, usually between 300 and 500 kg/m3 (ACI 523.1R-06,
2006; British Cement Association, 1994; Jones & McCarthy, 2005b; Papayianni &
Milud, 2005). In addition to normal Portland cement, rapid hardening Portland
cement, high alumina cement and calcium sulfoaluminate cements have also
been used in foamed concrete to reduce its setting time and improve the early
strength (Jones & McCarthy, 2005b). Using geocements and alkaline Portland
cement is reported to improve the fire resistance of foamed concrete (Krivenko,
Kovalchuk, & Kovalchuk, 2005). Portland cement consists of four major clinker
compounds, C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF together with the gypsum added during
grinding. The relative
portions of these
compounds can be
changed to optimize
specific properties of the
cement (discussed in more
detail below). Table 2
shows typical compound
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compositions, which are calculated assuming (incorrectly) ideal stoichiometries
and chemical equilibrium in the kiln (the Bogue calculation). All the clinker
compounds form solid solutions with small amounts of every element that is in a
clinker. In addition to the four major oxides, MgO, K2O, and Na2O are ubiquitous
impurities in most raw materials. Impure C3S is called alite: it reacts more rapidly
with water than does pure C2S. C2S exists as four major polymorphs: γ, β, α′,
and α. At ambient temperatures, the nonhydraulic γ polymorph is
thermodynamically stable but, in cement, impurities stabilize the hydraulic β
polymorph. Impure C3A contains considerable quantities (∼10 mol.%) of iron,
which may make it less reactive than the pure compound. High levels of sodium
substitution modify its crystal structure from orthorhombic to cubic with a
corresponding decrease in reactivity.
C4AF does not have an exact stoichiometry; continuous solid solution between A
and F allows its composition to vary from about C6A2F to C6AF2. For this reason
C4AF is usually called the ferrite phase. Although in many cements the
composition of the ferrite phase is close to C4AF, in those that have very low
C3A contents, the composition is closer to C6AF2. As the iron content increases,
the reactivity of the ferrite phase decreases. It is the ferrite phase that gives
cement its color: when MgO is present in the ferrite phase, it becomes black and
the cement gray. If the MgO content is low, or if the ferrite phase contains
appreciable ferrous iron (due to a reducing atmosphere in the kiln), the cement
is browner. In addition, crystalline MgO (periclase) is present in most clinkers,
typically in the range 2–4 wt.%. There are limits placed on the amount of MgO,
because its slow hydration can cause disruptive expansions in the hardened
paste. In clinkers that are produced using high sulfur coal as a fuel, alkali
sulfates, such as KS̄ or C2KS̄ 3 sometimes occur; these compounds may affect
setting behavior and can lower the 28-day strength. Cements can be classified
according to the ASTM types given in Table 2. These classifications are based
mostly on performance, not composition, although in general cements of the
same type have broadly similar compositions. Over 90% of all Portland cement
made in the USA is type I. When higher strength is required at early ages (1–3
days) a type III can be used. This is more finely ground so that its overall
hydration is faster. Type IV cement can be used to avoid thermal cracking in
mass concrete, by lowering the heat of hydration and hence the internal
temperature of the mass but are no longer manufactured in the US. In the
presence of high concentrations of sulfates in ground waters or soils, the
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hydration products of C3A may undergo further reactions that result in disruptive
expansion. The resistance of concrete to sulfate attack can be improved by
lowering the C3A content in a type V cement. Type II cement has properties
intermediate between those of type I and type V.
Aside from the five ASTM types of Portland cement, other special cements are
available. Blended cements, containing reactive siliceous materials (pozzolans),
or hydraulic slags mixed with type I, are used in most countries as alternatives to
types IV and V. On hydration, they form more C–S–H and less calcium
hydroxide. Expansive cements are modified Portland cements that counteract the
effects of drying shrinkage by forming large amounts of ettringite to generate
restrained expansion. Some special cements use ettringite to provide high early
strength. Masonry cements and oil-well cements are Portland cements, modified
to optimize the special requirements of these applications. Calcium aluminates
(high-alumina cements) are used principally for refractory concretes. They
cannot be used for structural purposes because of potential strength loss during
service. Magnesium oxychloride (Sorel) cements can be used only for interior
applications because they do not resist moisture.
Types of Cement and What They Do
Portland cement is a type of cement, not a brand name. Many cement
manufacturers make portland cement. To find what concrete is made of and to
learn about concrete mix designs, admixtures, and water-to-cement ratios, read
our section “What Is Concrete”.
Type 1—Normal portland cement. Type 1 is a general use cement.
Type 2—Used for structures in water or soil containing moderate amounts of
sulfate, or when heat buildup is a concern.
Type 3—High-early strength. Used when high strengths are desired at very early
periods.
Type 4—Low-heat portland cement. Used where the amount and rate of heat
generation must be kept to a minimum.
Type 5—Sulfate-resistant portland cement. Used where the water or soil is high
in alkali.
Types IA, IIA, and IIIA are cements used to make air-entrained concrete. They
have the same properties as types I, II, have small quantities of air-entrained
materials combined with them.

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These are very short descriptions of the basic types of cement. There are other
types for various purposes such as masonry cements, just to name two
examples.
Your ready-mix company will know what the requirements are for your area and
for your particular use. Simply ask the of cement is and if that will work for your
conditions.
FINENESS OF PORTLAND CEMENT
Fineness or particle size of Portland cement affects hydration rate and thus the
rate of strength gain. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area-
to-volume ratio, and thus, the more area available for water-cement interaction
per unit volume.
The fineness of cement has an important bearing on the rate of hydration and
hence on the rate of gain of strength and also on the rate of evolution of heat.
Finer cement offers a greater surface area for hydration and hence faster the
development of strength.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity is normally used in mixture proportioning calculations. The
specific gravity of portland cement is generally around 3.15 while the specific
gravity of portland-blast-furnace-slag and portland-pozzolan cements may have
specific gravities near 2.90.
HYDRATION OF PORTLAND CEMENT
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) hydration involves mechanisms of dissolution
and precipitation in a complex chemical system composed of different mineral
phases, resulting in the formation of different hydrates. This leads to the setting
and the hardening.
Importance of Hydration of Cement
It binds the aggregates together. Anhydrous cement (unhydrated cement) does
not bind with fine or coarse aggregates. Adhesive property is gained by cement
only after hydration. Hydration products discussed later on in this article possess
this adhesive property.
STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT IN CEMENT PASTE
The development of structure in the cement paste was assessed by measuring
the cement paste electrical resistivity, setting time, and compressive strength
and using scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

