PROPERTIES OF METALS

The various properties of metals can be assessed, by accurate laboratory tests on sample
pieces. The terminology, associated with these properties, is outlined in the following
paragraphs.

BRITTLENESS
The tendency of the metal to shatter, without significant deformation. It will shatter under
a sudden, low stress but will resist a slowly-applied, higher load.

CONDUCTIVITY
The ability of a metal to conduct heat, (thermal conductivity) and electricity. Silver and
copper are excellent thermal and electrical conductors.

DUCTILITY
The property of being able to be permanently extended by a tensile force. It is measured
during a tensile, or stretching, test, when the amount of stretch (elongation), for a given
applied load, provides an indication of a metal's ductility.

ELASTICITY
The ability of a metal to return to its original shape and size after the removal of any
distorting force. The 'Elastic Limit' is the greatest force that can be applied without
permanent distortion.

HARDNESS
The ability of a metal to resist wear and penetration. It is measured by pressing a
hardened steel ball or diamond point into the metal's surface. The diameter or depth of the
resulting indentation provides an indication of the metal's hardness.

MALLEABILITY
The ease with which the metal can be forged, rolled and extruded without fracture.
Stresses, induced into the metal, by the forming processes, have to be subsequently
relieved by heat. treatment. Hot metal is more malleable than cool metal.

PLASTICITY
The ability to retain a deformation after the load producing it has been removed.
Plasticity is, in fact, the opposite of elasticity.

TOUGHNESS
The ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads. A metal's toughness is tested by
impact with a swinging pendulum of known mass.
STRENGTH
There are several different measurements of the strength of a metal, as may be seen from
the following sub-paragraphs:
TENSILE STRENGTH - The ability to resist tension forces applied to the metal.

YIELD STRENGTH- The ability to resist deformation. After the metal yields, it is said
to have passed its yield point.

SHEAR STRENGTH- The ability to resist side-cutting loads such as those, imposed on
the shank of a rivet, when the materials it is joining attempt to move apart in a direction
normal to the longitudinal axis of the rivet.

BEARING STRENGTH- The ability of a metal to withstand a crushing force.

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS

-Any alloy containing iron as its main constituent is called a ferrous metal. The most
common ferrous metal,
in aircraft construction is steel, which is an alloy of iron with a controlled amount
of carbon added.

IRON
If carbon is added to iron, in percentages ranging up to approximately 1 percent, the
product is vastly superior to iron alone and is classified as carbon steel. Carbon steel
forms the base of those alloy steels produced by combining carbon steel with other
elements known to improve the properties of steel. A base metal (such as iron) to which
small quantities of other metals have been added is called an alloy. The addition of other
metals changes or improves the chemical or physical properties of the base metal for a
particular use.

STEEL
Pig iron is also re-melted to make steel, in a special furnace, which passes super-heated
air through the molten metal to burn off the excess carbon. When this is done, a measured
amount of carbon is introduced and the molten metal poured into moulds, which on
cooling, leaves the steel in the form of ingots. The ingots are then heated to about 1200]C
(1473 K) and rolled into sheet or plate.
High quality steels are usually produced in an electric furnace, as alloying can be
controlled easier than in gas furnaces. The carbon electrodes produce an intense arc and
the steel, when molten, can have impurities removed and measured amounts of alloying
materials added.
Classification of Steels
The (American) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has classified steel alloys with a
four-digit numerical index system (refer Table 1). The first two digits identify the steel
type, while the last two digits denote the percentage of carbon in the steel, so 1030
indicates a plain-carbon steel with 0.30% carbon. The British Standards Institute (BSI)
has a different classification system.
ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STEEL
Iron has few practical uses in its pure state, but adding small amounts of other materials
to molten iron dramatically changes its properties. Some of the more common alloying
elements include carbon, sulphur, silicon, phosphorus, nickel and chromium (also
referred to as chrome).

Hardening Process - Quenching Mediums

The effective hardening of carbon steels depends not only on the amount of carbon
present but also on very rapid cooling from high temperature. The cooling rate mainly
depends on the cooling medium, the size of tank and the mass of the object to be cooled.

Agitation in the cooling bath can also speed up the cooling rate and, in terms of cooling
severity, brine is more effective than water, followed by oil and finally air.

Carbon steels require an extremely rapid cooling phase, so brine or water is normally
used, whereas oil or air-cooling is used on certain alloy steels. The rapid cooling rates,
involved in the hardening of carbon steel, cause enormous thermal stresses in the
component and distortion is commonplace. Cracking may also occur in some cases.

