HEAT TREATMENT

Heat treatment is the process of heating metal without letting it reach its molten, or melting, stage,
and then cooling the metal in a controlled way to select desired mechanical properties. Heat
treatment is used to either make metal stronger or more malleable, more resistant to abrasion or more
ductile.

Stages of Heat Treatment

There are three stages of heat treatment:

 Heat the metal slowly to ensure that the metal maintains a uniform temperature
 Soak, or hold, the metal at a specific temperature for an allotted period of time
 Cool the metal to room temperature

Types of Heat Treatment Processes

1. Annealing
2. Normalizing
3. hardening
4. Tempering
5. Nitriding
6. Cyaniding
7. Induction Hardening
8. Flame Hardening

Annealing is one of the most important processes of heat treatment. It is one of the most widely used
operations in the heat treatment of iron and steel and is defined as the softening process.

Heating from 30 – 50°C above the upper critical temperature and cooling it at a very slow rate by seeking
it the furnace. The main aim of annealing is to make steel more ductile and malleable and to
remove internal stresses. This process makes the steel soft so that it can be easily machined.

Purpose of Annealing
 It softens steel and to improve its machinability.
 To refine grain size and remove gases.
 It removes the internal stresses developed during the previous process.
 To obtain desired ductility, malleability, and toughness.
 It modifies the electrical and magnetic properties.

Procedure for Annealing

Depending on the carbon content, the steel is heated to a temperature of about 50° to 55°C above its
critical temperature range. It is held at this temperature for a definite period of time depending on the type
of furnace and nature of work. The steel is then allowed to cool inside the furnace constantly.

Application of annealing
It is applied to castings and forgings.
2. Normalizing

Normalizing: The main aim of normalizing is to remove the internal stresses developed after the cold
working process. In this, steel is heated 30 – 50°C above its upper critical temperature and cooling it in
the air.
It improves mechanical and electrical properties, machinability & tensile strength. Normalizing is the
process of heat treatment carried out to restore the structure of normal condition.

Purpose of Normalizing
 Promote uniformity of structure.
 To secure grain refinement.
 To bring about desirable changes in the properties of steel.
Procedure for Normalizing
The steel is heated to a temperature of about 40° to 50°C above its upper critical temperature. It is held at
this temperature for a short duration. The steel is then allowed cool in still air at room temperature, which
is known as air quenching.
Application of Normalizing
 It is applied castings and forgings to refine grain structure and to relieve stresses.
 It is applied after cold working such as rolling, stamping and hammering.

3. Hardening
Hardening: The main aim of the hardening process is to make steel hard tough. In this process, steel is
heated 30° – 40°C above the upper critical temperature and then followed by continues cooling to room
temperature by quenching in water or oil. It is the opposite process of annealing.
Purpose of Hardening

 By hardening, it increases the hardness of steel.

 To resist to wear
 Allows the steel to cut other metals

Procedure for Hardening

 The steel is heated above its critical temperature range. It is held at that temperature for a
definite period of time. The steel is then rapidly cooled in a medium of quenching.
 The quenching medium is selected according to the degree of hardness desired. The air,
water, bring, oils and molten salts are used as quenching mediums. A thin section such knife
blades are cooled in air. Water is widely used medium but it results in the formation of
bubbles on the surface of the metal.
 Hence brine solution is used to prevent this. Oil is used when there is a risk of distortion on
cracks and is suitable for alloy steels. The molten salts are used to cool thin section to obtain
crack-free and impact-resistant products.
Application of Hardening
It is applied for chisels, sledgehammer, hand hammer, centre punches, taps, dies, milling cutters, knife
blades and gears.

4. Tempering
Tempering: When the hardening process hardens a steel specimen, it becomes brittle and has high
residual stress. It is an operation used to modify the properties of steel hardened by quenching for the
purpose of increasing its usefulness.
Tempering or draw results in a reduction of brittleness and removal of internal strains caused during
hardening. Steel must be tempered after the hardening process.
The tempering is divided into three categories according to the usefulness of steel required.
 Low-temperature tempering.
 Medium temperature tempering.
 High-temperature tempering.
Purpose of Tempering
 To relieve internally stressed caused by hardening.
 To reduce brittleness.
 Improve ductility, strength and toughness.
 To increase wear resistance.
 To obtain desired mechanical properties.

Procedure for Tempering

The steel after being quenched in the hardening process is reheated to a temperature slightly above the
temperature range at which it is to be used, but below the lower critical temperature. The temperature here
varies from 100°C to 700°C.

