TEMA 1 – FERROUS MATERIAL

1.1 PROPERTIES OF METALS

- HARDNESS Refers to ability of material to resist to abrasion, penetration, cutting or

permanent distortion. Glass is extremely hard material because it's really not easy to
penetrate anything into or cut it.
- STRENGTH is the ability of material to resist deformation. So, to resist stress without
breaking
- MALLEABILITY is a malleable is metal which can be hammered, rolled or pressed into
various shapes without cracking, breaking or leaving any other detrimental effects.
- DUCTILITY is The property of a metal which permits it to be permanently drawn or
bent or twisted into various shapes without be breaking. This property is very good for
wires and tubing, we can reshape them in many ways and they can be very shaped and
don't crack.
- ELASTICITY is the property that enables a metal to return to its original shape and size
when the force which causes the change of the shape is remove. Rubber, some
plastics… are very elastic.
- TOUGHNESS is the ability of material which possesses toughness will withstand tearing
or shearing and may be stretched or otherwise default without breaking. We can bend
it stretch it, compress it but it's still would stand this kind of huge our stresses stooge
forces under the applied at, this kind of material is very tough.
- BRITTLENESS is the property of the metal which allows little bending or deformation
without shattering. If we bend it a bit more than it just cracks, Glasses and ceramic are
very brittle

1.2_ FERROUS AIRCRAFT METALS

The principle material of ferrous material is iron. They can be magnetism in comparation with
nonferrous material, that its cant be magnetism.

If we add some different elements to the iron, we get alloys. And we have different alloys
(nickels alloys, cadmium alloys…)
If carbon is added to Iron in percentages around 1%, the product is vastly superior to Iron
alone and is classified as carbon steel.
Carbon is additional element has such an influence on change on the shape on the
crystallisation on that matter.
- LOW CARBON STEEL: 0,10 to 0,30 % of carbon
- MEDIUM CARBON STEEL: 0.30 to 0,50 % of carbon
- HIGH CARBON STEEL: 0,50 to 1,05% of carbon

Chrome-nickel or stainless steels are Corrosion Resistant Steels (CRES). The anti-corrosive
degree of this steel is determined by the surface condition of the metal as well as by the
composition, temperature, and concentration of the corrosive agent, they are used in aircraft
exhaust.
The various nickel steels are produced by combining nickel with carbon steel. Steel containing
from 3 to 3´75 % nickel.
- INCONEL is a nickel-chrome-Iron alloy
1.3_ METAL WORKING PROCESSES

There are 3 method of metalworking.

- HOT WORKING
- COLD WORKING
- EXTRUDING

HOT WORKING: Almost all steel is hot worked from the ingot into some form from which it is
either hot or cold worker to the finish shape.
Complicated sections which cannot be rolled, or sections of which only a small quantity is
required, are usually forged. FORGING of steel is a mechanical working at temperatures above
the critical range to shape the metal as desired. Forging is done either by pressing or
hammering the heated steel until the desired shape is obtained.
we have different shapes of forging but forging is actually applying high forces in order to
change the shape of depth highly heated piece of the ferrous material.

HEATING Steels begins to appear dull red at about 1000 F, and as the temperature increases,
the colour changes gradually through various shades of red to orange, to yellow and finally to
white.

SOAKING The temperature of the furnace must be held constant during the soaking period,
that arrangement of the internal structure of the steel takes place.
Soaking temperatures for various types of steel are specified in ranges varying as much as 100
F.
Small parts are soaked in the lower part of specified range, and heavy parts in the upper part
of the specified range.
The length of the soaking period depends upon the type of steel and the size of the part.

COOLING The rate of cooling through the critical range determines the form that the steel will
retain.
Still air is a slow cooling medium, but is much faster than furnace cooling.
Liquids are the fastest cooling media. The most common liquid to faster are, brine (the
strongest quenching medium) used for carbon steel, water and oil (for alloy steels).
Quenching solutions act only through their ability to cool the steel. They have no beneficial
chemical action on the quenched steel and in themselves impart no unusual properties.
Brine usually is made of a 5 to 10 % solution of salt in water. Because salt is a very good
conductor.

1.4_ HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METALS

The carbon in steel exists in the form of particles of iron carbide scattered throughout an iron
matrix known as FERRITE. The number of this particles (FERRITE) determine the hardness of
the steel.
At elevated temperatures, the carbon is dissolved in the iron matrix in the form of a solid
solution calls AUSTENITE and the carbide particles appear only after the steel has been cooled.
If the cooling is slow, the carbide particles are relatively course and few (the steel is soft)
If the cooling is rapid, as by quenching in oil or water, the carbon precipitates as a cloud of
very fine carbide particles (the steel is hard)

The fact that the carbide particles can be dissolved in austenite is the basis of the heat
treatment of steel.
The temperatures at which this transformation takes place are called the critical points and
vary with the composition of the steel

HARDENING When cast iron is cooled rapidly, it forms white iron which is hard and brittle.
When cooled slowly, it forms gray iron, which is soft but brittle under impact.
When hardening carbon steel, it must be cooled to bellow 1000F in less than 1 second. If the
time exceeded the austenite begins to transform into fine pearlite.
The pearlite varies in hardness, but is much hardness than the pearlite formed by annealing
and much soft than the martensite desired.
After the 1000F temperature is reached, the rapid cooling must continue if the final structure
is to be all martensite.

