General Biology 1

THE IMPORTANCE OF CHLOROPHYLL

CHLOROPHYLL
• primary pigment and the main light – absorbing molecule used in the process of photosynthesis
• it reflects green light and absorbs red and blue light most strongly
• In plants, photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts, which contain the chlorophyll
• Chlorophyll a- only pigment directly involved in the light reactions in photosynthesis.
• primarily absorbs light from the blue – violet and red ranges of the spectrum and appears
dark green because it mainly reflects green light.
• All plants, algae, and cyanobacteria which photosynthesize contain chlorophyll a.
• Chlorophyll b - known as “accessory pigment” does not take part directly in the light reactions
but instead transmits absorbed energy to those ‘chlorophyll a’ molecule that are directly involved.

CAROTENOIDS
• primarily absorb blue – green light and reflect yellow or yellow – orange light.
• In plants, these accessory pigments are typically not visible until chlorophyll breaks down as
when leaves of the deciduous plants change color.
• It is the carotenoids that cause autumn coloration after short days and cold temperatures have
slowed photosynthesis and chlorophyll has broken down.

ELECTRON FLOW IN LIGHT REACTION

CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
 only photosystem I is involved
 a process which results in the movement of electrons in a cyclic manner to produce ATP
 happens in the thylakoid membrane which uses photosystem I and the chlorophyll P700
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 Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll

molecules in the photosystem I (PS I) complex,
which is embedded in the thylakoid membrane.
This light energy excites electrons in the
chlorophyll molecules to a higher energy state.
 The excited electrons are then passed through a series
of electron carriers within the PS I complex. These
carriers include ferredoxin and cytochrome b6f.
 The excited electrons move through the electron
transport chain in a series of redox reactions. As the
electrons move along the chain, they release energy,
which is used to pump protons (H+) across the
thylakoid membrane, creating a proton gradient.
 The proton gradient created across the thylakoid
membrane generates a flow of protons back into the stroma through ATP synthase complexes.
This flow of protons powers ATP synthase to catalyze the synthesis of ATP from ADP and
inorganic phosphate (Pi). This process is known as chemiosmosis.
 The electrons that were excited and passed through the electron transport chain eventually return
to the photosystem I complex. This completes the cyclic flow of electrons.
 Unlike non-cyclic photophosphorylation, where electrons are transferred from water to NADP+
in a linear fashion, cyclic photophosphorylation involves the return of electrons to the original
photosystem. As a result, there is no production of NADPH in cyclic photophosphorylation.
 Cyclic photophosphorylation primarily produces ATP, which is used to meet the energy needs of
the cell. Since the electrons return to the photosystem I, they can undergo multiple cycles, leading
to the continuous production of ATP as long as light is available.

NON-CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
 both photosystem I and photosystem II are involved
 ATP is produced that will be used as energy needed for the Calvin cycle
 called non-cyclic because the loss of electrons in P680 in photosystem II are occupied by P700 in
photosystem I and are not returned to P680

 The process begins with the

absorption of light by chlorophyll
and other pigments in the
photosystem II (PS II) complex.
Light energy excites electrons in the
chlorophyll molecules to a higher
energy state.

 In non-cyclic
photophosphorylation, water
molecules are split (photolysis)
within the thylakoid lumen. This
process releases electrons,
protons (H+), and oxygen. The
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electrons from water replace the excited electrons in PS II, ensuring the continuity of the
electron flow.

 The excited electrons from PS II are transferred through a series of electron carriers in the
thylakoid membrane. As the electrons move through the electron transport chain, they release
energy, which is used to pump protons (H+) from the stroma into the thylakoid lumen.

 The proton gradient created across the thylakoid membrane by the electron transport chain
drives protons back into the stroma through ATP synthase complexes. This flow of protons
powers ATP synthase to catalyze the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate
(Pi) through chemiosmosis.

Cyclic Photophosphorylation Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation

Only Photosystem I is involved. Both Photosystem I and II are involved.

P700 is the active reaction centre. P680 is the active reaction centre.

Electrons travel in a cyclic manner. Electrons travel in a non – cyclic manner.

Electrons revert to Photosystem I Electrons from Photosystem I are accepted by

NADP.

ATP molecules are produced. Both NADPH and ATP molecules are
produced.

Water is not required. Photolysis of water is present.

NADPH is not synthesized. NADPH is synthesized.

Oxygen is not evolved as the by- Oxygen is evolved as a by-product.

product

This process is predominant only in This process is predominant in all green

bacteria. plants.

ATP IN ENERGY COUPLING AND TRANSFER

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) plays a central role in cellular energy coupling and transfer within living
organisms. It is often referred to as the "energy currency" of the cell because it stores and transfers energy
for various cellular activities. Here's an explanation and elaboration of ATP in energy coupling and
transfer:

Structure of ATP:
ATP is a nucleotide composed of three main components: a nitrogenous base (adenine), a five-
carbon sugar (ribose), and three phosphate groups. The three phosphate groups are attached to the ribose
sugar in a chain. The high-energy bonds between these phosphate groups store energy.
Energy Storage in Phosphate Bonds:
The energy stored in ATP is primarily in the form of high-energy phosphate bonds. The bonds
between the phosphate groups are relatively unstable and can be easily broken through hydrolysis.