To achieve relatively uniform cooling it is sometimes necessary to immerse the object in

a specific way because of its shape and mass.

TEMPERING
Tempering is carried out to improve the toughness of hardened steel whilst suffering only
a modest drop in strength.
Accurate temperature measuring equipment, in addition to well-
equipped facilities, is required to do these procedures on aerospace metals.

Annealing
Annealing is normally achieved on carbon steel by heating to just above the UCP
followed by very slow cooling. In practice the slow cooling rates are achieved by cooling
in the furnace or by immersing in a poor thermal conductor such as ashes. The end result
is a stress-free, fully softened material, suitable for major forming operations such as
deep pressing, drawing and extruding.

The annealing of steel may be for one of the following purposes:

• To soften the steel for forming or to improve machinability
• To relieve internal stresses induced by a working process
• To remove coarseness of grain.

Normalising
This process is similar to annealing, except that the cooling is done in still air. The end
result is a stress-free, soft material with uniform fine grain structure. Normalising is
commonly used on actual components after heavy machining operations (or welding),
prior to the final hardening and tempering processes.

Carburising
This is the most common method of case-hardening low-carbon steels, and consists of
heating the metal to approximately 900C, while the component is in contact with a
carbonrich medium followed by a suitable heat-treatment.
Carbon is generally absorbed into the surface of the heated steel and the rate of
penetration is approximately 1mm in 5-6 hours. Low-carbon steels are particularly suited
to this type of treatment, as it increases the carbon content and hence the hardness locally.
Various methods of carburising are used, the most common ones being:
Pack Carburising. The object is sealed in a box containing a charcoal based carbon-rich
powder and heated in a furnace. The metal is then quenched in oil (but not water, as this
would cause the hard case to peel off). The depth of the hard skin depends on the length
of time that the metal is heated.

Gas Carburising. The object is placed in a basket in a furnace, through which is passed a
suitable, carbon-rich gas such as methane or propane.

Liquid Carburising, The object is heated to a suitable temperature and then immersed in
a hot, salt bath at 900C. The salts are usually sodium cyanide and the process is often
called 'cyanide hardening'. The metal is quenched in water, as oil quenching would react
unfavourably with the salts.

Nitriding
This process involves the absorption of nitrogen (instead of carbon) into the surface of
the steel.
Suitable 'Nitralloy' steels are necessary for this process and they usually contain 1%
Aluminium, 1.5% Chromium and 0.2% Molybdenum.

Flame/Induction Hardening
Unlike carburising and nitriding, flame and induction hardening do not add a hardening
agent into the surface of a basically softer material. Instead they are merely techniques for
hardening the surface of material by a 'local heat- treatment'.
Steels suitable for these processes already contain sufficient carbon (or other elements) to
attain a high degree of hardness if heated and quenched. Only the surface is locally
heated (by a flame or electrical induction coil) and the heated surface is then immediately
quenched by water jets. The flame or induction coil is positioned so that it only heats the
area that require hardening.

Other Surface Hardening Techniques

In addition to case-hardening, there are other methods of producing hard surfaces on
metals, such as by electro-plating, welding, bonding and metal spraying. All usually
involve adding a harder surface metal to the parent material.

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - NON-FERROUS

The term "nonferrous"refers to all metals which have elements other than iron as their
base or principal constituent. This group includes such metals as aluminum titanium,
copper, and magnesium, as well as such alloyed metals as Monel and babbit.

PURE METALS
Certain non-ferrous metals, such as aluminium, copper and lead, are used in the
commercially 'pure' state for engineering purposes usually in the form of sheets, tubes,
wires or as thin coatings on other metals.

Pure Aluminium
Pure aluminium is extracted from the mineral rock bauxite (named after the town of Les
Baux, in France, where it was first found). It is a soft, weak, ductile and malleable metal.
Aluminium is approximately one third the weight of steel and has approximately one
third the stiffness of steel.

While its strength may be improved by cold working, it remains a low-strength, material.
Aluminium is highly corrosion-resistant, due to the rapid formation of a thin, but very
dense oxide surface film, which limits further corrosion and it is an excellent conductor
of electricity (and heat).