TEMPERING reduces the brittleness impacted by hardening

ANNEALING the steel produces a fine grained, soft, ductile metal without internal stresses and
strains. So, in the new status still has its lowest strength
Annealing is definitely just the opposite of the hardening
Annealing of steel is accomplished by heating the metal to just above the upper critical point,
soaking at that temperature, and cooling very slowly in the furnace (1h per inch)

NORMALIZING removes internal stresses set up by heat treating, welding, casting, forming or
machining.

CARBURIZING is a case hardening process in which carbon is added to the surface of low
carbon steel.
Case hardening process produces a hard wear resistant surface or case over a strong, tough
core. Is ideal for parts which require a wear resistant surface and at the same time must be
tough enough internally to withstand the applied loads.

NITRIDING is unlike other case hardening processes in that, the part is heat treated to produce
definite physical properties.
The surface becomes a bit harder while the course still remains quite tough

FORGING is the process of deforming a product by hammering or pressing.

When the material is forged bellow the recrystallization temperature is called cold forged.
When worked above the recrystallization temperature is called hot forged

CASTING is formed by melting the metal and pouring it into a mold of the desired shape
The grain size of the metal can be controlled by the cooling rate, the alloys of the metal, and
the thermal treatment

EXTRUDING the extrusion process involves the forcing of metal through an opening in a die,
thus causing the metal to take the shape of the die opening. The shape of the die will be the
cross section of an angle, channel, tube, or some other shape.

COLD WORKING/HARDENING applies to mechanical working performed at temperatures

below the critical range. It results in a strain hardening of the metal. In fact, the metal often
becomes so hard that it is difficult to continue the forming process without softening the metal
by annealing.
1.5_ HARNESS TESTING.

Is a method of determining the results of heat treatment as well as the state of a metal prior to
heat treatment.

BRINELL TESTER: uses a hardened spherical ball, which is forced into the surface of the metal.
This ball is 10 millimetres in diameter. A pressure of 3000 kg in 10s is used for ferrous metals
and 500 kg in 30s for nonferrous metals.
There has a release mechanism for relieving the pressure after the test has been made, and
calibrated microscope is provided for measuring the diameter of the impression in millimetres.
To determine the Brinell hardness number for a metal, measure the diameter of the
impression using the calibrated microscope furnished with the tester.

ROCKWELL TESTER measures the depth, and the hardness is indicated directly on a dial
attached to machine.
Two types o penetrators are used: a diamond core (for hardened steels, the major load is 150
kg, ant the hardness is read on the C scale.) and a hardened steel ball.

FATIGUE STRENGHT TESTING is weakness in materials, especially metals, causes by repeated

variations of stress.

IMPACT TESTING is used to indicate the toughness of a material and most importantly is ability
to resist mechanical shock, to ensure that temper brittleness has not been introduced during
heat treatments.

TEMA 2 – NONFERROUS AIRCRAFT METALS

2.1 ALUMINIUM AND ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Commercially pure aluminium is a white lustrous metal which stand second in the scale of
malleability, six in ductility, and ranks high in its resistance to corrosion.
The major characteristic of aluminium is light weight and is an excellent conductor.
The most used alloys treatment in aircraft are T4 and W (Solution heat treated and quenched
but not aged), T6 (Solution heat treated and then artificially aged)

2.2 WROUGHT ALUMINUM

Wrought aluminium alloys are divided into two general classes: non-heat-treatable alloys and
heat-treatable-alloys
The aluminium alloys more used on aviation are: 2024 (with Copper) and 7075 (with Zinc)

2.3_ TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS

Titanium is used in many commercial enterprises and is in constant demand in items like
pumps, fuselage skin, firewalls, frames, spacer…
Is very light, very tough but very expensive because it’s not a natural material.

TITANIUM DESIGNATION There are three types of crystal A (alpha), B (beta) and C (combined
alpha and beta)
CORROSION CHARACTERISTICS The corrosion resistance of titanium deserves special mention.
The resistance of the metal to corrosion is caused by the formation of protective surface film
of stable oxide or chemi-absorbed oxygen. Film is often produced by presence of oxygen.
Corrosion of titanium is uniform.

2.4_ COPER AND COPPER ALLOYS

Coper is one of the most widely distributed metals. It is the only reddish coloured metal and is
second only to silver in electrical conductivity. Its use as a structural material is limited because
of its great weight.
Hight electrical and heat conductivity, is very malleable and ductile. Is ideal for making wire.

2.5_ NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS

There are two nickel alloys in aviation

- MONEL (68% of nickel)
- INCONEL (80% nickel) produce a high strength, high temperature alloy.

2.6_ ALCLAD ALUMINIUM

This term is used to designate sheet that consist of an aluminium alloy core coated with a
layer of pure aluminium to a depth of approximately 5 ½ percent on each side.
The pure aluminium coating affords a dual protection for the core, preventing contact with any
corrosive agents, and protecting the core electrolytically by preventing any attack caused by
scratching or from other abrasions.