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VOIDS IN HYDRATED CEMENT
1. Capillary Voids
The smallest class of optically visible
voids in HCC are the various sizes of
capillaries. A very few of the larger
capillary voids may be seen at the
higher magnifications used to
determine the parameters of the void
system, but they are generally not that
large. Capillary voids are spaces formed
by the shape of the hydrated cement gel structures and spaces left between the
gel structures as water is used in the self-desiccation of the hydration process.
They were occupied by water or gas when the concrete was fresh and are larger
and more abundant in concretes with a high water-cement ratio. The magnitude
of the capillary system is controlled by the water-cement ratio and the degree of
maturity of the concrete. The evenness of the distribution of the pores and
capillaries is controlled by the distribution of the water. As the concrete hydrates,
the water in the pores is used in the hydration of the cement. As the concrete
matures, much of the capillary space becomes filled with the products of
hydration and the products of any reactions occurring between the chemicals of
the paste and the aggregate rocks. Some of the finer capillaries are spaces
created by differential crystal growth. (See Chapter 13 and associated figures
and note how the quality of the fine aggregate affects the distribution of
moisture and thus pores and capillaries in the paste.)
The capillaries are detected only when specialized methods are used. In
laboratories so equipped, the various types of electron microscopes may be used
to view the capillary void system. In the VTRC laboratory, the abundance and
location of the capillary voids are detected by use of the P/EF microscope in the
study of fluorescent thin sections of the specimen concrete. Rarely, capillary
voids may be noted during the determination of the parameters of the void
system. In that event, capillary voids are considered to be paste.
2. Entrained Air Voids
Entrained voids are small spherical voids enfolded by the mixer. Surface-active,
air-entraining agents are added to the mixture to stabilize a specified percentage
of these voids and thus protect the hardened HCC against the destructive forces
of freezing and thawing. Thus, the entrained air void is a desirable void.
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Entrained air voids are generally
considered to be larger than the
capillaries (at least 5 µm in
diameter) but smaller than the
voids considered to be entrapped
voids (Verbeck, 1966, 1978).
Entrained air voids have so much
surface tension relative to their
volume that they are distorted very
little by the shape of nearby particles. Distortion occurs in these small voids only
when external forces distort the concrete after the beginning of hardening.
The presence of the proper quantity of well-distributed entrained air voids can
prevent deterioration of the concrete (even when saturated) by the mechanisms
of freezing and thawing (Helms, 1978; Newlon, 1978) and facilitate the
placement of the concrete because the entrained air voids act as additional fluid,
almost as though the entrained voids were ball bearings. In Virginia, the proper
quantity of air voids is defined for each class of HCC by Road and Bridge
Specifications (1991). Entrained air voids allow the relief of pressures caused by
the freezing and thawing of saturated HCC and thus protect the HCC from
destruction by these mechanisms. The exact method by which they perform this
function has not been determined and agreed on by all concrete technologists,
but all agree that the empirical evidence demonstrates that the presence of a
sufficient quantity of sufficiently small (entrained size), properly distributed air
voids protects the cement paste in the concrete from deterioration by freezing
and thawing.
Very irregularly shaped small voids (maximum dimension less than 1 mm) cannot
be properly called entrained voids because the surface tension caused by the air
entraining agent is lacking. It is not known if such voids function to protect the
concrete against the deterioration caused by freezing and thawing. Small,
irregular voids, particularly if not at an aggregate boundary or a wearing surface,
may be evidence of retempering.
3. Entrapped Voids and Water Voids
All voids, regardless of shape, that have a maximum dimension (on the surface
examined) of more than 1 mm are defined at VTRC as entrapped voids (large
spherical) or water voids (large irregular). If voids occur flattened out at the
boundary between the aggregate (usually coarse aggregate) and the paste, they
41 | P a g e
are a class of entrapped voids called
boundary voids. All voids larger than
entrained voids have no appreciable
beneficial effects and weaken the HCC.
Such voids are partially controlled by
the efficiency of whatever system of
consolidation is in use. Certain voids
may be caused by too much water in
the HCC, a strong affinity of a particular
aggregate lithology for water, improper
consolidation, and occasionally by the dissolving away of Ca(OH)2. Irregularly
shaped voids, regardless of size, may be caused by water pockets or air pockets
that the consolidation procedures did not remove (see Fig. 6-4). Water voids are
irregularly shaped voids created in the HCC by bleed water prevented from rising
to the surface by an aggregate particle or the hardening of the paste. Water
voids contained water when the HCC was fresh and unhardened. In the
hardened state, these voids are filled with air and might be more properly
termed water-formed air voids.
Properties of Hydrated Cement Pastes
Hydration products have lower specific gravities and larger specific volumes than
their parent cement compounds. Therefore, every hydration reaction is
accompanied by an increase in solid volume.

 Calcium Silicates -- hydration of these materials is not accompanied by an

increase in volume. Recall, these crystals will only occupy free space. If
this space is filled, the growth or hydration will stop.
 Calcium Aluminate -- The hydration product of this material (ettringite) will
continue to form even when a solid surface is encountered. Since there is
no volume in which the crystal can grow, internal pressures develop.
Volume change is directly related to porosity. It is possible to calculate pore
space by measuring the loss of evaporable water and nonevaporable water. The
evaporable water describes water held in capillary and gel pores. This amount
can be determined by oven drying a sample. Nonevaporable water is a measure
involving the microstructure of the hydration product and is obtained from a
paste heated to very high temperatures (1000 C0). T.C. Powers developed

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several empirical relationships for degree of hydration based on the amount the
two types of water described above.
- wn = 0.24a g/g of original cement
where a = degree of hydration and wn = nonevaporable water
- wg = 0.18a g/g of original cement
where wg = gel water or evaporable water
- wmin = ( wn + wg ) g/g of original cement
(w/c)min = 0.42a
Therefore, for complete hydration, the w/c ratio should not fall below 0.42.
However, complete hydration is not required for high ultimate strength. This
means that paste with low w/c ratios will self-desiccate unless external water is
added. Generally, this is not a problem in the field.
SOUNDNESS OF HYDRATED CEMENT
The soundness of cement refers to the stability of the volume change in the
process of setting and hardening. If the volume change is unstable after setting
and hardening, the concrete structures will crack, which can affect the quality of
buildings or even cause serious accidents, known as poor dimensional stability.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF HYDRATED CEMENT
Cement is identified by its grade like 53 grade, 43 grade, 33 grade of cement.
This grade indicates the compressive strength of cement, i.e. 53 grade of cement
indicates that compressive strength of cement cube after 28 days of curing will
be 53 N/mm2 (MPa) or 530 kg/cm2.
What is water cement ratio?
It is the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of cement added to concrete. The
water cement ratio formula directly affects the strength & durability of the
concrete. The typical water-cement ratio varies between 0.40 - 0.60 for different
grades of concrete mix.

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The standard types of portland cement are:
 Type I – for general purpose
 Type IA – same as Type I, but when air entrainment is desired
 Type II – for moderate sulfate resistance
 Type IIA – same as Type II, but when air entrainment is desired
 Type II(MH) – much like Type II, but when moderate heat of hydration is
desired
 Type II(MH)A – same as Type II(MH), but when air entrainment is desired
 Type III – for high early strength
 Type IIIA – same as Type III, but when air entrainment is desired
 Type IV – for low heat of hydration
 Type V – for high sulfate resistance
15 types of cement
There are a variety of types of cement you can use depending on your project's
purpose and conditions. Here are 15 types of cement:
1. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
Ordinary Portland cement is the most widely used type of cement manufactured
and used worldwide. “Portland” is a generic name derived from a type of building
stone quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England. OPC is suitable for
most general concrete jobs and mortar or stucco construction projects.
2. Portland pozzolana cement (PPC)
Manufacturers create Portland pozzolana cement by grinding pozzolanic clinker,
sometimes with additives of gypsum or calcium sulfate, with ordinary Portland
cement. Compared to OPC, it has a higher resistance to various chemical
reactions within concrete. PPC is often used for projects like bridges, piers,
dams, marine structures, sewage works or underwater concrete projects.
3. Rapid-hardening cement
Contractors or construction teams may choose rapid-hardening cement for its
high strength in the early stages of the hardening process. Its strength in three
days is comparable to OPC strength at seven days with the same water-to-
cement ratio. Rapid-hardening cement may have an increased lime content,
combined with a finer grinding process, or better strength development. It is
often used for projects with early-stage formwork removal or when the focus is
on increasing construction rates and decreasing costs.
4. Extra-rapid-hardening cement

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Extra-rapid-hardening cement may set and become durable even faster than
OPC and rapid-hardening cement. Construction professionals achieve this by
adding calcium chloride to rapid-hardening cement. This cement type may be
useful for cold-weather concrete projects due to its fast setting rate.
5. Quick-setting cement
Similar to extra-rapid-hardening cement, this concrete type may set and become
stronger even quicker than OPC and rapid-hardening cement. Its grain and
strength rate are similar to OPC, but it hardens faster. Quick-setting cement may
be beneficial for time-sensitive projects or those located near stagnant or
running water.
6. Low-heat cement
Manufacturers produce low-heat cement by monitoring the percentage of
tricalcium aluminate in the mixture to ensure it stays below 6% of the whole.
This helps maintain low heat during the hydration process, making this cement
type more resistant to sulfates and less reactive than other types of cement. It
may be suitable for mass concrete construction or projects to help prevent
cracking due to heat. However, low-heat cement may have a longer initial setting
time than other types.
7. Sulfate-resisting cement
Sulfate-resisting cement helps reduce the risk of sulfate side effects on concrete.
Its most common use is for constructing foundations in soil with high sulfate
content. This concrete type can also be beneficial for projects like canal linings,
culverts and retaining walls.
8. Blast furnace slag cement
Manufacturers make blast furnace slag cement by grinding clinker with up to
60% slag. This creates cement with many of the same properties as OPC.
However, it may be less expensive to produce than other types, making it a good
choice for financially conscious projects.
9. High-alumina cement
High-alumina cement is a type of rapid-hardening cement created by melting
bauxite and lime together and grinding it with clinker. It has high compressive
strength and may be more flexible and workable than OPC. Construction teams
can use high-alumina cement for projects where cement is subject to extreme
weather like high temperatures or frost.

