Transatlantic Slave Trade - Dahomey and Asante

Author:Mutsawashe Kafesu n Liberty Kafesu
“A” LEVEL HISTORY SCHOOL SYLLABUS
PAPER 4: THE HISTORY OF TROPICAL AFRICA, 1855 – 1914
MAIN TEXT BOOK : MICHEAL TIDY
OVERVIEW
This paper covers a period of rapid change in African History, in an African rather than imperial
perspective although candidates must continue to expect questions on European activities in
Africa. Questions are derived from as early as 1855 up to 1914. The syllabus meets standard
requirements forZIMSEC. Students are expected to derive examples from Central Africa, East
and West Africa. Therefore the syllabus requires a reasoned comparison of differing situations,
developments and personalities within the three broad geographical regions.
Syllabus content should be covered in time in order to provide ample time for revision.
TOPICS TO BE COVERED WILL BE DISTRIBUTED AS FOLLOWS:
TERM 1
1. THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

 Factors which led to its rise
 Characteristics of slavery in West Africa
 Transition to legitimate trade
 Abolition
 Effects
2. DAHOMEY
 Background
 Internal organization / political, social, economic
 Dahomean measures towards legitimate trade
 Fall of Dahomey
3. ASANTE EMPIRE
 Factors which led to its rise
 Internal Organization
 Prempeh 1 : aims, works, strategies
 Prempeh’s importance in African History
4. MANDINKA EMPIRE
 Background
Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

 Samori Toure
 Internal organization
 Resistance against the French
 Significance of Samori
5. THE NIGER DELTA STATES

 Background
 The House System – economic, political and social
 Jaja of Opobo
 Significance of Jaja
TERM 2
6. ETHIOPIA
 Background
 Factors which promoted unity
 Tewodros
 Yohannis IV (1872 – 1889)
 Menelik II (1889 – 1918)
7. THE PARTITION OF AFRICA

 Background
 Causes of Partition -political, economic and Social
 Berlin West Africa Conference
 Effects of the Scramble
 Formal and Informal Empire
8. AFRICAN RESPONSE TO IMPERIALISM

 Lobengula of the Ndebele
 Chartered Companies e.g Royal Niger Company, BSACo
 Concessionary Trading Companies
 Lewanika of the Lozi
TERM 3
9. AFRICAN COLONIAL RESISTANCE

 The First Chimurenga – causes, nature, results
 The Maji Maji Rising (1905 – 1906)
10. THEORIES OF COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION/RULE
 Assimilation

 Association
 Indirect rule
 Direct rule
HISTORY OF TROPICAL AFRICA
ZIMSEC CODE: 9155/4
READING LIST
Afigbo.A.E (etal).The Making of Modern African Volume 1 the 19th Century. Essex, Longman,
1998.
Africa Journal ltd.Makers of Modern Africa.Profiles in History. London, African Journal ltd,
1981.
Ajayi, J.F.A. (eds).History of West Africa.Volume 2. Essex, Longman, 1987.
Beach, D.N.War and Politics in Zimbabwe. 1840 – 1900. Gweru, Mambo Press, 1994.
Boahen, A. Adu. (ed).General History of Africa.Abridged Edition VII Africa Under Colonial
Domination 1880 – 1935.London, James Currey, 1990.
Boahen, A.Topics in West Afican History – Second Edition. Harlow, Pearson Education
Limited, 2005.
Buah, F.K.History Notes West Africa since AD 1000 Book One: The People. London,
Macmillan, 1981.
Catchpole, B etal.A History of West Africa in Maps and Diagrams. London, Collins
Educational, 1983.
Curtin, P. (etal).African History from Earliest Times to Independence (Second Edition).

London, Longman, 1978.
Hopkins, A.G.An Ecomic History of West Africa. Essex, Longman, 1993.
Isichei, Elizabeth.History of West Africa since 1800. London, Macmillan Publishers,1985.
Maxon, Robert. M. East Africa: An introductory History. Nairobi, East African Educational
Publishers, 1979.
McEwan, P.J.M.Nineteenth Century Africa. Oxford, Oxford University Press,1978.

Mwijage, J.F.KFr. Major events in African History: A guide to the study of the origins and
development of the modern African states. Morogoro, Salvatporian Institute of Philosophy and
Theology, 2004.
Okoth, A.A History of Africa 1855 – 1914 (New enlarged Edition). Nairobi East African
Educational Publishers,1979
Okoth, A.Essays on Advanced Level History: 1855 – 1914. Nairobi, Heinemann, 1985.
Prew, M.“A” Level African History Essay Writing Skills Paper 13. Harare, Longman, 1993.
Roland, Oliver and Antony, Atmore.Africa Since 1800 – Second Edition. London, Cambridge
University Press, 1977.
Thatcher, Paul.Students Notes on the History of Africa in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Essex,
Longman, 1990.
Tindall, P.E.N.History of Central Africa. London, Longman, 1978.
Rodney, W.How Europe Underdeveloped Africa.Dar es Salam, Tanzania Publishing House,

1972.
Wanatosi, J.A.R. Mastering History for Advanced Level., Africa Since 1855- 1914. Kampala,
Riso Printers, 1996.
Webster, J.B. (etal).The Revolutionary Years West Africa since 1800 (New Edition). Essex,
Longman, 1992.
Wills, A. J.An Introduction to the History of Central Africa. London. Oxford University Press.
1964.
Wills, A.J.An Introduction to the History of Central Africa.Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabwe.
4thEdition. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1990.
N.B: This reading list should act as a guideline. IT IS NOT EXHAUSTIVE hence students
are encouraged to consult other textbooks, the internet and reference materials for more
information.
THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE
DEFINITION
 This is a commercial system to recruit forced labour from Africa and escort to America
and Europe
 West Africa is the most hard hit region in Africa

 West Africanswere escorted to the Americas and Europe as slaves.
 Africans were regarded as objects to be bought
 Slave trade, that is, is buying andselling of human beings was a violation of all morals
and human principles
 It is the worst ever calamity to be fell the African people.
 Many European and American commodities such a sugar, tobacco, cotton and a number
of precious metals were produced by slaves in Africa for allowing capitalist expansion of
Europe
 In most cases Europeans brought goods in exchange of human beings
 The trans-Atlantic slave trade enhanced the living standards of many Europeans and
Americas and at the same time it contributed to the misery and underdevelopment of
millions of Africans and destroyed their traditional values and institutions
FACTORS WHICH LED TO THE RISE OF TRANS ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE
1) Part of the answer lies in the discovery of the Americas and the rise of plantation
agriculture
 America’s climate produced different commodities which were in demand in Europe
e.g. Virginia tobacco, rice and indigo (a form of dye)
 America provided land for agriculture, Europe provide the capital, organisation and
demand for raw material while Africa provided cheap labour in the form of slaves
 At first Europeans tried to bring labour from Europe but these provedunreliable as
they were expensive and not readily available.
 The other alternative was to use indigenous Indians but they proved less adaptable to
systematic agricultural labour and were highly susceptible to European diseases
 Most of them died from European diseases e.g. small pox, syphilis andagricultural
labour and also from various wars which were associated with the pacification of
areas.
 Some Indians fled andSpaniardsfound the export of the Africans to the New World
as the solution to the labour problem.
 As more mines were opened and plantations set up the demand for slaves increased.
2) The scientific racist attitudes towards blacks

 It was generally argued that blacks (African) people were fit for manual labour
 It was also argued at Africans were cheap and more productive in the different
conditions of America
3) The existence of unfree systems of labour in African societies also contributed to the
slave trade
 The African chiefs had the final say in all the work that was to be done.
 Therefore, the Africans did not resist being sold into slavery
SLAVERY AND SLAVE TRADE IN WEST AFRICA

West Africa suffered more from slavery than any other part of Africa. The Portuguesewere the
first to capture slaves in the Africa and transport them across theAtlanticOcean in 1518.
Britain, France, Netherlands and Spain also joined the trade and by the 18th century Britain was
the leading buyer of slaves in West Africa. The most affected areas include Senegambia, the
Upper GuineaCoast, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Volta River Basin up to Benin and Cameroon up
to Angola, Niger Delta and Yoruba land.
There were various ways of capturing slaves :
a) Raiding –many slaves were killed in the process
b) Warfare- this increased wars and made life insecure
c) Kidnapping
d) Collecting tribute
e) Purchasing or exchange
f) Disposing of criminals.
 Given the fact that the majority of slaves were captured through war, raids and tribute.
Millions of Africans died in the process while they fought for freedom. Slave gathering
expeditions were disruptive of the day to day running of African cities. Slave traders
offered African middleman manufactured items such as cloth, armaments, guns and
gunpowder, spirits andtobacco .
 These goods are better described as shoddy, useless consumables or “assorted rubbish” to
use Walter Rodney’ (1972) phrase.
 Most of the goods were rejects of Europe, second hand goodsor even intended to cause
harm and chaos among African societies especially spirits and guns.
*Guns--for promoting warfare and killing each other. The policy is persued up to this day
where the divide and rule tactic is employed.
*Spirits--to cause moral and social decay.
 These goods were exchanged for highly able-bodied Africans in their youth stages
especially between the ages of 15 and 35.
 These include the most active population of any country and slave raiders favoured men.
 A.G.Hopkins (1973:122) is of the view that “two thirds of the slaves exported were
males. It is possible that their removal might have affected female occupational roles.
This might have affected the population growth rate”.
 Slavery among the Africans benefited chiefs, headman, clan leader and professional
traders for exampleSusu, Mandinka, Hausa,Fulani, Dioula, Ashanti.
TRANSITION TO LEGITIMATE TRADE
 Legitimate-trade in simpler terms was a shift from trading in humans to trading in

commodities such as vegetable oil, timber, gold, groundnuts, ivory etc.These are products
which were considered legitimate or lawful.
 This so called transition to legitimatetrade was not abrupt as for the first half of the 19th
century legitimate trade and slave trade co-existed.
 Therefore, the slave trade was abandoned for another mode of exploitation which
Europeans termed legitimate trade.
 The legitimacy of the so called legitimate trade is however questionable.
N.B: WAS IT FAIR?
Were the products brought to Africabeneficial to the Africans?

Did the commodities improve the quality of life of the Africans?
 Palm oil was used in making soap and lubricants on railways and in manufacturing
candles.
 Historian’s thoughtthat, “it was easier for ordinary individuals to take part in selling palm
oil in large quantities and the slave trade. They say that palm oil could be produced by
large numbers of peasant families whereas the profit of the slave trade tended to go
mainly to the ruling class.”(Isichei:1977:15)
 This theory that the palm oiltrade was democratic is only partly true.
 According to the Isichei(1977:152), “palm oil production was very laborious and
sometimes dangerous, but brought very small returns to the individual involved”.
 Real profits were made by the transporting wealthy merchants who employed slave
labour.
 In 1810, 1000 tonnes of palm oil were exported to England.
 By 1855 this had risen to 40 000 tonnes.
Transition to groundnuts in Senegambia

 An economy in which slaves were exported, was replaced by an economy in which the
slave was employed in farming or in collecting and transporting agricultural products.
 In Senegambia the local climate was conducive for groundnuts production thus the
transition was quick as slaves were easily replaced by groundnuts as an export
commodity.
Factors which facilitated the transition from slave trade to legitimate trade
 Changes in the transport sector

 The export of products was necessitated by a revolution in ocean transport which
occurred in the second half the 19th century.
 This was the changeover from sailing ships to steam ships. The transportation of goods
became convenient and quick with the revolution in the transport industry.
 Transport problems
 Legitimate products wanted to be transported to the coast for export but slaveswere self-
transporting and could be obtained anywhere where man lived.
 Participation in legitimate trade therefore, depended on the availability of export crops or
products and also closeness to navigable rivers.
 The navigable rivers of the Niger, the Lower KwalboRiver and the Niger tributaries
enabled oil to be easily transported.
 However, Dahomey only had one navigable river thus there were transitional challenges
in the state. In the Niger Delta states it was easy as the small delta creeks were navigable
and easily facilitated the transportation of palm oil for export.
 Availability of export substitutes

 There were desperate searches for suitable export commodities in the Gold Coast. Supply
of gold remained static and it was only in the 1880s that an adequate export cocoa crop
was found.
 In Senegal, gum trade declined because of rival supplies from Egypt and also because of
chemical substitutes.
 Timber was easily exhausted.
 Rubber boomed in the late 19th century but could not compete with Asian plantation and
inexpert tapping destroyed the trees.
ABOLITION
Questions to answer
1) Why was the slave trade abolished?
2) Who was behind its abolition and why?
3) Did slave trade really end or it was just replaced by the so-called legitimate trade?
There is still a great deal of controversy over the circumstances that led to the abolition of the
slave trade. Some historians attribute the abolition to purely humanitarian or moral and
religious considerations while others like Erick Williams argue that the slave trade and
slavery wereabolished mainly for economic reasons. Some recent scholarly works have
shifted attention from a single causal factor to the study of complex factors that led to the
abolition. Such historians maintain that the abolition came about as result of many factors
including economic and humanitarian factors.
1. The slave trade was partly abolished both for humanitarian and economic factors.
 It was condemned by both philosophers and economists such as Rousseau and
AdamSmith as well as evangelists such as John Wesley.
 Many people who attacked slavery were men who were personally committedto the
evangelists and humanitarian ideals.
 Church men wanted to spread Christianity among Africans.Evangelicals argued that
slavery was evil because it contravened the law of God according to which “ all men
should be brothers under the fatherhood of God” (Afigbo: 128).
2. Anti-slavery movements were established e.g. British Anti-Slavery Movementwith

leaders such as Granville Sharp, William Wilberforce, Thomas Clarkson and a
former Ibo slave called Olauda Equiano (Okwaonga) Gustavas Vasa the African.
 Olauda was a Nigerian kidnapped and sold into slavery.
 These people organized and conducted mass public lectures to arouse public opinion
against the trade until their aims were achieved by the abolition of the slave trade
around 1807 and eventually slavery around 1833.
 Their lectures evaluated the evils of the slave trade and also the rewards from the
development of African natural resources i.e. legitimate trade.
 However, if moral and humanitarian pressure alone has been sufficient the slave trade
would have been abolished in 1792.
 The fact that the British parliament agreed to abolish the slave trade in 1807 and
slavery in 1833 indicates that considerations other than humanitarian ones were more
important.