The hardening of an aluminium alloy by heat treatment consists of four distinct steps:
1_ Heating to a predetermined temperature
2_ Soaking at temperature for a specified length of time
3_ Rapidly quenching to a relatively low temperature
4_ Aging or precipitation hardening either spontaneously at room temperature, or as
a result of a low temperature thermal treatment.

Room temperature hardening is natural aging

Hardening at moderate temperatures is artificial aging or precipitation heat treatment.

2.7 HEAT TREATMENT OF MAGNESIUM ALLOYS

Never heat magnesium alloys in a salt bath as this may result in an explosion.

TEMA 3 – COMPOSITE AND NON METALIC

3.1_ TRANSPARENT PLASTIC

There are two classes:

- Thermoplastic material will soften when heated and harden when cooled. These
materials can be heated until soft, and then formed into the desired shape. When
cooled, they will retain this shape. The same piece can be reheated and reshaped any
number of times.
 - Thermosetting plastic harden upon heating, and reheating has no softening effect.
This cant reshaped once being fully cured by the application of heat.

3,2_ LAMINATED STRUCTURES

Laminated structure with a core centre is called a sandwich structure.

The core of a laminate can be made from nearly anything.

Various types of cores for laminated structures include rigid foam, wood, metal, or the
aerospace preference of honeycomb made from paper, Nomex, carbon, fiberglass or metal.

3.3_ REINFORCED PLASTIC

Are formed of either solid laminates or sandwich-type laminated.

Sandwich-type laminates are constructed of two or more solid sheet facings or a molded
shape enclosing a fiberglass honeycomb or foam-type core.
Honeycomb cores are made of glass cloths impregnated with a polyester or a combination of
nylon and phenolic resins.

Foam type cores are formulated from combinations of alkyd resins and metatoluene di-
isocyanate.

3.4_ RUBBER

NATURAL RUBBER deteriorates more rapidly than synthetic rubber. It is used as a sealing
material for water/methanol system

TWO PART SEALANTS are compounds requiring separate packaging to prevent cure prior to
application and are identified as the base sealing compound and the accelerator.
Generally, two-part sealants are mixed by combining equal portions of base and accelerator.
The curing rate of mixed sealants varies with changes in humidity and temperature.

3.5_ LAMINATED STRUCTURES

Advanced composite material is made of a fibrous embedded in a resin matrix, generally

laminated with fibbers oriented in alternating directions to give the material strength and
stiffness

The composite material is only strong and stiff in the direction of the fibbers.

A matrix supports the fibbers and bonds them together in the composite material. The matrix
transfers any applied loads to the fibbers, keeps the fibber in their position and chosen
orientation, gives the composite environmental resistance, and determines the maximum
service temperature of a composite.

Correct ply orientation of fibre is necessary to provide a structurally efficient design.

Because the strength design requirements are a function of the applied load direction, ply
orientation and ply sequence have to be correct. Its critical during a repair to replace each
damaged ply with a ply of the same material and ply orientation.
If we put a lot of fibers in different orientation we get most properties.
WARP CLOCK Warp indicates the longitudinal fibers of a fabric. The warp is in the high
strength direction due to the straightness of the fibers

3.6_ TYPES OF FIBER

FIBERGLASS is often used for secondary structure on aircraft, such as fairings, radomes, and
wind tips. Fiberglass is also used for helicopter rotor blades

KEVLAR (aramid fibers) Are light, weight, strong and tough. They have high resistance to
impact damage.
The main disadvantage is their general weakness in compression and hygroscopy.

CARBON/GRAPHITE Carbon fibers are very stiff and strong, 3 to 10 times stiffer than glass
fibers. Carbon fiber is used for structural aircraft application, such as floor beams stabilizers,
flight controls, and primary fuselage and wing structure.

BORON is very stiff and have a high tensile and compressive strength. They are available only
as prepreg tape product.

CERAMIC FIBERS are used for high temperature applications such as turbine blades.

LIGHTNING PROTECTION FIBERS Carbon fibers are 1000 times more resistive than aluminium
to current flow, and epoxy resin is 1000000 times more resistive. The surface of an external
composite component consists of a ply or layer of conductive material for lighting and strike
protection.

3.7 PRE – IMPREGNATED PRODUCTS (PREPREGS)

Prepregs material consist of a combination of a matrix and fiber reinforcement

Prepregs materials must be stored in a freezer at a temperature below 0F to retard the curing
process.

DRY FIBER MATERIAL like carbon, glass and Kevlar.

3.8 SANDWICH STRUCTURES

A sandwich construction is a structural panel concept that consists in its simplest from of two
relatively thin, parallel face sheet bonded to and separated by a relatively thick, lightweight
core.
The most common core material used for aircraft honeycomb structures is aramid paper.
Fiberglass is used for higher strength applications.

Overexpanded core is flexible perpendicular to the ribbon direction and is used in panels with
simple curves.

3.9 MANUFACTURING DEFECTS

- Delamination - Resin starved areas - Resin rich areas - Blisters, air bubbles
- Wrinkles - Voids - Thermal decomposition.
3.10 IN – SERVICE DEFECTS

- Environmental degradation - Impact damage - Fatigue - Cracks

- Debonding - Delamination - Erosion

3.11 NON- DESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION (NDI) OF COMPOSITES

AUDIBLE SONIC TESTING (TAP TEST)

A clear, sharp, ringing sound is indicative of a well bonded solid structure, while a dull or thud-
like sound indicates a discrepant area.
This method is nor reliable for structures with more than four plies unless it is close of the
surface. It is often used to map out the damage on thin honeycomb facesheets.