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10. White cement
White cement is a type of OPC that's white instead of gray. It's prepared from
raw materials that don't include iron oxide and may be more expensive than
other cement types. It's often useful in architectural projects and interior and
exterior decorative projects like designing garden paths, floors, swimming pools
and ornamental concrete products.
11. Colored cement
Colored cement has properties similar to OPC and white cement. Manufacturers
mix 5% to 10% mineral pigments with OPC to achieve the desired color. Like
white cement, contractors often use this type for decorative purposes and
projects to enhance their designs.
12. Air-entraining cement
Air-entraining cement is more workable with a smaller water-cement ratio than
OPC and other types of cement. Manufacturers add air-entraining agents like
glues, sodium salts and resins to the clinker during the grinding process to create
this cement. A common use for this type of cement is for frost resistance in
concrete.
13. Expansive cement
Expansive cement can grow slightly over time without shrinking during the
hardening process. It may be beneficial for projects like grouting anchor bolts or
concrete ducts. Teams can also use it in structure joints or to reinforce other
concrete structures.
14. Hydrographic cement
Manufacturers create hydrographic cement by mixing in water-repelling
chemicals. This cement type has high workability and strength and also repels
water to prevent weather damage. Teams can use hydrographic cement for
projects such as dams, water tanks, spillways and water retaining structures.
15. Portland-limestone cement (PLC)
Portland-limestone cement is a blend of Portland cement and 5% to 15% fine
limestone. Its properties are similar to Portland cement for general use.
However, it also has about 10% lower greenhouse gas emissions, which can help
increase sustainability.
MIXING WATER
Water is an important ingredient of concrete, and a properly designed concrete
mixture, typically with 15 to 25% water by volume, will possess the desired

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workability for fresh concrete and the required durability and strength for
hardened concrete.
Types of Concrete Admixtures
Concrete admixtures are of different types and they are as follows:
 Water Reducing Admixtures
 Retarding Admixtures
 Accelerating Admixtures
 Air entraining concrete admixture
 Pozzolanic Admixtures
 Damp-proofing Admixtures
 Gas forming Admixtures
 Air detraining Admixtures
 Alkali Aggregate Expansion Inhibiting Admixtures
 Anti-washout Admixtures
 Grouting Admixtures
 Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures
 Bonding Admixtures
 Fungicidal, Germicidal, Insecticidal Admixtures
 Coloring Admixtures
POZZOLAN
Pozzolanic cements are mixtures of portland cement and a pozzolanic material
that may be either natural or artificial. The natural pozzolanas are mainly
materials of volcanic origin but include some diatomaceous earths. Artificial
materials include fly ash, burned clays, and shales.

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CHAPTER 6: PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE
What is Portland cement concrete?
Portland cement concrete pavement (PCC) is a type of rigid pavement that
consists of a slab of concrete made of cement, water, sand, aggregate, and
sometimes admixtures123. The concrete is produced at a central plant and
transported to the job site, where it is dumped, spread, leveled, and
consolidated. The concrete shrinks and cracks as it cure, so joints are
constructed to control the cracking. Portland cement is the fundamental
ingredient in concrete and can be used in various pavement layers and
applications. The first PCCP in the United States was built in 1891 in
Bellefontaine, Ohio.
Proportioning of concrete mixes
The properties of concrete depend on the mix proportions and the placing and
curing methods. Designers generally specify or assume a certain strength or
modulus of elasticity of the concrete when determining structural dimensions.
The materials engineer is responsible for assuring that the concrete is properly
proportioned, mixed, placed, and cured to have the properties specified by the
designer.
The proportioning of concrete mix affects its properties in both the plastic and
solid states. During the plastic state, the materials engineer is concerned with
the workability and finishing characteristics of the concrete. The properties of the
hardened concrete important to the materials engineer are the strength,
modulus of elasticity, durability, and porosity. Strength is generally controlling
the design factor. Unless otherwise specified, concrete strength, f’c, refers to the
average compressive strength of three tests. Each test is the average result of
two 0.15m x 0.30m (6inches by 12inches) cylinders tested in compression after
curing for 28 days.
The PCA specifies three qualities required of the properly proportioned concrete
mixtures (kosmatka and panarese 1988)
1. acceptable workability of freshly mixed concrete.
2. durability, strength, and uniform appearance of hardened concrete
3. economy

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Basic steps for weight and absolute volume methods:
The basic steps required for determining mix design proportions for both weight
absolute volume methods are as follows (kosmata and panarese 1988)
1. Strength Requirements:
Variations in materials and batching and mixing of concrete results in deviations
in the strength of the concrete produced by a plant. Generally, the structural
design engineer does not consider this variability when determining the size of
the structural members. If the materials engineer provides a material with an
average strength equal to the strength specified by the designer, then half of the
concrete will be weaker than the specified strength. Obviously, this is
undesirable. To compensate for the variance in concrete strength, the materials
engineer designs the concrete to have an average strength greater than the
strength specified by the structural engineer.
2. Water-Cement Ratio Requirements:
The next step is to determine the water-cement ratio needed to produce
the required strength. Historical records are used to plot a strength versus
water-cement ratio curve. If historical data are not available, three batches are
made at different water-cement ratios to establish a curve that can be used for
estimating the water-cement ratios for the trial mixes when no other data re
available. The required average compressive strength is used with the strength
versus water-cement relationship to determine the water-cement ratio required
for the strength requirements of the project.

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3. Coarse aggregate requirements:
The next step is to determine the suitable aggregate characteristics for the
project. In general, large-dense graded aggregates provide the most economical
mix. Large aggregates minimize the amount of water required and, therefore,
reduce the amount of cement required per cubic meter of mix. Round
aggregates require less water than angular aggregates for an equal workability.
4. Air entrainment Requirements:
Next, the need for air entrainment is evaluated. Air entrainment is required
whenever concrete is exposed to freeze-thaw conditions and de-icing salts. Air
entrainment is also used for workability in some situations. The amount of air
required varies based on exposure conditions and is affected by the size of the
aggregates. The exposure levels are defined as:
*Mild exposure: Indoor or outdoor service where concrete is not exposed to
freezing and de-icing salts. Air entrainment may be used to improve workability.
* Moderate exposure: Some freezing exposure occurs but concrete is not
exposed to moisture or free water for long periods prior to freezing. Concrete is
not exposed to de-icing salts.
* Severe exposure: Concrete exposed to de-icing salts, saturation, or free water.
5. Workability Requirements:
The next step in the mixed design is to determine the workability
requirements for the project. Workability is defined as the ease of placing,
consolidating, and finishing freshly mixed concrete. Concrete should be workable
but not segregate or excessively bled. The slump test is an indicator of
workability when evaluating the cone, then measuring the distance the concrete
slumps. The slump test is increase by adding water, air entrainer, water reducer,
superplasticizer, or by using round aggregates.
6. Estimate workability requirements of the plastic concrete.
7. Water content requirements:
With the water-cement ratio and the required amount of water estimated,
the cement required for the mix is determined by dividing the weight of the
water by the water-cement ratio. PCA recommends a minimum cement content
of 334kg/cu.m. for concrete exposed to severe freeze-thaw, de-icers, and sulfate
exposure, and not less than 385kg/cu.m for concrete placed under water. In
addition, the minimum cement requirements for proper placing, finishing,
abrasion resistance, and durability in flatwork, such as slabs.
8. Admixtures Requirements:
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 If one or more admixtures are used to add a specific quality in the
concrete, their quantities should be considered in the mix proportioning.
Admixture manufacturers provide specific information on the quantity of
admixture required to achieve the desired results.
9. Fine Aggregate Requirements:
At this point, water, cement, and coarse aggregate weights per cubic
meter are known and the volume of air is estimated. The only remaining factor is
the amount of the fine aggregates needed. The weight mix design method is
used to estimate the total weight of a “typical” freshly mixed concrete for
different maximum aggregate sizes. The weight of the fine aggregates is
determined by subtracting the weight of the other ingredients from the total
weight.
10. Moisture Corrections:
Mix designs assume that water used to hydrate the cement is the free
water more than the moisture content of the aggregates at the SSD condition
(absorption) as discussed in previous chapter. Therefore, the final step in the mix
design process is to adjust the weight of water and aggregates to amount for the
existing moisture content of the aggregates. If the moisture content of the
aggregates is more than the SSD moisture content, the weight of mixing water is
reduced by an amount equal to the free weight of the moisture on the
aggregates. Similarly, if the moisture content is below SSD moisture content, the
mixing water must be increased.
11. Trial mixes:
After computing the required amount of each ingredient, a trial batch is
mixed to check the mix design. Three 0.15m by 0.30m cylinders are made, cured
for 28 days, and tested for compressive strength.
A. Ready mixed concrete:
Ready Mixed Concrete is a tailor – made concrete that is manufactured in
a factory or within a batching plant based on the standard required
specifications. The prepared concrete mix is then taken to the work site within
transit mixers mounted over a truck.
This type of concrete guarantee higher durability and sustainability. As the work
is carried out by an expert supplier, the mixture formed is precise and of higher
quality. Special concrete mixtures too can be made efficiently by this concrete
manufacturing method.

