Cell Structure

A cell is the smallest (microscopic) structural-functional unit of life of an organism. All living things are
made up of cells that make up their body structure. Some of these living things are single-celled
(unicellular) and other organisms are made up of more than one cell (Multicellular).

Since animal cells lack a rigid cell wall it allows them to develop a great diversity of cell types, tissues,
and organs. The nerves and muscles are made up of specialized cells that plant cells cannot evolve to
form, hence giving these nerve and muscle cells have the ability to move.

Animal cells are enclosed by a plasma membrane and contain a membrane-bound nucleus and
organelles. Unlike the eukaryotic cells of plants and fungi, animal cells do not have a cell wall. Most cells,
both animal and plant, are very small and are thus visible only with the aid of a microscope. Cell are small
to

 Allow molecular diffusion of materials into and out of the cell

 Minimize the strength required in the cell membranes
 Maintain a balance relationship between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

The lack of a rigid cell wall allowed animals to develop a greater diversity of cell types, tissues, and
organs and gave these organisms mobility. The ability to move about by the use of specialized muscle
tissues is a hallmark of the animal world.

Animals are a large and incredibly diverse group of organisms making up about three-quarters of the
species on Earth.

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Animals have membrane bound organelles that are necessary to
 Enclose potentially dangerous substances
 Increase the surface area for enzyme reactions
 Increase the rate of enzyme reactions by providing the enzyme and substrate in close proximity
 Enable the regulation of the rate of metabolism

Centrioles- Centrioles are self-replicating organelles made up of nine bundles of microtubules and are
found only in animal cells. They appear to help in organizing cell division, but aren't essential to the
process.

Cilia and flagella - For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential for the locomotion of
individual organisms. In multicellular organisms, cilia function to move fluid or materials past an immobile
cell as well as moving a cell or group of cells.

Golgi apparatus – This is a stack of membrane bound membranes and associated vesicles that are
formed when materials break off the Endoplasmic reticulum.

 It modifies proteins and fats built in the endoplasmic reticulum and prepares them for export to the
outside of the cell.
 It is also often involved in lysosome secretion

Lysosomes - The main function of these microbodies is digestion. Lysosomes break down cellular waste
products and debris from outside the cell into simple compounds, which are transferred to the cytoplasm
as new cell-building materials.

 The acrosome carried by the sperm helps the sperm to penetrate the ova
 Microfilaments - Microfilaments are solid rods made of globular proteins called actin. These
filaments are primarily structural in function and are an important component of the cytoskeleton.

Nucleus –
Functions of Nucleus
 The primary role of the nucleus is to control and regulate cell activities of growth and maintain
cell metabolisms.
 It also carries the genes that have hereditary information of the cell.
 It is the information center that carries the information for protein synthesis in the cell.
 It produces RNA and ribosomes that are transported to the cytoplasm..

Peroxisomes - Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are found in the cytoplasm, roughly
spherical and bound by a single membrane. There are several types of microbodies but peroxisomes are
the most common.

Plasma membrane - All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their contents. It is a thin
semipermeable protein-membrane layer that surrounds an animal cell.

Functions of Plasma membrane (Cell membrane)

 To enclose and protect the cell content
 To also regulate the molecules that pass into and out of the cell, through the plasma membrane.
Therefore it controls homeostasis.
 The proteins are actively involved in transporting materials across the membrane.
 A site for receiving and recognizing stimuli from the external environment.

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  A site for important biochemical reactions in the cell.
 Involved in the movement of materials across the cell by cytoplasmic streaming.
The proteins and lipids allow cell communication, and carbohydrates (sugars and sugar chains), which
decorate both the proteins and lipids and help cells recognize each other. These membranes also
regulate the passage of molecules in and out of the cells.

Cytoplasm
Definition of Cytoplasm
 This is a gel-like material that contains all the cell organelles, enclosed within the cell
membrane.
 These organelles include; Mitochondria, ribosomes, Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes intermediate filaments, microfilaments microtubules, vesicles.

