Cells

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WEEK 8: TOPIC: Cells: The basic unit of life

SUB-TOPIC: Cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus & cytoplasm

NOTES & EXAM TIPS

The structure of a cell

Cell wall
The cell wall is a rigid outer layer of plant cells. It surrounds the cell membrane. The
cell wall is non-living and is made up of cellulose, a polysaccharide. It is completely
permeable to water and mineral salts. Openings in the cell wall contain strands of
cytoplasm, called plasmodesmata, that connect adjacent cells. The cell wall of a
plant cell is joined to other cell walls by a thin layer of material called the middle
lamella.
Functions:
 Protect the inner parts of the plant cell
 Give plant cells a more uniform and regular shape
 Provide support for the plant body
Cell membrane
The cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm. It is part of the protoplasm, which is the
living part of the cell. The cell membrane consists mostly of lipid and protein
molecules. It is semi-permeable and controls the movement of substances into and
out of the cells.
The fluid mosaic model is a commonly accepted model that describes the arrangement
of lipid and protein molecules in cell membranes.

Protein molecules are randomly embedded in the phospholipid bilayer. This


contributes to the mechanical strength of the membrane. Each protein molecule shifts
around on the fluid bilayer of phospholipids.

Diffusion
Diffusion is the meovement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration down a concentration gradient. Diffusion will continue untill all
molecules are spread out evely and a state of equilibrium is reached.
Diffusion occurs in living and non-living systems and is an example of passive
transport – no energy is needed.

Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable
membrane from an area of high water potential to an area of low waterpotential, down
a water potential gradient until iquilobrium is reached. Pure water has the highest
water potential because there are no solutes present to lower the kinetic energy of the
water molecules.

Active transport
Active transport is the movement of substances through a semi-permeable membrane
in living cells against a concentration gradient. Energy in the form of ATP is needed.

Nucleus
The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell and contains all the cell’s genetic
information in the form of DNA. The presence of a nucleus is the primary factor
that distinguishes eukaryotes from prokaryotes.

A nucleus has four main parts:


1. the double nuclear membrane – it encloses the nucleus and contains small
pores to allow for the passage of substances in and out of the nucleus
2. the nucleoplasm – this is a jelly-like fluid within the nucleus
3. the nucleolus – a dark body suspended in the nucleoplasm which contains
free nucleotide bases and produces ribosomes
4. the chromatin network – found in the nucleoplasm, contains the DNA which
forms the chromosomes containing the genetic code of a person / organism

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance that fills the cell. It consists of up to
90% water. It also contains dissolved nutrients and waste products. Its main
function is to hold together the organelles which make up the cytoplasm. It also
nourishes the cell by supplying it with salts and sugars and provides a medium
for metabolic reactions to occur.
WEEK 9: TOPIC: Cells: The basic unit of life

SUB-TOPIC: Mitochondria, Ribosome, Endoplasmic reticulum & Golgi-body

NOTES & EXAM TIPS

Mitochondrion

Structure
 Mitochondria are rod-shaped, cylindrical organelles.
 A double membrane surrounds each mitochondrion’s fluid-filled matrix.
 The outer membrane is smooth, and the inner membrane is folded inwards to
form finger-like projections called cristae.
 Mitochondria contain their own DNA.

Functions
1. Cellular respiration – produces energy in the form of ATP
Ribosomes
Structure
 Ribosomes are very small grain-like structures present in all kinds of plant and
animal cells, as well as in bacteria.
 Each ribosome is about 15-20nm (nanometer) in diameter.
 At higher magnifications ribosomes can be seen to consist of two parts,
namely a smaller and larger subunit.
 They occur on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), in the cytoplasm, plastids and
in mitochondria.
 Ribosomes may also occur singly or as free clusters in the cytoplasm.
 When ribosomes occur in clusters in the cytoplasm, they are called
polyribosomes or polysomes.
 Each ribosome is made up of protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Functions
1. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.

What happens during this process?

During this process, amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) are linked together
to form long polypeptide chains. The poly peptide chains are proteins.
Endoplasmic reticulum

Structure
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a system of tubes enclosed by membranes.
 It is found in plants and animals.
 The membranes appear to be continuous with the cell membrane and the
nuclear membrane.
 There are two types of ER, i.e. rough ER (has ribosomes attached to it) and
smooth ER (has no ribosomes attached to it).

Functions

1. Provides surfaces for the attachment of ribosomes.


2. Transports ribosomes throughout the cell using rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER)
3. Synthesizes lipids and steroids, e.g. cholesterol, on the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER).

Golgi apparatus(bodies)

Structure
 The Golgi apparatus is a stack of flattened sacs, called cisternae and many
spherical vesicles which have been broken off from the cisternae.
 It is found in found in both plants and animal cells.
 They measure 7 nm (nanometers) across.
 Golgi apparatus has the same stricter as smooth ER.
 Golgi bodies are found mostly in gland cells that secrete substances e.g.
goblet cells of the alimentary canal.
Functions

1. Makes and processes secretions, such as saliva and mucus.


2. Transports proteins from the ER to different parts of the cell.
3. Ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus are related to
each other through their involvement in protein synthesis and transport.

Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis and carry out carry out this work by
assembling amino acids in the appropriate sequence, as dictated by the mRNA
(messenger RNA). These organelles are most commonly found embedded in the
endoplasmic reticulum. Large scale protein synthesis is possible due to the very large
surface area offered by the endoplasmic reticulum to the ribosomes. The main function
of the endoplasmic reticulum is to transport the newly synthesized proteins over to the
Golgi apparatus. The primary role of Golgi apparatus is to modify the proteins and
encase them into vesicles. From here they are transported to the various parts of the
cell.

Hence the three cell organelles are related in their functions of protein synthesis and
transport.
WEEK 10: TOPIC: Cells: The basic unit of life

SUB-TOPIC: Plastids, Vacuoles & difference between plant and animal cells

NOTES & EXAM TIPS

Plastids
Structure
 Structurally, plastids are double membrane-bounded as they have an outer
and inner membrane.
 They are found only in plant cells.
 There are 3 types of plastids: chloroplast, leucoplast and chromoplast.

Chloroplast

 The chloroplast is made up of a gelatinous substance called the stroma that


contains many enzymes that are essential for photosynthesis.
 The stroma is surrounded by a double membrane.
 Suspended in the stroma are thylakoids. These are stacks of membrane-like
structures; each stack is called a granum.
 Chlorophyl and other photosynthetic pigments are located in the thylakoids,
which are the site of photosynthesis.
Functions

1. Chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis and contains the


green pigment chlorophyl.
2. Leucoplasts are colourless and store starch.
3. Chromoplasts contain pigments, such as carotenoids, and give fruit,
vegetables and flowers their colour. Carotenoid-containing
chromoplasts can be red, orange or yellow.

Vacuoles

Each plant cell usually has one large vacuole that takes up most of the cell’s volume.
Structure
 Vacuoles are fluid-filled organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of most plant
cells.
 A selectively permeable single membrane, the tonoplast, surrounds the
vacuole.
 The vacuole contains cell sap, which is a liquid that consists of water, mineral
salts, sugars and amino acids.

Functions

1. Plays a role in the digestion and excretion of cellular waste, and


2. The storage of water and organic and inorganic substances.
3. It is also responsible for maintaining the shape of plant cells.
4. When the vacuole is full of water, it exerts pressure outwards, pushing the cell
membrane against the cell wall. This pressure is called turgor pressure.
The differences between plant and animal cells

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