The reheating is done in a bath of oil or molten lead or molten salt. The specimen is held in the bath for a
period of time till attains the temperature evenly, the time depends on the composition and desired quality
of steel. Now the specimen is removed from the bath and allow to cool slowly in still air.

Application of Tempering
It is applied to cutting tools, tools, and gears, which are hardened by the hardening process.

5. Nitriding
Nitriding is the process of the case or surface hardening in which nitrogen gas is employed to obtain hard
skin of the metal. In this process, steel is heated in the presence of ammonia environment.
Due to this, a nitrogen atom is deposited and makes material hard. Induction hardening and Flame
hardening objects are heated by an oxy-acetylene flame.
Purpose of Nitriding

 To harden the surface of the steel to a certain depth.

 Increase resistance to wear and fatigue.
 To increase corrosion resistance.

Procedure for Nitriding

 It is done in the electric furnace where temperature varying between 450° and 510°C is
maintained. The part is well machined and finished and placed in an airtight container
provided with outlet and inlet tubes through which ammonia gas is circulated.
 The container with the part is placed in the furnace and ammonia gas is passed through it
while the furnace is heated.
 During the process of heating nitrogen gas is released from ammonia in the form of atomic
nitrogen, which reacts with the surface of the part, and forms iron nitrate.
 The depth of entrance depends upon the length of time spent at the nitriding temperature.
The part is taken out and it does not require any quenching or further heat treatment.
Application of Nitriding
It is applied for hardening the surface of medium carbon alloy steels.
6. Cyaniding
Cyaniding: In this process, steel is heated in the presence of sodium cyanide environment. Due to this,
carbon and nitrogen atoms are deposited on the surface of steel and make it hard.
Purpose of Cyaniding
 This method is effective for increasing the fatigue limit of medium and small-sized parts
such as gears, shafts, wrist pins etc.
 To increase surface hardness.
 increase wear resistance.
 To give the clean, bright and pleasing appearance to the hardened surface.

Produce for Cyaniding

 The parts to be treated is dipped in a molten cyanide salt bath maintained at a temperature of
950°C. The molten salts used are sodium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium cyanide and soda
ash.
 The immersed article is left in the molten cyanide salt at a temperature of 950°C for about 15 to
20 minutes. The decomposition of sodium cyanide yield nitrogen and carbon from carbon
monoxide, which is diffused into the surface resulting in hardening the surface. The part is then
taken out of the bath and quenched in water or oil.
Application of Cyaniding

 It is applied to small articles like gears, bushing, screws, pins and small hand tools, which require
a thin and hard wear-resisting surface.

7. Carburising
Carburising: In this process, steel is heated in the presence of carbon environment. Due to this carbon
atoms are deposited on the metal surface and make it hard.

8. Case Hardening or Surface Hardening

The main aim of this process is to make the only external surface of steel hard and inner core soft. It is the
process of carburisation i.e., saturating the surface layer of steel with carbon, or some other process by
which case is hardened and the core remains soft.

Purpose of Case Hardening

 To obtain a hard and wear resistance to machine parts.
 By case hardening, it obtains a tough core.
 To obtain a higher fatigue limit and high mechanical properties in the core.
Purpose of Heat Treatment of Steel
The following are the purposes of heat treatment.
 To improve mechanical properties such as tensile strength, hardness, ductility, shock
resistance, and resistance to corrosion.
 Improve machinability.
 To relieve the internal stresses of the metal-induced during cold or hot working.
 To change or refine grain size.
 Improve magnetic and electric properties.
 Increase resistance to wear, and corrosion.
 To increase the surface hardness.
Carbonaceous materials

Carbonaceous materials are obtained via heat treatment from various sources, including coal, liquefied
coal, coke, petroleum, resins, carbon blacks, paraffins, olefins, pitch, tar, polycyclic aromatic compounds
(naphthalene, biphenyl, naphthalene sulfonic acid, anthracene sulfonic acid, phenanthrene sulfonic acid,
etc.

 Solid - Solid carbonaceous material is hydrocracked to provide aliphatic and aromatic

hydrocarbons for use as gaseous and liquid fuels or chemical feed stock. Particulate
carbonaceous material such as coal in slurry with recycled product oil is preheated in liquid state
to a temperature of 600. degree.
 Liquid -
 Gas - Carbonaceous fuel means any form of combustible matter (whether solid, liquid, vapor or
gas) consisting primarily of carbon-containing compounds in either fixed or volatile form, and
which is burned primarily for its heat content.