Mitochondria
Definition of Mitochondria
 These are membrane-bound organelles located in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells
 The number of mitochondria found in each cell varies widely depending on the function the cell
performs. For example, erythrocytes do not have mitochondria while the liver and muscle cells
have thousands of mitochondria.

Structure of Mitochondria

 They are rod-shaped or oval or spherically shaped, with a size of 0.5 to 10 μm.
 Mitochondria have two special membranes – outer and inner membrane.
 They have a mitochondrial gel-matric in the central mass.
 The membranes bend into folds known as cristae.

Functions of Mitochondria
 Their primary function is to generate energy for the cell i.e they are the power generators,
producing energy in form of Adenosine Tri-phosphate (ATP), by converting nutrients and oxygen
into energy enabling the cell to perform its function and to also release excess energy from the
cell.
 Mitochondria also store calcium which assists in cell signaling activity, generating cellular and
mechanical heat and mediating cellular growth and death.
 The outer membrane is permeable, allowing the transport of small molecules and a special
channel to transport large molecules.
 It stores mitochondria DNA used for replication of the mitochondria
 It stores enzymes for the break down of carbohydrates to release energy (Enzymes for the
Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) cycle or the Kreb’s Cycle.)
 It neutralizes and breaks down free radicals produced by the body.

Most organisms inherit the mtDNA from their mother. This is because the maternal egg donates
most of the cytoplasm to the embryo while the mitochondria inherited from the father’s sperm is
destroyed. This causes the origin of inherited and acquired mitochondrial diseases due to mutations
transmitted into the embryo from the maternal mtDNA. Such diseases include Alzheimer’s disease
and Parkinson’s disease. When mutated mtDNA accumulates over time has been linked to aging and
the development of certain cancers and diseases.

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  Naturally, mitochondria play a major role in programmed cell death (apoptosis) and so
mutations in the mtDNA can inhibit cell death-causing the development of cancer.

Ribosomes
Definition of Ribosomes
 They are small organelles majorly made up of 60% RNA cytoplasmic- granules and 40% proteins.
 All living cells contain ribosomes, which may be freely circulating in the cytoplasm and some are
bound to the endoplasmic reticulum.
 It is the site for protein synthesis.
 It also makes rRNA(Ribosomal RiboNuncleicAcid)

Structure of Ribosomes
 Ribosomes are made up of ribosomal proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). In a eukaryotic cell,
ribosomes constitute half ribosomal RNA and half ribosomal proteins.
 Each ribosome is made up of two subunits i. e large subunit and small subunit with their own
distinct shapes. These subunits are designated as the 40s and 60s in the animal cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum(ER)
The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of sacs that manufactures, processes, and transports chemical
compounds for use inside and outside of the cell. It is connected to the double-layered nuclear envelope,
providing a pipeline between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Structure of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 This is a continuous folded membranous organelle found in the cytoplasm made up of a thin
network of flattened interconnected compartments (sacs) that connects from the cytoplasm to
the cell nucleus.
 Within its membranes, there are membranous spaces called the cristae spaces and the
membrane folding are called cristae.
 There are two types of ER based on their structure and the function they perform including
Rough Endoplasmic reticulum and the Smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 The Rough Endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for manufacturing proteins in the cell.
 It is a network for transporting proteins for cell utilization both in and out of the cell. This is
because it is directly connected to the nuclear membrane providing a passage between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 The ER has more than half the membranous cell content, hence it has a large surface area where
chemical reactions take place.
 They are the site for lipid synthesis since they contain the enzymes for almost all the cell lipid
synthesis.
 It divides the cytoplasm into compartments and separates different chemical processes,
enabling many activities to take place at the same time in the cell.
 It collects and stores materials made inside the cell.
 It provides a structural skeleton to maintain the shape of the cell, e.g the smooth ER in the Rod
of the retina of the eyes

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  The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for detoxification in the liver after
consumption of drugs and other toxic substances.
 A special type of ER called sarcoplasm stores calcium in muscles.