Hydrolysis of ATP:
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When ATP is hydrolyzed (reacts with water), it undergoes a reaction that breaks the last
phosphate bond, resulting in the release
ATP +ofHenergy.
2O → ADP + Pi + Energy

The reaction is as follows:

The released energy can be used to drive cellular processes, such as muscle contraction, active transport,
and the synthesis of macromolecules.
Phosphorylation:
ATP transfers energy through phosphorylation, the process of transferring a phosphate group
from ATP to another molecule. The recipient molecule becomes phosphorylated and gains energy to
undergo various cellular activities. For example, during cellular respiration, glucose is phosphorylated
with the help of ATP before it is broken down to release energy.
Energy Coupling:
Energy coupling involves the use of energy released from exergonic (energy-releasing) reactions
to drive endergonic (energy-requiring) reactions. ATP acts as an intermediate in energy coupling by
providing the energy needed for various cellular processes. The energy released during ATP hydrolysis is
often used to power cellular work.
Reaction Coupling
Glucose + Fructose = sucrose
ATP + H2O = ADP + Pi
Cellular Work:
The energy from ATP is utilized in three main types of cellular work: mechanical work (such as
muscle contraction), transport work (moving substances across cell membranes), and chemical work
(synthesis of macromolecules). In each case, ATP donates its phosphate group to a recipient molecule,
providing the energy needed for the specific work.
Regeneration of ATP:
ATP is a dynamic molecule that is constantly being used and regenerated in cells. The
regeneration of ATP occurs through cellular respiration in which energy-rich molecules, such as glucose,
are oxidized to produce ATP through processes like glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative
phosphorylation.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the biological process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert
light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose. This process takes place in the chloroplasts of
plant cells and involves a series of complex reactions that can be broadly categorized into two stages: the
light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle).

Light-Dependent Reactions:

 Chlorophyll and other

pigments in the thylakoid
membranes of chloroplasts
absorb light energy from
the sun.

 Water molecules are split

into oxygen, protons (H+),
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and electrons in a process known as photolysis. This occurs in the thylakoid lumen, and oxygen is
released as a byproduct.

 The excited electrons from water are transferred through a series of proteins embedded in the
thylakoid membrane. This movement releases energy used to pump protons from the stroma into
the thylakoid lumen.

 The proton gradient created across the thylakoid membrane drives protons back into the stroma
through ATP synthase complexes. This flow of protons powers ATP synthase to catalyze the
synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi).

 Electrons from Photosystem II are accepted by an electron carrier and then transferred to
Photosystem I. PS I absorbs additional light energy, further exciting the electrons.

 The excited electrons from PS I are transferred to another electron carrier and then used to reduce
NADP+ to NADPH. Protons from the stroma are added to NADP+ during this process.

Light-Independent Reactions:

Carbon Fixation (Carbon Fixing):

 The Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma of

the chloroplast. It starts with the fixation of
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) by a five-
carbon sugar, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
(RuBP), with the help of an enzyme called
ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO).
Reduction Phase:

 ATP and NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions are utilized to convert the fixed
carbon dioxide into a three-carbon sugar, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).
Regeneration of RuBP:

 Some G3P molecules are used to regenerate RuBP, ensuring the continuous functioning of the
Calvin cycle.
-Glucose Synthesis:
o The remaining G3P molecules are used to synthesize glucose and other carbohydrates.
Some of the carbon compounds produced in the Calvin cycle may also contribute to the
synthesis of other organic molecules.
Light-dependent photosynthesis Light-independent photosynthesis
It is called light-dependent photosynthesis It is called light-independent photosynthesis
because it needs light or depends on light to because no light is required here to reduce carbon
produce organic energy molecules ATP and dioxide and glucose by the use of ATP and
NADPH. NADPH.

It occurs in the grana or thylakoid of the It occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.
chloroplast.

During light-dependent photosynthesis photolysis During light-independent photosynthesis

or splitting of molecules of water take place into reduction of carbon dioxide into glucose,
hydrogen and oxygen. molecules take place through a series of reactions
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constituting the Calvin cycle.
Here chlorophyll absorbs light energy and loses The carbon dioxide is taken up at night and an
one electron during this process. The chlorophyll intermediate product in the form of malic acid is
molecule gets back its lost electron from the produced. This acted upon by the energy absorbed
electron released during photolysis of water. through chlorophyll and the ATP produced will
reduce malic acid into carbohydrates.
It is also called the photochemical phase of It is also called the biochemical phase of
photosynthesis. photosynthesis.

Photolysis occurs in light-dependent Photolysis does not occur in light-independent

photosynthesis. photosynthesis.

The end product of this reaction is ATP and The end product of this reaction is glucose.
NADPH.