3. Erick Williams and other WestIndian historians championed the economic
motivations for the abolition of the slave trade by the British.
 Williams argued that from as early as the 18th century BritishWestIndian plantations
did not compete with French, Spanish and Brazilian plantations.
 In other words BritishWest Indianplanters began to support the campaign for the
abolition of the slave trade because they were alarmed by the competitive
development of the new fertile French and Dutch colonies.
4. Economists for exampleAdamSmith arguedthat slave labour was inherently

inefficient, unproductive and wasteful.
 These economic thinkers propagated and popularised the idea that free trade, free
competition and free labour were more profitable thanrigidly regulated trade and
forced labour.
 Slavery was forced labour therefore; the slave could not give his or her best because
he was made to work against his/her will.
 In Britain the largest slave trading nation the new order of industry and commerce
was also beginning to overshadow the interest of the West Indianslave owners who
had for a long time bean a powerful group in parliament.
 As more andmore manufacturing machines came into use the demand for more raw
materials increased and many industrialists as well as humanitarians began to argue
that instead of exporting Africans to America, African labour could be more
profitably employed in Africa to produce commodities such as palm oil, groundnuts,
and cotton and then manufactured good could be sold in African markets.
 Thus, missionaries were first sent to Africa as if they were apologists of slavery but in
reality they wanted to pave a new way of exportation of Africans for the benefit
Europe.
 This is how the so called legitimate trade was born and it was replaced later on by
imperialism or colonialism.
 The old system of exploitation was old fashioned. Europeans had found new ways of
exploiting Africans i.e. legitimate trade.
 The slave trade was therefore outdated and had to be abolished.
5. The slave trade destroyed itself

 By the middle of the 18th century surplus capital, part of which came from the slave
trade had helped to bring about the industrial revolution in Britain. This later spread
to other parts of Europe.
 This application of science and technology to industries made it easier and quicker to
turn raw materials into manufactured goods.
 Raw materials were needed in the industries. Thus it was realised that it was indeed
profitable to abolish the slave trade and move on to legitimate trade in palm oil,
vegetable oil, rubber, cotton, timber, ivory, mineralsetc. which were all abundant in
West Africa.
 This is supported by Boahen (2005:111) who pointed out that, “ The slave trade was
abolished largely because it had become more profitable to seek in West Africa raw
materials and markets rather than slaves”.

EFFECTS OF THE TRANS ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE ON WEST AFRICA
This is a subject which according to A.GHopkins’ words “has provoked a number of

vehement and usually condemnatory historical judgements.” Following the publication of
Walter Rodney’s book How Europe underdeveloped Africa(1972) it became widely
acceptable that the slave trade retarded economic growth or development in Africa, it
prevented the development of a gestating indigenous revolution and that it laid the
foundation for the underdevelopment of Africa.Rodney explained how this could have
happened by arguing that;
I. He argued that slave trade was associated with insecurity. Slaves were often captured
through raiding and warfare.
II. Through the importation of inferior goods which he called “assorted rubbish”. These
were goods of no economic value as far as development was concerned.
III. Through the exportation of inventors and labourers. Somehow this tends to exaggerate
the impact of the slave trade though.
1 Demographic impact.
 Has been labelled as the number’s game.
 Millions of Africans were shipped across the Atlantic.
 Even though historians are not well agreed on the actual number of Africans affected
by the slave trade, generally the numbers range between 10-100 million.
 W.Rodney makes a very good observation as he attacks slavery and slave trade
apologists by reminding them to take note of Africans:
 Who died during the raids and wars.
 Died during transportation from the interior to the coast.
 Died on transit in the ships where conditions were in humane.
 Were displaced by the wars and raids.
 Thus A.G Hopkinsreferred to the slave trade as “the greatest migration of all times”.
 These migrations retarded development as evidenced by the fact that in the late 19 th
century and in the early 20th century when the African economies were expanding
rapidly there was a serious shortage of labour in many parts of Africa. Thus
development could have been faster if the slave trade had not retarded population
growth.
2 Growth of nation states

 Foreign trade encouraged the expansion of some states such as Dahomey and Oyo
and also changed their structure and as a result contractualrelationshipsbecome more
important.
 The Africans managed to export their produce e.g. palm oil, groundnuts, timber, gold,
gum etc. and gained a greatly in foreign commerce. In 1750 for example the king of
Dahomey had a gross revenue of about 250 00 Pounds from overseas sales of slaves.
 Most of this was used to acquire cloth, hardware and salt which helped to raise living
standards.
 However the “terms of trade... exploited or cheated Africans”(Hopkins: 1973:120).

 Africans exported quality raw materials in return for “shoddy goods” as evidenced
by poor quality guns and often sub-standard products.
 The foreign imports also led to the decline of local African industries.
 European products were of low quality and therefore, very cheap thus African
products were wiped from the market.
 Thus,the so-called internationaltrade failed to act as an engine of growth in West
Africa.
 The guns from international trade were severely limited, quantitatively, qualitatively,
geographically and socially.
PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
1. Assess the relative importance of the factors that contributed to the decline of the slave
trade in either West Africa or East Africa. (Nov 2004 CAMB / NOV 2013 CAMB)
2. How and why were Dahomey and the Niger Delta States able to make the transition from
the slave trade to legitimate trade quickly and successfully? (Nov 2003 CAMB or Nov
2010 ZIMSEC).
3. Examine the problems experienced in the transition from the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
to legitimate trade in West Africa. Account for the ultimate success of the transition.
(NOV 2004 ZIMSEC).
4. Explain the survival of the overseas slave trade and of domestic slavery in East and West
Africa in the second half of the 19th century.(Nov 2005 CAMB).
5. Why was the transition from the slave trade to legitimate trade accomplished with speedy
and efficiency in either Dahomey or in Opobo in the Niger Delta? (Nov 2006 CAMB).
6. Why did the slave trade, from and within East and West Africa, continue into the second
half of the 19th century? (Nov 2007 CAMB).
7. What lasting effects did the slave trade have upon the states and people of West Africa?
How far did the transition to legitimate trade affect the economic and social development
of that region. (Nov 2009 CAMB).
8. What difficulties, both within and external to East Africa, delayed in the ending of the
slave trade in that region? How were these difficulties overcome? (Nov 2010 CAMB).
9. What challenges did African states meet in trying to adjust to the changes brought about
by the abolition of the slave trade? How successfully were these challenges addressed.
10. With what success did West African states meet the challenges created by the abolition n
of the slave trade? (Nov 2009 ZIMSEC).
11. With reference to specific examples explain why and show how some West African
states managed and others found it difficult to make the transition from slave trade to
legitimate trade. (Nov 2011 ZIMSEC).
12. By what means, and with what success, was the slave trade suppressed in West Africa?
(Nov 2012 ZIMSEC)
13. How and why, were some West African states able to make the transition from slave
trade to legitimate trade relatively quickily and successfully? (JUNE 2013 ZIMSEC).
14. “Failure to get a substitute was the main obstacle to the abolition of the slave trade in
West Africa.” Howfar do you agree with this statement? ( Nov 2013 ZIMSEC).

PRE-COLONIAL EAST AFRICA
 The first outside influence in East Africa was not European but Arabic from the Middle
East.
 There was a strong Islamic religious and culture influence and the development of a new
language Swahili derived from Arabic and Africa languages.
 Trade was very important to tell area with the slave and ivory trade dominating.
 In East Africa the slave trade continued well into the latter half of the 19th Century
because of the following reasons:
a) there was no viable alternative.
b) there was very little mineral in the area.
c) the area was affected by drought with very little agricultural potential except in the Great
Lakes region.
 The slaves from East Africa were going to Arabia and India. There the slave trade was in
the hands of Arabs and Indians.
 The slaves were used in plantations by Arabs. They were also used by other Africans.
 From the mid 18th to the 19th Century, there was an increase in demand for slaves because
the French established plantations in their possessions in the Indian Ocean e.g. Mauritius.
 From the beginning of the 19th Century, there was a further increase in the demand for
slaves. This was becausethey had shut down slave trade in West Africa when Brazil,
Cuba and Portugal still needed slaves. This resulted in the continued existence of the
slave trade from and within East Africa.
 The price of slaves increased because they were scarce.
-The ivory trade also depended on slavery. Slavery provided cheap labour for obtaining and
transporting the ivory to the coast.
-Ivory was going mainly to Asia for bracelets for Hindu brides and some to Europe for piano
keys and billiard boards.
-The ivory trade was there considered as an alternative to the slave trade.
Arab and Swahili trades worked specific trade routes that became a highly organized network.
-The most important development in the penetration of Africa by this trade was the development
of Zanzibar as a commercial Centre and trading port. This was the result of mainly the work of
Sultans of Zanzibar egSayyid Said.
Sayyid Said
The island of Zanzi was part of the Omani Empire Which was run by Sultan of Omani in Arabia.

-In 1886, Sayyid said became Sultan of the Empire . He was a great trader, Diplomat and
military strategist. He spent the first part of his rule in Middle East Territory but he began more
and more to realize the potential of his East African Empire.
-In 1840 he moved permanently to the tropical Island of Zanzibar making it the capital of the
empire. The Empire’s capital moved from Muscat which was a desert area.
-This move was preceeded by a period of recounquaring Omani territory at the Coast.
-He used his armed forces and Navy to do so and was ultimately able to assert his authority as far
north as Washeikh and as far South as Lindi.
-by 1837, he succeeded in controlling Mombasa by enticing the Mazrui to talks and then exiling
them.
-Having re-established loosecontrol of the area he then focoused on developing Zanzibar into the
most important trading center along the coast.
-before moving to Zanzibar, he introduced clove plantation to the Island of Pemba.
-Zanzibar grew to be the Great Commercial center in East Africa because of slave trade and trade
in Ivory and spices.
-ships from Europe, the Americas and Asia went to Zanzibar for trade.
-In the 1840s, some scholars estimate that 40 000 slaves a year went through Zanzibar.
-while in 1859, Zanzi’s export excluding slaves were worth over 310 000 pounds.
-the commercial success of Zanzibar was more important to Sayyid than the political therefore
there was no strict rigid government.
-there was no civil service and standing army. The Sultan only really had the control of city of
Zanzi itself.
-the rest of the area had self rule.
-observance of customs and economic rules was his economic policy.
-because his legacy was not political, customs duties were simplified and collection made easier.
-traders had to pay 50% duty on all goods at all ports.
-barter trade became outdated and they moved to buying on credit and introduced a new copper
currency, that is ,pice.

Diplomacy-Sayyid’s domination in east Africa was markedly cosmopolitan. He dealt with
Africans , Indians, Europeans and Americans.
-he worked towards the development
Born in Zanzibar about 1830, Hamid bin Muhammed el Murjebi was commonly known as Tippu
Tip.
His father and mot8her were Arab but he was brought up by an African step mother, Karunde a
Nyamweziprinces of the Unyanyembe royal family
His family connections made it easier for him to establish himself as a trade of repute.
He began by trading with his Father Muhammed bin juma and in 1867, began to trade on his
own moving into the region of Tabwa.
Not content with just trading, he attacked and defeated the ruler and returned to Zanzibar with
the loot
He sold this loot and made great profit.
He also gained great respect and support for being so audacious
In the 1870s he set up his own state called on the Lualaba river then accession alliance
He took the title of Sultan and for 30 years he was considered to be one of the most important
rulers in today‘s East Zaire.
He established control of the area using both force and diplomacy and those who were loyal to
him were promoted through the ranks of society.
Despite his power, he considered himself subordinate to the Sultan of Zanzibar and was therefore
in a very good position from good relations with the Zanzibar Sultanate and the Nyamwezi
people.
It was relatively easy for him to establish control of the area because it was not densely
populated and was politically fragmented hence no strong opposition.
He was well supplied with fire arms and he trained his army well.
The area had a very good river system which he utilized by established a well maintained fleet
and trade canoes.
He was able to trade and maintain control using the river.