CORROSION AND ITS PREVENTION

Introduction

Corrosion is defined as unintentional destruction of a solid body by chemical or electrochemical reactions

starting from the surface.

Non-Metals corrode by chemical reactions & metals mostly by electrochemical reactions.

Metals are at high energy levels & hence there is natural tendency to go to the low energy state i.e. they
try to form oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, sulphides etc. depending on the type of environment to which
they are exposed.

Classification of corrosion

 Dry corrosion
 Wet corrosion

Dry corrosion
Dry corrosion occurs when the metals are exposed to gaseous environment . The extent of corrosion &
protective values depends on the following factors
a) Chemical affinity between the environment & the metal.
b) Protective value of film.
c) Nature of film formed.
d) Adhesion between the film & the metal surface.
e) For non ferrous film, the extent of corrosion depends on the electronic & ionic conductivities of
the film.
Wet corrosion
 Wet corrosion occur when a metal or an alloy comes in contact with an aqueous solution of salt,
acid or alkali by an electrochemical type of reaction.
 When a metal is immersed in an aqueous electrolyte,it dissolve / dissociate into metal ion +
electron.
  This tendency of metal is called as electrolytic pressure or solution pressure (p)
 The dissolved ion from the solution tend to deposit on the immersed metal surface& oppose the
solution pressure of metal. This tendency is called as osmotic pressure of metal ion (p)
 When these forces become equal, equilibrium is reached and under this condition, a definite
number of electrons accumulate on the metal surface & a definite potential will be developed on
the metal piece.

Types of Corrosion

Following are the 9 different types of corrosions that commonly occur in metals.
1. Atmospheric Corrosion
2. Erosion Corrosion
3. Selective Corrosion
4. Uniform Corrosion
5. Pitting Corrosion
6. Fretting Corrosion
7. Stress Corrosion
8. Inter-granular Corrosion
9. Corrosion Fatigue
1. Atmospheric Corrosion
Atmospheric corrosion is a type of wet corrosion caused by the action of electrolytes. In this case,
moisture present in the atmosphere, rainwater, etc. acts as electrolytes triggering corrosion of the exposed
metal surface.

2. Erosion Corrosion
Erosion corrosion is caused by mechanical abrasion due to the relative movement between metal surfaces
and corrosive fluids. In this case, the surface of metal gets deteriorated gradually by the abrasion of fast-
moving fluids and cavities are also formed. This type of corrosion commonly seen in metal tubes carrying
moving fluids in it.

3. Selective Corrosion
Selective corrosion occurs in alloys where one of the component metals is de-alloyed by the corrosive
environment. This type of corrosion can be seen in brass alloy pipes where zinc is commonly used as
another component and here zinc is de-alloyed. Similarly in the case of copper-nickel alloy tubes where
nickel is de-alloyed by selective corrosion.

4. Uniform Corrosion
In case of uniform corrosion, a uniform layer of rust is formed on the surface of metals and it is extended
over the whole surface area of metal. This type of corrosion can be seen in metals which are not protected
by surface coating. Aluminum, zinc, lead, etc. are some metals commonly affected by uniform corrosion.

5. Pitting Corrosion
Pitting is the formation of rust pits or holes on the surface. Pitting corrosion is a localized form of
corrosion where the corrosion is limited to small areas. The shapes of rust pits may not be similar but in
most of the cases, they are hemispherical in shape.
Pitting corrosion occurs when the protective oxide layer of the surface gets damaged or due to structural
defects in metal. It is considered more dangerous because it causes the failure of structure with a
relatively low overall loss of material. It can be observed in steel, aluminum, nickel alloys, etc.

6. Fretting Corrosion
Fretting corrosion occurs at the contact area of the two materials which are joined together. This is
developed when the contact area is subjected to slips and vibrations. This type of corrosion can be seen in
bolted and riveted joints, clamped surface, etc.

7. Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion caused by the combined action of a corrosive environment and mechanical stress on the
surface of the material. In its initial stage, small cracks are developed and these finally leads to failure of
the whole structure. This type of corrosion can be seen in stainless steel when they are stressed in chloride
environments, in brass materials when they are stressed in the presence of ammonia, etc

8. Inter-granular Corrosion
Inter-granular corrosion is the corrosion occurs along the grain boundaries and the grains are not affected
in this case. It is caused when there is a noticeable difference in reactivity against impurities exists
between grain boundaries and grains. This difference in reactivity occurs due to defective welding, heat
treatment stainless steels, copper, etc.

