Basin architecture and petroleum system

of Krishna Godavari Basin, east coast of India

S. K. GUPTA, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, Dehradun, India

K rishna Godavari Basin is a peri-cratonic passive margin

basin on the east coast of India (Figure 1). The onland part
consists of 28 000 km2 and is mostly alluvium covered.
Krishna and Godavari are the two major river systems which
drain the area and discharge in the Bay of Bengal. The off-
shore basinal area covers 24 000 km 2 to the isobath of 200 m.
However, the basin extends into deeper water and covers a
much larger area. The basin’s characteristic feature is its en-
echelon horst and graben system which is filled with a thick
pile of sediments of Permian-to-Recent age and emerging
as one of India’s most promising petroliferous areas. Com-
mercial accumulation of hydrocarbons occurs in sediments
from the Permian to as young as the Pliocene.
Krishna Godavari Basin is orthogonally juxtaposed to
NW-SE trending Pranhita Godavari Gondwana graben in the
north (Figure 2). The NE-SW basin margin is the most exten-
sive fault trend over the area (Figure 3). It takes a bow-like
swing and comes to the coast near Kakinada graben in the
northeast and near Palar-Pennar graben in the southwest.
The onland basinal area is characterized by en-echelon
and arcuate horsts and grabens associated with major cross
trends. In addition to the basin margin fault, three more
regional faults developed further basinward: the onland
Matsyapuri-Palakollu fault, a Miocene structure building
fault in shallow water close to the coast, and a Pliocene
structure building fault in deeper water. The arcuate horsts
and the four regional arcuate faults are more or less paral-
Figure 1. Location of Krishna Godavari Basin.
lel. Offshore, the sediments are mostly influenced by growth-
related tectonics.

Stratigraphy. The sedimentary sequence of Krishna

Godavari Basin ranges from Permian-to-Recent. The
Precambrian metamorphic basement consists of gneisses,
quartzites, charnokite, and khondalite. Subsurface knowl-
edge is limited due to alluvium cover. However, isolated out-
crops of Permian, Cretaceous, Paleocene, and Mio-Pliocene
rocks are present near the basin edge. Figure 4 shows the
geologic map of Krishna Godavari Basin and Figure 5 the
generalized stratigraphy.
Sedimentation in Gondwana Basin was initiated during
the Early Permian over the crystalline basement and is
known as Draksharama/Kommugudem Formation. Sed-
iments of Triassic age are conspicuous by their absence.
Golapalli sandstone of Early Cretaceous age lies uncon-
formably over Mandapeta sandstone. The top of the
Golapalli sandstone is a basinwide regional unconformity
and is in turn covered by thick Late Cretaceous sediments
and relatively thin Tertiary sediments. The areas of Gudivada
graben and Krishna graben constitute the Jurassic rift basin.
The Jurassic and Early Cretaceous sediments are the main
fill for the Jurassic Basin. The overlying Tertiary and Recent
sediments are relatively thin and generally undifferenti-
ated. Bantumilli graben and Nizampatnam graben were
created during the Cretaceous and therefore named the Figure 2. Tectonic map of Krishna Godavari Basin.
Cretaceous Basin. The Cretaceous sedimentation over the
Gondwana, Jurassic, and Cretaceous basins began simulta- Gudivada graben and Krishna graben. The overlying
neously during Aptian/Albian time. These sediments are Raghavapuram shale and Tirupati sandstone of Late
called the Golapalli sandstone in Mandapeta graben and Cretaceous age, followed by the relatively thin Tertiary sed-
Bhimadolu graben, the Nandigama Formation in Bantumilli iment, is widely distributed. Therefore it can be surmised
graben, and Gajulapadu shale/Kanukollu sandstone in that Krishna Godavari Basin was initially made up of

830 THE L EADING EDGE JULY 2006

Figure 3. Time structure map on top of basement depicting tectonic elements of Krishna Godavari Basin.