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Types of Ready Mixed Concrete
There are three types of ready-mix concrete (RMC) depending upon the
mixing of the various ingredients as given below:
1. Transit mixed concrete
It is also called dry batched concrete because all the basic ingredients
including water are charged directly into the truck mixer. The mixer drum
revolves fast at charging speed during the loading of the material and after that
it continues rotating at a normal agitating speed. In this type of ready mix
concrete, also three types of variations are possible as given below: Concrete
mixed at job site While being transported towards the destination, the drum is
revolved at a slow or agitating speed of 2 rpm, but after reaching the site just
before discharging the material, it is revolved at maximum speed of 12 to 15 rpm
for nearly 70 to 100 revolution for ensuring homogeneous mixing. Concrete
mixed in transit the drum speed is kept medium during the transit time, i.e.
approximately 8 rpm for about 70 revolutions. After 70 revolutions, it is slowed
down to agitating speed of 2 rpm till discharging the concrete. Concrete mixed in
the yard the drum is turned at high-speed of 12 to 15 rpm for about 50
revolutions in the yard itself. The concrete is then agitated slowly during transit
time.
2. Shrink mixed concrete
The concrete is partially mixed in the plant mixer and then balance mixing
is done in the truck mounted drum mixer during transit time. The amount of
mixing in transit mixer depends upon the extent of mixing done in the central
mixing plant. Tests should be conducted to establish the requirement of mixing
the drum mixer.
3. Central-mixed concrete
It is also called central batching plant where the concrete is thoroughly
mixed before loading into the truck mixer. Sometimes the plant is also referred
to as wet-batch or pre-mix plants. While transporting the concrete, the truck
mixer acts as agitator only. Sometimes, when workability requirement is low or
the lead is less, non-agitating units or dump trucks can also be used.
B. Mobile Batcher mixed concrete:
Concrete can be mixed in a mobile batcher mixer at the job site.
Aggregate, cement, water, and admixtures are fed continuously by volume, and
the concrete is usually pumped into the forms.
C. Pumped concrete:
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 Pumped concrete is frequently used for large construction projects. Special
pumps deliver the concrete directly into the forms. Careful attention must be
exercised to ensure well-mixed concrete with proper workability. The slump
should be between 40mm to 100mm before pumping. During pumping the slump
will decrease by about 12mm to 25mm due to partial compaction.
D. Vibration of concrete:
Vibration of concrete is a critical step in concrete construction that
eliminates air bubbles present in the freshly poured concrete and provides a
compact concrete mass.
Concrete Curing:
Curing concrete is one of the most important factors in concrete
construction as it is related to properties such as characteristic strength,
permeability, durability, etc. Further, it is required to do the curing at the right
time and a sufficient period of curing is very important to achieve the exact
properties of concrete.
1. Water Curing
The application of the water is done to avoid the drying of the concrete surface.
Usually, this method applies when the concrete is thinner.
-Ponding the Concrete
Continuously wetting the concrete surface is done in the method without
allowing the concrete surface to dry. Most of the time, a kerb cast around the
slab helps to pond the relevant area.
-Use of Sprinklers
It is a must not allowing the concrete surface to dry due to evaporation.
Continuous spraying the water at a constant rate and uniformly is a must to fulfill
the adequate curing.
2. Wet Covering
Wet curing is a method of maintaining the surface moisture level by placing
materials like hessian. Use of gunnery bae is also common.
3. Formwork Curing
Formwork is the most effective curing agent in construction. Especially in thick
concretes where the hydration temperature is high, this method is used.
4. Membrane Curing
A membrane is formed on the concrete surface to avoid the evaporation of the
moisture in the concrete.
5. Sheet Curing
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There are two types of the sheet used for curing.
-Polythene Sheet
-Plastic Sheet
-Curing Blankets
Both the type of the sheet is sued to cure the flat surfaces usually. Polythene
sheets are used to cover the concrete slabs and columns. The sheet can be
placed on the slab just after it gets hardened.
6. Curing by Absorbing Heat – Pipe Water Cooling
Pipes are set inside the concrete to absorb the heat. Water is circulated in the
concrete, and it absorbs the heat of in the concrete.
7. Hot mixing Method
An increase in the temperature of the concrete is done to enhance the strength
of the concrete.
Raising the temperature of the concrete up to 320C could enhance the strength
by 10% – 20%.
Since the concrete gets the strength early, this method can use in a situation
where it is required early strength. Further, the formwork can be removed early
with the gain of the strength of early.
There are several methods that can be sued to increase the temperature of the
concrete.
-Increase the temperature of aggregate by heating.
-Heat the water.
-Inject steam into the concrete mix.
In this method, special formwork shall be used, and the formwork shall also be
used. This method is not typically used, and it can be used on special occasions.
8. Electrical Curing
There are three methods in electrical curing.
Electrical current passes through the freshly laid concrete between two external
fixed electrodes. The alternate current shall be passed through the concrete.
A high current having low voltage passing through the reinforcement net.
Large electric blankets are utilized for the purpose of heating the slab surfaces.
9. Infra-Red Curing
This is not a very common method, and it is not widely used.
Heating of the formwork or circulating hot water inside the concrete is done.

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10. Covering with Saw Dust, Sand or Soil
This method can be employed especially in thick concrete and that has not large
surface area.
Concrete surfaces ins pile caps, pours of raft foundations, etc. can be covered
with sand, sawdust, and soil.
A membrane is placed over the concrete and sand is placed above that.
It controls the variation of the surface concrete.
11. Natural Curing
Concrete is allowed to cure naturally without covering anything.

Properties of hardened concrete:

Hardened concrete is concrete that must be sufficiently strong to withstand the
structural and service applied loads, it must be durable enough for the
environmental risk for which it is designed.
1. Strength:
The strength of concrete is defined as the maximum stress it can
withstand or the maximum it can yield. Cubes, cylinders, and prisms are 3 types
of compression test specimens. Flexible tensile tests are used to estimate the
load at which concrete members can crack, while compressive strength is taken
as the maximum compression load that it can take per unit area.
2. Deformation under load:
It is a stress-strain relationship under normal loading and continuous
loading as follows:
Under normal loading:
The first effect of applying a load on concrete is to produce an elastic
deformation i.e. as the load increases the deformation increases.
Under continuous loading:
Continuous application of tension causes a slow deformation called creep, the
increase of deformation is not proportional, as the deformation decreases as time
passes.
Elastic deformation:
When the applied load is released, the hardened concrete does not fully recover
its original shape.
Under repeated loading and unloading, the deformation increases at a given load
level.