Pure Copper
Copper also has the ability to retard the progress of corrosion, by developing a patina of
green copper carbonate (also called verdigris or aerugo) on its surface.
shapes, copper is a very versatile metal.
Despite a relative density of 8.96, copper's ductility and malleability allow it to be used in
electrical systems (in bus bars, bonding, electrical motors, wiring etc.), though neither
copper, nor its alloys, find much use as structural materials in the construction of aircraft.

Pure Magnesium
Two thirds the weight of aluminium (with a relative density of 1.74), no metal can be cut,
drilled, filed or shaped so easily as magnesium - provided that certain precautions are
taken to prevent it over-heating.

Magnesium burns readily, especially in small particles and dust. Great care must be taken
when filing and grinding this metal and, if a fire should occur, it must be extinguished
with dry sand or an appropriate powder extinguisher.

Magnesium is obtained primarily from electrolysis of seawater or brine from deep wells.
In its pure state it lacks sufficient strength and characteristics for use as a structural metal.
It can, however, be alloyed with a range of other elements to greatly improve its strength.
These elements include aluminium, manganese, thorium, zirconium, and zinc.

Pure Titanium
Pure titanium at approximately 56% the weight of stainless steel, has almost the same
strength as iron. It is highly resistance to corrosion, non-magnetic and is readily shaped
by all of the methods, which relate to steel. Titanium is also soft and ductile.

Care should be taken when working with titanium. Titanium fires usually start through
high-speed rubbing. The low thermal conductivity of titanium prevents the rapid
dissipation of heat, which progressively builds up locally, until ignition finally occurs.
Accumulations of small particles of swarf and dust are a possible fire risk and all such
accumulations should be avoided.

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Because pure aluminium lacks sufficient strength to be used for aircraft construction and,
to achieve medium/high-strength properties, aluminium must be alloyed with other
elements.
The most common alloying elements in the wrought aluminium alloys are copper,
manganese, magnesium and zinc! A common element used when casting aluminium is
silicon.

Aluminium alloys may be designated as being either heat-treatable or as non-heat-

treatable, though both types can be strengthened and hardened through work-hardening
(or strain-hardening). This process requires mechanically working an alloy at a
temperature below its critical range and can be achieved by rolling, drawing or pressing

Alloys, which have aluminium or magnesium as their base elements, are referred to as
Light) Alloys, while the remainder are termed Heavy Alloys.

IDENTIFICATION OF ELEMENTS IN ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Various national Standards Institutions have evolved their individual systems for
identifying the many variants of aluminium alloys (in a similar manner to that shown
with SAE Steels).

While it would be impossible (and unsafe) to attempt to memorise them all, these notes
provide examples of the American system of identifying aluminium (or aluminium)
alloys.

American aluminium alloys are classified by a code, which refers to the element that
makes up the major percentage of the alloy. As previously stated, the elements most
commonly used for alloying with aluminium are copper, manganese, silicon, magnesium,
and zinc.
Table 1 shows a four-digit number, which identifies aluminium, either in its
commercially 'pure', or in its alloyed state. The first digit of the designating code
represents the major alloying element, while the second digit of the code indicates a
specific alloy modification, such as controls over impurities.

The last two numbers of the 1xxx group indicate the hundredths of 1% above the 99% of
pure aluminium. For example, if 75 were the last two digits, the metal would be
99.75%pure.

The 2xxx to 8xxx groups use the last two digits to identify the different alloys in the
group.
In the 1xxx group, commercially 'pure' aluminium very strong. (over 99% pure) is good
for corrosion resistance, has good electrical

The 2xxx group uses copper as its major alloying element. The major benefit of copper is
a large increase in strength, although if the alloy is not correctly heat-treated,
intergranular corrosion can occur between the aluminium and copper grains within the
metal. These are probably the commonest aluminium alloys used in aircraft construction.

The 3xxx group has manganese as its major alloying agent and it is not possible to heat-
treat.
The 4xxx series utilises silicon as its major element. This lowers its melting point and
improves its welding and brazing capabilities.

The 5xxx group has magnesium as the main alloying element. This is good for welding
and corrosion resistance although, if exposed to high temperature or cold working, it can
corrode quite badly.

The 6xxx group has silicon and magnesium added to the aluminium. This makes the
alloy heat-treatable and with good forming and corrosion resistance properties.

The 7xxx alloys are made harder and stronger by the addition of zinc. These are difficult
to bend and are more often used where flat plates are required.

