General Biology Lesson 1

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GENERAL BIOLOGY

Lesson 1 : Cell
By : Jhulan Drei Nadong
STEM 11 - MAGSAYSAY

 All cells have a cell membrane that separates the inside and the outside of the
cell, and controls what goes in and comes out. The cell membrane surrounds a
cell’s cytoplasm, which is a jelly-like substance containing cell’s parts.

 Cells contain parts called organelles. Each organelle carries out a specific
function in the cell. A cell’s organelles work alone and together to keep the
whole cell functioning.

 Mitochondria are organelles that break down sugars. This process releases
energy that the cell can use.

 The nucleus is an organelle that contains a cell’s genes.

 Chloroplasts are organelles that carry out photosynthesis, which makes the food
plant cells need to live. This food is in the form of sugars

 Plant cells have chloroplasts and a cell wall, but animal cells do not. The plant
cell wall is outside the cell membrane, and It provides structure for the cell.

 DNA ( Deoxyribonucleic acid ) - Is a biological macromolecule that carries


hereditary information in many organisms. DNA is necessary for the production
of proteins, the regulation, metabolism, and reproduction of the cell. DNA
dictates what the cell is going to do and how it’s going to do it.

 Plasma membrane - A selective barrier which encloses a cell ( plant and


bacteria cells also contain a cell wall )

 Ribosomes - the organelles on which is contained in one or more chromosomes.

 RNA ( Ribose nucleic acid ) - RNA is typically single stranded, while DNA is
double-stranded. RNA contains the sugar ribose, whereas DNA contains
deoxyribose. RNA uses the bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and
uracil (U), replacing thymine (T) found in DNA.

Function of RNA :

1. Messenger RNA ( mRNA ): Carries genetic information from DNA to the


ribosome, where it serves as a template for protein synthesis.

2. Transfer RNA ( tRNA ): Helps decode mRNA sequences into proteins by


delivering the appropriate amino acids to the ribosome.

3. Ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ): Combines with proteins to form ribosomes, the


molecular machines that synthesize proteins.

4. Regulatory RNA: includes various types like microRNA (miRNA) and small
interfering RNA (siRNA), which regulate gene expression by interacting with
mRNA or chromatin. Animals, plants and some viruses contain microRNA
(miRNA).

Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells

Eukaryotic cell
- they have organelles which include nucleus and other special parts.
- more advanced, complex cells such as those found in plants and animals.
- Plant, animal and fungal cells are eukaryotic cells.
- has nucleus
- The nucleus in a eukaryotic cell is bound by a nuclear envelope and contains
nucleoplasm.
- The cytoplasm, found between the plasma membrane and the nucleus, consists of
fluid and the organelles.
- Many organelles have membranes, such as the nucleolus, endoplasmic reticulum,
golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and chloroplast.
Prokaryotic cell
- doesn’t have a nucleus or membrane enclosed organelles.
- they do have genetic material but it’s not contained within a nucleus.
- always one celled or unicellular organisms, such as bacteria.
- less organize and less dynamic than eukaryotic cell.
- lack the organelles that are found in eukaryotic cells.
- do have cytoplasm, the material contained by a plasma membrane and cell wall
- the cytoplasm includes ribosomes (the site of protein synthesis) and enzymes.
- bacteria and archaebacteria are prokaryotic.
- Prokaryotes also have a nucleoid, a region in the bacterial cell interior in which the
DNA is physically organized but not enclosed by a membrane.
WHAT ARE ORGANELLES?

Organelles means “little organ”. Organelles are the specialized parts of a cell that
have unique jobs to perform.

Nucleus
- control center of the cell.
- contains DNA or genetic material.
- responsible for regulating almost all forms of cellular activities.
- plural: nuclei
- Nucleus derived from a Latin word which means “ kernel of a nut “.
Chromatin - the tangled, spread out form of DNA found inside the nuclear
membrane.