1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER) – Rough ER is called “rough” because there surface is
covered with ribosomes, giving it a rough appearance. The function of the ribosomes on rough
ER is to synthesise proteins and they have a signaling sequence, directing them to the
endoplasmic reticulum for processing. Rough ER transports the proteins and lipids through the
cell into the cristae. They are then sent into the Golgi bodies or inserted into the cell membrane.
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth ER) – Smooth ER is not associated with ribosomes and
their unction is different from that of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, despite lying adjacent to
the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Its function is to synthesise lipids (cholesterol and
phospholipids) that are utilized for producing new cellular membranes. They are also involved in
the synthesis of steroid hormones from cholesterol for certain cell types. It also contributes to
the detoxification of the liver after the intake of drugs and toxic chemicals.

 There is also a specialized type of smooth ER known as the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Its function
is to regulate the concentration of Calcium ions in the muscle cell cytoplasm.

Golgi apparatus (Golgi bodies/Golgi complex)

Structure of Golgi apparatus (Golgi bodies)
 These are membrane-bound cell organelles found in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, next to
the endoplasmic reticulum and near the nucleus.
 Golgi bodies are supported together by cytoplasmic microtubules and held by a protein matrix
 It is made up of flattened stacked pouches known as cisternae.
 These cisternae may be 4- 10 in number for animal cell and up to 60 cisternae in single-celled
organisms.
 Animal cells have very few (1-2) Golgi bodies while plants have a few hundred.

Functions of Golgi apparatus (Golgi bodies)

 Their primary function is to transport, modify and pack proteins and lipids into the Golgi vesicles
to deliver them to their target sites.
 Adding fatty acids and/or phosphate groups by phosphorylation, and/or removing
monosaccharides e.g. the removal of the mannose takes place in the cis and the medial
cisternae while adding of galactose takes place in the trans cisternae.
 Sorting of the modified proteins and lipids subsequent delivery to the lysosomes or sometimes
to the cell membrane for exocytosis.

Lysosomes.

Also known as cell vesicles; These are round subcellular organelle found in almost all eukaryotic
cells. Lysosomes are very acidic organelles containing digestive enzymes and therefore each of the
lysosomes is surrounded by a membrane to protect it from the outer environment.

Functions of Lysosomes
 This is the site for digestion of cell nutrients, excretion, and cell renewal.

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  Lysosomes break down macromolecules components from the outside of the cell into simpler
elements that are transported into the cytoplasm via a proton pump to build new cell materials.
 The digestive enzymes found in the lysosomes are called hydrolytic enzymes or acid hydrolases,
breaking down large molecules into smaller molecules that can be utilized by the cell.
 Note: The enzymes are active only on the inside of the acidic lysosome and their acidity protects
the cell from degrading itself when there is lysosomal leakage because the cell pH is neutral to
slightly alkaline.

Cytoskeleton
Structure of Cytoskeleton
 This is a fibrous network that’s formed from and by different proteins of long chains of amino
acids.
 These proteins are found in the cell cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cells.
 They are also made up of 3 types of tiny filaments: Actin filaments (Microfilaments),
Microtubules, Intermediate filaments.

Functions of Cytoskeleton
 The cytoskeleton functions to create a network organizing the cell components and to also
maintain the cell shape.
 It also provided a uniform movement of the cell and its organelles, by the filament system
network found in the cell’s cytoplasm.
 It also organizes some of the cell components maintaining the cell shape
 It plays a major role in the movement of the cell and some cell organelles in the cytoplasm.
 The tiny filaments include:
o Actin filaments; also known as microfilaments; it’s a meshwork of fibers running
parallel to each other and they play a primary role in giving the cell its shape; they
change consistently, helping the cell to move and to also mediate certain cell activities
such as adherence ability to substrates and cleavage mechanisms during mitotic cell
division
o Microtubules- these are long filaments that assist in mitosis moving daughter
chromosomes to new forming daughter cells.
o Intermediate filaments– they are more stable filaments in comparison to the actin and
microtubules. They form the true skeleton of the cell, and the hold the nucleus in its
rightful position within the cell.
o It also allows the cell’s elasticity factor enabling it to endure physical tension.
 Other proteins that may be added as part of the cytoskeleton of the cell include septin
((assembles the filaments) and spectrin (help maintain the structure of the cell by pulling
together the cell membrane with the intracellular surface of the cell).