RADIOGRAPHY
This inspection method is accomplished by passing X-rays through the part or assembly being
tested while recording the absorption of the rays onto a film sensitive to X-rays.

THERMOGRAPHY
The basic principle of thermal inspection consists of measuring or mapping of surfaces
temperatures when heat flows from to, or through a test object. This method is most effective
for thin laminates or for defects near the surface.

3.12 COMPOSITE REPAIR

VACUUM BAGS
Repair of composite aircraft components are often performed with a technique knows as
vacuum bagging. A plastic bag is sealed around the repair area.
Air is then removed from the bag, which allows repair plies to be drawn together with no air
trapped in between.
Atmospheric pressure bears on the repair and a strong, secure bond is created.

VACUUM EQUIPMENT
A vacuum pump is used to evacuate air and volatiles from the vacuum bag so that atmospheric
pressure consolidates the plies.

3.13_ MIXING RESINS

Since many resins system do not have a dye, the resin must be mixed slowly and fully for three
minutes. Air enters into the mixture if the resin is mixed too fast. Have to mixed slow.

3.14 SATURATION TECNIQUES

Is important to put the right amount of resin on the fabric. Too much or too little resin affects
the strength of the repair.

WOOD

3.15 REPAIR OF WOOD AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

The standard for any repair is that it should return the aircraft or component to its original
condition in strength, function and aerodynamic shape.
3.16_ SUITABLE WOOD

LAMINATED WOOD is an assembly of two or more layers of wood that have been glued
together with the grain of all layers or laminations approximately.

PLYWOOD is an assembled product of wood and glue that is usually made of an odd number
of thin plies or veneers, with the grain of each layer placed 90 grades with the adjacent ply or
plies.

3.17 DFINITION OF TERMS USED IN THE GLUE PROCESS

DOUBBLE SPREAD: spread of adhesive to both surfaces and equally divided between the two
surfaces to be jointed

OPEN ASSEMBLY TIME: period of time between the application of the adhesive and the
assembly of joint components

CLOSED ASSEMBLY TIME: time elapsing between the assembly of the joints and the
application of pressure

ADESHIVE POT LIFE: Time elapsed from the mixing of the adhesive components until the
mixture must be discarded. (Pot life is the product of time and temperature)

For prepare wood for gluing we need proper and equal moisture content of wood to be joined
(8-12%)

3.18 FABRIC TERM

WARP: is the direction along the length of fabric.

3.19 OTHER FABRIC COVERING MATERIALS

ANTI-CHAFE TAPE is used on sharp protrusion, rib caps, metal seams, and other areas to
provide a smoother surface to keep the fabric from being torn.

REINFORCING TAPE is most commonly used on rib caps after the fabric covering is installed to
protect and strengthen the area for attaching the fabric to the ribs.

RIB BRACING TAPE is used on wing ribs before the fabric is installed.

FABRIC SEALER surrounds the fibers in the fabric with a protective coating to provide adhesion
and keep out dirt and moisture. The sealer is the first coat applied to the polyester fabric after
is attached to the airframe and heat shrunk to fit snugly.

FINISHING TAPES ae applied to all seams, edges, and over the ribs once all of the procedures
above have been completed. They are used to protect these areas by providing smooth
aerodynamics resistance to abrasion.
3.20 FABRIC TESTING DEVICES

The test should be performed on exposed fabric where there is a crack or chin in the coatings...
If there is no crack or chip, coating should be removed to expose the fabric wherever the test
is to be done.
The Maule punch tester, a spring-loaded device with its scale calibrated in breaking strength,
test fabric strength by pressing against it while the fabric is still on the aircraft.

3.21 FABRIC HEAT SHRINKING

Once the fabric has been glued to the structure it can be made taut by heat shrinking.

TEMA 4 – CORROSION
Corrosion is a natural occurrence that attacks metal by chemical or electrochemical action and
convert it back to a non-metallic compound.
Four conditions must exist for corrosion can occur:
1_ A metal subject to corrosion (Anode)
2_ A dissimilar conductive material (Cathode)
3_ Presence of a continuous, conductive liquid path (Electrolyte)
4_ Electrical contact between the anode and cathode, usually in the form of metal-
to-metal contact such rivet, bolts, and corrosion.
Elimination any of one, the corrosion stops.

4.1_ MOST COMMON CORROSION AGENTS

The most corrosive gents are acids, alkalies and salt.

The atmosphere and water, the two most common media for these substances may also act as
corrosive agents.

4.2_ MICRORGANISMS

Bacteria may be either aerobic (require oxygen to alive) and inaerobic.

They accelerate corrosion by oxidizing sulphur to produce sulfuric acid.

4.3 CORROSION TYPES

GENERAL SURFACE CORROSION is the most common form of corrosion and result for direct
chemical attack on a metal surface and involves only the metal surfaces.
Usually occurs over a wide area and is more or less equal in dispersion. On polished surface,
this type of corrosion is first seen as a general dulling of the surface, and if allowed to continue
the surface becomes rough and possibly frosted in appearance.