Gondwana Basin, Jurassic Basin, and Cretaceous Basin, and (Aptian/Albian) rest unconformably over the Bapatla sand-
they remained a unified basin until the Late Cretaceous. The stone in the Gudivada graben. The Gajulapadu shale,
Godavari graben area to the south of the Eocene growth fault deposited in a lacustrine environment, is highly carbona-
(Matsyapuri-Palakollu fault) is the main depocenter for ceous and rich in organic matter. A few interbedded sand-
Tertiary sediments. Further basinward, Tertiary sedimenta- stone layers are also present. The overlying Kanukollu
tion was successively influenced by the Miocene growth fault sandstone is predominantly sandy and fairly consistent in
and the Pliocene growth fault. Each kicked off a series of distribution. Deposition took place in a marginal marine
subsidiary growth faults which locally guided the sedi- environment.
mentation pattern. Nandigama Formation (Aptian/Albian) is primarily
marine shale with thin sandstone beds. The basal part is
Lithostratigraphy. Kommugudem Formation (Early coarser clastics with thin sandstone interbedded.
Permian is the oldest sediment deposited over the Archean Golapalli sandstone (Aptian/Albian) is red claystone,
baseme nt alt hough , at places, argillite (Drak sha ram a overlain by sandstone, which rests unconformably over the
Formation) is present underneath the Kommugudem. Mandapeta sandstone as fill sediment. The depositional
Kommugudem Formation is dominantly a shale sequence environment was shallow marine.
with interbedded coal and sand. The coal beds are gener- Raghavapuram shale (Cenomanian to Early Maas-
ally 1–6 m in thickness. The environment of deposition is trichtian) can be subdivided into lower and upper units. The
fluvial-to-lagoonal. high-resistivity lower unit is rich in organic matter. The
Mandapeta sandstone (Late Permian) is a thick nonma- upper unit has thin interbedded layers of lenticular sand
rine feldspathick and micaceous sandstone deposited in a and shale. Sedimentation took place under shallow marine
fluvial environment. The presence of relatively thick inter- conditions.
vening shales suggests cyclic flood plain conditions. Tirupati sandstone (Early to Late Maastrichtian) uncon-
Bapatla sandstone (Late Jurassic) is a nonmarine sand- formably overlies the Raghavapuram shale. It was deposited
stone, clay, and shale section. It rests directly on the Archean during the retreating Cretaceous sea and is predominantly
basement. The basal section is claystone with thin sandstone sandstone with minor claystone. It is progressively shaly bas-
layers interbedded. The overlying section is dominantly inward and is called the Chintalapalli shale.
arenaceous with thin intercalations of shale and claystone. Razole Formation (Early Paleocene) consists of wide-
Gajulapadu shale and overlying Kanukollu sandstone spread volcanic flows over the Tirupati sandstone. There are

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 Figure 4. Geologic map of Krishna Godavari Basin.

at least 2–3 submarine trap flows. The traps at times develop jected to “push ups” and rotation because of the tectonics
fractures, and the top surface is altered and weathered into of the underlying Vadaparru shale. The sands are separated
variegated clay. by interbedded clay.
Palakollu shale (Middle to Late Paleocene) was deposited Narsapur claystone (Pliocene) is a monotonous clay-
in an outer neretic to bathyal environment south of the stone section with a minor amount of intervening sand and
Matsyapuri-Palakollu fault. The thickness of this lithounit silt. This unit thickens basinward where it is called the
increases basinward. Godavari clay. The depositional environment was shallow
Pasarlapudi Formation (Early Eocene) overlies the inner-to-middle shelf.
Palakollu shale and consists of alternating sand and shale Vadaparru shale (Miocene-Late Eocene) is a thick marine
layers with some limestone. Toward the south and east, the clay section deposited under outer shelf conditions. It also
Pasarlapudi sands grade into shale and are called the represents the basinward clay facies of the Pasarlapudi
Vadaparru shale. The depositional environment was outer Formation, Bhimanapalli limestone, and Matsyapuri sand-
neretic to bathyal. stone.
Bhimanapalli limestone (Middle Eocene) is an algal dolo- Godavari Formation (Plio-Pleistocene) sediments are
stone with abundant dolomite crystal and red algal frag- mainly clay with minor silt layers deposited south of the
ments. Interbedded sandstones within thick carbonates are Miocene growth fault. However, the depocenter is farther
common. The depositional environment is outer neretic to south of the Pliocene growth fault where thick coarser clas-
bathyal. tics, brought in by a deepwater river-fan system, accumu-
Matsyapuri sandstone (Oligocene-Miocene) is a thick lated. The depositional environment was inner-to-middle
sandstone sequence with interbedded claystone, between shelf.
the Matsyapuri-Palakollu fault and the Miocene growth
fault close to the coast. Sedimentation occurred in middle Evolutionary history of Krishna Godavari Basin. The basin
shelf conditions. appears to have gone through eight stages prior to assum-
Ravva Formation (Miocene) consists of thick and coarse ing its present form.
clastics deposited south of the Miocene growth fault in an Rift Stage I: Prior to drifting, Gondwanaland comprised
inner-to-middle shelf environment. Sediments were sub- the continents of Africa, South America, Antarctica, Aus-