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3. Durability:
It is defined as resistance to its deteriorating processes that may occur as
a result of interactions with its environment (external) or between constituent
substances or their reaction with contaminants (internal).
4. Permeability:
Hardened Concrete tends to become porous due to the presence of voids
formed during or after placing of concrete. Penetration by the substance may
adversely affect the durability, i.e., Ca (OH) 2 leach out and corrosion occurs due
to lack of air and moisture. The liquid retaining structure is important in relation
to water tightness. To produce concrete of low permeability, complete
compaction and proper curing are necessary while low permeability is important
to enhance resistance to frost action, chemical attack, and protecting embedded
steel against corrosion. The permeability of cement paste varies with the
progress of hydration or with age, the permeability decreases as the gel slowly
fills the original waterlogged space.
5. Shrinkage:
It is caused by the disposal of solids and the loss of water free from plastic
concrete (plastic shrinkage), by the chemical combination of cement with water
and by the drying (drying shrinkage) of concrete.

Tests on Hardened Concrete:

1. Compressive Strength Test (fc')
ASTM C39: Cylindrical specimen (6 in. by 12 in.) is used for this test. For
normal-weight concrete: fc' range is 21 MPa to 34 MPa (3000 psi to 5000 psi).
Compressive strength depends on specimen size, larger specimens has greater
probability for weaker elements, reducing strength and have less variability and
better representation of actual concrete. How does failure occur? Weakest
location of hardened concrete is the interface between cement paste and
aggregate.
2. Modulus of Elasticity - Ec Test on Hardened Concrete
ASTM C469 is used to determine the chord modulus. 3-4 loading steps are
needed in this method. Same sample is used. This method provides a useful
relationship with strength. The range of test result is 14 GPa - 41 GPa (2000 ksi
to 6000 ksi). Poisson's Ratio is determined using ASTM C469. Range is between
0.11 to 0.21, depending on aggregate, moisture, age, and compressive strength.
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3. Split Tension Test on Hardened Concrete
This test measures the tensile strength on concrete (ASTM C496). Cylinder
is subjected to compressive load along vertical diameter at a constant rate until
fatigue. Failure occurs along vertical diameter due to tension developed in
transverse direction. Split tension is computed by T = 2p/BLD where: T = tensile
strength, MPa (psi) p= load at failure, N (psi) L = length of specimen, mm (in.)
D = diameter of specimen, mm (in.) Tensile strength varies from 2.5 MPa to 31
MPa (360 psi to 450 psi), about 10% of compressive strength.
5. Flexure Strength Test (ASTM C78) on Hardened Concrete
This test is used for measuring Modulus of Rupture (MR). It is an
important test for road and airport concrete pavements. Beam specimen of
square x-section is loaded into a 3-point loading apparatus·
6. Rebound Hammer Test (Schmidt Hammer Test) on Hardened
Concrete
It is a non-destructive test performed on hardened concrete. A spring-
loaded mass hits the concrete's surface and scale measures how far the mass
rebounds. The higher the rebound, the harder the concrete's surface, and the
greater the concrete's strength. Use a calibration chart graph supplied to relate
the rebound to strength. 10 to 12 readings are performed per specimen. The test
is used to test the uniformity of the concrete.
7. Penetration Resistance Test (Windsor Probe Test)
It is a non-destructive test. Gun-like device shoots probes into the
concrete's structure. It is performed on each of three holes in a special template.
An average depth is then found. Depth is inversely related to strength. It gives a
better estimate than the rebound hammer. Rebound hammer tests only the
surface while penetration resistance test makes measurements into the depth of
the sample.
8. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test (ASTM C597)
This test measures the velocity of an ultrasonic wave passing through the
concrete. The length between transducers/the travel time = average velocity of
wave propagation. It is used to detect discontinuities, cracks, and internal
deterioration in the structure of concrete.
9. Maturity Test (ASTM C1074)
Maturity is the degree of cement hydration which varies with time and
temperature. It is assumed that strength is a function of maturity for a particular

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concrete mixture. Devices are used to measure the temperature of concrete with
time.
10. Permeability Test on Hardened Concrete
This test affects the durability of hardened concrete and allows water and
chemicals to penetrate its surface. It causes reduced resistance to frost, alkali-
aggregate reactivity and other chemicals, corrosion of steel rebars. Air voids that
affect permeability are obtained from incomplete consolidation of fresh concrete,
evaporation of mixing water that is not used for hydration of cement. Increasing
the water/cement ratio has strong effects on permeability. Other factors
affecting permeability are the age of concrete, fineness of cement particles, air
entraining agents.

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CHAPTER 7: MASONRY
Masonry is the craft of building a structure with brick, stone, or similar
material, including mortar plastering which are often laid in, bound and pasted
together by mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the building units (stone,
brick, etc.) themselves. The common materials of masonry construction are
bricks and building stone such as marble, granite, and limestone, cast stone,
concrete blocks, glass blocks, and adobe. Masonry is generally a highly durable
form of construction. However, the materials used, the quality of the mortar and
workmanship, and the pattern in which the units are assembled can substantially
affect the durability of the overall masonry construction. A person who constructs
masonry is called a mason or bricklayer. These are both classified as construction
trades.
History
Masonry is one of the oldest building crafts in the world. The construction
of Egyptian pyramids, Roman aqueducts, and medieval cathedrals are all
examples of masonry. Early structures used the weight of the masonry itself to
stabilize the structure against lateral movements. The types and techniques of
masonry used evolved with architectural needs and cultural norms. Since the
mid-20th century, masonry has often featured steel-reinforced elements to help
carry the tension force present in modern thin, light, tall building systems.
Application
Masonry has both structural and non-structural applications. Structural
applications include walls, columns, beams, foundations, load-bearing arches,
and others. On the other hand, masonry is also used in non-structural
applications such as fireplaces chimneys and veneer systems.
Brick and concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in
industrialized nations and may be either load-bearing or non-load bearing.
Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in
masonry construction. They generally provide great compressive strength and
are best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain
unfilled. Filling some or all the cores with concrete or concrete with steel
reinforcement (typically rebar) offers much greater tensile and lateral strength to
structures.
Advantages
 The use of materials such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal
mass of a building.
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  Masonry is a non-combustible product and can protect the building from
fire.
 Masonry walls are more resistant to projectiles, such as debris from
hurricanes or tornadoes.
Disadvantages
 Extreme weather, under certain circumstances, can cause degradation of
masonry due to expansion and contraction forces associated with freeze-
thaw cycles.
 Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built on stable ground made of
either undisturbed or mechanically compacted soil, otherwise cracking may
occur.
 Other than concrete, masonry construction does not lend itself well to
mechanization, and requires more skilled labor.
Structural limitations
One problem with masonry walls is that they rely mainly on their weight to
keep them in place; each block or brick is only loosely connected to the next via
a thin layer of mortar. This is why they do not perform well in earthquakes,
when entire buildings are shaken horizontally. Many collapses during
earthquakes occur in buildings that have load-bearing masonry walls. Besides,
heavier buildings having masonry suffer more damage.
Dry set masonry
The strength of a masonry wall is not entirely dependent on the bond
between the building material and the mortar; the friction between the
interlocking blocks of masonry is often strong enough to provide a great deal of
strength on its own. The blocks sometimes have grooves or other surface
features added to enhance this interlocking, and some dry set masonry
structures forgo mortar altogether.
Stonework
Stone blocks used in masonry can be dressed or rough, though in both
examples’ corners, door and window jambs, and similar areas are usually
dressed. Stonemasonry utilizing dressed stones is known as ashlar masonry,
whereas masonry using irregularly shaped stones is known as rubble masonry.
Both rubble and ashlar masonry can be laid in coursed rows of even height
through the careful selection or cutting of stones, but a great deal of stone
masonry is uncoursed.