Cellular respiration is a complex set of metabolic processes that occur in the cells of living
organisms to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). It involves the breakdown of
organic molecules, typically glucose, to release energy that can be used for various cellular activities.
Cellular respiration can be broadly divided into three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (also
known as the Krebs cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation. Let's elaborate on each of these stages:

GLYCOLYSIS:
Location: Cytoplasm of the cell.
Overview:
- Glycolysis is the initial stage of cellular respiration and occurs in the cytoplasm.
- It involves the breakdown of one molecule of glucose (a six-carbon sugar) into two
molecules of pyruvate (a three-carbon compound).
Key Steps:

 Requires an initial investment of ATP to activate glucose.

 Glucose is split into two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
 ATP and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) are produced by extracting energy
from glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
Each glucose molecule is converted to two molecules of pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP
and NADH.

CITRIC ACID CYCLE (KREBS CYCLE)

Location: Mitochondrial matrix.
Overview:
- Pyruvate from glycolysis enters the mitochondrial matrix, where it is further oxidized
in the citric acid cycle.
- Each pyruvate is broken down into carbon dioxide, generating high-energy electron
carriers.
Key Steps

 Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA, releasing carbon dioxide.

 Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle, producing ATP, NADH, and FADH2 (reduced flavin adenine
dinucleotide).
 Carbon dioxide is released during each turn of the cycle.
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For each glucose molecule (two pyruvates), two turns of the citric acid cycle occur, producing ATP,
NADH, and FADH2.
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION: ETC
Location: Inner mitochondrial membrane.
Overview:
- This stage involves the transfer of electrons from electron carriers (NADH and
FADH2) to oxygen via a series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
- The energy released during this electron transfer is used to pump protons (H+) across
the membrane, creating a proton gradient.
- The flow of protons back into the mitochondrial matrix through ATP synthase drives
the synthesis of ATP.
Key Steps:

 Electrons from NADH and FADH2 move through protein complexes, releasing energy.
 The energy released pumps protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton
gradient.
 Protons flow back into the matrix through ATP synthase, driving the synthesis of ATP from ADP
and inorganic phosphate.
The majority of ATP is produced in oxidative phosphorylation, and oxygen serves as the final electron
acceptor, forming water.

Overall Equation for Cellular Respiration:

- The overall equation for the cellular respiration of one molecule of glucose is:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (as ATP)

- Glucose and oxygen are consumed, and carbon dioxide, water, and ATP are produced.

AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC

refer to two different types of cellular respiration or metabolic processes that organisms use to
generate energy, particularly in the context of the availability or absence of oxygen. These terms describe
how cells extract energy from nutrients and can be applied to various biological processes, including
respiration, exercise, and microbial metabolism.
AEROBIC:
Aerobic respiration is a process that takes place in the presence of oxygen. In this type of
respiration, organisms, including most plants and animals, use oxygen as the final electron acceptor in the
electron transport chain of cellular respiration. The breakdown of glucose or other organic molecules is
more efficient in the presence of oxygen, leading to the production of a larger amount of ATP. The
overall reaction for aerobic respiration is:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (as ATP)

ANAEROBIC:
Anaerobic processes occur in the absence of oxygen or when oxygen is scarce. There are two
main types of anaerobic processes:
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 Anaerobic Respiration:
o Some organisms, including certain bacteria and archaea, use alternative electron
acceptors (other than oxygen) in their electron transport chain.

o This process is less efficient than aerobic respiration. The overall reaction varies
depending on the electron acceptor used, for example:
C6H12O6 + Accepting Molecules → Products + Energy (as ATP)

 Fermentation:

o In the absence of oxygen, some organisms, including many bacteria and certain types of
eukaryotic cells (like yeast), undergo fermentation. Fermentation is an anaerobic process
that allows the cells to generate ATP without using an electron transport chain.

o The overall reaction for lactic acid fermentation, for example, is:

C6H12O6 → C3H6O3 + Energy (as ATP)

The two main types of fermentation are alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation. Both
processes are anaerobic, meaning they occur in the absence of oxygen, and they serve as alternative
pathways for generating energy when oxygen is scarce. Here's an overview of each type:

Alcoholic Fermentation:
 Microorganisms Involved: Yeasts and certain bacteria.
 End Products: C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy (as ATP)
Alcoholic fermentation is commonly carried out by yeasts, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
The process begins with the glycolysis of glucose to produce pyruvate. Pyruvate is then
converted into ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is utilized in the
production of alcoholic beverages (beer, wine, and spirits) and in the leavening of bread
Lactic Acid Fermentation:
 Microorganisms Involved: Some bacteria and certain types of eukaryotic cells,
including muscle cells.
 End Products: C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3 + Energy (as ATP)
Lactic acid fermentation is common in some bacteria (e.g., Lactobacillus) and occurs in muscle cells
during intense physical activity when oxygen supply is insufficient. Similar to alcoholic fermentation,
lactic acid fermentation begins with glycolysis, leading to the production of pyruvate.Instead of being
converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide, pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid. Lactic acid is responsible
for the muscle soreness experienced after vigorous exercise. Certain dairy products, such as yogurt and
some cheeses, are produced using lactic acid fermentation.