PITTING CORROSION is one of the most destructive and intense forms of corrosion. It can
occur in any metal but in most common on metals that form protective oxide films, such as
aluminium and magnesium alloys.
Is noticeable as a white or gray powdery deposit, similar to dust, which blotches the surface.
When the deposit is cleaned away, tiny holes or pits can be seen in the surface.
CONCENTRATION CELL CORROSION (Crevice corrosion) is corrosion of metals in a metal-to-
metal joint. There are 2 types. Metal ion concentration cells and oxygen concentration cells.

INTERGRANULAR CORROSION is an attack on the grain boundaries of a metal.

It consists of quantities of individual grains, and each of these tiny grains has a clearly defined
boundary which chemically differs from metal within the grain.
The grain boundary and the grain center can react with each other as anode and cathode
when in contact with an electrolyte.
2014 and 7075 are more susceptible to intergranular corrosion id they have been improperly
heat treated.

GALVANIC CORROSION occurs when to dissimilar metals make contact in the presence of an
electrolyte. Is recognizable by the presence of a build-up of corrosion at the joint between the
metals.

FATIGUE CORROSION involves cyclic stress and a corrosive environment. Metals may
withstand cyclic stress for an infinite number of cycles so long as the stress is below the
endurance limit of the metal.
Once the limit has been exceeded, the metal will eventually crack and fail from metal fatigue.

FRETTING CORROSION (wear corrosion or friction oxidation) can occur at the interface of two
highly loaded surfaces which are not supposed to move against each other.
Vibration may cause the surfaces to rub together resulting in an abrasive wear known as
fretting.
Application of a lubricant or installation of a fretting-resistant material between the two
surfaces can reduce it.

4.4 MATERIAL TYPES AND CORROSION

ALUMINIUM AND ALUMINIUM ALLOYS are the most widely used material for aircraft
construction. Aluminium appears high in the electrochemical series of elements and corrodes
very easily.
The formation of a tightly adhering oxide film offers increased resistance under most corrosive
conditions.
Most metals in contact with aluminium form couples that undergo galvanic corrosion attack.

MAGNESIUM AND MAGNESIUM ALLOYS are the most chemically active of the metals used in
aircraft construction and are the most difficult to protect.
The corrosion in magnesium is the easiest to detect.

FERROUS MATERIAL Red iron rust results from atmospheric oxidation of steek surfaces. That
rust is not a protective coating.

NOBLE METALS Copper and copper alloys are also relatively corrosion resistant.

4.5 CORROSION PRONE AREAS

- Exhaust trail areas - Lavatories, buffets and galleys

- Battery compartments and battery vent openings - Bilge areas
- Wheel wells and landing gear - External skin areas
TEMA 5 – FASTENERS

DIFERENCE BETWEEN SREWS AND BOLTS Screws usually have lower material strength and a
looser thread fit than a bolt. The shank of a screw is typically threaded along ts entire length
without a clearly defined grip.
Most screws thread into the material they are intended to fasten and do not utilize a nut.
A bolt, on the other hand requires a nut for it to function.

PART OF BOLTS
SHANK is the part without thread
NOMINAL LENGTH is the length of the bolt without head.
THREAD LENGTH is the length of the thread
GRIP LENGTH is the length of the shank

5.1 CLASIFICATION AND MARKS OF BOLTS AND SCEWS.

4-28 → ¼ (4/16 inch) of diameter bolt and 28 threads in 1 inch.

The class of a thread indicates the tolerance allowed in manufacturing: Class 1 is a loose fit,
Class 2 is free fit, Class 3 is a medium fit, Class 4 is a close fit
Aircraft bolts are almost always manufactured in Class 3, medium fit.

BOLT CON RAYA – AN standard steel bolt (corrosion resistant)

BOLT CON + -- AN standard steel bolt
BOLT CON AN * 4 – AN standard steel bolt
BOLT CON AN * C -- AN Standard steel bolt
BOLT CON * -- AN standard Steel bolt.
CLEVIS BOLT – most shank than thread and mushroom head (round)
The head of a clevis bolt is round and is either slotted to receive a common screwdriver or
recessed to receive a Crosspoint screwdriver. This type of bolt is used only where shear loads
occur and never in tension. It is often inserted as a mechanical pin in a control system.

5.2_

AIRCRAFT NUTS they are made of cadmium plated carbon steel, stainless steel or anodized
2024T aluminium alloy.
May be obtain with right- or left-hand thread. No identifying marking or lettering appears on
nuts.

NON-SELF-LOCKING NUTS Most of the familiar types of nuts, including the plain nut, the castle
nut, the castellated nut, the plain hex nut, the light hex nut, and the plain-checknut are the
non-self-locking nuts.

SELF-LOCKING NUTS There are three typical

- Boots self-looking nuts, there are many types: boots aircraft, elastic anchor nut,
flextoc nut, fiber lock nut and elastic stop nut.
- Stainless Steel Self-locking nuts
- Elastic Stop Nuts

ANCHOR NUTS are self-locking nuts bases are made in a number of forms and materials for
riveting and welding to aircraft structure parts.
Are commonly used on places that the technician only has access to a single side of the work
(the side that a wrench or socket can be used).
DOWELS or dowel pins are used in machinery to precisely locate two adjoining parts or
assemblies. They are typically cylindrical and machined from steel but can be made from any
material appropriate for a specific application.