Hardness Identification
Where used, the temper designation follows the alloy designation and is separated from it
by a dash: i.e., 7075-T6, 2024-T4, and so forth. The temper designation consists of a
letter indicating the basic temper which may be more specifically defined by the addition
of one or more digits.
These designations are as follows:

• F — as fabricated
• 0 — annealed, recrystallized (wrought products only)
• H — strain hardened
• H1 (plus one or more digits) — strain hardened only
• H2 (plus one or more digits) — strain hardened and partially annealed
• H3 (plus one or more digits) - strain hardened and stabilized

CLAD MATERIALS
Though strong, aluminium alloys are not as resistant to corrosion as pure aluminium and,
for external use such as skins, the high-strength sheet has a thin layer of pure aluminium
hot-rolled onto the surfaces. These are then known as clad materials with commercial
names such as Alclad, and Pureclad.

Aclad is a 'pure' aluminium coating that is rolled onto the surface of an aluminium alloy,
which may, then, be heat-treated. The thickness of the coating is approximately 5% of the
material thickness on each side. For example, if an alclad sheet of aluminium alloy has a
thickness of 1.2 mm (0.047"), then 0.06 mm (0.0024") of 'pure' aluminium is applied to
each side.

This clad surface greatly increases the corrosion resistance of an aluminium alloy.
If, however, the cladding is penetrated, corrosive agents can attack the alloy under the
cladding. For this reason, sheet metal should be protected from scratches and abrasions.
In addition to providing a starting point for corrosion, abrasions can create potential
'stress raisers' (points from which cracking can initiate).

HEAT-TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Heat-treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and subsequent cooling of
alloys in their solid state. Its purpose is to make the metal harder, stronger and more
resistant to impact but it can also make the metal softer and more ductile for working into
a required shape (bending etc.). One treatment cannot give all of these properties. Some
treatments are achieved at the expense of others when, for example, a hardened material
usually becomes more brittle.

The heating and cooling cycles occur in most treatments and it is only the time and
temperatures which differ. Aluminium alloys have two main heat-treatments, which are
referred to as solution heat-treatment and precipitation heat-treatment.
Age-Hardening
The gradual formation of the copper alumide 'islands' (also referred to as 'slip'), causes an
increase in hardness and strength and these properties reach maximum values after
several days (or weeks in some instances). Because of the time lapse involved, this
gradual hardening is termed 'age-hardening'. Although copper may be the major alloying
element (in the '2000 series' alloys) other elements, including magnesium and manganese
can also be present.

Annealing
Annealing, as with steel, serves to soften the aluminium alloy, to enable it to be worked
without cracking. Even in this condition, ageing will gradually occur and 24 hours is the
normal limit for working after annealing, although this can be extended if the material is
stored under refrigerated conditions to slow the ageing process.
A temperature of -5°C will provide approximately 2 days' delay while one of -20°C will
provide approximately 1 week's delay in the age-hardening process The maximum for
refrigeration is approximately 150 hours at -20°C.

MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
Magnesium alloys are used for castings and, in their wrought form, are available as sheet,
bar, tubing and extrusions. They are among the lightest metals having sufficient strength
and suitable working characteristics for use in aircraft structures.

COPPER ALLOYS
Of those (Heavy) alloys that use copper as a base; brasses, and various bronzes are the
primary types used on aircraft.

Brasses may contain zinc and small amounts of aluminium, iron, lead and other elements
such as manganese, nickel and even very small amounts of tin. Depending on the
percentage content of zinc, brass can be made ductile (30&-35% Zn) or strong (45% Zn).

CASTING
This involves the pouring of molten material into a shaped mould and allowing it to
solidify to that shape. It is an ancient process, which enables complex shapes to be
produced in a wide range of materials in a single-step operation. Cast components can
range in size from the small teeth of a zip, to large casings of several metres in diameter.
Ocean-going ships' propellers, up to 10 metres in diameter, are produced this way.
Modern casting techniques have resulted in:
-highualty (e minimum porosity and reasonably defectfree products)
-high production rates
-good surface finish ]
-small dimensional tolerances
-the ability to cast a very wide range of materials.
Moulds are made in a variety of materials including plaster and ceramics but, by far, the
most widely used are those of sand and metal.

Sand-Casting
The two basic types of sand-casting are:
-Removable/re-usable pattern (usually wood or metal
-Disposable pattern (e.g. polystyrene patterns, which vaporise when the metal is
poured).

Advantages/Disadvantages of Sand-Casting
The advantages of sand-casting are that it is a simple process, which does not require
elaborate equipment and is economical for small batches. It is also suitable for most
metals.
The major shortcomings are that the process is not very rapid, it is not particularly
accurate (due to lack of sand rigidity) and it is not suitable for thin-wall sections.