9. Corrosion Fatigue
Fatigue of materials is defined as the failure of a material due to repeated application of stress. When the
fatigue of metal is developed in the corrosive environment then it called corrosion fatigue. This can be
prevented by improving the fatigue resistance of a material.

Methods for prevention of corrosion

1) Galvanization
Galvanized metal is coated with a thin layer of zinc to protect it against corrosion. The zinc
oxidizes when it is exposed to air creating a protective coating on the metal surface.
2) Alloying
It is the method of improving the properties of a metal by mixing the metal with another metal or
nonmetal. When iron is alloyed with chromium and nickel in stainless steel is obtained. Stainless
steel does not rust at all.
3) Painting
Rusting of iron can be easily prevented by coating the surface with paint which protects iron from
air and moisture.
4) Greasing/Oiling When some grease oil is applied to the surface of an iron object, then air and
moisture cannot come in contact with it, and hence rusting is prevented.
5) Cathodic ProtectionIt is possible to prevent corrosion by applying an opposing electrical current
to the metal’s surface. One method of cathodic protection is an impressed current, using an
outside course of electrical current to overpower a corrosive current in the part.
6) sherardizing, Means of forming a uniform, corrosion-resistant coating of zinc on the surface of
iron or steel objects. The process, practiced since about 1900, is named for its English inventor
Sherard O
7) Varnishing; It is traditionally a combination of a drying oil, a resin and a thinner or solvent, and
is employed for protection against deterioration and corrosion.
 PLASTICS, WOOD AND RUBBER
A. PLASTICS
Difference Between Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Plastic

Describe properties of plastics

 Lightweight with a high strength-to-weight ratio
 Can be manufactured inexpensively and mass produced
 Water resistant
 Shock resistant
 Thermally and electrically insulating

Following are the general properties of plastics.

1. Strength
The plastics are sufficiently strong and can be used for load bearing structural members. The strength of
plastics can further be increased by reinforcing them with various fibrous materials.
Plastic as structural material has not gained much popularity because of the following resins.
 High cost of construction
 High temperature susceptibility
 Poor stiffness
 Being subjected to creep under constant load
2. Weather Resistance
The plastics, prepared from phenolic resins, are only good in resisting weather effects. Certain plastics are
seriously affected by ultraviolet light.
3. Fire Resistance
Plastics, being organic in nature, are combustible. But the resistance to fire temperatue depends upon the
plastic structure.
 Cellulose acetale plastics burn slowly.
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics are non-inflammable.
 Phenol formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde plastics are used as fire proofing materials.
4. Durability
Plastics generally possess sufficient durability, provided they offer sufficient surface hardness.
Thermoplastic varieties are found to be attacked by termites and rodents.
Dimensional Stability
Plastics easily maintain its shape and do not go under plastic deformations.
6. Chemical Resistance
Plastics offer great resistance to moisture, chemicals and solvents. Many plastics are found to possess
excellent corrosion resistance. Plastics are used to convey chemicals.
7. Thermal Resistance
The plastics have low thermal conductivity and therefore foamed or expanded varieties of plastics are
used as thermal insulators.
8. Working Conditions
All operations like drilling, sawing, punching, clamping etc are carried out easily on plastics, just like
wood.
9. Moisture Resistance
This property depends upon variety of plastics used, for example, cellulose plastics are considerably
affected by the presence of moisture, whereas polyvinyl chloride plastics offer high resistance to
moisture.
10. Ductility
Plastics, generally, have low ductility and hence plastic structural members may fail without prior
warning.
11. Misceleneous Properties
In addition to above properties, plastics have following qualities.
 Plastics are available in variety of colors, both opaque and transparent.
 Plastics possess excellent insulating property, so used as electric insulators.
 Plastics are clean, light and shining, so they need not be given any finish such as painting, polishing
etc.
 Normally thermo-plastics have low melting point and cannot be used where temperature or heat
condition persists.
 They possess good optical and sound absorption qualities.