Microtubules
Structure of Microtubules
 These are long, straight, hollow cylinders filaments that are constructed from 13-15 sub-
filaments (protofilament) strand of a special globular protein called tubulin, found only in
eukaryotic cells.
 They are found throughout the cytoplasm of the animal cell.

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Functions of Microtubules
 Transportation of some organelles like the mitochondria and the vesicles i.e. transporting
vesicles from the neuron cell body to the axon tips, and back to the cell body
 Structural support, they give characteristic support to the Golgi bodies, holding them within the
gel-matrix of the cytoplasm.
 They provide the rigid and organized component of the cytoskeleton of the cell, enabling a cell
to take up a particular shape.
 They are the main elements that make up the locomotive projections of a cell (cilia and flagella)
 They also play a role in forming the spindle fibers of the chromosome of the cell during mitotic
cell division.

Centrioles
This is distinctly found in the animal cell, which has the ability to replicate or make copies by
itself. It is made up of 9 microtubule bundles and their primary function is to assist in organizing
the cell division process.

Structure of Centrioles
 It is a small structure that is made up of 9 sets of microtubules, placed in groups of three hence
they are triplet microtubules.
 As triplets, they remain very strong together hence they have been observed to be in structures
like cilia and flagella.
 The triplet microtubules are held together by proteins, giving the centriole its shape.
 They are found in the centrosome, creating and holding microtubules within the cell.
 The triplet microtubules are surrounded by a pericentriolar matrix containing molecules that
build up the microtubules.
 Each microtubule within the triplet microtubule complex is made up of tubulin subunits that join
together forming long hollow tubes that look like straw (microtubules).

Functions of Centrioles
 The centriole microtubules allow the transportation of substances that are linked together with
a glycoprotein to any cell location. the glycoprotein linkage acts as a signaling unit to move
specific proteins.
 The centrioles anchor the microtubules that extend from it and contain the factors needed to
create more tubules.
 Mitosis is achieved by replication of each centriole which makes duplicates of each centriole (4
centrioles). The newly formed centrioles divide into two centrosomes, each centriole at an angle
to the second centriole. The microtubules between the centrosomes, push the pairs of
centrioles apart, to the opposite ends of the cell. When the centrioles are in place, the
microtubules extend to the cell cytoplasm, to seek for the chromosome. The microtubules then
bind to the chromosome at the centromere. The microtubules are then unassembled from the
centriole moving the chromosomes apart.

Peroxisomes
These are tiny bodies found in the cytoplasm.

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Structure of Peroxisomes
 They are spherically shaped, bound by a membrane and they are the most common micro-
bodies in the cell cytoplasm.

Functions of Peroxisomes:
 Lipid metabolism
 Chemical detoxification
 IBreaks down free radicals to fight cancers.

Cilia and Flagella

These are locomotive projections found on the surface of the cell.

Structure of Cilia and flagella

 They are made of strands of filaments. these filaments have partial and complete microtubules
that extend the projections. Partial microtubules don’t extend to the tip of the cilium and the
complete microtubules extend to the tip of the cilium.
 The microtubules also have motor proteins known as dynein making a link between the partial
microtubules to the complete microtubules.
 The whole collection is combined together as extensions on the plasma membrane of the cell.

Functions of Cilia and flagella

 Sperm cells have flagella allowing them to swim to the ova for fertilization. For single cells, such
as sperm, this enables them to swim.
 Cilia in the animal cell helps move fluids away from and past immobile cells.
 Cilia help move surface particles especially on the epithelial lining of the nostrils and move
mucus over the surface of the cell.