3 Typical Casting Defects

Casting defects vary to some extent, depending on the casting process used, but the most
common ones are:

Inclusions (e.g. sand or mould lining material sticking to the surface)

Porosity (usually caused by gas/vapour, which is unable to escape before solidification)
Cold Shuts (when local areas of metal are not molecularly joined, due to solidification
occurring too rapidly).
Hot Tears (where the material is cracked by excessive tensile stresses, resulting from
thermal contraction).

Centrifugal-Casting
This technique involves the molten metal being poured into a rotating mould, The process
is used for the manufacture of hollow cylinders, bronze or white metal bearings. The
rotation can result in acceleration forces of up to 60g and this produces high-quality,
dense castings, since all of the slag migrates to the bore (due to it being of lower density
than the metal) and it can then be machined out.

Die-Casting
This process uses a
permanent metal mould, which results in more accurate, and better
finished, castings than those produced in sand. Die-casting, can be sub-divided into
'gravity' or
'pressure' processes, depending on how the metal is fed into the mould.
Gravity Die-Casting
- sometimes known as Permanent-Mould Casting', This casting
process is virtually identical to sand-casting except that the mould (die) is metal. A wide
range of metals can be cast and hollow castings are possible if a sand core is used. Fine
grain structures are produced, due to the more rapid rate of cooling, compared to that
achieved in sand-casting.

Pressure Die-Casting - as implied, molten metal is fed under high pressure (thousands of
psi) and held during solidification. Most die-castings are in non-ferrous materials
(aluminium, magnesium, zinc, copper and their alloys), because steels have too-high a
melting temperature for the metal dies to accommodate. The dies are, usually, made from
hard, tool-steels and are water cooled. This process can achieve excellent detail, super
finish, low porosity, and thin sections. Expensive equipment is necessary, but very high
production rates are possible. Automatic ejection occurs and, on small components, 100
units per minute is not uncommon. Hollow castings cannot be made by die-casting.

Investment-Casting (Lost Wax)

This is a very old method of casting (which was used by the ancient Chinese), but it only
became of great industrial importance in the 1950's, when gas turbine manufacturing
began to increase. The process was ideally suited to the production of complex-shaped
nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades which, often, contained tortuous inner passages,
very thin sections and had to be cast in exotic materials. The basic process is as follows:

FORGING
This is a squeezing/hammering technique, which is intended to achieve large
deformation/shaping of the material. The process is usually carried out hot (i.e. above the
re-crystallisation temperature, so that these large deformations can be attained without
being accompanied by any massive, residual stresses.

Drop-Stamping
Drop-stamping, or drop-forging (refer to Fig. 1), involves the use of shaped dies and a
heavy drop-hammer, which usually falls under gravity. The piece of material to be
forged, is placed between the top and bottom dies and the drop-hammer is allowed to fall
the necessary number of times for the contact faces of the dies to come together. 'Flash
gutters' are provided, to accommodate the excess metal (flash), which squeezes out
between the top and bottom dies.

Hot-Pressing
Hot-pressing is similar, in principle, to drop-forging, but is actuated by one, long, steady,
squeezing operation, as compared to a number of blows. This process tends to affect the
whole structure of the component, whereas some forging processes, using multi- (but
light) blows will, mainly, affect the material closest to the surface.
Upsetting
Upsetting is, sometimes, called "Heading' and usually involves locally heating of the end
or ends of the material, immediately prior to forging. Poppet valves are formed in this
way, as well as forged bolts. Sometimes this process is done cold (in which case it is
referred to as 'Cold Heading'), and some rivet heads are formed in this way.

ROLLING
When done hot, rolling is capable of achieving major re-forming/re-shaping, and slabs
can be reduced to plate or sheet while bars of circular or rectangular cross section can
also be produced. Hot rolling can also produce structural shapes such as 'H' or 'l section
beams.
If the rolling is done cold, it is aimed at improved surface quality, better accuracy, and
increased hardness/strength. Hot, dilute, sulphuric acid is used to remove the hot scale
from steel prior to cold rolling. The rolling process would also be used to produce the
clad (and unclad) sheets of aluminium alloys.

DRAWING
Drawing is a purely, tensile operation, usually carried out hot. Wire, rod and tubing, can
be produced by this process, where the material is pulled through a shaped, hardened die.
A ductile material is essential.