Classification of Polymers based on the Structure of the Monomer Chain

1) A thermoplastic is a type of plastic made up of polymer resins that softens when heated and
hardens when cooled. Thermoplastics are easily recycled and do not show any chemical property
changes when heated or cooled multiple times—which makes them easy to recycle.
2) PTFE - Is a linear polymer of tetrafluoroethylene (TFE). It is manufactured by a free-radical
polymerization mechanism in an aqueous media via the addition polymerization of TFE in a
batch process.
3) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) - Is one type of thermoplastic polymer that is currently penetrating
many aspects of life through its wide use, and has become a universal polymer.
4) A thermosetting polymer - Often called a thermoset, is a polymer that is obtained
by irreversibly hardening ("curing") a soft solid or viscous liquid prepolymer (resin).
Curing is induced by heat or suitable radiation and may be promoted by high pressure, or mixing
with a catalyst.
5) Elastomer - Any rubbery material composed of long chainlike molecules, or polymers, that are
capable of recovering their original shape after being stretched to great extents—hence the name
elastomer, from “elastic polymer.” Under normal conditions the long molecules making up an
elastomeric material are irregularly.
6) Natural rubber - Is obtained from latex, a milky liquid present in either the latex vessels (ducts)
or in the cells of rubber-producing plants. Around 20,000 species of plants produce latex, but
only 2,500 species have been found to contain rubber in their latex.
7) Cellulose derivatives - A number of chemically modified forms of cellulose are used in food
processing for their special properties, including: (1)Carboxymethylcellulose, which is
prepared from the pure cellulose of cotton or wood. It absorbs up to fifty times its own weight
of water to form a stable colloidal mass.
Structure of Polymers
Most of the polymers around us are made up of a hydrocarbon backbone. A Hydrocarbon backbone
being a long chain of linked carbon and hydrogen atoms, possible due to the tetravalent nature of carbon.
A few examples of a hydrocarbon backbone polymer are polypropylene, polybutylene, polystyrene. Also,
there are polymers which instead of carbon have other elements in its backbone. For example, Nylon,
which contains nitrogen atoms in the repeated unit backbone.

Uses of Polymers

Here we will list some of the important uses of polymers in our everyday life.
 Polypropene finds usage in a broad range of industries such as textiles, packaging, stationery,
plastics, aircraft, construction, rope, toys, etc.
 Polystyrene is one of the most common plastic, actively used in the packaging industry. Bottles,
toys, containers, trays, disposable glasses and plates, tv cabinets and lids are some of the daily-
used products made up of polystyrene. It is also used as an insulator.
 The most important use of polyvinyl chloride is the manufacture of sewage pipes. It is also used
as an insulator in the electric cables.
 Polyvinyl chloride is used in clothing and furniture and has recently become popular for the
construction of doors and windows as well. It is also used in vinyl flooring.
 Urea-formaldehyde resins are used for making adhesives, moulds, laminated sheets, unbreakable
containers, etc.
 Glyptal is used for making paints, coatings, and lacquers.
 Bakelite is used for making electrical switches, kitchen products, toys, jewellery, firearms,
insulators, computer discs, etc.

Types of polymeric adhesives

A polymer adhesive may come in a variety of forms, including urethanes, epoxies, resins,
cyanoacrylates and methacrylates. Urethanes are resistant to oils, chemicals, acids and fuels, making
them a popular adhesive for many applications. These products are strong, flexible, and bond well to a
variety of surfaces
.
1) Araldite - Is a waterproof epoxy adhesive that possesses not just strong & durable bonds but is
also resistant to water, heat, corrosion and most chemicals.
2) Epoxies - Are one of the most versatile family of structural adhesives. They bond well to
many substrates and can be easily modified to achieve a wide range of properties. They provide
high shear strength on a wide variety of substrates including plastics, metals, wood, ceramics and
glass.
3) Phenolic resins - Are the condensation products of phenol and formaldehyde and are an
important class of adhesives. They are relatively inexpensive and are manufactured as liquid
compositions and films.

Explain how joint design affects the strength of a joint

Joint design in adhesive bonding is an important determinant of the strength, reliability, and
durability of the bond. The most effective joint design for a particular application depends on the
stresses the part will encounter, and the mechanical properties of the adhesive.
The aim of joint design is to obtain maximum strength for a given area of a bond. Joints for adhesive
bonding should be designed particularly for the use of adhesives in order to prevent disastrous results.
The basic characteristics of adhesives must dictate the design of joints.

B. WOOD

Wood is a Hard, fibrous material formed by the accumulation of secondary xylem produced by the
vascular cambium. It is the principal strengthening tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and
shrubs. Wood forms around a central core (pith) in a series of concentric layers called growth rings.

What is the structure of the wood?

Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody
plants. It is an organic material – a natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and
embedded in a matrix of lignin that resists compression.

What do you mean by preservation of wood?