Endosome
These are vesicles bound by membranes and formed by a mechanism of endocytosis. They are
found in the cell cytoplasm.

Structure of Endosome

 They are membranous organelles that are bound to the cell membrane.

Functions of Endosome
 Its main function involves folding in of the plasma membrane. The folding allows diffusing in of
molecules through the extracellular fluids.
 Their primary role is to remove waste materials from the cell by endocytic processes such as
exocytosis and phagocytosis

Vacuoles
These are fluid-filled cell organelles enclosed by a membrane.

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Structure of Vacuoles
 They are membrane-bound sacs found within the cell cytoplasm.
 The vacuole sac has a single membrane surrounding it known as a tonoplast and this membrane
resembles the plasma membrane.

Functions of Vacuoles

 their primary function is to store food, water, carbohydrates in the form of sugars and waste
materials.
 Tonoplast is a regulator controlling the inflow and outflow of small across a protein pump
 acts as the guard for what kinds of matter are allowed passage to and from vacuoles
 They also remove toxic substances and waste materials from the cell as a protection strategy.
 They also remove poorly folded proteins from the cell.
 Vacuoles also can be able to change their functionality to provide necessary roles that suit the
cell, by being able to change shape and size.

Microvilli
These are surface protrusions found in the intestinal lining, on egg cell surfaces, and on white
blood cells.

Structure of Microvilli
 These are surface protrusions formed from accessory proteins of the actin filaments. The
accessory proteins bundle together to form microvilli on the surface of the cell membrane

Functions of Microvilli
 In the small intestines, they increase the surface area for the absorption of digested food and
water. Some microvilli may be found in the ear for detection of sound and they transmit the
sound waves to the brain through an electric signal.
 They also help to anchor the sperm to the egg for easy fertilization.
 In white blood cells, they also act as anchors allowing the white blood cells to freely move in the
circulatory system to attach to possible pathogens.

Functions of a Cell

 Structure and Support: Each cell supports other cells in the body framework
 Growth. In complex organisms such as humans, the tissues grow by simple multiplication of cells
i.e. mitosis.
 Transport: Cells have to move materials into and out of the cell.
 Energy Production: Cells need to break down food to generate energy for their own use or for
other cells.
 Metabolism: Cells need to break down and make materials for their own use or for other cells
 Reproduction cells have to multiply and produce more cells by reproducing.

Transport across the Cell Membrane

Importance of transport across cell membranes

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 To maintain a suitable pH and ionic concentration within the cell for enzyme activity
 To obtain certain food supplies for energy and for raw materials
 To excrete the toxic substances or secrete useful substances.
 To generate ionic gradients essential for nervous and muscular activity

The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that regulates the entry and exit of molecules.
Diffusion, osmosis and active transport are some forms of transport seen across the cell
membrane.

There are two major methods for moving molecules across a membrane, and it is related to
whether or not cell energy is used. Passive mechanisms, such as diffusion, require no energy to
function, whereas active transport does. In passive transport, an ion or molecule crosses the
membrane and moves down its concentration or electrochemical gradient. The different types of
passive transport mechanisms across cell membranes are as follows:

1. Simple diffusion
2. Facilitated diffusion
3. Osmosis

Diffusion
Diffusion is a spontaneous process in which a substance moves from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration, eventually eliminating the concentration
difference between the two regions. A material moves down a concentration gradient.

Simple Diffusion
Transport across the plasma membrane occurs unaided in simple diffusion, i.e., molecules of
gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen, as well as small molecules like ethanol, enter the cell
by crossing the cell membrane without any assistance. A small molecule in an aqueous solution
dissolves into the phospholipid bilayer, crosses it, and then dissolves into the aqueous solution on
the opposite side during simple diffusion. The relative rate of molecule diffusion across the
phospholipid bilayer is proportional to the concentration gradient across the membrane.

Net movement of the substance stops when the concentration difference is removed. If the
membrane is permeable to the diffusing ion, the rate of diffusion will be proportional to the
concentration gradient across the membrane.