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  Slipform stonemasonry produces a hybrid wall of reinforced concrete with
a rubble stone face.
 Natural stone veneers over CMU, cast-in-place, or tilt-up concrete walls are
widely used to give the appearance of stone masonry.
 Sometimes river rock of smooth oval-shaped stones is used as a veneer.
This type of material is not favored for solid masonry as it requires a great
amount of mortar and can lack intrinsic structural strength.
 Manufactured-stone, or cultured stone, veneers are popular alternatives to
natural stones.
 Manufactured-stone veneers are typically made from concrete.
 Natural stones from quarries around the world are sampled and recreated
using molds, aggregate, and colorfast pigments.
 To the casual observer there may be no visual difference between veneers
of natural and manufactured stone.
Brick
Solid brickwork is made of two or more wythes of bricks with the units
running horizontally (called stretcher bricks) bound together with bricks running
transverse to the wall (called "header" bricks). Each row of bricks is known as a
course. The pattern of headers and stretchers employed gives rise to different
'bonds' such as the common bond (with every sixth course composed of
headers), the English bond, and the Flemish bond (with alternating stretcher and
header bricks present on every course). Bonds can differ in strength and
insulating ability. Vertically staggered bonds tend to be somewhat stronger and
less prone to major cracking than a non-staggered bond.
Uniformity and rusticity
The wide selection of brick styles and types generally available in
industrialized nations allow many varieties in the appearance of the final product.
In buildings built during the 1950s-1970s, a high degree of uniformity of brick
and accuracy in masonry was typical. In the period since then this style was
thought to be too sterile, so attempts were made to emulate older, rougher
work. Some brick surfaces are made to look particularly rustic by including burnt
bricks, which have a darker color or an irregular shape. Others may use antique
salvage bricks, or new bricks may be artificially aged by applying various surface
treatments, such as tumbling. The attempts at rusticity of the late 20th century

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have been carried forward by masons specializing in a free, artistic style, where
the courses are intentionally not straight, instead weaving to form more organic
impressions.
Serpentine masonry
A crinkle-crackle wall is a brick wall that follows a serpentine path, rather
than a straight line. This type of wall is more resistant to toppling than a straight
wall; so much so that it may be made of a single wythe of unreinforced brick and
so despite its longer length may be more economical than a straight wall.
Concrete block
Blocks of cinder concrete (cinder blocks or breezeblocks), ordinary
concrete (concrete blocks), or hollow tile are generically known as Concrete
Masonry Units (CMUs). They usually are much larger than ordinary bricks and so
are much faster to lay for a wall of a given size. Furthermore, cinder and
concrete blocks typically have much lower water absorption rates than brick.
They often are used as the structural core for veneered brick masonry or are
used alone for the walls of factories, garages, and other industrial-style buildings
where such an appearance is acceptable or desirable. Such blocks often receive a
stucco surface for decoration. Surface-bonding cement, which contains synthetic
fibers for reinforcement, is sometimes used in this application and can impart
extra strength to a block wall. Surface-bonding cement is often pre-colored and
can be stained or painted thus resulting in a finished stucco-like surface. The
primary structural advantage of concrete blocks in comparison to smaller clay-
based bricks is that a CMU wall can be reinforced by filling the block voids with
concrete with or without steel rebar. Generally, certain voids are designated for
filling and reinforcement, particularly at corners, wall-ends, and openings while
other voids are left empty. This increases wall strength and stability more
economically than filling and reinforcing all voids. Typically, structures made of
CMUs will have the top course of blocks in the walls filled with concrete and tied
together with steel reinforcement to form a bond beam. Bond beams are often a
requirement of modern building codes and controls. Another type of steel
reinforcement referred to as ladder-reinforcement, can also be embedded in
horizontal mortar joints of concrete block walls. The introduction of steel
reinforcement generally results in a CMU wall having much greater lateral and
tensile strength than unreinforced walls. "Architectural masonry is the
evolvement of standard concrete masonry blocks into aesthetically pleasing
concrete masonry units (CMUs)". CMUs can be manufactured to provide a variety
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of surface appearances. They can be colored during manufacturing or stained or
painted after installation. They can be split as part of the manufacturing process,
giving the blocks a rough face replicating the appearance of natural stone, such
as brownstone. CMUs may also be scored, ribbed, sandblasted, polished, striated
(raked or brushed), include decorative aggregates, be allowed to slump in a
controlled fashion during curing, or include several of these techniques in their
manufacture to provide a decorative appearance. "Glazed concrete masonry
units are manufactured by bonding a permanent-colored facing (typically
composed of polyester resins, silica sand and various other chemicals) to a
concrete masonry unit, providing a smooth impervious surface." Glass block or
glass brick are blocks made from glass and provide a translucent to clear vision
through the block.
Veneer masonry
A masonry veneer wall consists of masonry units, usually clay-based
bricks, installed on one or both sides of a structurally independent wall usually
constructed of wood or masonry. In this context, brick masonry is primarily
decorative, not structural. The brick veneer is generally connected to the
structural wall by brick ties (metal strips that are attached to the structural wall,
as well as the mortar joints of the brick veneer). There is typically an air gap
between the brick veneer and the structural wall. As clay-based brick is usually
not completely waterproof, the structural wall will often have a water-resistant
surface (usually tar paper) and weep holes can be left at the base of the brick
veneer to drain moisture that accumulates inside the air gap. Concrete blocks,
real and cultured stones, and veneer adobe are sometimes used in a very similar
veneer fashion. Most insulated buildings that use concrete block, brick, adobe,
stone, veneers, or some combination thereof feature interior insulation in the
form of fiberglass batts between wooden wall studs or in the form of rigid
insulation boards covered with plaster or drywall. In most climates this insulation
is much more effective on the exterior of the wall, allowing the building interior
to take advantage of the thermal mass of the masonry. This technique does,
however, require some sort of weather-resistant exterior surface over the
insulation and, consequently, is generally more expensive.
Gabions
Gabions are baskets, usually now of zinc-protected steel (galvanized steel)
that are filled with fractured stone of medium size. These will act as a single unit
and are stacked with setbacks to form a revetment or retaining wall. They have
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the advantage of being well drained, flexible, and resistant to flood, water flow
from above, frost damage, and soil flow. Their expected useful life is only as long
as the wire they are composed of and if used in severe climates (such as shore-
side in a saltwater environment) must be made of appropriate corrosion-resistant
wire. Most modern gabions are rectangular. Earlier gabions were often cylindrical
wicker baskets, open at both ends, used usually for temporary, often military,
construction. Similar work can be done with finer aggregates using cellular
confinement.
Passive fire protection (PFP)
Masonry walls have an endothermic effect of its hydrates, as in chemically
bound water, unbound moisture from the concrete block, and the poured
concrete if the hollow cores inside the blocks are filled. Masonry can withstand
temperatures up to 1,000 °F (538 °C) and it can withstand direct exposure to
fire for up to 4 hours. In addition to that, concrete masonry keeps fires contained
to their room of origin 93% of the time. For those reasons, concrete and
masonry units hold the highest flame spread index classification, Class A. Fire
cuts can be used to increase safety and reduce fire damage to masonry
buildings.
Mechanical modeling of masonry structures
From the point of view of material modeling, masonry is a special material
of extreme mechanical properties (with a very high ratio between strength in
compression and in tension), so that the applied loads do not diffuse as they do
in elastic bodies but tend to percolate along lines of high stiffness.
Mortar
The role of mortar is to make one material stick to another. For instance, a
mason laying bricks, or concrete masonry units (CMU) will place mortar in the
joints between the bricks or blocks.
Grout
Masonry grout is a material used to fill the spaces between masonry units.
Plaster
Plaster is a building material used for the protective or decorative coating
of walls and ceilings and for the casting and casting of decorative elements. In
English, plaster refers to the material commonly used for the interiors of
buildings, while render usually refers to outdoor applications.