The term “wood preservation” means the process of treating wood with chemicals or any other
biochemical substances that can help to prevent or slow down the deterioration of wood caused by either
environmental factors or by organisms such as fungi, insects, and wood borers

What are the methods of wood preservation?

1. Wood Seasoning?

Seasoning wood - Is the process of correctly drying timber in order to remove moisture in the cells of the
wood walls. It is a necessary procedure to produce seasoned timber, helping it to burn
cleanly. Seasoning can be achieved via several methods, but all methods aim to remove water and prevent
damage to the wood.

What Are The Two Ways Wood Is Seasoned?

1) Natural method where the timber drys naturally by air.
2) Kiln drying, where the wood is circulated and the temperature of the wood is controlled by a
kiln. Both methods require the timber to stacked and separated to
allow full circulation of airflow.

2. Wood curing

“Curing wood” is the process of drying wood to remove moisture. A tree is naturally full of moisture in
the form of water and sap. These should be removed from wood to make sure that it is suitable as a
building material and as fuel. There are several wood curing techniques; however, this guide only covers
the air drying method.

There are many ways to cure or dry wood.

1) Air drying is the cheapest and easiest way to cure lumber, however, this might take you a year to
completely dry wood especially hardwood.
2) Kiln. A kiln is a kind of furnace that will dry wood by exposing it to high-temperature air. Kiln
drying is a faster way to dry wood and this is mostly used by contractors and suppliers.
Things you will need for curing wood
 Wooden logs (freshly cut, green wood)
 Stickers
 Kiln (optional)

C. RUBBER
Rubber is water repellent and resistant to alkalies and weak acids.

1) Natural rubber- is a rubber material found in nature. It is produced by tapping trees, similar to
maple syrup, not by processing petroleum. The trees produce latex, which is then processed into a
usable natural rubber material.
2) Synthetic rubbers - are made primarily of petroleum byproducts. These human-made rubbers are
oxygen, oil and ozone resistant. They are used primarily for gaskets, seals, O-rings, hoses,
flooring, matting, tires, belts and more. Of all the rubbers produced each year in the U.S.,around
two-thirds are synthetics.
Synthetic rubbers include;
 Styrene-Butadiene rubber (SBR or Styrene-butadiene) - is a synthetic rubber comprising
of styrene and butadiene monomers. The random copolymer has characteristics like natural
rubber and contains: Styrene content in the range of 10-25% contributing to good wearing
and bonding characteristic
 Butyl rubber - is an elastomeric polymer used widely in adhesives and sealants, both as
primary binders and as tackifiers and modifiers. Butyl rubber is a copolymer of isobutylene
with a small amount of isoprene. These materials have relatively low strength and tend to
exhibit creep under load.
 Nitrile rubber - also known as nitrile butadiene rubber, NBR, Buna-N, and acrylonitrile
butadiene rubber, is a synthetic rubber derived from acrylonitrile (ACN) and butadiene.
Trade names include Perbunan, Nipol, Krynac and Europrene. This rubber is unusual in
being resistant to oil, fuel, and other chemicals.
 Ethylene propylene rubber - (EPR, sometimes called EPM referring to an ASTM
standard) is a type of synthetic elastomer that is closely related to EPDM rubber. Since
introduction in the 1960s, annual production has increased to 870,000 metric tons.
 Polysulfide rubber - is a synthetic rubber that is a product of the polycondensation of
dihalides of aliphatic compounds (for example, ethylene dichloride or propyl dichloride)
with polysulfides of alkali metals (for example, Na2Sx, where x=2–4).
Properties/Characteristics of Rubber:
 It is elastic; because of this property a rubber band can be stretched to 9 or 10 times its original
length and when the load is removed it regains its original length.
 It is strong and tough. Because of this property it can be put to use even under abnormal
conditions.
 It is highly impermeable to both water and air and therefore, it can be used to retain water as in
rubber bottles, hoses etc.
 It exhibits a great resistance to abrasion, tearing and cutting over a wide range of temperature—
7 to 115°C.
 NON FEROUS METAL AND ALLOYS

What are non-ferrous alloy?

Non-ferrous metals or alloys is defined as are materials that are not iron-based like their ferrous
counterparts. The difference between ferrous alloys and non-ferrous alloys is ferrous metals contain iron
making most of their metals a magnetic property. Non-ferrous metals are found in the Earth as chemical
compounds

Non-Ferrous Metals' Properties

High corrosion resistance.

Easy to fabricate – machinability,casting,welding etc.
Great thermal conductivity.
Great electrical conductivity.
Low density (less mass)
Colourful.
Non-magnetic.