He personally had a good relationship with the British
In 1887 he traveled with the explorer the professor, H M Stanley into the interior of the Congo
Tippu Tip was aware of the European influence in Africa and the fact that the Europeans were’
not going home .
He tried to prevent the growth of European influence in the region by attempting to have all the
African state unite under the Sultan of Zanzibar .
Unfortunately for TippuTip ,non of the other African states wished to unite under the Zanzibar
Sultan. To make matters worse, the Europeans decided to take over irrespective of resistance on
the part of Africans.
In 1887, Tippu Tip signed an agreement with Leopold agreeing to govern Stanley Falls on behalf
of the Congo Free States.
He knew he was unable to resist Europeans therefore he decided to cooperate with them.
His role as the governor of Stanley Falls was to defend the free State and was given a salary and
the right to trade in anything but slaves.
Other European countries were angered by this agreement with Tippu Tip because he was a well
know slave dealer and they saw this as a betrayal of the European Christian civilizing crusade.
Tippu Tip eventually lost hope.He knew the Europeans were coming. He gave up control and
retired to Zanzibar leaving the Belgians to take over.
In 1905, Tippu Tip died in Zanzibar.
THE NGONI
Were of great influence in the central African region.
The Nguni were followers of Zwangendava who was defeated by Tshaka in 1819.
Their incursions North East Led them through Mozambique ,Zimbabwe , Malawi and finally
Tanzania where they knownNgoni because of their language .
The kingdom collapsed after Zwangendava’s death into 5 sections
The first were the TutaNgoni who raided Holoholo and the Nyamwezi.
They disrupted trade routes particularly between Ujiji andTabara.
The second splinter group was the Ngoni who invade the Hehe territory only to be ultimately
defeated by the Hehe who began using the Nguni military tacties.

3rdMpezenNgoni ultimately settle in Malawi as did Mombera and the Ciwere.
The Ngoni were a warrior people. They depended on raiding for survival. They scorned agrarian
life style preferring to raid for for food supplies as well for people who could be taken as
soldiers wives and slave.
Unlike some people who enslaved’ or killed their captives, the Ngoni assimilated them, therefore
influencing the growth and development of both culture and language in the area.
Significantly, different peoples were able to form themselves into reputable states.
Some states developed as people united against the raiding Ngoni This specifically affected the
Nyamwezi and Hehe Splinters Tippu Tip eventually lost hope . He knew the Europeans were
coming . He gave up control and retired to Zanzibar leaving the Belgians to take over.
In 1905, Tippu Tip died in Zanzibar
THE NGONI
Were of great influence in the African region.
The Nguni were followers of Zwangendava who was defeated by Tshaka in the 1819.
Their incursions North East led them through Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Malawi and finally
Tanzania where they became know as Ngoni because of their language.
The kingdom collapsed after Zwangendava’s death into 5 sections.
The first were the TutaNgoni who raided Holoholo and the Nyamwezi
They discrupted trade routes particularly between Ujiji and Tabara.
The second splinter group was the Nguni who invaded the Hehe territory only to be ultimately
defeated by the Hehe who began using the Nguni military tactics.
3rdMpezeniNgoni ultimately settles in Malawi as did Mombera and the Ciwere.
The Ngoni were a warrior people. They depended on raiding for survival. They scorned agrarian
life style preferring to raid for food supplies as well for people who could be taken as soldiers
wives and slaves.
Unlike some people who enslaved or killed their captives the Ngoni assimilated them, therefore
influencing the growth and development of both culture and language in the area.
Significantly different peoples were able to form themselves into reputable states.

Some states developed as people united against the raiding Ngoni .This specifically affected the
Nyamwezi and Hehe splinters.
Chief Mugumba aHehe splinter imitated the Ngoni and used a three phase programme in order
to conquer and assimilate people
Phase 1 break in by having a military attack on the people and take away their cattle and force
the traditional leaders to accept the chief’s rule.
Phase 2 Traditional leaders were either moved out and replaced with the chief own men or if
they unquestioningly accepted him, they were confirmed in their roles.
Phase 3 Young men were called to serve in the royal Army and to be educated in the royal
school.
The system was laden by the belief that the chief was an overload. Allegiance to him would be
seen as a normal part of life.
THE NYAMWEZI
These people were the pioneers of the trading system of eastern Africa.
They developed trade routes long before the coastal traders moved began moving inwards.
They were able to capitalize on their geographical position as they operated in the centre of the
continent.
They were the position between the untapped interior and Zanzibar therefore they were able to
build up a trade monopoly.
They trade in salt, iron work copper; grain livestock bark goods and pottery and from the 1840s
onwards began trade in ivory.
Although they had the monopoly, their life was not easy. They faced the problem of feeding
growing numbers of caravans as a results of an agreement with Sayyid said which allowed the
Swahili-Arabs interference in the their affairs.
They also faced Ngoni incursions.
Some leaders were able to use these problems as learning experience and grew strong enough to
expand their traiding areas.
The extension of the trading network combined with the newly adopted methods of Ngoni
warfare led tothendevelopment of large successful states.

These state, which formed as small [ ntemi state] were conquered and assimilated into large
groupings.
The first state, Unyanhembe, the central Nyamwezi kingdom grew up as result of having
Toborabuitnear by. However it went into decline between 1858 and 1876.
The second state was Urambo which prospered under-yaMawe.
Msiri also led another highly successful Nyamwezi state.

THE KINGDOM OF DAHOMEY
Location
Dahomey was located in a poor West African area in present day Benin. Dahomey was not
endowed with a lot of natural resources as there were no gold resources like its Asante
neighbour (Ghana). It was situated on a barren plateau which frequently suffered from
drought and famine.
Back-ground
Dahomey was an offshoot of the big and extensive Oyo state. Dahomey was created in the
early 18th century when King Agaja conquered the small Ajastates and Quida transforming
them into one kingdom. However, Agaja failed to secure his country’s independence against
Oyo. The Oyo King (called an Alafin) was alarmed by Agaja’s conquest of these Ajastates as
this threatened Oyo’s trade routes to the coast.Between 1726-1730 Oyo attacked Dahomey
four times forcing Agaja to move his capital from Allada to Abomey. Agaja agreed to pay
tribute to Oyo and he was permitted to keep his own army thus, he saved his kingdom against
Oyo. Dahomey therefore, became a well-established state. Agaja reorganised the army and
set up a military school for Dahomean boys who became disciplined and well trained
soldiers. He set up a war intelligence and public information system for spying on other
states and spreading propaganda within Dahomey.
Factors which led to the rise of Dahomey / Reasons for the growth of the Dahomey
Kingdom
1) Geographical location
The Dahomey state was located in the interior thus it was free from European attacks
therefore, leading to its rise.
 Dahomey had few enermies because of its location. Europeans were concentrated
along the coast.
 Originally, the Dahomeans migrated to the north from Allada where they attacked
and invaded Oyo even though in 1730 they agreed to pay tribute to Oyo.
 Their freedom to keep their own army made it possible for them to conquer other
neighbouring weaker states.
 Therefore, the collapse of the Oyoempire partially account for the rise of
Dahomey.
2) Effective centralised administrative power

 Since Oyo was large and powerful it was able to protect Dahomey from external
attacks and this led to the rise of Dahomey. Dahomey rose underthe armpits of
Oyo.
 Effective leaders such as Glele and Gezohelped to bring the rise of Dahomey.
What did they do? They facilitated the formation of the following:
 A well organised and centralised economy.According to Mwijage
(2004:36) “the central government (was a) well organised political
machinery and the King was vested with excessive power in the state”
even though the King was not a dictator.

 The shift from slave trade to legitimate trade led to the rise as slaves
provided cheap labour in plantations thereby gaining more profits in the
form of taxes.
3) The role of the army

 Thatcher (1990:35) has it that “Dahomey possessed a large, well organised
standing army”.
 The use of the army contributed to the protection of plantation from enemy
attacks.
 The army also helped to raid weaker groups and also raided slaves to work in
the plantations and also bringing wealth.
4) Dahomeanisation
 There was Dahomeanisation whereby acquired groups were supposed to abandon their
religion and follow Dahomey culture.
 This promoted unity, oneness and tranquillity. Thus Dahomeanisation was total
integration of conquered states into Dahomey.
 Through Dahomeanisation anybody could become a citizen of Dahomey.
5) Hardwork
 Hardwork by all the Dahomeans especially the slaves encouraged economic growth and
made Dahomey to survive economic hardships especially the transition to legitimate
trade.
 Dahomey had strong trade links with the Europeans
6) Minimum succession disputes

 There were minimum succession disputes due to the fact at only children born during
their father’s reign were entitled the takeover kingship.
 Dahomey had a well-defined system of succession to the throne.
 This eliminated potential candidates since the number of children born to a king during
the king’s tenure was limited.
7) Banning of secret societies

 All secret societies which proved a threat to the royal power were banned.
8) The social organisation

 Progress up the social ladder was through merit. This largely promoted Dahomean
efficiency thus ultimately its rise as a state.
INTERNAL ORGANISATION
SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT / POLITICAL ORGANISATION
a) The king was anabsolute monarchy whose word was law throughout the kingdom.
 Dahomey had a centralised system of government and all functions of the society
revolved around the king.

 Thatcher (1990:35) made it clear that, “The King was a semi-devine, absolute monarchy
controlling every aspect of the life of the Kingdom and commanding absolute respect”
 He appointed and dismissed officials.
 Secrets societies were forbidden because they were a threat to royal power.
 Even though Dahomey’s government had been portrayed as an absolute monarchy it must
be noted that there was a Great Council which met once a year.
 The council was composed of 32 ministries and 50-80 trade administrators, army officers,
herdmen, tax collector and soldiers who had distinguished themselves in battle.
 The council had freedom to discuss any issues.
 Moreover, the King was not totally above the law for example King Glele was fined for
not obeying Dahomey customary law.
b) The cabinet
 The king was assisted by the Council of State which consisted of various ministers for
example the Migan (Prime Minister), the Meu (Finance Minister), Tokpe (Minister of
Agriculture), Yevogan (Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade), the Tonomum (Minister
in charge of Protocol), the Agan (Army General), the Mingi(the Chief Magistrate and
Head of Police).
 This Cabinet promoted efficiency as each and every Minister was assigned to a particular
area where he or she had to excel. These clearly defined areas of responsibility promoted
transparency in job descriptions and ultimately national success. This good organisational
structure gave Dahomey the foundation for success.
c) Naye (King’s Wives)

 These were old women who had passed child bearing age and were wives of the king.
 They were assigned to work with ministers to ensure that the minister was loyal to the
king.
 According to Mwijage (2004:36) “These women spied and supplied information to the
King involving the Chief`s lifestyle and attitude towards the former. The spying network
cemented the efficiency, peace and harmony in the kingdom”.
 They were responsible for overseeing and checking the efficient conduct of the work of
their department.
 This ensured a system of checks and balances thereby bringing transparency and
accountability.
 The Naye were respected and their advice was taken into consideration.
d) The army
 Dahomey had large standing army believed by European observers as the strongest and
well-disciplined of all the enemies of West Africa at that time.
 The army was “an instrument for conquering and controlling boarder towns --- a military
system which was remarkable in its time and place for both its composition and and
methods of recruitment” (Ross:1978 in Catchpole:1983:63)
 The army consisted of both men and women.It was divided into 3 sections:
i. Full time soldiers

 These were increased from about 5 000 in 1840 to 12 000
in 1845 during King Gezo’s reign.
ii. The military
 These could be summoned at any time, ie, they were not
full time soldiers.
 It included the retired.
iii. The amazons
 These were women who were devoted to the king and very
courageous at war such that they were not to be
undermined.
 They consisted of about 2 500 female soldiers divided into
three brigades.
 Commanders of the army in general were top cabinet ministers thus enhanding the
position of the army in decision making.
 However, it must be noted that Dahomey was not a militarised state.
e) Provincial administration
 Dahomey was divided into twoareas: the metropolitan and the provinces
 The Metropolitan consisted of the capital Abomey and the Provincial consisted of the
provincial capital of Allada, Whydah etc.
 Provinces were ruled by governors.
 To unite the people the leaders used dahomeanisation.
 Conquered states were to accept Dahomean rule and religion.
 Dahomeanisation included the fact that the ruling class had to accept Dahomey laws.
ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
 The economy of Dahomey was highly centralised.
 The king derived revenue from taxers, custom duties and tolls.
 All products produced by agriculture were taxed.
 Hunters or even grave diggers were also taxed.
 The King of Dahomey regularly conducted a census to ensure that tax per person
would be planned and also for recruitment in the army. The census became the basis
of economic planning.
 The Fon administrators knew not only the figures for the total population but also its
distribution by province, village, sex and occupation.
 Trade was another aspect of the economy for example there was gun trade conducted
at the port and it was under the control of the King.
 Palm oil trade was also conducted. All palm oil trees were counted for the annual
production of oil in order to get enough revenue and tax.
 By the 1870s the state was exporting about three times the value of palm oil
compared to the value of slaves exported in the 1870s.
 Cowrie shells were the basic currency but trade goods were used, for example guns.
 Dahomey’s also kept cattle, dogs and sheep.