PLAIN WASHERS aluminium and aluminium alloy washers may be used under bolt heads or
nuts on aluminium alloy or magnesium structures where corrosion caused by dissimilar metals
is a factor. Never in steel bolt.

LOCKWASHER should never be used under fastener to primary or secondary structures.

SHAKEPROOF LOCKWASHER are round washer designed with tabs or lips that are bent upward
across the sides of a hex nut or bolt to lock the nut in place.
They should be used only once because the tabs tend to break when bent a second time.

LOCK PLATES In certain circumstances, the torque applied, the thread, or the type of nut,
being used may not guarantee that the nut would not unwind in us.
Lock plates are used where positive retention of a nut is required.
Removal of the nut simply involves removing the setscrews, lifting off the plate and unwinding
the nut. Prevent nuts unwinding.

5.3 AIRCRAFT RIVETS

Rivet is a metal pin with a formed head on one end when the rivet is manufactured.
The second head, formed either by hand or by pneumatic equipment, is called a “shop head”
and his function is the same that a nut on a bolt.

Rivet that need a heat treat before use

- 2017T with raised dot head marking and head treat before use. (D)
- 2024T with double dash head marking and head treat before use (DD)
That annealed before being driven. They harden with age.
They are quenched in cold water (70F) immediately after heat treating. Begin they exposed to
room temperature.

BLIND RIVETS when there aren’t access to both side of a riveted structure or structural part is
impossible, we use blind rivet.

Pull-thru Rivets are an example or blind rivets and is Instalation with a tool.

PIN RIVETS (hi-shear) rivets are classified as special rivets but are not of the blind type. Access
to both sides of the material is required to install.

TAPPER-LOK are the strongest special fasteners used in aircraft. Is designed to completely fill
hole, but unlike the rivet, it fills the hole without deforming the shank.
TEMA 6 – PIPES AND UNIONS

Aircraft fluid lines are usually made of metal tubing or flexible hose. Metal tubing is used in
stationary applications and where long, relatively straight runs are possible. They are widely
used in aircraft for fuel, oxygen, coolant…

ALUMININUM ALLOY TUBING

- 1100H14 or 3003H14 for low or negligible fluid pressures

- 2024T3, 5052-O and 6061T6 for low and medium pressures (1000 – 1500 PSI)

STEEL TUBING is used extensively in high pressure hydraulic system (3000 PSI), are used too
where are a risk of FOD.

TITANIUM TUBING 3AL-2´5V is 30% stronger than steel and 50% lighter.
Not use in oxygen system because are oxygen reactive.

AN FLARED FITTINGS Standard AN fitting is identified by their black (steel) or blue

(aluminium)

AN are conical and MS not

SWAGED FITTINGS create a permanent connection that is virtually maintenance free.

6.2 FLEXIBLE HOSE FLUID LINES

- Low pressure: - 250 PSI Fabric braid reinforcement

- Medium pressure: up to 3000 PSI. One wire braid reinforcement. Smaller sizes carry ip
to 3000 psi. Larges sizes carry pressure up to 1500 psi
- High pressure: all sizes up to 3000 psi operating pressures.

Is important never straighten a preformed hose assembly. Use a support wire if the hose is
to be removed for maintenance. First instal the hose and then cut the wire.
Flexible hoses contract in length and expands in diameter when pressurized.

6.3 FLUID LINE IDENTIFICATION

Fluid lines are often identified by markers made up of colour codes, words, and geometric
symbols to designate the type of system and its contents.
Tapes and decals are generally placed on both ends of a line and at least once in each
compartment through which the line runs.

TEMA 7 – SPRINGS

FLAT SPRINGS were originally developed from flat rectangular pieces of spring steel.
Magnetos.

LEAF SPRINGS are formed by layers of flat springs. Are most common on automobiles and
train.
SPIRAL SPRINGS are formed by spirally winding a flat spring or a wire. Are found in analog
instruments and are the springs used to power a wind-up clock or watch.

HELICAL COMPRESSION AND TENSION SPRINGS the most common is helical wound spring.
These can be used for compression or tension loads. When they are used in pair the
compression springs, situated one inside of the other, are wound opposite direction.

HELICAL TORSION SPRINGS are similarly wound as helical tension and compression springs.

TORSION BAR SPRINGS absorbs torsion and angular deflection. They have many applications,
the most common is in automobile suspension.

7.2_ SPRING MATERIAL

HARD DOWN SPRING WIRE (carbon-steel stock) used in application with low stress and not
where fatigue loading is exerted.

OIL TEMPERED SPRING wire has a higher fatigue life and sometimes is used for valve springs.

MUSIC WIRE high quality, carbon steel stock suitable for small helical springs used in
application involving high fatigue stresses.

HIGH NICKEL ALLOYS are commonly found in aero-engine app. Model K Monel (3% aluminium)
Inconel and Inconel X. Very corrosion resistant.

TEMA 8 – BEARINGS

Bearings are used to take radial loads, thrust loads, or a combination of the two.