When a cell is ready to divide DNA condenses into structure known as


chromosomes.

The nucleus also contains a nucleolus, which is a structure where ribosomes are
made.

After ribosomes leave the nucleus they will have a important job of synthesizing or
making proteins.

CELL TYPES

In the human body we have more than 200 different type of cells. Below is a small
selection of human cell types:

Stem cells
Are cells that must choose what they are going to become. Some differentiate to
become a certain cell type, and others divide to produce more stem cells. The
embryo and some adult tissues, such as bone marrow, house them.

Bone cells
- osteoclasts, which dissolve bone
- osteoblasts, which form new bone
- osteocytes, which help communicate with other bone cells

Blood cells
- red blood cells, which carry oxygen around the body
- white blood cells, which are part of the immune system
- platelets, which help blood clot to prevent blood loss after injury
- neutrophils and basophils, and other types of white blood cells

Muscle cells
Also called myocytes, muscle cells are long, tubular cells. Muscle cells are important
for a range of functions, including movement, support, and internal functions, such
as peristalsis — the movement of food along the gut.

Sperm cells
- These tadpole-shaped cells are the smallest in the human body.
- They are motile, meaning that they can move. They achieve this movement by
using their tail, which contains energy-giving mitochondria.
- Sperm cells cannot divide. They only carry one haploid, unlike the majority of cells,
which carry diploids.
Female egg cell
Compared with the sperm cell, the female egg cell is a giant. It is the largest human
cell. The egg cell is also haploid so that the chromosomes from the sperm and egg
can combine to create a diploid cell during the process of fertilization.

Fat cells
Fat cells are also called adipocytes, the main adipose tissue constituents. They
contain stored fats called triglycerides that the body can use as energy. Once the
body uses the triglycerides, the fat cells shrink. Adipocytes also produce some
hormones.

Nerve cells
Nerves cells form the communication system of the body. Also called neurons, they
consist of two major parts — the cell body and nerve processes, known as axons and
dendrites.

The central body contains the nucleus and other organelles, and the nerve processes
run like long fingers, carrying messages far and wide. Some of the axons are
around 1 meter long.

CELL MODIFICATIONS

Are specialized or modifications re-acquired by the cell after cell division that helps
the cell in different beneficial ways.

APICAL MODIFICATION
- Cell modification found on the apical surface of the cell.
Cilia and Flagella
- Cilia are usually short, hair-like structures that move in waves.
- Flagella are long whiplike structures
- Formed from microtubules
Villi and Microvilli
- Villi are finger-like projections that arise from the epithelial layer in some organs.
They help to increase surface area allowing for faster and more efficient adsorption.
- Microvilli are smaller projections that arise from the cell’s surface that also increase
surface area allowing faster and more efficient absorption.
Pseudopods
- temporary, irregular lobes formed by amoebas and some other eukaryotic cells.
- bulge outward to move the cell or engulf prey.

Extra Cellular Matrix (ECM)


- compound secreted by the cell on its apical surface.
- cell wall is the extracellular structure in plant cells that distinguishes them from
animal cells.
- glycoprotein is the main ingredient of ECM in animal cells.

BASAL MODIFICATION
- cell modification found on the basal surface of the cell

Desmosomes/Hemidesmosomes
- anchoring junction on the basal surface of the cell
- rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix components such as
the basal lamina that underline epithelia.
- primaly composed of keratin, integrins and cadherins.

LATERAL MODIFICATION
- cell modification found on the basal surface of the cell.

Tight junction
- act as barriers that regulate the movement of water and solutes between epithelial
layers.
- prevent leakage of ECF
Adhering junction
- anchoring junction on the lateral surface of the cell
- very similar to the anchoring junction of the cell
- fasten cells to one another

Gap junction
- also known as communication junctions.
- closable channels that connect the cytoplasm of adjoining animal cells.
- presence of connexon that allow direct exchange of chemicals between cytoplasm
of two cells.

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