 Every livestock was controlled, that is, every butcher had to keep every skull of an
animal killed in order to be taxed on the number of beasts slaughtered.
 If sales ran ahead of production slaughter would be banned for a period.
 Each province had to grow assigned crops, for example, Abomey specialised in maize
and beans, Allada grew maize and cassava.
 The Minister of Agriculture could change the crops grown in a province depending
on demand.
 There were royal monopolies, for example, there was restricted production of honey,
red and black pepper which were under strict supervision of the King.
 The slaves worked in plantations such that even after the slave trade was abolished
slaves were still captured and were employed locally on palm oil plantations and
estates of the king.
 During the transitional period and also the legitimate trade phase slavery was
introduced in the form of pulla boys who were transporting agents, that is,
transporting palm oil from the interior to the coast.
SOCIAL ORGANISATION
a. There were 3 classes namely:

The royal class,
The commoners and
The slaves / Servile class.
 The royal / Leisured class was made up of relatives of the King and past Kings.
 There were also supported by the state economically.
 The commoners were state officials appointed by the king for example cabinet ministers.
 Their position was not hereditary, for example, the Yevogan.
 These officials were given large estates and lived in major towns.
 They also had summer or rest houses on major roads.
 They were often rewarded for their allegiance and hard work.
 The slave class worked on plantations and were sacrificed to appease the gods.
NB: The commoners and slaves supplied cheap and forced labor and were to be offered as
sacrifice to god in case of need.
b. The judicial system

 Traditional laws were fair and arbitrary.
 The judiciary aided the observance of law, order and stability.
 The king was the law maker though he was not above the law.
 There were regional courts and there was also the High Court which comprised of the
King and his advisors.
 The king reserved the right to reduce the sentence if he thought at the sentence was
too severe.
c. Religious organisation
 The King was the head of all religion.
 The gods of conquered states were absorbed into Dahomey and the conquered people
had to accept Dahomeans gods.

 All secret and religious societies were not allowed in Dahomey because they proved a
threat to royal power.
 Ancestors were important for the well-being of each Dahomean family.
 Royal ancestors were important for the well-being of the whole nation.
 The Calabash ceremony was a religious and political ceremony where the monarch
displayed its wealth and power.
 Moreover, at this ceremony the people renewed their allegiance to the king.
 The Calabash was a perforated vase which was filed with water designed to
symbolise the national spirit.
 On becoming a Dahomean citizen people were required to place a finger in one of the
holes of the vase.
 The ceremony was meant to illustrate that if any citizen withdraws his finger the
national spirits will be unhappy thus the nation will suffer.
 Take note of the following illustration.
FRENCH INTERVENTION
 The French intervened around 1883 as they gave protection to Porto Novo.
 Dahomey shipped its palm oil through Quidah and Cotonou.
 However, Porto Novo wanted to be independent from Dahomey and this would
undermine oil production from Dahomey.
 As the French protected Porto Novo, Dahomean revenue declined for example exports
fell from £500 000 in 1870 to£1000 in 1887.
 The French invasion encouraged the Yoroba slaves on Dahomean palm oil plantations to
revolt.
 The slaves killed Dahomeans and destroyed property.
 Since Dahomey’s revenue declined the army starved as Glele could not even buy
sufficient arms and ammunition to defend Dahomey.
 Glele also believed that, “He who makes the powder must win the battle.”
 Glele was succeeded by Behanzin who decided to resist the French.
 Under Behanzin Dahomey resisted the French with 1700 repeater riffles, 6 canons and 5
machine guns.The rest of army had old, flint open riffles.
 However, duringthe war the machine guns, jammed or overheated because of improper
use and poor maintainance for example Dahomean soldiers shot from the hip and not
from the shoulder thus missing the target.
 Behanzin was finally defeated by the French in 1892.
 He was partly defeated because the coastal kingdoms of Porto Novo, Whydah and Allada
supported the French.
 Thus, Behanzin was exiled in the West Indies.
Why Dahomey was defeated?

According to Wanetosi (1996:27), “Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Dahomey began
to decline due to internal and external stridency --- the final blow to the kingdom came in 1899
when the French subdued the territory”.
 The Dahameans were armed with old weapons which were slow to load and fire.Besides,
their weapons were rusty from disuse.

 French soldiers were highly trained and armed.Dahomeans only trained in dawn tactics
and did not know how to stop French advances
 African disunity. Slaves in the Yoruba plantations revolted
 Dahomeanisation worked against them. When the slaves revolted it became inevitable for
Dahomey to crumble. Dahomean social stratification “accelerated disunity and it
precipitated internal squabbles in the Dahomey Kingdom by the close of the nineteenth
century” (Mwijage:2004:37-38).
Measures taken by Dahomey towards legitimate trade

The transition the legitimate trade was made possible by Gezo and Glele who applied the
following measures:
a) Resistance
 Dahomey tried to continue with the slave trade because palm oil production was slow and
brought only a small amount to the state treasury. When the coast was closed down
Dahomey established new ports and smuggled slaves with the help of the Brazilians. As
anti-slave trade activists tightened their measures, profits declined and forced Gezo to
adopt new measures
b) Changes under Gezo and Glele.

 Dahomey owed its efficiency much to stability of her two great rulers, that is, King Gezo
(1818-1858) and Glele (1859-1889).
King Gezo
Gezo is credited for laying the foundation for Dahomean administrative efficiency. It was the
administration`s efficiency that made it possible for Dahomey to easily change to legitimate
trade. Gezo produced Dahomeans independent from the weak and increasingly inefficient
Oyoempire. Besides, it was Gezo who decided in the 1840s that Dahomey should base its
economy on legitimate trade and abandon its dependence on the slave trade. As a result Gezo
encouraged palm tree cultivation on his plantations and encouraged state officials to plant
palm trees in their plantations. King Gezo also began to divert slaves for export to plantation
labour. The decision was a wise one as by 1870 palm oil was providing Dahomey with three
times the revenue she earned from the export of slaves in 1840.
King Glele
Glele took over from his father Gezo. Under King Glele Dahomey benefited from a well
organised and centralised administration. He mentained an efficient
administrativesystem.Position in government were filed on merit with able men from the
commoner class. King Glele also diversified the Dahomean economy.
c) Territorial expansion
 Gezo attempted to invade Abeokuta and Egbadoland so as to move into the natural
rainforest region. This would have given him access to the Yoruba palm oil belt. His
troops were however defeated. Gezowastherefore, forced to turn to domestic or internal
solutions as opposed to external aggression.
d) Processing companies

 Processing companies were set to produce legitimate products.
 The peoplewere involved in fishing and small scale industries (such as cotton weaving,
iron smelting and the marking of iron equipment).
e) Census
 This was done and carried out by the Tokpe, that is, The Minister of Agriculture
f) Slavery
 Instead of exporting slaves Dahomey opted to make them work in their palm oil
plantations and in transporting palm oil from the interior to the cost. The slaves in the
transport business were popularly known as pulla boys.
g) Growing of Cash crops

 Each and every province was given a particular and specific crop to produce.
1) Assess the achievements of King Glele of Dahomey and Jaja of Opobo and analyse
their significance in African History. (Nov 1994 camb)
2) Explain how, and with what success, Dahomey and the states of the Niger Delta met
the challenge of the abolition of the slave trade. (NOV 1996 CAMB).
3) What changes were made during the pre-colonial period in the political and economic
organisation of Dahomey and the Niger Delta states inorder to meet thye new
challenges and changing conditions? (NOV 1998 CAMB)
4) Why was the transition from the slave trade to legitimate trade accomplished with
speedy and efficiency in either Dahomey and in the Niger Delta states?(NOV 2000
CAMB)
5) Why was Dahomey one of Africa`s most efficient states in the pre-colonial period?
(NOV 2002 CAMB).
6) How and why were Dahomey and the Niger Delta States able to make the transition
from the slave trade to legitimate trade quickly and successfully? (Nov 2003 CAMB
or Nov 2010 ZIMSEC).
7) Explain the survival of the overseas slave trade and of domestic slavery in East and
Qwest Africa into the second half of the nineteenth century. (NOV 2005 CAMB)
speedy and efficiency in either Dahomey or in Opobo in the Niger Delta? (Nov 2006
CAMB).
9) Why did the slave trade, from and within East and West Africa, continue into the
second half of the 19th century? (Nov 2007 CAMB)
10) Analyse the reasons why Dahomey may be considered to have been an efficient state
in the pre-colonial period. (Nov 2012 CAMB)
11) Compare and contrast the internal organisation of the Ndebele state with that of the
Kingdom of Dahomey in the 19th century. (Nov 2013 ZIMSEC)

THE ASANTE EMPIRE
Location
The AsanteEmpire was located in present day Ghana, previously known as the Gold Coast
Background
The AsanteEmpire was one of the largest political units to emerge along the west coast of
Africa
There were 2 states in the gold coast whose histories are not easilyseparable i.e. Asante and
Fante
The 2 constitute what is 2 day known as the republic of Ghana
The AsanteEmpire had been created before the end of slavery
His foundation was based on gold and slave trade
The empire ruler or king was as Asantehene.
The formation of the empire

The growing expansion of the AsanteEmpire was spear headed by 3 outstanding rulers of
Asante namely: ObiriYeboa, Osei Tutu &opuku ware
These 3 rulers were able to absorb teOyoko-Elans& create a powerful nuclear& a strong
constitution at built strong banks among people
The symbol of unity among the Oyoko people was the golden stool
The golden stool was created by osei tutu as a symbol of unity
All the Oyoko groups respected individual who occupied the golden stool
This individual carried the tittle Asantehene
The Asantehene was the supreme religious & political head of the union of states
He was assisted by a council of advisors called omanhenelamanhene(kings) vassal chiefs
By the beginning of the 19th century, AsanteEmpire comprised of metropolitan & provincial
territories
Only Fante remained free of Asantecontrol& relations between the 2 were tense
The political organisation of the Asante Empire

The AsanteEmpire was organised into 3 circles
The unifying force in the empire was the military as the empire was not centrally organised
Metropolitan Asante (1st circle)

It was made up of states which were united in the 17th century
The Kumasi state was the seat of government of metropolitan Asante under the Asantehene
All the states within a radious of 35 miles from Kumasi recognised the golden stool and king
of Kumasi as their Asantehene
These states include Asumeya, Edweso, Dwaben, Nsata, Kokofu, Adanzi, Ofinso, Mampong
and Bekwai
Asante union (2nd circle)

It was made up of 7 states
Each state had its own king & each king had his own council of chiefs
All the kings of the 7 states belonged to the state council presided over by the Asantehene

It was the duty of the state council to decide on issues regarding to war & peace
They formed the Supreme Court& had the power to appoint/ remove the Asantehene from
the throne
They could legally choose 1 from the council
There was also an executive council made up of some chiefs & some of the kings
Both circles recognised the golden stool which was the soul & symbol of unity of the asante
nation
Provincial asante
Its was made up of states at were conquered in the 18th century
These were tributary but they returned their political, cultural & religious beliefs
Besides they allmaintained their own leaders & traditions
They proved the allegiance to metropolitan Asante by paying annual tribute to
theAsantehene& they also gave military support when needed
Tribute was in the form of gold, slaves, cattle, military service, and agricultural service
Its people were regarded & treated as 2nd class citizens
They did not recognise the golden stool
How were the tributary states kept loyal then?

The state was almost always at war making it necessary to maintain some form of unity with
the army. Therefore the state was held together by force
Some people hired to become part of the empire for security reasons
The Fante on the other hand tried by all means to ensure at they were not absorbed this there
was conflict between the two
Army
It was 1 of the well trained &well-disciplined in west Africa
Tributary states provided extra personnel in times of need
Duties of the army included:
Making sure at tributary states maintained their loyalty & paid tribute regularly
Ensure the slave trade & slave trade routes fell under the control of the state
Capture slaves
Bureaucracy
This was increase in state control over political administration
Asante formed a system of state official who were appointed and paid by the Asantehene
Civil servants were controlled by the rule
There were 3 main categories:
Finance and tax collection
These were civil servants accountable for finance & tax collection
Judiciary
General administration
Their role was to keep records on important matters relating to justice, trade, tax collection
and general admin
They did not have much power but they supervised tributary chiefs who were all supposed to
attend the Odwira festival

As time progressed the slave trade was abolished and it becomes difficult to control the army.
Thus it weakened and is was exploited by the British in the last years of the 19th century
Economic organisation
The ruler amassed resources to run the state through the allowing mechanisms
Tribute collection from tributary states
Taxes from hade since he controlled all trade routs
Profit from the state’s gold mines
Prolonged trading parts on the Atlantic coast
Agriculture also played a control role in the form of cocoa plantation or kola nuts
Asante traded with the British & the Dutch at the coast
There were government officials controlling the trade, thus Europeans were not allowed to
trade with anybody else
The Asantehene got guns from Europeans
It was the control of gun trade at government the ruler control of the state
European products e.g. cotton, liquor, beads were used to reward loyal civil servants
Social organisation
The most important & powerful religious symbol was the golden stool
It was a symbol of divinity approved authority of the ruler
Within the metropolitan area, the stool was regarded the high degree of respect however the
tributary states did not regard it as important
Therefore, there was an element of identity within the metropolitan area
Another important religious activity was the adwira festival
All tributary states were required to present themselves at the metropolitan capital, Kumasi
Taking part in this ceremony was regarded as a gesture of allegiance or loyalty in the state
British Asante relations

The British had tried on a number of occasions to win the confidence of prempeh & gain his
permission to create a protectorate over Asante
In 1894 appeal to prempeh was turned down & in the following year he sent a delegation to
London asking for the return off all territories taken over the years & incorporated into the
gold coast colony
Eventually in 1896 the British took a decision to invade Asante
Why the British invaded Asante?