1. Copper
Having been used by humans for thousands of years, copper is still widely used by industry. The addition
of copper alloys, brass (copper and zinc) and bronze (copper and tin) have widened the uses for this non-
ferrous metal further (see below for detail on these alloys).
The properties of copper and its alloys include high thermal conductivity, high electrical conductivity,
good corrosion resistance, and high ductility.
These properties have allowed copper and its alloys to be used for heat exchangers and heating vessels,
as an electrical conductor in wiring or motors, as a roofing material, for plumbing fittings, as well as for
saucepans and statues.
Copper also oxidises to a green colour.

2. Aluminium
Aluminium is an important metal that is used in a wide range of applications due to its low weight and
ease of machining. Despite being a relatively expensive material, aluminium is also the base metal for
many alloys.
Being corrosion resistant and a good conductor of heat and electricity (albeit less so than copper), as well
as having good ductility and malleability, aluminium can require annealing as it becomes hard following
cold working.
The light weight of aluminium makes it perfect for aerospace and automotive applications as well as for
marine use in yachts. Aluminium is also found in bicycle frames, saucepans and drink cans.

3. Lead
Lead has been used over the centuries for a range of applications, including for bullets, in fuels and even
in paint. However, it was found to be unhealthy when released into the atmosphere, while other
applications also caused harm to users.
Lead is the heaviest common metal and is resistant to corrosion. It also doesn’t react with many chemicals
and is soft and malleable.
Although many of its former uses are no longer allowed, lead is still widely used for batteries, power
cables, and acid tanks.
4. Zinc
Zinc has been used for centuries as an alloying element, particularly to alloy steel for a range of purposes
as well as alloying copper to create brass.
Galvanising materials with alloying elements offers them a greater resistance to rust, affording it uses for
chain-link fencing, guardrails, suspension bridges, lampposts, metal roofs, heat exchangers, and car
bodies. Zinc is also used as a sacrificial anode in cathodic protection (CP) and as an anode material for
batteries. Zinc oxide is also used as a white pigment in paints and to disperse heat during rubber
manufacture.

5. Silver
Silver has been used as a precious metal for centuries. With the highest electrical conductivity, thermal
conductivity and reflectivity of any metal, silver is also soft and malleable when heated and is highly
resistant to corrosion.
Used for jewellery and currency, silver can also be found being used in solar panels, for water filtration,
in electrical contacts and conductors as well as for stained glass and even in specialised confectionary.

6. Gold
Another precious metal that has been used for jewellery and coinage, gold is the most malleable of metals
as well as being ductile and resistant to corrosion and many other chemical reactions.
Its electrical conductivity has seen gold used in computer devices as well as for infrared shielding, for the
production of coloured glass, for gold leaf and also for tooth restoration.

7. Titanium
Titanium was first discovered in 1791 and offers good corrosion resistance and the highest strength-to-
density ratio of any metallic element. Unalloyed, it is as strong as some steels yet less dense.
It can be alloyed with metals including iron and aluminium to create strong yet lightweight alloys for
aerospace, automotive, agricultural, military, medical, and sporting uses as well as being used for
jewellery and mobile phones.

Alloys
Alloys mix a metal with an element to improve the properties or aesthetic, such as with brass, which is a
mixture of copper and zinc. Alloys can be either ferrous or non-ferrous in nature although non-ferrous
metals may require a finish as protection or to improve the appearance of an alloyed product.
Common non-ferrous alloys include bronze and brass, which have been cast since the Bronze Age. These
alloys melt at lower temperatures than ferrous materials and cast well, making them ideal for decorative
applications. Despite being softer than steel, bronze and brass are both corrosion resistant, even in the
presence of salt, and so are widely used for fittings on boats. Brass is also resistant to ‘galling,’ when the
metal wears against itself. This means that brass can also be used for mechanical parts and machined to
create items including locks, bearings and zippers. Bronze is harder than brass, although both are quite
expensive as they rely on copper. Brass is created as an alloy of copper and zinc, while bronze is an alloy
of copper with aluminium and/or nickel.
 PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials:

These properties are concerned with the following properties:
1. Tensile Strength:
It is the ability of a material to withstand tensile (stretching) loads without breaking. As the force of
gravity acting on the load is trying to stretch the rod, the rod is said to be in tension. Therefore, the
material from which the rod is made needs to have sufficient tensile strength to resist the pull of the load.
Strength is the ability of a material to resist applied forces without fracturing.