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CHAPTER 8: ASPHALT CONCRETE
Asphalt concrete (commonly called asphalt, blacktop, or pavement in North
America, and tarmac or bitumen macadam in the United Kingdom and the
Republic of Ireland) is a composite material commonly used to surface roads,
parking lots, airports, and the core of embankment dams. Asphalt mixtures have
been used in pavement construction since the beginning of the twentieth
century. It consists of mineral aggregate bound together with bitumen (also
known as asphalt), laid in layers, and compacted. The process was refined and
enhanced by Belgian-American inventor Edward De Smedt. The terms asphalt (or
asphaltic) concrete, bituminous asphalt concrete, and bituminous mixture are
typically used only in engineering and construction documents, which define
concrete as any composite material composed of mineral aggregate adhered
with a binder. The abbreviation, AC, is sometimes used for asphalt concrete but
can also denote asphalt content or asphalt cement, referring to the liquid asphalt
portion of the composite material.
Mixture formulations
Mixing of asphalt and aggregate is accomplished in one of several ways:

1. Hot-mix asphalt concrete (commonly abbreviated as HMA)

This is produced by heating the asphalt binder to decrease its viscosity and
drying the aggregate to remove moisture from it prior to mixing. Mixing is
generally performed with the aggregate at about 150 °C (300 °F) for virgin
asphalt and 170 °C (330 °F) for polymer modified asphalt, and the asphalt
cement at 93 °C (200 °F). Paving and compaction must be performed while the
asphalt is sufficiently hot. In many locales paving is restricted to summer months
because in winter the base will cool the asphalt too quickly before it can be
packed to the required density. HMA is the form of asphalt concrete most used
on high traffic pavements such as those on major highways, racetracks, and
airfields. It is also used as an environmental liner for landfills, reservoirs, and fish
hatchery ponds.
2. Warm-mix asphalt concrete (commonly abbreviated as WMA)
This is produced by adding either zeolites, waxes, asphalt emulsions or
sometimes water to the asphalt binder prior to mixing. This allows significantly
lower mixing and laying temperatures and results in lower consumption of fossil
fuels, thus releasing less carbon dioxide, aerosols, and vapors. This improves
working conditions, and lowers laying-temperature, which leads to more rapid
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availability of the surface for use, which is important for construction sites with
critical time schedules. The usage of these additives in hot-mixed asphalt
(above) may afford easier compaction and allow cold-weather paving or longer
hauls. The use of warm mix is rapidly expanding. A survey of US asphalt
producers found that nearly 25% of asphalt produced in 2012 was warm mix, a
416% increase since 2009. Cleaner Road pavements can be potentially
developed by combining WMA and material recycling. Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA)
technology hCleaner Roadntal, production, and economic benefits.
3. Cold-mix asphalt concrete
This is produced by emulsifying the asphalt in water with an emulsifying
agent before mixing with the aggregate. While in its emulsified state, the asphalt
is less viscous, and the mixture is easy to work and compact. The emulsion will
break after enough water evaporates and the cold mix will, ideally, take on the
properties of an HMA pavement. Cold mix is commonly used as a patching
material and on lesser-trafficked service roads.
4. Cut-back asphalt concrete
Is a form of cold mix asphalt produced by dissolving the binder in
kerosene or another lighter fraction of petroleum before mixing with the
aggregate. While in its dissolved state, the asphalt is less viscous, and the mix is
easy to work and compact. After the mix is laid down the lighter fraction
evaporates. Because of concerns with pollution from the volatile organic
compounds in the lighter fraction, cut-back asphalt has been largely replaced by
asphalt emulsion.
5. Mastic asphalt concrete, or sheet asphalt
This is produced by heating hard grade blown bitumen (i.e., partly
oxidized) in a green cooker (mixer) until it has become a viscous liquid after
which the aggregate mix is then added. The bitumen aggregate mixture is
cooked (matured) for around 6–8 hours and once it is ready, the mastic asphalt
mixer is transported to the work site where experienced layers empty the mixer
and either machine or hand lay the mastic asphalt contents on to the road.
Mastic asphalt concrete is generally laid to a thickness of around 20–30
millimeters (13⁄16–1+3⁄16 in) for footpath and road applications and around 10
millimeters (3⁄8 in) for flooring or roof applications.
6. High-modulus asphalt concrete
This uses a very hard bituminous formulation (penetration 10/20),
sometimes modified, in proportions close to 6% by weight of the aggregates, as
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well as a high proportion of mineral powder (between 8–10%) to create an
asphalt concrete layer with a high modulus of elasticity (of the order of 13000
MPa). This makes it possible to reduce the thickness of the base layer up to 25%
(depending on the temperature) in relation to conventional bitumen, while
offering very high fatigue strengths. High-modulus asphalt layers are used both
in reinforcement operations and in the construction of new reinforcements for
medium and heavy traffic. In base layers, they tend to exhibit a greater capacity
of absorbing tensions and, in general, better fatigue resistance.

Performance characteristics
Different types of asphalt concrete have different performance
characteristics in terms of surface durability, tire wear, braking efficiency, and
roadway noise. In principle, the determination of appropriate asphalt
performance characteristics must consider the volume of traffic in each vehicle
category, and the performance requirements of the friction course. In general,
the viscosity of asphalt allows it to be applied directly to form a convex surface,
which increases the drainage of streets and roads. This is an advantage over
concrete. Concrete can be screeded to form many types of shapes and curves,
yet it is impractical to use that method on an area as long as a street or road. As
a disadvantage of asphalt, however, concrete is more durable, and the
preference for surface is weighed against this depending on the situation.
Asphalt concrete generates less roadway noise than a Portland cement concrete
surface and is typically less noisy than chip seal surfaces. Because tire noise is
generated through the conversion of kinetic energy to sound waves, more noise
is produced as the speed of a vehicle increases. The notion that highway design
might consider acoustical engineering considerations, including the selection of
the type of surface paving, arose in the early 1970s. Regarding structural
performance, the asphalt behavior depends on a variety of factors including the
material, loading and environmental condition. Furthermore, the performance of
pavement varies over time. Therefore, the long-term behavior of asphalt
pavement is different from its short-term performance. The LTPP is a research
program by the FHWA, which is specifically focusing on long-term pavement
behavior.

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Degradation and restoration
Asphalt deterioration can include crocodile cracking, potholes, upheaval,
raveling, bleeding, rutting, shoving, stripping, and grade depressions. In cold
climates, frost heaves can crack asphalt even in one winter. Filling the cracks
with bitumen is a temporary fix, but only proper compaction and drainage can
slow this process. Factors that cause asphalt concrete to deteriorate over time
mostly fall into one of three categories: construction quality, environmental
considerations, and traffic loads. Often, damage results from combinations of
factors in all three categories. Construction quality is critical to pavement
performance. This includes the construction of utility trenches and
appurtenances that are placed in the pavement after construction. Lack of
compaction in the surface of the asphalt, especially on the longitudinal joint, can
reduce the life of a pavement by 30 to 40%. Service trenches in pavements after
construction have been said to reduce the life of the pavement by 50%, mainly
due to the lack of compaction in the trench, and because of water intrusion
through improperly sealed joints. Environmental factors include heat and cold,
the presence of water in the subbase or subgrade soil underlying the pavement,
and frost heaves. High temperatures soften the asphalt binder, allowing heavy
tire loads to deform the pavement into ruts. Paradoxically, high heat and strong
sunlight also cause the asphalt to oxidize, becoming stiffer and less resilient,
leading to crack formation. Cold temperatures can cause cracks as the asphalt
contracts. Cold asphalt is also less resilient and more vulnerable to cracking.
Water trapped under the pavement softens the subbase and subgrade, making
the road more vulnerable to traffic loads. Water under the road freezes and
expands in cold weather, causing and enlarging cracks. In spring thaw, the
ground thaws from the top down, so water is trapped between the pavement
above and the still-frozen soil underneath. This layer of saturated soil provides
little support for the road above, leading to the formation of potholes. This is
more of a problem for silty or clay soils than sandy or gravelly soils. Some
jurisdictions pass frost laws to reduce the allowable weight of trucks during the
spring thaw season and protect their roads. The damage a vehicle causes is
roughly proportional to the axle load raised to the fourth power, so doubling the
weight an axle carries causes 16 times as much damage. Wheels cause the road
to flex slightly, resulting in fatigue cracking, which often leads to crocodile
cracking. Vehicle speed also plays a role. Slowly moving vehicles stress the road
over a longer period of time, increasing ruts, cracking, and corrugations in the
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asphalt pavement. Other causes of damage include heat damage from vehicle
fires, or solvent action from chemical spills.