PLAIN BEARINGS are generally used for the crankshaft, cam ring, camshaft, connecting rods,
and the accessory drive shaft bearings.
Only for radial louds and sometimes for thrust loads.
Are usually made of nonferrous metals, such silver, bronze, aluminium, and various alloys od
copper.

BALL BEARINGS consist of grooved inner and outer races, one or more sets of balls, in bearing
designed for disassembly, and a bearing retainer.
Are used to transmit propeller thrust and radial loads to the engine nose section of radial
engines.
This can accept both radial and thrust loads. Are used in turbine to support one end of a shaft
(radial) and to keep the shaft from moving axially (thrust)

ROLLER BEARINGS are made in many types and shapes, but the two types generally used in
aircraft engine are the straight roller and the tapered rolled bearings (the inner and outer-
race bearing surfaces are cone-shaped. Such bearings withstand both radial and thrust load)
Radial loads are high.

DEEP GROOVE BALL BEARING controls both radial and thrust.

TEMA 9 – TRANSMISSIONS

9.1 THE GEAR

Two gear with teeth on their outer edges, act like a fist class lever when one drives the other.
The gear with the input force is drive gear
The other gear is driven gear.
A gear between the driven gear and drive gear is intermediation gear.
The effort arm is the diameter of the driven gear, and the resistance arms is the diameter of
the drive gear.

BEVEL GEAR is used to change the plane of rotation, so that a shaft turning horizontally can
make a vertical shaft rotate

PLANETARY SUN GEAR SYSTEM is found in propeller gear box. The power output shaft of the
engine would drive the sun gear in the middle, which rotates the planetary gears and
ultimately the ring gear.
Reduces de RPM 100 times +-

GEAR RATIO is the number of teeth each gear represents when two gears are used in a aircraft
component. If the pinion gear has 8 teeth and the spur gear has 28, the gear ratio is 8:28 or 2:7

PROPELLER REDUCTION GEARING Its necessary to provide reduction gears to limit the
propeller rotation speed to a value which efficient operation is obtained.
The three types more commonly used are spur planetary, bevel planetary and supur and
pinion.

9.2 GEAR TERMS

BACKLASH (OR LASH) is the clearance which must exist between gear teeth at point of mesh,
essential with all forms of gearing to allow for expansion and lubrication.

IDDER GEAR Is used between two parallel shafts to maintain the direction of rotation and does
not affect the ratio of the gears.

PINION smaller of two mating gears.

STEP-UP DRIVE a drive through a gear train in which the speed of rotation of the output
(drive) shaft is increased. Output bigger than input.

STEP-DOWN DRIVE a reduction gear in which the rev/mm of the output shaft is reduced while
the torque is increased. Input bigger than output

GEAR LASH AND PATTERN Is determined by how the teeth of one gear mate with the teeth of
another gear.
If the teeth of one gear are set too tightly into the teeth of another, there will be no lash and
the gears will not be properly lubricated because a film of oil must be present between the
teeth of the gear as they mesh.
If the gear is meshed too high relation to the teeth, the load will be transmitted to the
smallest portion of the tooth, breaking the teeth.
The ideal placement of the teeth is in the middle area.
9.3 CHAINS AND SPROCKETS (Cadena)

Are the simple roller type that consist of outer and inner plates, rollers, bearing pins and
bushes.

9.4 BELTS AND PULLEYS

Are used to transmit movement/power in place of cables.

Nominally belts and pulleys use only friction to transmit the power from input to output shafts.
These are unfortunately, prone to slippage so, to reduce the problem, V-section belts were
devised and yet a further improvement has seen the development of serrated or toothed belts
and pulleys, which use the principle of engagement, rather than friction to provide drive.

Another application of belt drives is on certain piston engine helicopters, which use a belt to
connect the output pulley on the end of the crankshaft to the transmission and rotor.
The tension pulleys, which bear onto the belt, keep it at the correct tension for normal use.
If is soft there are skidding, if is thigh the bearing and belt can break.

TEMA 10 – CONTROL CABLES

A 7x7 cable consist in 7 strands of seven wires each

A 7x19 cable consist in 7 strands of 19 wires each. If have more wires is most flexible
That are the most common aircraft cables.

Cable may be equipped with several different types of fittings, such as terminals, thimbles,
bushings …
Terminal fittings are generally of the swaged type.

10.1_ CABLE GUIDES

Pulley are used to guide cables and also to change the direction of cable movement.
There are different damages on pulley (imagen en pag 314)

10.2_ CABLE TENSION

Several manufacture´s make a variety of tensiometer, each type designed for different kind of
cables, sizes, and tension. Is very important, the tension must be the correct.

10.3 TURNBUCKLES

Is a mechanical screw device consisting of two threaded terminals and a threaded barrel.
Are fitted in the cable assembly for the purpose of making minor adjustments in cable length
and for adjusting cable tension.
Always when we remove the clip, have to install new clip, we can’t reuse the old locking clip.

10.4_ PUSH RODS (CONTROL RODS)

TORQUE TUBES Where an angular or twisting motion is needed in a control system, a torque
tube is installed. Is used to transmit motion in opposite direction.
BOWDEN CABLE Is a type of flexible cable used to transmit mechanical fore or energy. An
inner steel or stainless-steel cable is free to slide inside an outer cable housing. The inner cable
moves linearly to transmit force and the housing is typically fixed at both ends.
Light single engine aircraft often use a Bowden cable to open and close the throttle.