DEEP DRAWING/PRESSING
This process uses a ram, to deform a piece of sheet metal into a recessed die and is
usually done hot.

PRESSING
Pressing involves the use of male and female formers for shaping sheet material. The
sheet is placed between the formers, which are then forced together by a powered ram.
Pressing is usually done hot (except for the soft, ductile materials).

STRETCH-FORMING
This is a technique used for shaping sheet metal over a stretch-block or former. The sheet
metal is firmly gripped by clamps and the sheet is then stretched over the former (by
moving the clamps or the former) and the material is stretched beyond its elastic limit so
that permanent deformation occurs.
This process is convenient for small batches of material (and is particularly financially
attractive since only one former is needed) but, local changes of form (concave/convex or
vice versa) cannot be produced by this process.

RUBBER-PAD FORMING
In principle this process uses a flexible, rubber-pad, attached to a hydraulic ram, which
forces a piece of sheet metal to conform to the shape of a forming block.
EXTRUDING
The extrusion process, forces hot metal through a shaped die, to produce circular,
rectangular, tubular, angular, and half-round sections.

SINTERING
Sintering; involves metal, in powder form, which is heated to approximately 70%-80% of
its melting temperature and then squeezed to shape in a die.

SPINNING
Spinning is an old process, in which a piece of sheet metal may be formed, to shape,
around a rotating former, which is mounted on the spindle of a lathe. The necessary force
to deform the sheet metal is generated by a long tool, which is levered about a suitably
positioned fulcrum.

CHEMICAL MILLING
Chemical milling is, sometimes, referred to as chemical etching. It is a purely chemical
process, not electro-chemical.

ELECTRO-CHEMICAL MACHINING
Using electrolysis and, by making the workpiece the anode of the de electrical circuit, an
electrolyte is pumped rapidly (under pressure) through the gap between the shaped
cathode (also referred to as the tool) and the workpiece.

ELECTRO-DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)

This process is sometimes called spark machining (or spark erosion), because rather than
using electrolysis, the technique involves the removal of metal by the energy (and heat)
of electrical sparks. The energy travels from the electrically negative tool electrode,
through a dielectric fluid and explosively strikes the electrically positive work-piece.

CONVENTIONAL MACHINING
Conventional machining is done, using seven basic techniques, which are:
1. Drilling/reaming
2. Turning
3.Milling
4. Sawing
5. Shaping/planing/slotting
6. Broaching
7. Abrasive machining (i.e. grinding)

CNC Machines (Computer Numerically Control) differ from NC machines only in

that the electronic control unit on the CNC machine is more sophisticated in that it is
adaptable to a wide variety of software and can accommodate a diverse range of
programs. Although the capital cost of NC/CNC machines is high, the following
advantages make such machines technically desirable and economically viable, where
super-light, complex, high-tech, manufacture is concerned:

-Complex shapes with integral features are possible

-The number of jigs and fixtures is reduced
-A reduction in manufacturing time
-Adaptable to short runs
-Greater accuracy and consistency
-Program can be changed to accommodate modifications

SUPERPLASTIC FORMING
Some Titanium alloys when heated, become extremely ductile and can plastically
deformed without necking occurring This superplasticity can be exploited in the forming
process (refer to Fig. 2), when an inert gas is used to blow the material into the required
shape.

AIRCRAFT FASTENERS
Fasteners, or fastening devices, are used to create secure joints between two or more
components. Types of fastening devices, used on aircraft, vary in accordance with the
materials, which require joining, and the importance of the joined components, or
structures, to the safety of the aircraft. Only those fastening devices approved by that
aircraft's maintenance manual are allowed to be used, as substitution with incorrect parts
can cause fatal consequences.

TEMPORARY JOINTS
Temporary joints are used where the joint can be disassembled without damage and
where, usually, the same fastener can be used to reassemble the joint. Bolts and nuts,
circlips and quick-release fasteners are, typically, used in temporary joints.

PERMANENT JOINTS
Permanent joints are those which are not intended to be disassembled on a frequent basis
(if at all), and are joints where either the fastening medium or the joined components will
suffer damage in their separation. Adhesives, rivets and welds are examples of uses of
permanent joints.

FLEXIBLE JOINTS
Flexible joints allow movement of the joined components relative to each other. Anti-
vibration mounts, universal couplings and hinges are devices which may be employed in
flexible joints.
Threaded Fasteners
Various types of fastening devices allow quick dismantling or replacement of aircraft
parts that must be taken apart and put back together at frequent intervals. Riveting or
welding these parts each time they are serviced would soon weaken or ruin the joint.