They were concerned at them would lose territory to the French & the Germans who were:
Strategically positioned from the Congo& Cameroon

They wanted the gold from the territory
They wanted the gold from the territory
Prempeh did not allow British traders or merchant in the territory
Thus the British were convinced at for free trade to prevail Asantehad to be destroyed. This
could open visit areas of commence
There was tremendous missionary pressure as the Asante continued to participant in slave
trade & human sacrifices

Thus, Britain wanted to invade Asante for humanitarian grounds i.e. abolishing the slave
trade & stopping the human sacrifices
There was concern at prempeh was entering into negotiations with samaritoure to form an
anti-European alliance
Racial attitudes
Sir Charles MacCathy who was the governor of the area regarded the Asantehene as
“barbaire,” because the British saw themselves as the superior race which wanted to take
control of the inferior race
It was because of such attitudes at MacCathyhad a general disregard of Asantecustom laws
Anglo-Asante wars
The Asantehene’s power was greatly extensive & effective in metropolitan Asante.
Geographically Asante was a landlocked country which desired free access to the sea.
This conflicted with the British and the Fante
The British did not allow Asante access to the coast becoz they saw them as a savagery state
and a slave dealer. Thus the British adopted a policy of protecting rebels against Asante.
The British was Asante as a tyranny and did not want their friends the Fante to be part of it.
There were about 10 Anglo-Asante wars in the 19th century i.e 1807, 1811, 1823-6, 1863,
1869,1873-74, 1896,1901
The British invaded Asante in the last 3 occasions and then the other occasion Asante
invaded the coastal regions
Most of the Asantemeasure out of the syllabus thus special reference is made as made from
the 1863 wars onwards
However the 1896 wars of special significance as it was a war against one of Asante’s great
leaders i.e. prempeh 1
THE 1863 ANGLO-ASANTE WAR

This war was absolutely unnecessary
It was caused by the British governor, Richard pine’s failure to understand Asante’s laws &
culture
All gold belonged to the Asantehene under Asante’s law
A group of Asante’s men including kwesigyani store gold & took refugees in the British
court fort
The Britishrefused to surrender the Asante refugee chief janin
The Asantehenekwakudua 1 was well within his rights to demand attach men be brought to
force the Asante justice
Pine refused to allow the extraction of the criminals believing at believing at they would be
executed
The Asantehene had no choice but to attack the British or else he would look weak oin
everybody’s eyes
Reluctantly he sent his forces to the coast
The expeditions was ultimately a failure despite initial successes
The Asante men succumbed to malaria & dysentery which gare the British an advantage to
called some extra forces to attack the Asante
The British forces were later affected by the same diseases & had to withdraw

The 1863 war costed the British a lot of money such as a parliamentary committee was
established & in 1865, was committee declared as British should cat he loses & pull out of
the western region
It was proving to be expensive to run the forts within this region but the British decided at
before leaving they would prepare the people to rule themselves
THE FANTE CONFEDERATION

Faced with the situation of losing British support against the Asante the Fante began to form
a stronger union against the Asante
In 1869 about 13 Fante chiefs came together & formed the Fante confederacy
They were helped by some other educated Africans such at by 1871 a constitution was
agreed upon
James Africans Horton was the driving force towards this federation
Provisions were made for a poll tax which would be the basis of the federation’s economy
The Fante unity &self-government did not work because:
The British turned around & considered the move a rebellion against their authority
Leaders of the movement were arrested, imprisoned & the scheme collapsed
The sudden change of the British policy & problems created by the Dutch forts also led to the
collapse of the Fante confederacy
Britain decided against her policy of helping people to be self-governed
The idea of a Fante confederation was too much for the British& a threat to their control of
the region. Therefore, it had to be destroyed
THE 1873 FOR NGLO-ASANTE WAR

It was caused by the Elmina question
The admittedBritish
The Dutch used to the port of Elmina from the British
On leaving the port the people of Elmina who had been allies of the Asantewere handed over
to their British enemies
Therefore, Asante invasion of Elmina was intended to safe guard it from British occupation
The santé also fought in order to restore their sovereignty over Denkyara, Akren, Assin
In March 1973 the Asantehene Kofi Karikari told the British od the ony move to appease
Asante was to hand these states to hes
The Asante wanted to Brede Fante position of middleman
The British responded by sending an army under sir garnet wisely which destroyed Kumasi
The Asante were defeated for a number of reasons
The Dweben refused to participate in the war
Before the war it was planned at the Dwaben would destroy the bridge at pra& cut off British
suppliers
Military Asante was at a government disadvantage
The guns they used were collated
The effective suppression off te slave trade, the departure of the Dutch & the danes in 1872
gave Asante increasing difficulty to access guns & gun powder
On the other had the British were well armed with 7 ponder guns & Enfield rifles & these
were the most up to date guns & their use decided the war
The experience & ability of sir garnet crackly determined the result,

The brutish relied on well trained soldiers from Britain &lagos rather than from Fante
RESULTS OF THE 1874 ANGLO-ASANTE WAR

The war resulted in the formena treaty of 13 feb 1874
The terms were as follows:
Asante was to pay war indemnities (80 00 ounces of gold)
Asante was forced to recognised the independence of Dekyira, Wassa, Fante & Accra
Fante was declared a British colony & that’s how Fante last their independence 32 years
before the Asante
Asante was to renounce all claims of the southern states &Elmina
Asante was to withdraw all troops from the coast
Asante was to abolish human sacrifice
Kofi karikari was destroyed&mensabansa took over & was later detruded in 1883
(Asantenever recovered from the 1874 war)
THE 1896 ANGLO-ASANTE WAR

The actual cause of the invasion of Asante in 1896 is not clear
According to tidy m, the war was caused by the fact of prempeh had refused to pay the
indemnity required after the 1874 war
He maintained of the treaty of fomena was the responsibility of kofikarikari
Sagg ay &wilsen argue sys of it was prempeh use of human sacrifice in the enstodment of
instigated the war
Whatever the motivation the British launched a full scale attack on Asante in 1896
Inadequate armed, prempeh took the decision not to resist
He allowed a British resident to be based in Kumasi in the hope of they would leave him in
his position as Asantehene
However, he was mistaken in his belief
The British invasion &inquest was therefore smooth
The British had to effectively occupy Asante because they feared of France or German could
do it before them
One can overally conclude of the British used the war indemnity issue as an excuse to wage
war against Asante
In March 1896 the British occupied Kumasi & arrested prempeh, his relatives & principal
chiefs & exiled them in Elmina
They were subsequently moved to SierraLeone in 1897
One prempeh was out of the way Asante was declared a Britishprotectorate under the gold
coast colony
To consolidate his power, the British governor took steps to confiscate the golden stool in
1900
This was a direct challenge to Asante’s customs, prestige &sovereignly
Not even the Asantehene was allowed to sit on the golden stool
Asante rose against the briskish under the leadership of Asantehene, you Asante’swaa(the
queen mother)
This “rebellion” was typical of post-pacification African resistance (an uprising farmed to
resist colonial rule).

PREMPEH 1
From 1883 Asante was in confusion as member state could not agree on a successor
Agyeman prempeh was elected Asantehene in 1888
On his enthronement, march 1888 prempeh 1 was faced with devastated kingdom
The kingdom was impoverished due to constant wars
It was becoming depopulated as may people them to the security of the south away from
unrest &Asante’s law
The treat of constant rebellion was a major challenge to the new Asantehene
The Oyoko chiefdoms were in revolt e.g. Dwaben, Kokofu,Adansi, Noula, Mampons etc.
This caused a serious personality clash between the Asantehene& the Amanhene
Prempeh was also facing Britishinterventionbut it was only in 1896 of Britain was able to
claim Asante as a British colony
Prempeh ruled from 1888-96
PREMPEH’S AIMS
Prempeh’s aims were basically, to undo the results of the 1875-4 war which meant:
To revive the Asante confederacy
Revive the AsanteEmpire
To avoid a military confrontation with the British
To preserve the independence of his country & his own authority in his own kingdom.
Thus, regaining & restoring Asantesovereignty
To regain last territories south of the river Pra
To regain & restore authority in provincial Asante
Prempeh’s Work & Strategies

Prempeh used war &diplomacy to achieve his aims
To restore metropolitanAsante he used military force
Heattacked& bought Kokofu back into metropolitan Asante
He crushed revolts in nsuta&mampony& brought them back into metropolitan Asante
He used shread diplomacy by taking advantage of the golden stool
He reminded the Oyoko clan of the golden stool symbolised unity, strength & authority
The omanhenes therefore gave in & were absorbed into Asante
Besides diplomacy prempeh shrewdly replaced the Omanhenes he personal clashes with,
with their younger brothers who were respected by their subjects
By 1892, prempeh had successfully regained authority in metropolitan states & he continued
working towards regaining authority in provincial Asante
Scholars differ in their views as to prempeh dealings in provincial Asante
In 1889, prempeh sent a letter to the British with regard to kwahu which he claimed to be his
territory & not part of the gold coast colony
In 1890, prempeh requested British assistance in regaining authority & in having all the
outlying provinces back under his control
They also demanded of all Asante refuges be returned to Asante
Afigbo (etal) considered this as a weakness in prempeh part
Other historians examine of prempeh wanted the British to help rebuilt the empire they had
destroyed
In 1891 prempeh rejected a proposal of Asante should become a British protectorate

In 1892 & 1893 prempehattacked& defeated the baron states
In March 1894 prempeh felt firmly entrenched of he even rejected the British request to
establish a resident at Kumasi
Prempeh thought such a move would lead the establishment of a Britishprotectorate over his
empire
Prempeh was formally encoded on the golden stool in 1892
This marked the height of prempehachievements
In 1895 he sent a delegation to London to ask Britain to recognise the independence of his
country
However, the British launched a full scale attack on Asante in 1896
Inadequately armed prempeh deeded not to resist. He allowed a British resident to be based
in Kumasi in the hope of they would leave him in his position as the Asantehene
However, the British continued with their advance, captured Kumasi & arrested prempeh
with his relatives & imprisoned them in Elmina & were later exiled to SierraLeone in 1897
REASONS BEHIND THE COLLAPSE OF ASANTE
Weakness in the empire system of government

The empire’s system of government is identified by thatcher p (1981) as one of the main
causes for the decline of Asante
The empire was made up of 2 district parts i.e. metropolitan Asante&provincial Asante
METROPOLITAN ASANTE
In metropolitan Asante the Asantehene was supreme only in Kumasi & the other states had
their own hereditary rulers
Most rulers after OseiBonsiincreased the power of the Asantehene committed
Most rulers before OseiBonsiwere weak& it was only OseiBonsiwho worked to increase the
power of the Asantehene mainly because of his personality
After the death of OseiBonsithe rulers lacked the ability to hold metropolitan Asante together
PROVINCIAL ASANTE
ProvincialAsantesystem of government was also weak
The states were ruled indirectly & were mainly expected to provide annul tribute & military
support
They kept their own rulers, customs &systems of government, thus they were always looking
for an opportunity to free themselves from metropolitan Asante (thatcher 1981)
Empire was kept together purely by military strength, thus when the army was weak (after
the 1873-4 wars) the provinces sonly gained their independence& of the what happened
towards the end of the century
CONFLICT WITH THE BRITISH

On several occasions during the 19th century the Asante fought the British on the coast
These wars eventually destroyed military power of Asante& led to the breakup of the empire
Asante failed to recover after the 1874 defeat

The terms of the formena treaty greatly weakened Asantee.g.it was forced to recognise the
independence of the southern states
The British laid the final nail on Asante in 1896 wheney “conquered Asante, exited prempeh
and declared a protectorate over he whole are.” (Thatcher (1981:35)
THE DEATH OF OSEI BONSI

He was the only man who had frightened the administration of provincial Asante& when he
died it was over
Numerousrebellions
Janine. (Other states of rebelled against Asante).
Fante states stopped the Asante from bradding at the coast
Asante’s religion was greatly compromised especially with the advent of inanity& ultimately
the coming of the Europeans
Why prempeh failed to achieve his aims

The basic reason behind prempeh failure to achieve his aims lay in the clash between Britain
& prempeh attitudes & ambitions which were irresponsible
Britain regarded Asante as barbaric & an aggressive military power & she was determined to
prevent Asante from gaining control of thecoastal states
The confrontation between prempeh & the British collided with the peak period of the
European’s scramble for Africa
Prempeh was too young & inexperience in the face of British officials
He was just 40 years when he was appointed Asantehene
Even though he was a military genius, good commander & a natural leader of the people he
fouled to overcome the colonial challenge of Britain
In the last resort Britain’s supremacy over Asante was bound to end in Prempeh’s defeat
Asante’s muzzle leader were of n match to British riffles |&artillery
Issue of civil wars
Prempeh was too bold from London’s linking
Prempeh regarded the payment of 1844 war as a responsibility of karikari
Lack of diplomatic technique. His aims were conflicting.

