ASSIGNMENT TOPIC

Light and Dark Reactions

GROUP MEMBERS
Iqra karim Roll number 15
Tamsila Khan Roll number 17
Zujaja Ashraf Roll number 19

SECTION A
Submitted to Mam Farhat Sidiqqui
 LIGHT REACTION
Introduction:
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into
chemical energy. It is a complex process that involves many steps, including two major stages:
light reactions and dark reactions. Light reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of
chloroplasts and are responsible for converting light energy into chemical energy in the form of
ATP and NADPH. This process is essential for the survival of all photosynthetic organisms, as it
provides the energy required for the dark reactions to take place. In this article, we will focus on
the light reactions of photosynthesis, their role in photosynthesis, and their mechanisms.

Role of Light Reactions in Photosynthesis:

Light reactions are the first stage of photosynthesis, and they occur in the thylakoid membranes
of chloroplasts. Their primary role is to capture and convert light energy into chemical energy in
the form of ATP and NADPH. These energy-rich molecules are then used in the second stage of
photosynthesis, the dark reactions, to produce glucose, which is the main source of energy for
plants and other photosynthetic organisms.

Photosystems:
The light reactions of photosynthesis involve two photosystems, photosystem I (PSI) and
photosystem II (PSII), that work together to convert light energy into chemical energy. Each
photosystem consists of a reaction center surrounded by antenna pigments that capture light
energy and funnel it to the reaction center. The reaction center contains chlorophyll molecules,
which are responsible for converting light energy into chemical energy.

Photosystem II:
Photosystem II (PSII) is the first photosystem involved in the light reactions of photosynthesis. It
is located in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts and is responsible for capturing and
oxidizing water molecules. The process of oxidizing water molecules releases electrons, which
are used to replace the electrons that are lost from the reaction center of PSII. This process is
essential for the production of ATP and NADPH in the light reactions.

Photosystem I:
Photosystem I (PSI) is the second photosystem involved in the light reactions of photosynthesis.
It is also located in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts and is responsible for capturing
light energy and transferring electrons to NADP+ to form NADPH. This process is essential for
the production of ATP and NADPH in the light reactions.
History:
The first ideas about light being used in photosynthesis were proposed by Colin Flannery in 1779
who recognized it was sunlight falling on plants that was required, although Joseph Priestley had
noted the production of oxygen without the association with light in 1772.
Work of Cornis Van Niel:
Cornelis Van Niel proposed in 1931 that photosynthesis is a case of general mechanism where a
photon of light is used to photo decompose a hydrogen donor and the hydrogen being used to
reduce CO2.
Work of Robin Hills
Then in 1939, Robin Hill demonstrated that isolated chloroplasts would make oxygen, but not
fix CO2 showing the light and dark reactions occurred in different places. Although they are
referred to as light and dark reactions, both of them take place only in the presence of light.[12]
This led later to the discovery of photosystems I and II.

Process and Mechanism:

The light reactions of photosynthesis involve the transfer of electrons from water molecules to
NADP+ to form NADPH. This process occurs in two photosystems, PSII and PSI, that work
together to capture and convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and
NADPH. The following is a detailed description of the process and mechanism of the light
reactions of photosynthesis:

Step 1: Absorption of Light Energy:

The light reactions of photosynthesis begin when pigments in the antenna complex of PSII
absorb light energy. These pigments include chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids. The
absorbed light energy is then transferred to the reaction center of PSII, where it excites an
electron in a chlorophyll a molecule.

Step 2: Electron Transport Chain:

The excited electron is then passed through an electron transport chain (ETC) located in the
thylakoid membrane. As the electron passes through the ETC, it releases energy that is used to
pump protons (H+) from the stroma to the thylakoid lumen. This creates a proton gradient that is
used to produce ATP in the next step.

Step 3: ATP Synthesis:

The proton gradient created by the ETC is used to power the ATP synthase enzyme, which
synthesizes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. This process is called
photophosphorylation, and it is similar to oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria.
Step 4: Oxidation of Water:
The electron that was excited in PSII is replaced by an electron from a water molecule. This
process, called photolysis, releases oxygen gas and hydrogen ions (H+), which are used to
maintain the proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane.