American Standard Fasteners

The American method of length measurement uses two terms, 'Length' and 'Grip' (refer to
Fig. 4) to describe threaded fasteners. The Grip is the portion of the fastener that is
unthreaded.

CLASSES OF FIT

A nut on class 1 fit bolt can be tightened by hand along the threads entire length, whilst a
Class 4 or 5 fit requires a spanner to be used throughout the tightening operation.

The Class 3 fit is the standard type mostly employed on aircraft, and would be typical of
a thread which is designed for use in a high-temperature environment and may require the
application of an anti-seize compound before installation.

By comparison a fastener that is to be subjected to high tension or shear loads, associated

with the securing of aircraft engine parts, would need to be a Close tolerance type of fit.

Measuring Screw Threads

It is not considered a normal operation to measure a screw thread, as its identification can
be found by using the manufacturer's part number. Whilst this is true and the manuals
should always be used, there are other ways of identifying screw threads.

One method is to identify the screw by means of various marks, normally found on the
head of the screw. These marks may give a clue as to which type of thread the screw is
using, whilst a measurement across the thread crests, using a micrometer, would give the
diameter of the screw in question. The identifying head markings would also give the
material from which the screw is made.

The profile gauge can be used to ensure that the tool, which is cutting the thread, is of the
correct type. The pitch gauge can be used to find the thread size by simply fitting the
various blades of the gauge against the screw thread until a match is achieved.

Identification of AN Standard Bolts

For identification purposes the AN number is used to indicate the type of bolt and its
diameter.
In addition a code is used to indicate the material, length and presence of a split pin or
locking wire hole as follows:

Diameter: The last figure or last two figures, of the AN number indcates thread diameter,
1 = No. 6, 2 = No.8, 3 = No.10, and 4 = ¼" with subsequent numbers indicating the
diameter in 1/16" increments. Thus an AN4 is a hexagon headed bolt of ¼" diameter and
an AN14 is a hexagon headed bolt of 7/8" (14/16") diameter.

Lengths: The length of a bolt, in the case of a hexagonal headed bolt, is measured from
under the head of the first full thread (refer to Fig. 9) and is quoted in 1/8" increments as
a dash number. The last figure of the dash number represents eighths and the first figure
inches, so that an AN4 - 12 is a ¼" diameter hexagon headed bolt, 1¼" long.

Position of Drilled Hole: Bolts are normally supplied with a hole drilled in the threaded
part of the shank, but different arrangements may be obtained:
Internal Wrenching Bolts (MS 20024 or NAS 495) are fabricated from high-strength
steel and are suitable for tensile or shear applications. The head is recessed to allow the
insertion of a hexagonal key used for installing or removing the bolt. In Dural-type
material, a heat-treated washer must be used to provide an adequate bearing surface for
the head.

Clevis Bolt heads are either round or slotted, for a standard screwdriver, or recessed, for
a cross-pointed screwdriver. This type of bolt is used only for shear loads and never in
tension. It is often inserted as a mechanical pin in a control system.

Eyebolt is designed for the attachment of cable shackles or turnbuckles and the bolt is
used for tensile loads. The threaded end may be drilled for wire locking.
Castle Nuts are used with hexagon headed bolts or studs, eye bolts and clevis bolts and
are rugged enough to withstand large tensile loads. The slots or castellations are designed
to accommodate a split pin for locking purposes.

Engine Slotted Nuts are similar in construction to castle nuts and are used in similar
applications, except that they are normally used for engine use only. Shear Slotted Nuts
are a much lighter nut, used for miscellaneous light tensile requirements.

Plain Hexagon Nuts are of robust construction and suitable for shear and tensile loads.
Since they require an auxiliary locking device, their use on aircraft is limited.

Wing Nuts are used where the desired tightness can be obtained merely with using the
fingers and where the assembly is frequently removed.

Stiffnuts Nuts
A plain nut will depend upon friction between the engaging threads to ensure its
tightness. Vibration can cause the nut to slacken off and in extreme cases unwind itself
completely from

Nyloc is a standard hexagonal nut, which has a plastic insert in the counter-bored end.
This insert is initially unthreaded and has an internal diameter slightly smaller than the
nut thread so that as the nut is screwed on the bolt, the plastic insert is displaced and a
high degree of friction is created. A 'fibre lock nut' is a similar type of stiff nut uses a
fibre insert instead of nylon. The Nyloc Capnut is another type of plastic stop nut that
completely seals and is used with pressurised components such as fuel and oil tanks.
Nyloc nuts should never be used in areas of extreme temperatures, hot or cold.