1. Compare and contrast the political and social systems of the Asante with that of
the Mandinka in the 19th century.
2. Analyse the importance to the history of the Tropical Africa of any two of the
following:Mkwawa of the Hehe;Jaja of Opobo;Prempeh 1 of Asante;Tewodros 11
of Ethiopia;Mzilikazi of the Ndebele.
3. Explain why the British invaded Asante in 1896 and why the Asante did not
resist. (NOV 2001 CAMB)
4. Outline the careers and show the importance in African History of any two of the
following.
a) Jaja of Opobo
b) Mkwawa of the Hehe;
c) Prempeh of Asante. (NOV 2004 ZIMSEC)
5. Analyse the political, economic and social organisation of the Asante state. (NOV
2005 ZIMSEC)
6. Explain the aims of Prempeh 1 after becoming Asantehene. What were the results
of his policies? (NOV 2005 ZIMSEC)
7. What were Prempeh 1`s aims when he became Asantehene in 1888? Why , and to
what extent, did he fail to achieve them? ( NOV 2006CAMB)
8. To what extent, and for what reasons, did Prempeh 1 of Asante achieve his aims?
(NOV 2010 ZIMSEC) and (NOV 2003 CAMB).
9.

THE NIGER DELTA STATES
- The Niger Delta is a complex system of rivers and creeks through which the Niger River
flows into the Pacific Ocean.
- The Niger delta is an arcuate type of delta, inhabited by about 160 small states e.g.
Istekiriland, Opobo, Calabar, Bonny etc.
- For about 100 years, these states had been the leading participants in slave trade; they
made a quick transition to legitimate trade because of their proximity in relation to the
palm oil belt.
- The suppression of slave trade in this region led to the rise of “new men” and to greater
European involvement leading to the partition of the Niger Delta.
- Each state was composed of three parts: the Capital, the Heart and the Nerve.
THE HOUSE SYSTEM

- The houses were cooperative companies whose main function was the organisation and
promotion of trade.
- Even though the houses existed before the abolition of slave trade, they became more
numerous and more important in respect to the changing conditions created by the
abolition of slave trade and the challenges resulting from the need to switch from slave
trade to legitimate trade.
Political Organisation
- House heads came second to the king in the political hierarchy and were members of the
state council.
- The houses recognised the overall authority of the king, but were into smaller city states
such as Itsekiriland, Bonny, Calabar etc.
- The city states were headed by the royal lineages up until the 19th century when the
position of the house head was the monopoly of the royal lineage.
- They could use their position to exercise over the following:
 Administration
 Judiciary
 Trade
 The Economy
- The house head once elected became the absolute ruler with the power of life and death
over the members of the house.
- He was also the custodian of the House’s property and finance.
- A war fleet was a vital necessity of each house because loss of control of the water ways
could set off the capital from its empire and bring immediate ruin. Slaves were purchased
in order to increase population of the house and often slaves ultimately outnumbered the
born free.

- Initially, only royal princes could found or head housed, but in the commercial
competition of the 18th century, either chose its ablest man as leader, or collapsed before
its rivals.
- As a result, houses struggled to outdo each other, as other poor houses could not provide
a king.
- The House System therefore, promoted men of ability, regardless of their background, to
deal with the economic order of the century.
- As a result, capable and energetic businessmen among the slaves rose to prominence
among the houses.
-The system brought about many advantages mainly to the formerly enslaved commoners:
i). It promoted the rise of those that belonged to the class of the commoners, for example,
Jaja, Nana and Olomu; to challenge the authority of the traditional rulers in the Niger Delta,
houses realised that they had to promote men of ability or they would collapse before their
trading rivals, as a result, ex slaves began to assert their influence in politics.
ii). It brought social cohesion as the houses absorbed people of different origins and tribal
groups.
- Therefore, besides being efficient trading bodies, the houses were also ideal
organisations for absorbing and uniting people of different origins and social status
iii). It enabled Jaja to exhibit his exceptional abilities as a trader resulting in his promotion as
head of the Anna Pepple House.
- This era was characterised by the rise of the so-called “new men”.
- Civil wars between the royal families and various commoner families led to a political
revolution in the 1850s when the monarchies were brought under control.
Political Hierarchy of the House Societies

- The houses were organised in layers with the royal princes at the top, followed by the
free born commoners and slaves who had been born in the state and could not be sold.
- At the bottom was a group of purchased slaves who could be sold in times of financial
distress.
- In the 19th century, commoners and slaves were becoming house heads, but there
remained a strong prejudice about their election as kings.
- This situation weakened the states and caused those that were shrewd, dynamic and
innovative to easily dominate neighbouring states and hence create more powerful units.
Economic Organisation
- The House System increased economic competition and emphasized the importance of
having men with real ability, economic and military skills to run the affairs.

- The traditional rulers did not often possess such skill and by the mid-19th century, the
house heads were often more important than kings to the economic well being of rival
societies.
- The competition also resulted in men of slave origin becoming eligible for the throne.
- The Houses were like trading co-operations and were in fierce competition with each
other.
- Often, the weak were driven into bankruptcy and were thus absorbed by the strong as
trade was at the centre of the Niger Delta economies.
- Shrewd handling of trading activities enabled states which were located closer to the
coast such as Bonny, Kalaban and Calabar to dominate the surrounding regions.
THE RISE OF “NEW MEN”
- Until 1830, Bonny was ruled by King Opobo who belonged to the Anna Pepple House.
- When he died, Bonny had two options:
 To appoint Opobo`s son William Dapa Pebble, who was then only a minor, as his
successor, with a relative executing the kingly duties on the minor`s behalf.
 To find an able commoner to make sure that Bonny would successfully meet the
challenges it might face.
- The royal family therefore elected Alali, a former slave as regent based on his
outstanding trade record.
- He soon faced problems with the British who wanted preferential and favourable trade
terms with Bonny.
- In 1836, he was forced to resign on humanitarian grounds since he had not stopped
trading in slaves.
- Up until 1863, there was political confusion in Bonny, between Alali and Dapa people.
- When Alali died in 1863, they appointed his assistant Jaja who was a commoner and a
former slave.
- The rise of Jaja signified the emergence of “new men” on the block.
- These men were not originally from the royal ancestry, but where formerly commoners
and ex-slaves who were looked down upon.
Reasons for the rise of Jaja

- Jaja was born in Igboland in 1821.
- In 1833, he was probably kidnapped and/or sold into slavery.
- He belonged to the lowest class of Bonny society, which is to say he was an ex-slave
born outside the Anna Pepple House.
- Jaja disliked alcoholic drinks which were imported because he knew their devastating
effects.
- Jaja had an outstanding trade record.

- He had strong links with the Igbo, thus leading to intermarriage.
- He had excellent relations with the Igbo oil producers.
- He was able to accumulate a substantial amount of wealth, which he effectively used to
gain influence over the House heads.
- From this, he earned their respect.
- Jaja was fluent in the English language thus the people of Bonny represent and uphold
their interests in the face of European colonial and commercial pressure.
- Jaja was a respectful juju priest and this helped consolidate his relations with the Igbo
who got to respect his religious status.
- He welcomed western education and schools but did not entertain missionaries because
he was a string believer in traditional religion.
Opobo under Jaja
- After his appointment, Jaja was able to absorb other houses using his financial muscle or
strength
- These houses were under serious pressure from Europeans whom they owed huge debts.
- This enabled Jaja to be very powerful and it aroused jealousy and resistance from other
house heads especially from king Manilla Pepple and King Dapa Pepple who felt
threatened.
- A former slave named Oko Jumbo led the Manilla Pepple and King George led the Dapa
Pepple.
- In 1861, there was a civil war in Bonny involving Oko Jumbo and George Pepple against
Jaja.
- This war only stopped after the intervention of the British Consul form Bonny; when
peace was restored, Jaja decided to break away from Bonny and make his own state in
Opobo, along the east near the Imo River and this enabled him to control the trade there.
Why Jaja became famous in Opobo.

- He was able to take advantage of Opobo`s location along the Imo River by imposing
tariffs.
- He easily attracted Bonny houses and by 1870, he was able to get 14 of the 18 houses.
- He easily attracted European traders especially the British trading companies who
relocated.
- The British Consul in Bonny tried to sabotage the relocation exercise by imposing
sanctions on the British traders in Opobo.
- The Consul also tried to block the movement of British traders to Opobo because that
would allow Jaja to get stronger as the British would have had to operate under Jaja`s
law.
- Jaja challenged the British in the Niger Delta.

- The trade rivalry between the British and Jaja became worse as the British attempted to
boycott Opobo and fixed prices on palm oil in attempts to force Jaja to trade under British
terms.
- It was all in vain because Jaja joined the Miller Brothers Company that was ready to but
the palm oil under his terms.
- As a result, the British were totally restricted from having direct links with the Igbo
people who were in the interior.
- Jaja further extracted favourable trade terms with the Igbo and this gave Opobo exclusive
trade monopoly
- By the last quarter of the 19th century, Jaja had dominated the trade in the Imo Valley and
Opobo had become the most influential trade centre.
- This forced the British to recognise Opobo in 1872.
- In 1884, the British firms attempted to unite and force Jaja to trade on lower prices, but it
was all in vain.
- Therefore, it was because of Jaja`s refusal and resolute stance to refuse collaboration with
the British, unlike some Niger Delta states, which contributed to his popularity and his
subsequent collapse.
The decline of Jaja`s Opobo.
- Jaja`s decline can be explained in terms of a clash of political and economic interests
between him and the British.
- In attempts to force Jaja to accept British collaboration, the British tricked him.
- The British Consul, Harry Johnson invited Jaja to a meeting on a British warship, the
RMS Goshawk, promising that he would be free afterwards.
- According to Ralph Uwechue (Makers of Modern Africa 1981:230-231) Johnson
persuaded Jaja saying “I hereby assure you that whether you accept or reject my proposal
tomorrow no restraint shall be put on you, you will be free to go as soon as you have
heard the message the government has for you”
- Once on board the warship, he was told he had two options:
i) To either surrender and remain in British custody and surrender Opobo to British
rule and be tried.
ii) Or to leave and be regarded as an outlaw and see his beloved Opobo being
bombed by the British.
- Jaja decided to save his people and thus for trial and surrender.
- He knew that he would not be able to resist the British, and he thought he would also get
a fair trial.
- However the trial was held in Accra, Ghana and the King was found guilty and was
deported to the West Indies in1887 on an annual pension of 800 pounds.
- He later died in 1891 on his way back home and was buried in Opobo.

- His death paved way for the establishment of effective colonial rule over a region that
provided nearly 90 000 pounds from import duties alone.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF JAJA IN AFRICAN HISTORY

I) He successfully challenged British intervention
II) Jaja signifies a social revolution- he was atypical model of the “new men” who
successfully responded to the economic and political conditions of the 19th
century.
III) He had a versatile dynamic and flexible personality, which was open to foreign
culture without compromising his identity.
IV) He was manipulative and took advantage of the situation.
V) He made a successful transition to legitimate trade.
VI) He was a state builder and a nationalist whose prime concern was the
preservation of African independence
VII) Jaja signified the rise of “new men”- the formerly enslaved- to positions of
political authority. His achievements in Bonny earned him promotion as Anna
Pepple trading house leader when he succeeded Alali, he went on to create his
powerful Opobo state after breaking away from Bonny during a civil war in
1869.
- These economic successes forced members of the Bonny senior houses to join Opobo
- M. Tidy argues that Jaja does not qualify as an enlaerger of political scales because he
destroyed the Bonny and went on to replace it with another economically flourishing
state
-
- Tidy however further asserts that although this may be so, Jaja was a better example of
Africa`s “new men” who successfully responded to the economic and political challenges
of the 19th century.
- Jaja accumulated sufficient wealth through palm oil trade and used it to successfully
challenge the existing political structure of Bonny.