Substances diffuse through the membrane by

 Dissolving in the liquid layer of the membrane. This is true in the case of oxygen, alcohol
and some fatty acids.

 Going through the pores in the membranes, if, the particles are small enough.

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Facilitated Diffusion
This is a type of passive transport in which molecules that cross the cell membrane move quickly
by becoming attached to specific carrier molecules (permeases) in the membrane that help carry
the molecules across the membrane. Facilitated diffusion occurs only in the direction of a
concentration gradient and does not require metabolic energy.

Facilitated diffusion facilitates the movement of substances which are insoluble in lipids e.g.
glucose. A glucose molecue combines with a carrier substance to form a complex that is soluble
in the lipid layer and is now able to diffuse through the cell membrane. The complex molecule,
having passed through the cell membrane, breaks up on the inner surface of membrane to release
glucose into the cytoplasm while the carrier comes back to pick up more glucose molecules.

The rate at which the substance passes through the membrane in this instance depends on

 Concentration of the substance on the two sides of the membrane

 The amount of carrier available

 The rapidity with which chemical reactions take place to to form and break down the
complexes

 Temperature: temperature tends to increase the rate of transport

 Size of the materials with regard to the membrane pores: small particles pass through faster
than large particles

 The electric charge of the particles: Positively charged particles pass through the membranes
with extreme difficulty because of the presence of positively charged proteins or adsorbed
cations.

 Certain hormones may increase pore permeability e.g. Anti Diuretic Hormone (ADH). ADH
increases the diameter of pores and so increases the rate at which materials diffuse through
the pores. Alochol has the opposite effect. It acts on the pituitary gland and stops the
production of ADH hence preventing the dilation of pores.

It is distinguished by the following characteristics:

 The rate of molecule transport across the membrane is much faster than would be expected
from simple diffusion.
 This is a specific process; each facilitated diffusion protein transports only one type of molecule.
 There is a maximum rate of transport, which means that when the concentration gradient of
molecules across the membrane is low, increasing the concentration gradient results in an
increase in the rate of transport.

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Osmosis
Osmosis is the process by which water molecules pass through a membrane from a region of
higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration.

 The process by which water molecules enter the cell is known as endosmosis, whereas the
process by which water molecules exit the cell is known as exosmosis.
 Excessive exosmosis causes the cytoplasm and cell membrane in plant cells to shrink away from
the cell wall. This is known as plasmolysis. It is due to plasmolysis that a plant loses its support
and wilts.
 When two compartments of different solute concentrations are separated by a semipermeable
membrane, the compartment with higher solute concentration is called hypertonic relative to
the compartment of lower solute concentration, which is described as hypotonic.
 If a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, it rapidly gains water by osmosis and swells.
Conversely, a cell placed into a hypertonic solution rapidly loses water by osmosis and shrinks.
 When the internal solute concentration equals the external solute concentration, it is said to be
isotonic. Here, no net movement of water in or out of the cells occurs.
 The amount of water contained within the cell creates a pressure termed hydrostatic pressure
(osmotic pressure). The cell membrane regulates the osmotic pressures of intracellular and
intercellular fluids.
 If a solution is separated by a partially permeable membrane from pure water, the hydrostatic
pressure required to resist the osmotic flow of water into the solution is what is called the
osmotic pressure of the solution. The higher the concentration of a solution, the higher the
osmotic pressure. Osmotic pressure is an important mechanism in maintaining homeostasis by
determining to a large extent whether water will enter a cell or leave the cell.

The membranes of living cells allow the passage of certain of certain salt molecules or ions in a selective
manner depending on the nature of the membrane. They are therefore best described as being partially
permeable rather than semi permeable.

What is water potential?

Water potential expresses the tendency of water to move from one location to another as a result of
gravity, osmosis, mechanical pressure and capillary action.

What is the difference between osmotic potential and osmotic pressure?