832 THE L EADING EDGE JULY 2006

Figure 5. Generalized stratigraphy.

Figure 6. Conceptual model of Cretaceous deposition during Early Drift Figure 7. Conceptual model showing breakup of Trans Godavari horst
Stage I. and Trans Godavari graben into smaller en-echelon horst and graben
systems during Early Drift Stage II.
tralia, and the Indian subcontinent. The Upper Carbon-
iferous-to-Jurassic sediments deposited selectively in linear
troughs traversing the unified continents. The Pranhita
Godavari graben on the east coast of India belongs to such
rifted troughs with possible rift continuity to eastern Ant-
arctia. During this period, Kommugudem Formation (Early
Permian) and the Mandapeta sandstone (Late Permian)
were deposited. The absence of Triassic sediment is proba-
bly related to the breaking up and fragmentation of Gond-
wanaland during the Jurassic when the Permian and the
Triassic sediments were subjected to thermal upwelling. As
a consequence, the uplifted mass of Triassic sediments over
the emerging east coast of India were subjected to deep ero-
sion in Gondwana graben. The Bhimadolu, Mandapeta, and
Kakinada grabens form part of Gondwana Basin. During Figure 8. Tertiary depositional model showing influence of growth tecton-
the fragmentation of India, a major NE-SW Jurassic rift ics over the sedimentation during Late Drift Stage IV.
basin was created which accommodated thick Late Jurassic
sediments. The newly emerged Jurassic rift basin cuts across Jurassic Basin deposited thick fluvial and lacustrine sedi-
the Krishna Godavari Gondwana graben orthogonally and ments (Bapatla sandstone) during the synrift stage. The
is named the Trans Godavari graben. A series of concentric Jurassi c Basin is rep resented by Kri shn a graben and
and parallel to subparallel weak planes also emerged. The Gudivada graben. The main source of sediment was from

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 Figure 9. Prospect map of Krishna Godavari Basin.

the surrounding granitic country rock.

Rift Stage II: Intense tectonic activity took place at the
end of the Jurassic. During this period, the Trans Godavari
graben acquired half-graben configuration as a result of
considerable accentuation of the fault on the graben’s west-
ern margin. This fault ultimately transformed into a basin
margin fault for the Krishna Godavari Basin. Simultaneously,
the eastern margin of Trans Godavari graben was subjected
to reactivation of the faults and emergence of a long and
linear horst, named the Trans Godavari Horst. This mega-
horst was due to basement uplift and collapse of the flanks.
At this time, Bantumilli graben also emerged as an associ-
ated low southeast of the Trans Godavari Horst.
Early Drift Stage I: India and Antarctica started moving
apart during the Neocomian, creating the ocean floor for the
emerging Bay of Bengal. The period witnessed the initial
deposition of shale (Gajulapadu shale) in lacustrine envi-
ronment in the southern part of the landlocked Trans Go-
davari graben (represented today by Krishna and Gudivada
graben). At a later stage because of rising sea level, the Ka- Figure 10. Geographic distribution of petroleum systems in Krishna
nukollu sandstone (Aptian/Albian) was deposited under Godavari Basin.