TEMA 11 – ELECTRICAL CABLES AND CONECTORS

11.1 WIRE TYPES

Cable installation includes

- Two or more separately insulated conductors in the same jacket
- Two or more separately insulated conductors twisted together
- One or more insulated conductors covered with a metallic braided shield
- A single insulated center conductor with metallic braided outer conductor (radio
frequency cable)

CONDUCTORS the two most used are copper and aluminium.

Copper has higher conductivity and is more ductile, is high tensile strength and can be easily
soldered. But is expensive and heavier than aluminium.
Aluminium has only 60% of the conductivity of copper.

PLATING Bare copper develops a surface oxide coating at a rate dependent on temperature.
This oxide film is a poor conductor of electricity and inhibits determination of wire.
All aircraft wiring is coating of tin, silver or nickel.
- Tin coated copper is a very common plating material. Is successfully for soldered.
- Siler coated is used where temperatures do not exceed 200C (392F)
- Nickel- coated wire retains its properties beyond 260C

INSULATION The two fundamental properties of insulation materials are insulation resistance
(the resistance to current leakage through and over the surface of insulation materials) and
dielectric strength (is the ability of the insulator to withstand potential difference and is
usually expressed in terms of the Voltage at which the insulation fails because od the
electrostatic stress)

WIRE SHIELDING is the process of applying a metallic covering to wiring and equipment to
eliminate Electromagnetic Interference. (EMI)
Use shielding with 85% coverage or greater is recommended.

WIRE SELECTION Wire is manufactured in sizes according to a standard as known as the

American Wire Gauge (AWG). The diameters become smaller as the gauge numbers become
larger. Typical wire size ranges from 40 to 0000. Higher gauge number – Small diameter
Larger wires are usually stranded to increase their flexibility. In such cases, the total area can
be determined by multiplying the area of one strand by the number of strands in the wire or
cable.

If it is desirable to use wire sizes smaller than #20 particular attention should be given to the
mechanical strength and installation handling of these wires.
11.2 ALLOWABLE VOLTAGE DROP

The voltage drops in the main power wires from the generation source or the battery to the
bus should not exceed 2% of the regulated voltage when the generator is carrying rated
current or the battery is being discharged at the 5 min rate.

The resistance of the current return path through the aircraft structure is generally considered
negligible. However, this is based on the assumption that adequate bonding to the structure or
a special electric current return path has been provided that is capable of carrying the required
electric current with a negligible voltage drop.

11.3_ WIRE IDENTIFICATION

Identification markings should be placed at each end of the wire and at 15-inch maximum
intervals along the length of the wire.

11.4 BEND RADII

The minimum radius of bends in wire groups or bundles must not be less than 10 times the
outside diameter of the largest wire or cable, except that at the terminal strips where wires
break out at terminations o reverse direction in a bundle.

11.5_ CLAMP INSTALLATION

Wires and wires bundles must be supported by clamps or plastic cable straps.

They should be spaced at intervals not exceeding 24 inches. Clamps on wire bundles be
selected so that they have a snug fit without pinching wires.

11.6_ CONDUIT

Is manufactured in metallic (rigid) and non-metallic (flexible) materials.

Is used to protect the cables or wires.
By specifying the conduit Inner Diameter (ID) about 25% larger than the maximum diameter
of the wire bundle. If is small they gone brake. If is big, the protection is not efficient.

11.7_ TERMINAL LUGS

Wire terminal lugs should be used to connect wiring to terminal block studs or equipment
terminal studs.

11.8_ PRE-INSULATED SPLICES

Pre-insulated terminal lugs and splices must be installed using a high-quality crimping tool.
If the crimp is not deep enough, it may not be tight enough to retain the wire in the terminal
connector.

CRIMPING TOOLS hand, portable and stationary power tools are available for crimping
terminal lugs. These tools crimp the barrel to the conductor, and simultaneously form the
insulation support to the wire insulation.
11.9 JUNCTION BOX

Are for collecting, organizing, and distributing circuits to the appropriate harnesses that are
attached to the equipment.
Are used to conveniently house miscellaneous components, such as relays and diodes.
Junction boxes that are used in high temperature areas should be made of stainless steel.

HERMETIC CONECTOR provide a pressure seal for maintaining pressurized areas.

11.10 SPARE CONTACTS FOR FUTURE WIRING

A good practice is to provide

2spares on connectors with 25 or fewer contacts.
4 spares on connectors with 26 to 100 contacts and
6 spares on connectors with more than 100 contacts.

11.11 WIRE INSTALATION INTO THE CONNECTOR

Wires that perform the same function in redundant systems must be routed through separate
connectors.

11.12 ADJACENT LOCATION

Mating of adjacent connectors should not be possible. In order to ensure this, adjacent
connector pairs must be different in shell size, coupling means, insert arrangement, or keying
arrangement.

11.13_ COAXIAL CABLE

All wiring needs to be protected from damage. However, coaxial and triaxial cables are
particularly vulnerable to certain types of damage.
Coaxial cables with solid center conductors should not be used. Stranded center coaxial cables
can be used as a direct replacement for solid center coaxial.