Osmotic pressure is the hydrostatic pressure that tries to balance and prevent the osmotic influxes of
water into a concentrated solution. The osmotic potential of a solution is the ability of dissolved solutes
to cause water movement into it across a semipermeable membrane.

Active Transport
Active transport is a kind of cellular transport in which substances like amino acids, glucose and
ions are transported across cell membranes to a region that already has a high concentration of
such substances. As a result, active transport employs chemical energy like ATP to move
substances against their concentration gradient. This type of transport is commonly found in the
small intestine wall and root hair cells.

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Active transport is performed by a special type of protein molecules of the cell membrane called
the transport proteins or pumps. They consume energy in the form of ATP molecules.

Primary Active Transport

Photon energy and redox energy are two sources of energy for primary active transport. The
mitochondrial electron transport chain, which uses the reduction energy of NADH to transport
protons across the inner membrane of mitochondria against their concentration gradient, is an
example of primary active transport using redox energy. The proteins involved in photosynthesis
are an example of primary active transport using photon or light energy.

Primary active transport is demonstrated by glucose uptake in the human intestine.

Secondary Active Transport

Secondary active transport allows one solute to move downward (along its electrochemical
potential gradient) in order to generate enough entropic energy to drive the transport of the other
solute upward (from a low concentration region to a high concentration region). This is also
known as coupled transport. There are two types of coupled transport – antiport and symport.
Antiport transport involves the movement of two ion or other solute species in opposite
directions across a membrane, whereas symport transport involves the movement of two species
in the same direction.

Examples include the epithelial lining of the intestines that moves glucose from the side of lower
glucose concentration in the lumen of the small intestines to the side of higher glucose
concentration in the blood. Also, amino acid uptake in the small intestines as active, as is the
secretion of isotonic HCl by the Parietal cells in the stomach and the reabsorption of glucose and
amino acids from the urine in the proximal convoluted tubule of the kidney. All cells release
calcium ions into the extra cellular fluid ad maintain an intra cellular cailcium ion concentration
that is 1000 – 10, 000 times lower than the extra cellular calcium ion concentration. This requires
expenditure of energy.

Movement of materials in active transport is usually uni- directional unlike in diffusion which is
reversible.

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Transport of particles

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

In bringing about trans membrane movements of large molecules, the cell membrane itself
undergoes concerted movements during which part of the fluid medium outside of the cell is
brought into the cell (endocytosis) or part of the cell’s internal medium is exported to the outside
(exocytosis). These movements involve a fusion between membrane surfaces, followed by the
re-formation of intact membranes.

Endocytosis

Phagocytosis (cell eating)

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receptor-mediated endocytosis

In this process the cell membrane engulfs portions of the external medium, forms an almost
complete sphere around it, and then draws the membrane-bounded vesicle, called an endosome,
into the cell. It is a process that is particularly used by special cells that belong to the Endo-
reticular system that destroys invading pathogens. Invading pathogens are ingested as well as cell
debris found in the degenerating tissues. Phagocytosis is therefore employed in the immune
system by especially the white blood cells (leucocytes). An example of phagocytosis is the
inflammation of the udder (mastitis)

Pinocytosis (Cell drinking)

This is used by cells taking in fluid from the surrounding medium by forming invaginations of
the cell membrane. The invaginated webs eventually pinch off, forming small vacuoles located
in the cytoplasm. Pinocytosis is common in single celled organisms and in a number of
mammalian cells including the white blood cells and cells believed to be active in fluid transport
e.g. cells of the kidney and those lining the walls of the intestines. This enables big particles to
be moved across e.g. the absorption of the white blood cells in the colostrum fed to the newly
born mamals. Pinocytosis is considered to be active transport because a considerable amount of
enrgy is needed to break and rebuild the membrane structure.

Exocytosis

In exocytosis, material synthesized within the cell that has been packaged into membrane-bound
vesicles is exported from the cell following the fusion of the vesicles with the external cell
membrane. The materials so exported are cell-specific protein products, neuro transmitters, and a
variety of other molecules.

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