834 THE L EADING EDGE JULY 2006

 ment. During the same period, the
Bantumilli graben, exposed on the
south to the open sea, deposited
marine shale (Nandigama Forma-
tion). All these lithounits, although
time equivalent (Aptian/Albian), had
different depositional settings. During
the period, the Trans Godavari graben
filled up and achieved peniplaination.
The sediment supply was mostly
from the newly emerged horst and the
exposed areas north of the basin mar-
gin (Figure 6).
Early Drift Stage II: The Trans
Godavari horst and graben system
emerged transverse to the NW-SE
Paleozoic Gondwana trends. As a re-
sult, the newly emerged megahorst
and graben were under great stress.
Subsequent to the sediment fill a crit-
ical tolerance level was exceeded
(Early Eocene), and the stress was
released through the breaking up of
the Trans Godavari horst and graben
at different places and then dislocat-
Figure 11. Geologic section depicting source, reservoirs, and traps in the Palakollu-Pasarlapudi ing them in the direction of older
system. Paleozoic trends oriented NW-SE.
Five such cross trends are identified
over the basin. This geologic phe-
nomenon therefore resulted in the
formation of series of smaller en-ech-
elon horst and graben systems from
the single megahorst and graben
(Figure 7).
Late Drift Stage I: The top of the
Early Cretaceous sediment was sub-
jected to wide erosion and penepla-
nation when most horsts ceased to be
a positive area. During the period, a
strong southeasterly basinal tilt
occurred with the basin margin fault
Figure 12. Seismogeologic section of Gudivada Graben showing source, reservoirs, and structure. acting as the hinge. This was followed
by Cretaceous sea transgression, and
flooding of the entire basinal areas.
Now, for the first time, almost the
entire area underwent deposition as
a single basinal unit. It is at this stage
that the present form of Krishna
Godavari Basin took shape. During
the regional transgression, Late Cre-
taceous marine sediments (Raghava-
puram shale) were deposited over the
Early Cretaceous sediment fill with a
well marked regional unconformity
(Raghavapuram regional unconfor-
mity). The basinal tilt toward the
southeast increased considerably dur-
ing the Maastrichtian. As a conse-
Figure 13. Seismogeologic section of Bhimadolu graben showing rotated fault blocks with source quence, coarser clastics (Tirupati
and reservoirs. sandstone) were deposited in the
northern part of the basin.
marginal marine environment. The northeastern part of the Late Drift Stage II: During the Paleocene, the subduction
Trans Godavari graben is represented at present by the of the Indian Plate below the Tibet Plate intensified. This
Bhimadolu, Mandapeta, and Kakinada grabens. These triggered volcanic eruptions (Razole Formation) over most
grabens were deposited as thick coarser clastics (Golapalli of Krishna Godavari Basin. The postvolcanic period wit-
sandstone) due to its proximity to the basin margin. nessed regression/emergence of the Krishna and the
Sedimentation took place under a marginal marine environ- Godavari rivers. The continued tilting caused a fresh sup-