- He therefore undermined, at the level of the house, the principle which linked leadership
of the house with direct descent from founder of the state.
- His importance also lay in his ability to preserve African culture and traditions whilst at
the same time he took advantage of western technology and education.
- Jaja was of special importance to Africa because he was able to exploit western
technology without surrendering his African cultural background.
- Besides his western education and good command of the English language, he also
upheld his traditionalistic person (Jaja the priest)
- Jaja refused to allow missionaries into his kingdom and he increasingly posed a threat to
the British who finally removed him from power.
- He was so successful that he, and others like him in the House System stimulated the
imperialistic aims of the British
- Missionaries and traders pressurised the British government to intervene and colonize
parts of West Africa whose rulers stood in the way of their objectives,
- Jaja also built European style homes and sent his sons to be educated in Britain.
- A western type of school was opened in his kingdom
Opobo`s transition to Legitimate Trade
- In 1807 when the British abolished slave trade and imposed strict policing measures, the
delta states were forced to adopt a more legitimate form of trade.
- Unlike other states in West Africa, the Delta states were quick to shift to palm oil trade.
- This was due to a possible number of factors:
a) The Natural rain forest belts
- They had access to the natural rainforest belts, especially the north, which were occupied
by the Igbo and there were abundant palm trees.
- This area was a swamp marsh, had humid conditions and consisted of mangrove forests.
b) An elaborate river network/transport
- They had an elaborate river system or network which made transportation easier and
enabled them to transport large volumes to the coast.
- There were enterprising traders who played the role of middlemen and built am extensive
fleet of canoes.

- They isolated the Igbo from the Europeans.
- They used the canoes to ferry cargo, to patrol and control their monopoly and for
transporting their products to the coast.
c) The presence of European firms before them
- The presence of European firms in 1840 was another reason why it was easier for the
Delta states to shift to legitimate trade.
- There were over 200 companies in the beginning of the 1860s because British companies
absorbed all the other firms and this absorption brought efficiency.
- The British Sir George Goldie secured a royal charter for his company, the Royal Niger
Company in 1886.
- At this point, palm oil prices rose and this ensured survival of the Delta states as it also
made palm oil trade very lucrative such that by the 1850s, the river network became
known as the “oil rivers” because of the high volume of trade taking place there.
d) The Arochukwu traders
- There was a group of master traders known as the ARO traders.
- Through the Arochukwu`s activities, they were able to enjoy monopoly of trade.
- They helped immensely by increasing the volume of trade.
e) Important discoveries
- The discovery of the steam ship and quinine, a medicine which cures malaria, also helped
a great deal.
1) Assess the achievements of King Glele of Dahomey and Jaja of Opobo and analyse
their significance in African History. (Nov 1994 camb)
2) Explain how, and with what success, Dahomey and the states of the Niger Delta met
the challenge of the abolition of the slave trade. (NOV 1996 CAMB).
3) What changes were made during the pre-colonial period in the political and economic
organisation of Dahomey and the Niger Delta states inorder to meet thye new
challenges and changing conditions? (NOV 1998 CAMB)
speedy and efficiency in either Dahomey and in the Niger Delta states?(NOV 2000
CAMB)
5) Why was Dahomey one of Africa`s most efficient states in the pre-colonial period?
(NOV 2002 CAMB).

6) How and why were Dahomey and the Niger Delta States able to make the transition
from the slave trade to legitimate trade quickly and successfully? (Nov 2003 CAMB
or Nov 2010 ZIMSEC).
speedy and efficiency in either Dahomey or in Opobo in the Niger Delta? (Nov 2006
CAMB).
8) Why did the slave trade, from and within East and West Africa, continue into the
second half of the 19th century? (Nov 2007 CAMB)
9) With what success did West African states meet the challenges created by the
abolition of the slave trade? (NOV 2009 ZIMSEC).
10) With reference to specic examples, explain why and show how some West African
states managed, and others found it difficult, to make the transition from slave trade
to legitimate trade. (NOV 2011 ZIMSEC).
11) Analyse the significance of Jaja of Opobo in the development of the trading states of
the Niger Delta and West African opposition to colonial domination. (NOV 2011
CAMB).
12)

ETHIOPIA
Background
 At the beginning of the 19th Century, Ethiopia existed as an advanced state of

political fragmentation.
 The once great empire was now split into provinces that were ruled by Rases
(governors) and princess who were largely autonomous.
 The Rases were largely, corrupt, inefficient and impotent.
 Most of the Rases were puppets that were exploited by foreigners in order to
extract natural resources and acquire slaves.
 Ethiopia was also characterised by brigandage (looting and plundering) and
lawlessness.
 Rases only exercised authority in their own provinces.
 In spite of this negative situation, there was some potential for Ethiopian
restoration and it rested on three factors, namely the existence of the church, the
presence of an educated elite and the then on-going commercial revival within the
land.
a) The church
 Ethiopia was largely a Christian empire; Emperor Azana adopted Christianity as
the state religion.
 From its ancient capital of Axum, Tigre, the church had managed to maintain its
national identity and influence.
 It provided a central point of cohesion for the Ethiopian society.
 The influence of the church was further strengthened by the religious change of
the Islamic revival.
b) The educated elite.

 There existed in Ethiopia educated elite that had the potential to spearhead and
participate in the process of the rebirth.
 The people of this class could form the basis of modernisation for Ethiopian
administration, commerce and social structures.
c) Commercial revival
 The second half of the 18th Century brought in a process of commercial revival
especially along the Red Sea Coast.
 Several European countries sent envoys and this also provided potential for
modernization.

 The actual process of rebirth was spearheaded in the 19th Century by three
emperors, namely, Tewodros, Yohannis and Menelik.
 During the 19th Century, Ethiopia went through a process of dramatic
transformation that involved the complete change of Ethiopian politics and
administration.
 This process brought about three aspects into Ethiopia: unity, modernisation and
independence (ability to uphold their sovereignty)
 It is important to highlight the role played by the three emperors in bringing about
this transformation.
An example of their individual roles, as well as an analysis of their comparative

contributions is very important.
OTHER FACTORS THAT PROMOTED ETHIOPEAN UNITY
1. Natural Barriers/Geography
 Geography played a double role in Ethiopia.
 It provided defensive barriers and also created hindrances to the development of a
highly centralized state
 High mountains protected Ethiopia from invaders.
 These features however isolated Ethiopia from other people and made the people
to continue with their culture.
2. Nationalism
 Ethiopia looked back to their past when they had a glorious empire.
 They looked back to the great empire of Axum and they defended their
independence with determination.
 They developed a national feeling of their past and yearned more for their future
glories (romanticism).
3. Diplomacy
 Ethiopia used its educated elite to communicate with Europeans; that’s how and
why they managed to trade with the Europeans.
 Ethiopians travelled to Europe show and prove that they were civilized; the
educated elite mobilized support from Europeans
4. Strategic Value
 Ethiopia lacked minerals which powerful Europeans nations such as Britain and
France wanted.
 There were no minerals which would attract any European imperialist or
colonialist.
 Therefore, there were no rewards for occupying forces.

 During the 19th century Ethiopia went through a process of dramatic
transformation that involved the complete change of Ethiopian politics and
administration.
 This process brought three aspects into Ethiopia, namely unity, modernization and
independence (ability to uphold their sovereignty).
TEWODROS II {1855-1868}
 Born in 1819, he was the son of a governor.

 He had a poor childhood but grew up as a brave and adventurous young man.
 He began his career as the Ras of a small province called Qwara.
 From the onset he was determined to bring about unity and modernization to the
Ethiopian society.
 Tewodros engaged in a vacation of brigandage and chronic warfare for three
reasons; these were:
i. To extend Ethiopian frontiers.
ii. To gain supremacy.
iii. To gain recognition.
 The period of uncertainty enabled Tewodros to gain control over the provinces of
Gandaru and Gojam.
 By 1855, he had successfully subdued the Ras or Tigre, who was his main rival.
 With the support of the church, Tewodros was enthroned as Negus Nagasta (Ras
of Rases /King of kings) and declared Emperor Tewodros II.
 He subsequently managed to conquer the province of Shewa to further
consolidate his position.
 Tewodros’ rise to power was achieved through the use of force.
 His coronation by the Patriarch (church head), was designed to justify his new
status and authority.
 On assuming the throne, he introduced some measures to modernize Ethiopia.
1) Church reform
 Tewodros realized that the church was a powerful institution in Ethiopia and was
therefore determined to control it so as to consolidate his position.
 He started by criticizing several church practices hoping to tarnish their images.
 He then targeted the land owned by the church (a third of the country) and the
priests who engaged in irreligious activities; he even commented on the tax
exemption enjoyed by the church.

 Tewodros had come to power partly because of the 1854 alliance with the Abuna
(chief priest) Salama, which won him support from the church.
2) Radical reforms
 All church property was taken over by the state as he wanted to use the church’s
wealth to pay his army and to modernize the country.
 Each church was given land sufficient enough to feed two priests and three
deacons and excess land was given to farmers.
 Excess clergy was required to work and pay taxes.
 As compensation, he forced Muslims to convert to Christianity.
3) Military reforms
 After his rise to power, it was necessary for Tewodros to create and reform an
army for Ethiopia.
 He sought to create a sanding army that was national in outlook and professional
in terms of payment and discipline.
 He wanted to improve the technical standards of the army, for example its
strategy and equipment.
 To improve on these standards, Tewodros was determined enough to establish
foreign links.
 The army was used for both domestic (crushing rebellions) and external purposes.
4) Government administration
 Tewodros created a centralised system of government where he had supreme
authority.
 He advanced a semi-bureaucratic structure where Ethiopia was divided into
districts and governors were appointed by him in person.
 He tried to replace the traditional Rases.
5) Taxation
 Having introduced a wide range of reforms in the army and government, it
became mandatory for Tewodros to ensure that his government had sufficient
revenue.
6) Modernisation
a. Infrastructure
 He initiated the process of developing Ethiopia’s communication network and he
funded the construction of road networks.
 He did this for two reasons, which were basically economic and military
mobilization.
b. The judiciary
 Traditionally the Ethiopian justice system was based on vendetta and direct
compensation.

 Tewodros instead introduced a fair and just judiciary system, in which all
homicide cases and traditional practises were banned.
TEWODROS’ FOREIGN POLICY
 Tewodros was very keen to establish relations with European powers on the basis
of equality.
 He welcomed the German missionaries, Kraft and Stern, who brought in their
expertise in religious and military affairs; they even set up workshops to repair
guns.
 After this he invited Italian and British experts.
 His lack of diplomacy however plunged him into a serious misunderstanding with
the British.
 He tried to force the British government to accept the Ethiopian envoys, by
imprisoning the British consul at his capital which happened to be Magdala.
 Therefore the British led an expedition in 1867, under General Napier, to release
the British consul.
 Given Tewodros’ rather unpopular position in Ethiopia, Napier easily stoned
Magdala in 1868, causing Tewodros to commit suicide in frustration.
Tewodros strengths and weaknesses
STRENGTHS WEAKNESS
 He was a vision-setter because he  Over-emphasis on the army strained
wanted to bring about unity resources.
(centralization of power) and  His attacks on the church alienated him
modernization (in the judiciary, in from the majority of the people.
infrastructure, in the church and in  He was cruel, ill tempered, mentally
taxation). unstable and this promoted brigandage.
 He wanted equitable sharing of state  He lacked diplomatic skills.
responsibility.  His inability to carry his people along
 He demonstrated military expertise and because he never had a national shared
its value in achieving goals. vision of unity and modernization.
 He helped suppress the slave trade.  His power base was limited to northern
Ethiopia only.
 Rival Rases in south were hostile to
him.
YOHANNIS 1V (1872-1889)

 He was the Ras of Tigre at first and he had started consolidating his position even during
Tewodros’ reign
 He emerged as a major rival to Tewodros’ authority.
 He built his reputation by gaining access to huge quantities of weapons from European trade.
 He had a powerful army that was led by Ras Alula.
 After Tewodros’ reign Ethiopia plunged back into political chaos and fragmentation.
 Therefore, Yohannis engaged into a process of subduing Ethiopia‘s rival Rases and crushing
rebellious sections of the society.
 By 1872, he emerged as the Negusa Nagust.
 To consolidate his position Yohannis was able to make a weak truce with the Ras of Shewa,
who was as powerful as him.
 Yohannis had made an effort to compliment war and diplomacy thus he learnt from
Tewodros’ mistakes.
Yohannis’ Domestic policy
Political Unity
 Yohannis’ measures to bring political unity to Ethiopia were more effective than
Tewodros’.
 He attempted to blend the people using diplomacy rather than war.
 His political system was flexible because:
-He was interested in bringing about centralization.
-He had a federal system of government in which the governors of the district were
allowed a certain level of authority.
 This flexibility created stronger bonds, less friction and a more efficient system of
administration.
Religious Policy
He implemented over-zealous policies where he made an attempt to force Muslims and

Traditionalists to convert to Christianity.
 His pro-Christian attitude demonstrated religious intolerance.
Taxation
 He tried to broaden the tax base by including all the classes.

 This system of taxation operated inefficient.