Prevention and repair of degradation

The life of a road can be prolonged through good design, construction,
and maintenance practices. During design, engineers measure the traffic on a
road, paying special attention to the number and types of trucks. They also
evaluate the subsoil to see how much load it can withstand. The pavement and
subbase thicknesses are designed to withstand the wheel loads. Sometimes,
geogrids are used to reinforce the subbase and further strengthen the roads.
Drainage, including ditches, storm drains and underdrains are used to remove
water from the roadbed, preventing it from weakening the subbase and subsoil.
Sealcoating asphalt is a maintenance measure that helps keep water and
petroleum products off the pavement. Maintaining and cleaning ditches and
storm drains will extend the life of the road at low cost. Sealing small cracks with
bituminous crack sealer prevents water from enlarging cracks through frost
weathering or percolating down to the subbase and softening it. For somewhat
more distressed roads, a chip seal or similar surface treatment may be applied.
As the number, width and length of cracks increases, more intensive repairs are
needed. In order of generally increasing expense, these include thin asphalt
overlays, multicourse overlays, grinding off the top course and overlaying, in-
place recycling, or full-depth reconstruction of the roadway. It is far less
expensive to keep a road in good condition than it is to repair it once it has
deteriorated. This is why some agencies place the priority on preventive
maintenance of roads in good condition, rather than reconstructing roads in poor
condition. Poor roads are upgraded as resources and budget allow. In terms of
lifetime cost and long-term pavement conditions, this will result in better system
performance. Agencies that concentrate on restoring their bad roads often find
that by the time they have repaired them all, the roads that were in good
condition have deteriorated.
Some agencies use a pavement management system to help prioritize
maintenance and repairs.
Recycling
Asphalt concrete is a recyclable material that can be reclaimed and reused
both on-site and in asphalt plants. The most common recycled component in
asphalt concrete is reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). RAP is recycled at a
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greater rate than any other material in the United States. Many roofing shingles
also contain asphalt, and asphalt concrete mixes may contain reclaimed asphalt
shingles (RAS). Research has demonstrated that RAP and RAS can replace the
need for up to 100% of the virgin aggregate and asphalt binder in a mix, but this
percentage is typically lower due to regulatory requirements and performance
concerns. In 2019, new asphalt pavement mixtures produced in the United
States contained, on average, 21.1% RAP and 0.2% RAS.
Recycling methods
Recycled asphalt components may be reclaimed and transported to an asphalt
plant for processing and use in new pavements, or the entire recycling process
may be conducted in-place. While in-place recycling typically occurs on roadways
and is specific to RAP, recycling in asphalt plants may utilize RAP, RAS, or both.
In 2019, an estimated 97.0 million tons of RAP and 1.1 million tons of RAS were
accepted by asphalt plants in the United States. RAP is typically received by
plants after being milled on-site, but pavements may also be ripped out in larger
sections and crushed in the plant. RAP millings are typically stockpiled at plants
before being incorporated into new asphalt mixes. Prior to mixing, stockpiled
millings may be dried and any that have agglomerated in storage may have to be
crushed. RAS may be received by asphalt plants as post-manufacturer waste
directly from shingle factories, or they may be received as post-consumer waste
at the end of their service life. Processing of RAS includes grinding the shingles
and sieving the grinds to remove oversized particles. The grinds may also be
screened with a magnetic sieve to remove nails and other metal debris. The
ground RAS is then dried, and the asphalt cement binder can be extracted. For
further information on RAS processing, performance, and associated health and
safety concerns, see Asphalt Shingles. In-place recycling methods allow
roadways to be rehabilitated by reclaiming the existing pavement, remixing, and
repaving on-site. In-place recycling techniques include rubbishing, hot in-place
recycling, cold in-place recycling, and full-depth reclamation. For further
information on in-place methods, see Road Surface.
Performance
During its service life, the asphalt cement binder, which makes up about 5–6%
of a typical asphalt concrete mix, naturally hardens and becomes stiffer. This
aging process primarily occurs due to oxidation, evaporation, exudation, and
physical hardening. For this reason, asphalt mixes containing RAP and RAS are
prone to exhibiting lower workability and increased susceptibility to fatigue
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cracking. These issues are avoidable if the recycled components are apportioned
correctly in the mix. Practicing proper storage and handling, such as by keeping
RAP stockpiles out of damp areas or direct sunlight, is also important in avoiding
quality issues. The binder aging process may also produce some beneficial
attributes, such as by contributing to higher levels of rutting resistance in asphalt
containing RAP and RAS. One approach to balancing the performance aspects of
RAP and RAS is to combine the recycled components with virgin aggregate and
virgin asphalt binder. This approach can be effective when the recycled content
in the mix is relatively low and tends to work more effectively with soft virgin
binders. A 2020 study found that the addition of 5% RAS to a mix with a soft,
low-grade virgin binder significantly increased the mix's rutting resistance while
maintaining adequate fatigue cracking resistance. In mixes with higher recycled
content, the addition of virgin binder becomes less effective, and rejuvenators
may be used.[28] Rejuvenators are additives that restore the physical and
chemical properties of the aged binder.[29] When conventional mixing methods
are used in asphalt plants, the upper limit for RAP content before rejuvenators
become necessary has been estimated at 50%. Research has demonstrated that
the use of rejuvenators at optimal doses can allow for mixes with 100% recycled
components to meet the performance requirements of conventional asphalt
concrete.
Other recycled materials in asphalt concrete
Beyond RAP and RAS, a range of waste materials can be re-used in place of
virgin aggregate, or as rejuvenators. Crumb rubber, generated from recycled
tires, has been demonstrated to improve the fatigue resistance and flexural
strength of asphalt mixes that contain RAP. In California, legislative mandates
require the Department of Transportation to incorporate crumb rubber into
asphalt paving materials. Other recycled materials that are actively included in
asphalt concrete mixes across the United States include steel slag, blast furnace
slag, and cellulose fibers. Further research has been conducted to discover new
forms of waste that may be recycled into asphalt mixes. A 2020 study conducted
in Melbourne; Australia presented a range of strategies for incorporating waste
materials into asphalt concrete. The strategies presented in the study include the
use of plastics, particularly high-density polyethylene, in asphalt binders, and the
use of glass, brick, ceramic, and marble quarry waste in place of traditional
aggregate. Rejuvenators may also be produced from recycled materials,
including waste engine oil, waste vegetable oil, and waste vegetable grease.
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Four major types of asphalt failure that we deal with include:
Distortions:
In some cases, the asphalt layer may shift or transform under stress. The
pavement may develop ruts along over-used wheel paths (rutting), or it may be
forced sideways (shoving)—especially at intersections. Pits or depressions may
also form if the asphalt settles improperly or isn’t adequately supported.
Skidding:
If vehicles don’t have adequate traction on an asphalt surface, serious hazards
can arise for both drivers and pedestrians. The issue is generally caused by
fallout from poor construction techniques or material selection, whether due to
inadequate drainage (allowing standing water and ice in inclement conditions) or
a poor aggregate mix that polishes smooth over time.
Cracking:
Some crack formation is natural and unavoidable. But excess cracking, or
problematic cracking with specific causes, is clear and obvious evidence of
asphalt distress. This may include:
 Fatigue/alligator cracking, caused by overuse.
 Block cracking, due to temperature shifts
 Edge cracking, lack of support at pavement edge
 Longitudinal cracking, poor construction, or aging
 Transverse cracking, shrinking of asphalt layer.
 Slippage cracking, vehicle behavior, and wear
 Reflection cracking, caused by movement of an old pavement layer below
an overlay.
Disintegration:
Worst of all is disintegration, which presents either pothole formation or raveling.
It’s relatively easy to identify potholes. They’re bowl-shaped failures in the
asphalt surface that grow with wear and moisture exposure and often form as
complications from cracking or other minor damage that isn’t properly resolved.
Raveling, on the other hand, involves the finer elements of the asphalt mixture
breaking away as the entire surface disintegrates at once. This may be because
of overuse or simple age, and you can identify raveling when the surface is
extremely bumpy or uneven—often covered by a fine dust—and fewer and fewer
small rocks are left at the surface, leaving behind the coarse stones.

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