JULY 2006 THE L EADING E DGE 835

 The Vadaparru-Ravva/Godavari
clay system, the youngest Tertiary pet-
roleum system in Krishna Godavari
Basin, includes a large offshore area
and a narrow coastal strip of Godavari
graben. Ravva, GS-15, GS-23, and GS-
29 are Miocene clastic reservoirs. G-
1, G-4, and Dhirubhai are structural
and stratistructural traps of Pliocene
clastic reservoirs. For both Miocene
and Pliocene reservoirs, Vadaparru
acted as the main source rock. The
Miocene reservoirs of Ravva Forma-
tion are fine- to medium-grained
sands with interbedded clay. The Plio-
Pleistocene reservoirs were deposited
under a deepwater channel and fan
Figure 14. Seismogeologic section of Mandapeta graben depicting structural entrapment of gas. complex. The sands are fine- to med-
ium-grained and at times extensive
ply of clastics, accompanied by rapid loading. The contin- and substantially thick. The regional cap to the Miocene reser-
uation of this process produced a major Eocene growth fault voirs is the widespread Pliocene clay sequence (Godavari
which is arcuate in nature, more or less parallel to the basin clay), and the cap for the Pliocene reservoirs is the overlying
margin, and is called the Matsyapuri-Palakollu fault. This Pleistocene clay. The Miocene and Pliocene growth faults
also marked the birth of Godavari graben, which formed caused large anticlinal structures by triggering shale tecton-
the depocenter for Tertiary sediments. The Palakollu shale ics in the underlying Vadaparru shale. Rotated fault blocks,
and Pasarlapudi Formation were deposited during this geomorphic highs, and unconformity-related trapping con-
period. ditions are common. In addition, the numerous channel and
Late Drift Stage III: Sea level lowered during the Oligocene fan geobodies generated stratigraphic or stratistructural traps.
period and deposition of sediments near the coastal areas, Palakollu-Pasarlapudi system includes the Pasarlapudi
which were at places subjected to erosion, was minor. The Formation of Late Paleocene-to-Early Eocene age, a most
area of sediment source in the north was continuously accen- important producer in Krishna Godavari Basin. The impor-
tuated due to basin tilt. As a result, the Godavari River tant finds are Pasarlapudi, Tatipaka, Rangapuram, and
started prograding basinward and built the Miocene delta. Ellamanchilli gas fields and Mori oil field. Widespread
Rapid loading of sediments resulted in a well developed Palakollu shales are the main source rock and the overly-
growth fault, arcuate in shape, more or less parallel to the ing Pasarlapudi sandstone forms the reservoir. Bhimanapalli
Matsyapuri-Palakollu fault, and called the Miocene growth limestone overlying the Pasarlapudi reservoirs provides an
fault. During the period, Miocene sediments were deposited effective regional cap (Figure 11). At times intervening shales
under the growth fault regime and were influenced by shale also act as local seals for the reservoirs. The shale tectonics
tectonics. over the area caused a series of parallel-to-subparallel NE-
Late Drift Stage IV: During the Pliocene, another spurt of SW arcuate faults. These faults provide an excellent updip
clastic input triggered formation of the Pliocene growth fault. seal for the reservoirs. The anticlinal structures, formed as
The underlying Vadaparru shale was subjected to wide shale a result of bulging of the underlying shales, are the best traps
tectonism. As a consequence, large anticlinal structures and for the hydrocarbons.
numerous fault closures formed. It is interesting that all three Raghavapuram-Tirupati is the dominant system in the
major growth faults described above are parallel to the Late west of the Krishna Godavari Basin. Exploratory drilling
Jurassic basin margin fault. Further basinward, the Pliocene over Gudivada graben and Bantumilli graben confirmed oil,
limit is marked by the pronounced Pliocene/Pleistocene toe gas, and condensate from the Kaikalur, Lingala, Bantumilli,
thrust. The subthrust and the area beyond it are dominated Nandigama, Mahadevapatnam, Gokarnapuram prospects.
by the Bengal fan system (Figure 8). The Raghavapuram shale is the main source rock. Alter-
nating sand and silt within Raghavapuram shale forms the
Petroleum systems. The presence of hydrocarbons in reservoir. The sands within Raghavapuram shales are sealed
Krishna Godavari Basin was established in 1979. The initial by overlying and underlying shales. Tirupati sandstone
commercial discovery was made in 1980 by offshore prospect reservoirs are capped by the overlying Razole Formation.
G-1. In 1981–86, many small gas fields were discovered Traps are mainly over the flanks of the horst. Wedge-outs
onshore. Two major discoveries occurred in 1987, Miocene and fault closures are also common. The sands within the
oil in the offshore Ravva Field and Eocene gas onshore in mounded geobodies are also favorable locales for hydro-
Pasarlapudi Field. This success has continued. Some sub- carbon accumulation.
sequently discovered oil and gas fields are (onshore) The Gajulapadu-Kanukollu system is restricted to
Mandapeta, Endamuru, Kesanapalli west, and Mori and Gudivada graben. Discovered pools are few and small. The
(offshore) GS-29, GS-15, GS-23, G-4, G-1-12, and Dhirubhai Gajulapadu shale is the source for the overlying Kanukollu
(Figure 9). The sustained exploration effort in Krishna sandstone reservoir. The shales are moderately hard, poorly
Godavari Basin has generated a rich knowledge base with fissile, and compact. The consistently distributed Kanukollu
respect to hydrocarbon generation, migration, and entrap- sandstone is dominantly sandstone with minor shales. Sands
ment. Asystematic study that integrated the available infor- are fine- to medium-grained, subangular-to-subrounded,
mation established the presence of five petroleum systems and fairly sorted. The Raghavapuram shale provides an
in Krishna Godavari Basin (Gupta et al., 2000). Figure 10 efficient cap to the underlying Kanukollu sandstone reser-
shows their geographical distribution. voirs (Figure 12). The reservoir shows updip wedgings