2. Toughness:
It is the ability of the materials to withstand bending or it is the application of shear stresses without
fracture, so the rubbers and most plastic materials do not shatter, therefore they are tough. For example, if
a rod is made of high-carbon steel then it will be bend without breaking under the impact of the hammer,
while if a rod is made of glass then it will broke by impact loading.

3. Malleability:
It is the capacity of substance to withstand deformation under compression without rupture or the
malleable material allows a useful amount of plastic deformation to occur under compressive loading
before fracture occurs. Such a material is required for manipulation by such processes as forging, rolling
and rivet heading.

4. Hardness:
It is the ability of a material to withstand scratching (abrasion) or indentation by another hard body, it is
an indication of the wear resistance of the material.

The ball only makes a small indentation in the hard material but it makes a very much deeper impression
in the softer material.
5. Ductility:
It refer to the capacity of substance to undergo deformation under tension without rupture as in wire
drawing (as shown in figure), tube drawing operation. For more ductile material ε p > 15%, for less ductile
material εp > 5.1 εp < 15%.

6. Stiffness:
It is the measure of a material’s ability not to deflect under an applied load.

For example, steel is very much stronger than cast iron, then the cast iron is preferred for machine beds
and frames because it is more rigid and less likely to deflect with consequent loss of alignment and
accuracy.

7. Brittleness:
It is the property of a material that shows little or no plastic deformation before fracture when a force is
applied. Also it is usually said as the opposite of ductility and malleability.

For brittle material εD < 5%.

8. Elasticity:
It is the ability of a material to deform under load and return to its original size and shape when the load is
removed. If it is made from an elastic material it will be the same length before and after the load is
applied, despite the fact that it will be longer whilst the load is being applied. All materials possess
elasticity to some degree and each has its own elastic limits.
9. Plasticity:
This property is opposite to elasticity, while the ductility and malleability are particular cases of the
property of the plasticity. It is the state of a material which has been loaded beyond it elastic limit so as to
cause the material to deform permanently.

Under such conditions the material takes a permanent set and will not return to its original size and shape
when the load is removed. When a piece of mild steel is bent at right angles into the shape of a bracket, it
shows the property of plasticity since it does not spring back strength again.

10. Creep:
The permanent deformation (strain) of a material under steady load as a function of time is called creep.
Length of our waist belt increases after some duration, is due to creep effect.
Thermally actuated process, and hence is influenced by temperature. Appreciable at temperature above
0.4. Tm where Tm is melting point of material in degree kelvin.
Creep occurs at room temperature in many materials such as lead, zinc, solder wire (an alloy of Pb and
Sn), white metals, rubber, plastics and leather etc. e.g. consider zinc where melting point is 420°C (693
K). Its creep rate is considerable above a temperature of (0.4 x 693 K = 277 K) is at about 4°C only.

11. Fatigue:
The behavior of materials under fluctuating and reversing loads (or stresses) is termed as fatigue. This
behaviour is different from that under the steady load. Fatigue is, however, not a dynamic effect. The rate
of loading is usually not a factor is fatigue behavior. Fatigue behavior is experienced by all materials
whether metals, plastics, concretes, or composites.

Main Effects of Fatigue:

Loss of ductility,
Loss of strength, and
Enhanced uncertainty in strength and the service life of materials.
Salient Features:
Fatigue occurs at stresses well within the elastic range. Various types of fluctuating and reversing stresses
are shown in figure (a-d) in a simplified manner.

In practical situations the stress variations may be drastic, unpredictable and complex. One such example,
Figure (d), is that of an aeroplane during its take-off, flight and landing.

Fatigue Limit (or Endurance Stress) and S-N Diagram:

Total number of cycles N required to bring about fracture in a material (or its specimen) under an applied
stress defines its basic fatigue life. Fatigue life of a material is expressed in percent survival out of large
number of specimens. Generally median fatigue life is estimated at 50% survival.

It is evaluated from the data of stress (S or σ) and number of cycles of failure N by conducting fatigue
test. The plot is referred to as S-N diagram. The curve of mild steel is asymptotic beyond B. It implies
that the material can withstand a stress equal to σc for any number of cycles without fatigue fracture. This
stress is called as endurance stress. It is also known as fatigue limit. This stress is generally 0.3 to 0.5
times the ultimate strength of materials.
Ferrous metals usually have a fatigue limit but non-ferrous metals and non-metals often do not. Fatigue
response of these materials is specified for a number of stress cycle normally 10 7 and known as fatigue
strength.