Step 5: Absorption of Light Energy by PSI:

The electrons that were transferred to the ETC from PSII are then transferred to PSI, where they
are excited by light energy absorbed by pigments in the antenna complex of PSI.

Step 6: NADPH Synthesis:

The excited electrons from PSI are then passed through another ETC, which generates a proton
gradient that is used to reduce NADP+ to NADPH. This process requires two electrons and two
protons, which are provided by the oxidation of two water molecules in PSII.

Types
There are two types of photophosphorylation: cyclic and non-cyclic. Both types of
photophosphorylation occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts and involve the
transfer of electrons from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. However, the electron
transfer pathways and the final products of the two types of photophosphorylation are different.
Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation:
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation, also known as the Z-scheme, involves the transfer of electrons
from water to NADP+. The process can be divided into two stages: the light-dependent reactions
and the light-independent reaction
Cyclic Photophosphorylation:
Cyclic photophosphorylation involves the transfer of electrons in a closed loop, returning them to
the original molecule after ATP synthesis. The process is summarized below
Absorption of Light: The pigments in the chloroplasts absorb light, which excites electrons and
raises them to a higher energy level.
Electron Transport: Excited electrons are transferred from Photosystem I to an electron
transport chain, which returns the electrons to the chlorophyll molecule in Photosystem I.
ATP Synthesis: The proton gradient created by the electron transport chain is used to drive the
synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
Comparison between cyclic and non cyclic photophosphorylation:
The main difference between cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation is the source of
electrons. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation uses electrons from water, while cyclic
photophosphorylation uses electrons from Photosystem I. In addition, non-cyclic
photophosphorylation produces both ATP and NADPH, while cyclic photophosphorylation only
produces ATP.
ENZYMES involved in LIGHT REACTION
Photosystem II (PSII)
This enzyme complex consists of several proteins and pigments, including chlorophyll a,
chlorophyll b, and carotenoids. PSII is responsible for capturing light energy and transferring it
to the reaction center, where electrons are excited and transferred to an electron transport chain.
Plastoquinone (PQ):
PQ is a small molecule that acts as a mobile electron carrier between PSII and the cytochrome
b6f complex. It accepts electrons from PSII and transfers them to the cytochrome b6f complex,
which pumps protons from the stroma into the thylakoid lumen.
Cytochrome b6f complex: This enzyme complex consists of several proteins and contains heme
groups that are capable of accepting and donating electrons. The complex uses the energy from
electron transfer to pump protons from the stroma into the thylakoid lumen, creating a proton
gradient that is used to generate ATP.
Photosystem I (PSI): This enzyme complex contains chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and
carotenoids, and is responsible for absorbing light energy and transferring it to the reaction
center, where electrons are excited and transferred to ferredoxin.
Ferredoxin: Ferredoxin is a small protein that acts as a mobile electron carrier between PSI and
the enzyme NADP+ reductase. It accepts electrons from PSI and transfers them to NADP+
reductase, which reduces NADP+ to NADPH.
NADP+ reductase: This enzyme catalyzes the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH, using electrons
donated by ferredoxin.
In summary, these enzymes work together to capture light energy, transfer electrons, and
generate ATP and NADPH, which are used in the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis
to synthesize glucose and other organic compounds. Understanding the roles of these enzymes in
the light reactions is essential in understanding the overall process of photosynthesis and its
significance in sustaining life on Earth.

Overview
In summary, the light reactions of photosynthesis are essential for capturing and converting light
energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. This process occurs in two
photosystems, PSII and PSI, that work together to generate a proton gradient that is used to
produce ATP and NADPH. The light reactions are the first stage of photosynthesis, and their
products are used in the second stage, the dark reactions, to produce glucose, which is the main
source of energy for plants and other photosynthetic organisms. The study of photosynthesis has
a long and fascinating history, and it continues to be an active area of research today.
 Calvin Cycle
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into
chemical energy. The light-dependent reactions, or light reactions, occur in the thylakoid
membranes of the chloroplasts and produce ATP and NADPH, which are used in the light-
independent reactions, or dark reactions, to synthesize glucose. The dark reactions are also
known as the Calvin cycle, after the scientist who discovered it. In this essay, we will discuss the
role of the dark reactions in photosynthesis, as well as the types, processes, and mechanisms
involved.