836 THE L EADING EDGE JULY 2006

against the rising flanks of the Kaza and Kaikalur horsts, terized by subaquous lava flow. The postvolcanic period wit-
creating a stratistructural trap. The basement faults cut nessed active Tertiary sedimentation and, during this period,
across the reservoir section to create fault closures. Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene regional growth faults were
Kommugudem-Mandapeta/Golapalli is the oldest pet- formed with a corresponding depocenter. Further basin-
roleum system of Krishna Godavari Basin. The important ward, the limit of Tertiary deposition is marked by a Plio-
gas fields are Mandapeta, Mandapeta West, and Endamuru. Pleistocene toe thrust.
The thick and widespread Kommugudem coal/shale se- Known hydrocarbon areas are classified into five petro-
quence is a proven source. The overlying Golapalli and leum systems. The major source rocks are Early Permian,
Mandapeta sandstones are the main reservoir sequences. The Cretaceous, Paleocene, and Eocene. Favorably placed clas-
sandstones are feldspathic and micaceous with thin inter- tic reservoirs are from Late Permian, Cretaceous, Eocene,
calations of shale and claystone. The Raghavapuram shale Miocene, and Plio-Pleistocene. Both structural and strati-
overlying the Golapalli sandstone reservoir, widespread graphic traps are common in these systems.
and thick, provides a good cap to the reservoir (Figure 13).
The Mandapeta sandstone is overlain by thick red claystone Suggested reading. “Genesis of petroleum systems in Krishna
belonging to the lower part of the Golapalli sandstone. Godavari Basin” by Gupta et al. (AAPG 2000 International
Entrapment is due to fault closures and anticlinal structures Conference). “Pre rift, syn rift sedimentation and hydrocarbon
(Figure 14). potentials of Krishna Godavari Basin” by Gupta et al. (AAPG
1997 International Conference). “Geology and hydrocarbon
Conclusion. The evolution of Krishna Godavari Basin began prospects of Krishna Godavari and Cauvery Basin” by Kumar
during the Permian when the linear-trending (NE-SW) (in Petroliferous Basins of India, ONGC, 1983). Krishna Godavari
Gondwana graben was formed. A major, long and linear Basin Stratigraphy, Petroleum Geochemistry and Petroleum
(NE-SW), rifted graben and horst system was created dur- Geology by Robertson Research Group (ONGC report, 1987).
ing the Jurassic and named the Trans Godavari graben and Lithostratigraphy of Indian Petroleum Basin Document VIII, Krishna
Trans Godavari horst. The end of the Early Cretaceous was Godavari Basin (ONGC Publication, 1993). TLE
marked by dislocation of this horst and graben along five
major cross trends. A series of smaller en-echelon horst and Ackno wledgment: The autho r is thankful to Oil and Natural Gas
graben systems were formed from the existing single Corporation, India.
megasystem. The Late Cretaceous witnessed widespread
marine transgression when, for the first time, the entire basi- Corresponding author: [email protected]
nal area was under deposition. The Paleocene was charac-

JULY 2006 THE L EADING E DGE 837