Oddie nut has a slotted end consisting of six tongues, which form a circle slightly smaller
than the bolt or stud diameter. As the nut is turned a friction load is imparted onto the
threaded device.

Aerotight are similar to the Philidas in appearance and locking method, except that the
slots are vertical.

Lightweight nuts have the locking section slightly oval in shape and this causes
increased friction when the thread passes through it. Metal hexagonal type stiff nuts may
be re-used provided they retain their friction effect and the relevant manual allows it.

Anchor nuts
Anchor Nuts (refer to Fig. 14) are usually similar in design to plain or stiff nut securing
devices.
They allow threaded devices to be turned from one side only when access to the back of
the fastener can not be achieved. They are usually secured to the inside of structures by
rivets during construction, with their shape and size being dictated by the amount of
space available.

LOCKING DEVICE WASHERS

Tab Washers
Tab washers (refer to Fig. 24) are normally used on plain nuts. The washers are
manufactured from thin metallic sheet material and have two or more tabs projecting
from the external diameter. They can also be designed for locking two or more nuts.

Safety Wiring
Safety wiring is the most positive and satisfactory method of safetying capscrews, studs,
nuts, bolt heads, and turnbuckle barrels which cannot be safetied by any other practical
means. It is a method of wiring together two or more units in such a manner that any
tendency of one to loosen is counteracted by the tightening of the wire.

Wire-locking is a positive method of securing items such as bolts, pipe unions,

turnbuckles and nuts. Components designed to be wire-locked have holes in the
appropriate positions to enable the lock wire to pass through.

Cotter Pin Safetying

Cotter pin installation is shown in Figure 5-76. Castellated nuts are used with bolts that
have been drilled for cotter pins. The cotter pin should fit neatly into the hole, with very
little sideplay.

QUICK-RELEASE FASTENERS (QRF) Special fasteners have been designed to hold

fairings, cowlings and inspection panels in position and to allow their rapid removal and
replacement during servicing.

SOLID RIVETS
There are a number of different types of rivet head (refer to Fig. 1), the most common
being the mushroom and round heads. Both of these rivets project above the surface of
the metal that is being riveted. The countersunk head, however, provides a flush and
smooth sulface, when closed and the flat (or pan) head can be used internally, when a flat
head will make closing the rivet easier.

Rivet Material Identification (American)

As previously stated, the material used for the majority of aircraft solid rivets is
aluminium alloy.
Digits and letters identify the degree of temper condition, of aluminium alloy rivets, in a
similar Dianerd letters etry the deir it m aloy. The normal material grades are 1100, 2017-
T,
2024-T, 2117-T and 5056.

The 1100 (A) rivet is 99.45% pure aluminium and, as such, is very soft. It would be
used for riveting lightweight, soft, aluminium structures, where strength is not a factor.

The 2117-T (AD) rivet is made from aluminium alloy and, as has previously been
mentioned is known as the 'field' rivet. It is the most commonly used rivet, mainly
because it is ready to use as received and needs no further heat-treatment. It also has a
high resistance to corrosion.

The 2017-T (D) and 2024-T (DD) rivets are made from high strength heat- treatable
aluminium alloys. They are used where more strength is required than that obtained from
the AD rivet. The rivets need to be heat-treated and, if not required immediately, they
should be refrigerated until needed. The 2017-T (D) rivet should be driven within 1 hour
of removal from refrigeration (or following heat-treatment) and the 2024-T (DD) must be
driven within 10-20 minutes.

The 5056 (B) rivet is used for riveting magnesium alloy structures, because of its
galvanic compatibility with magnesium (to reduce the risk of corrosion).
Mild Steel rivets are used for riveting steel parts while Corrosion Resistant Steel (F)
rivets are used for riveting CRS components in areas such as fire-walls and exhausts. The
absence of a letter following the AN standard number indicates a rivet manufactured
from mild steel.

Monel (M) rivets are used for riveting nickel-steel alloys. They may also be used as a
substitute for CRS rivets when specified.

Copper (C) rivets are also available, but their use is limited on aircraft. They may only
be used on copper alloys or non-metallic materials, such as leather.