History:
The discovery of the dark reactions of photosynthesis is credited to Melvin Calvin, who worked
at the University of California, Berkeley in the 1940s and 1950s. Calvin used radioactive
isotopes of carbon to trace the path of carbon atoms through the Calvin cycle and showed that
the cycle produced glucose from carbon dioxide. For this work, Calvin was awarded the Nobel
Prize in Chemistry in 1961

Process:
The Calvin cycle can be divided into three stages: carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration.

Step 1: Carbon Fixation:

In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, carbon dioxide is fixed by the enzyme ribulose
bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) to form a six-carbon compound that is then
broken down into two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG). This step requires the input of
ATP and is the most energy-intensive step of the cycle.

Step 2: Reduction:
In the second stage of the Calvin cycle, the 3PG molecules are reduced to form glyceraldehyde-
3-phosphate (G3P) using the energy from ATP and NADPH. One of the G3P molecules is used
to synthesize glucose, while the other is used to regenerate RuBP in the third stage.

Step 3: Regeneration:
In the third stage of the Calvin cycle, the remaining G3P molecule is used to regenerate RuBP
using the energy from ATP. This step requires three molecules of ATP and completes the cycle,
allowing it to start again.
ENZYMES involved in dark reaction
These enzymes include:
Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco):
 This is the most abundant enzyme on Earth and is responsible for catalyzing the first step in the
Calvin cycle, the fixation of carbon dioxide. Rubisco combines carbon dioxide with ribulose-1,5-
bisphosphate (RuBP) to form two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).
Phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK):
This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of 3-PGA to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG), using
ATP as a source of energy.
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH):
This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of 1,3-BPG to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), using
NADPH as a source of reducing power.
Triose phosphate isomerase (TPI):
This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) to G3P, which is
required for the synthesis of glucose and other organic compounds.
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (FBPase): This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate (FBP) to fructose-6-phosphate (F6P), which is an intermediate in the synthesis of
glucose and other organic compounds.
Sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase (SBPase):
This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate (SBP) to
sedoheptulose-7-phosphate (S7P), which is an intermediate in the synthesis of glucose and other
organic compounds.
Transketolase and transaldolase:
These enzymes catalyze a series of reactions that result in the synthesis of hexoses, such as
glucose, from triose phosphates and other intermediates.
In summary, these enzymes work together in the dark reactions to fix carbon dioxide and
synthesize glucose and other organic compounds. Understanding the roles of these enzymes in
the Calvin cycle is essential in understanding the overall process of photosynthesis and its
significance in sustaining life on earth
Mechanism:
The dark reactions of photosynthesis are dependent on the products of the light reactions, ATP
and NADPH. These products are used to power the enzyme-catalyzed reactions of the Calvin
cycle, which fix carbon dioxide and synthesize glucose. The Calvin cycle is a cyclic process,
meaning that the starting molecule, RuBP, is regenerated at the end of each cycle.
The individual photosystems, PSII and PSI, affect the dark reactions in different ways. PSII
generates ATP by photophosphorylation, which is used in the Calvin cycle to power the
reactions that fix carbon dioxide and synthesize glucose. PSI generates NADPH, which is also
used in the Calvin cycle to reduce carbon dioxide and synthesize glucose. The two photosystems
work together to generate ATP and NADPH, which are the products that drive the Calvin cycle.

Overview:
In conclusion, the dark reactions of photosynthesis are essential for fixing carbon dioxide and
synthesizing glucose using the energy from ATP and NADPH produced in the light reactions.
The Calvin cycle is the only type of dark reaction and is a cyclic process that fixes carbon
dioxide and regenerates the starting