1|Page
ETHIOPIA
Background
 At the beginning of the 19th Century, Ethiopia existed as an advanced state of political
fragmentation.
 The once great empire was now split into provinces that were ruled by Rases
(governors) and princess who were largely autonomous.
 The Rases were largely, corrupt, inefficient and impotent.
 Most of the Rases were puppets that were exploited by foreigners in order to extract
natural resources and acquire slaves.
 Ethiopia was also characterised by brigandage (looting and plundering) and lawlessness.
 Rases only exercised authority in their own provinces.
 In spite of this negative situation, there was some potential for Ethiopian restoration
and it rested on three factors, namely the existence of the church, the presence of an
educated elite and the then on-going commercial revival within the land.
a) The church
 Ethiopia was largely a Christian empire; Emperor Azana adopted Christianity as the state
religion.
 From its ancient capital of Axum, Tigre, the church had managed to maintain its national
identity and influence.
 It provided a central point of cohesion for the Ethiopian society.
 The influence of the church was further strengthened by the religious change of the
Islamic revival.
b) The educated elite.

 There existed in Ethiopia educated elite that had the potential to spearhead and
participate in the process of the rebirth.
 The people of this class could form the basis of modernisation for Ethiopian
administration, commerce and social structures.
c) Commercial revival
 The second half of the 18th Century brought in a process of commercial revival especially
along the Red Sea Coast.

Military
 This was an area of particular importance to Yohannis.

 Measures were taken to improve the military in terms of weapons, size and strategy.
 His military reforms were very crucial, because of the external threats Ethiopia in the last
half of the 19th century.
 These measures were largely effective because Ethiopia successfully countered inventions
from Egypt, Italy and Sudan.
Yohannis Foreign policy
1. Egypt
 Yohannis came to power when Egypt was under an ambitious leader, Khedive
Ismail.
 He therefore, had to deal with Egyptian territorial expansion, especially along the
Red Sea Coast which had started with the capture of Massawa in 1855.
 With the support of a Swiss explorer, Mazzinger, the Khedive had been successful
in further capturing Bogos [1872] Harar and Berbera [1875]
 Yohannis initially made strong protests to the British to restrain the Khedive.
 With the support of Ras Alula, Yohannis successfully repelled further Egyptian
expeditions between 1875 and 1876.
 In 1884, a peace treaty called Hewet/Adowa was signed.
Terms
 Egypt got Adowa and Yohannis gave up Massawa in return or control over Harar,
Barbera and Bogos.
 By containing Egyptian expansion, Yohannis was able to safeguard Ethiopian
independence.
2. Italy
 As the scramble intensified in the 1880s. Europeans began bargaining for
territory.
 The British sacrificed their territory on the Red Sea Coast on the condition that
the Italians would refocus elsewhere.
 This b
 British Italian interest over looked Ethiopian European interest.

 Further Italian attempts to expand inland became a direct threat to Ethiopian
sovereignty.
 Yohannis put up a fierce resistance at the battle of Dagoli in 1887, and the Italians
were successfully resisted.
 The Italians took over Massawa in 1885 and Assab in 1882.
 The Italians suspended their aggressive actions because they had struck a bargain
with the emerging Ras Alula, who seemed to be a potential Ethiopian puppet
Emperor.
3. Sudan
 In the 1870s,Mohammed Ahmad launched an Islamic Jihad to transform Sudan
into an Islamic state.
 Initially the Jihad was meant to get rid of the Egyptian political influence in
Sudan.
 By 1880s Mohammed had successfully gained control over most of the Sudanese
provinces.
 He now wanted to expand the Islamic religion beyond Sudan.
 The expansionist policy ultimately brought Sudan into conflict with Christian
Ethiopian.
 There was constant warfare from 1885 which became more intense in 1889.
 With the military support o Ras Alula , Yohannis successfully repelled the
Sudanese army at the battle of Matema in 1889.
 Yohannis died in victory.
 His significance is that, he safeguard Ethiopian sovereignty from Italy, Egypt and
Sudan.
Yohannis weaknesses
 In terms of unity he had a weak federal system from which he excluded the provinces of
Gonja and Shoa.
 His religious policies were overzealous. This created tension and therefore weakened
the bonds of unity.
 His contribution to modernisation was minimum because of focusing mainly on foreign
policy.
 His over reliance on rival Rases such as Alula, to some extent weakened his own
position. This in a way made his rivals more ambitious and confident.
MENELIK II (1889-1913)

 Since the 1870’s Menelik (Ras Alula) had emerged as a potential strong ruler at his base
in shoa/showa.
 He was an intelligent and hardworking Ras and after Yohannis’ death he easily emerged
as the Negus Negusta.
Menelik’s Qualities
 He had a strong military background.

 He possessed brilliant diplomatic skills, e.g. the truce he signed with Yohannis and the
alliance he signed with the Italians.
 He was a brilliant strategist.
 He showed outstanding statesmanship.
 He was manipulative and shrewd.
Consolidation of power
 He consolidated his position as Ras of Shoa in Ethiopia when:

i. He expanded his territory southwards where he would get slaves for trade and
ivory that he would use for external trade.
ii. He engaged in manipulative diplomacy with powers that would strengthen his
position, e.g. Italy, France and Britain; Menelik was also able to have access to
advanced military technology that made him a formidable military power
 With the Italians Menelik adopted a very cautious and well calculated diplomatic
strategy.
 He welcomed Italian diplomats to his court and, in May 1889, he signed the treaty
Wichale with them.
 The terms of this treaty were a vague “friendship” agreement only.
 For Menelik , this friendship agreement meant provision of technical assistance as he
got cannons and rifles from the Italians, thus enabling him to strengthen his military.
 To the Italians, however, this treaty paved the way to make Ethiopia an Italian
protectorate and they hoped to use the treaty to prevent other European powers from
diplomatic relations with Ethiopia.
 The treaty of Wichale was indirectly nullified when Menelik signed simi9lar treaties
with the French and Russians; this made Menelik a “master juggler”.
 Italians protests were futile as Menelik insisted on his independent status.
 In a bid to re-assert Italian advancement in Ethiopia, the Italians attempted to get into an
alliance with Ras Mengesha of Tigre –a rival of Menelik and the son of Yohannis.
 Menelik appealed to the people using patriotism and nationalism and, hence, Ras
Mengesha refused the Italian offer.
 The Italians had no option but to resort to a military expedition which took place in
Adowa in 1896.

 The Italians were defeated in this battle.
Reasons for Ethiopian victory and subsequent Italian defeat
ETHIOPIAN STRENGTHS ITALIAN WEAKNESSES

Military Military
a) Ethiopia had a national army that a) Italy had less manpower; many people
outnumbered that of Italy. had deserted the Italians - Ras
b) On the eve of the war, the army Mangesha is one example.
increased as 600 men from Tigre joined b) Italy had inadequate equipment both in
them. terms of quality and quantity.
c) Weapons were good both in terms of c) Baratieri, the military leader was
quality and quantity; the quality of incompetent and his strategies and
weapons matched that of the Italians. skills were terrible.
d) Leadership skills were good on the d) Communication and reconnaissance –
basis of strategy and techniques mapwork skills- were also bad; their
employed. plans were underestimated thus
Patriotism resulting in a gross miscalculation.
 They had unity, commitment and a Also
shared vision.  The Ethiopian army was able to
Geographical manipulate Italian weaknesses- hence
 There was a ragged terrain and the leading to the split of the already
Ethiopians had good knowledge of the depleted Italian army.
area.  Being deserted at the last minute by
Political unity Ras Mangesha and others caused the
 Unlike his predecessors, Menelik was Italians to become vulnerable.
able to foster political unity and created  Baratieri carried out his operation on
a united Ethiopian empire which in turn unconfirmed rumours.
provided manpower and strength.
 According to M. Tidy, “the victory at Adowa, crowned not only the desirable
independence but also the vision of sovereignty initiated by Tewadros and partly
consolidated by Yohannis.”
 In 1896 the treaty of Addis Ababa was signed officially recognising Ethiopia as a
sovereign state as well as granting it diplomatic recognition as well.

 From this tripartite treaty Britain, France and Italy agreed to grant Ethiopia sovereign
status.
MENELIKS DOMESTIC POLICY
a) Political system
 Menelik implemented a system of administration that was a lot more effective
in promoting centralization of power and a political unification.
 He was an enlightened despot.
 He created a bureaucratic system of government to help him implement policies.
 Addis Ababa became the capital and Menelik exercised greater control over
local rulers in the districts.
 He adopted a cabinet system of government where duties were well defined and
parcelled out to civil services; this was an efficient system.
 He also created civil services that worked on the basis of commitment and
servitude (full commitment on the state ).
b) Modernisation
 The Ethiopian program of modernization had a great French influence.
i. Finance
 He made a number of changes to this sector to make it stronger:
 A new currency was adopted to replace the Austrian currency.
 The banking sector was reformed; the bank of Abyssinia was opened
and it helped with the setting of a modern banking system.
 The revenue system was strengthened and the tax base broadened;in so
doing Menelik covered all people who were productive including all
foreign residents.
ii. Infrastructure
 This relied on foreign funding and expertise, and, thus Menelik employed the
Swiss Alfred Ilg as an advisor.
 There was the construction of modern bridges and a railway from Addis Ababa
to Djibouti which was finally completed in 1917 after Menelik’s death.
 Modern telecommunication systems introduced, e.g. in 1894 the postal services
became modern as it included stamps that were made in France.
 Telegrams were brought in and a printing press was set up.
 These modern infrastructures were designed to link major towns.
iii. Education

 The first public school was established in 1903 and it was called Menelik II
School.
 Scholarships were given to students to go abroad and study.
 Previously unfulfilled plans were designed, for example he introduced
compulsory elementary education.
iv. Health
 Menelik strove to improve this sector by introducing a modern health delivery
system.
 This included the first hospital that was named after Menelik II.
 In 1908 a compulsory vaccination system was introduced.
 Health personnel from France and Russia were brought in.
v. Other
 Menelik also put in place other plans he hoped to achieve; amongst these were his
hopes to abolish the slave trade and reform the judiciary.
 These last measures were not implemented because Menelik fell ill in 1906,
became paralyzed in 1910 and died in 1913.
 He was succeeded by a 17 year old boy named Lij Iyasu.
 Under Iyasu the political system crumbled and Ethiopia fell into chaos and
fragmentation; this might be considered as a reflection of the inability to sustain
Meneliks reforms.
1) “Despite the failures of the last years of his reign, Tewodros II made a vital contribution
to Ethiopia`s revival in the 19th century”. How far do you agree with this statement. (Nov
2013 ZIMSEC)
2) Examine the claim that Menelik II was a more successful ruler than Samori Toure. (Nov
2013 CAMB)
Courtesy of Mr. K. Chibaya, senior History Class Teacher at St. Johns Emerald Hill Senior
School (contactable on toll-free number +263 773 095 154)

THE MANDINKA EMPIRE OF SAMORI TOURE
Samori Toure`s background and qualities

-Samori Toure was born in a traditionalist family in what is now the Republic of Guinea.
-this son of a Mandinka peasant was later to create one of the biggest empires in the Western
Sudan.
-he later joined a group of long distance Muslim traders known as Dyula/Dulia.
-his trade journeys took him to many parts of the Western Sudan, some of which were
experiencing Muslim revival or jihadist revolutions.
-Between 1853and 1857 Samori spent sometime as a soldier under Sere Burlay of the Sise
kingdom in exchange for his imprisoned mother. Samori quickly rose on merit to be a
commander.
-In 1857 Samori broke away from Sise with his unit of soldiers and became an independent
mercenary captain.
-the experience of the trade and the army seem to have prepared Samori for empire building
based on conquest.
-the Dyulatraders settled in villages some of which grew into towns and insisted on their
independence from the local people. They built mosques and schools and attracted a scholar
class to their towns.
-their towns were Muslim Islands in a sea of Animism
-however, since they lived among non-Muslims who were fellow Mandinkas, they compromised.
They inter-married and and practiced pagan rites along with their Muslim faith. Strict Muslims
labelled them as ‘nominal Muslims, compromisers and sacrificers to many gods.’
-for them trade was more important.
-the experience of Islam revival and expansion in Western Sudan might have influenced them to
see the commercial advantage of large political units.
-Samori’s rise was part of the Mandinka movement towards larger political units.
-Samori traded in gold form Wassulu and cattle from Futa Jalon.
–In the process he visited Freetown.
-He must have came into contact with Umar’s teachings whose disciples and nephew were later
to hold high positions in Samori’s empire.
-Control over trade, allowed the Dyula to accumulate weapons and prepare for jihads.
-Samori contributed to the political disorder in the Sise kingdom that he later used it as an excuse
to build a new state since he had the skills and access to weapons.
-By 1870 Samori had managed to form a large army and within a short time he had taken control
of the small states of Wassulu.
-he established his capital at Bisandugu, proclaimed himself the Almami and captured Kankan.
-By 1886, his empire was the third largest political unit of Western Sudan. [115 000 sq miles]
What facilitated the unification of the Mandinka?

Samori diplomatic and military genius. [to be discussed later]
A resurgence of national feelings: the Mandinka possessed a kind of national spirit through
their common pride in the glories of their former empire of ancient Mali. [14th century]
-Samori revived their memories of ancient Mali and appeared to be the new Mansa Musa. They
were longing for a revival of the Mandinka greatness.
Dyula background

-the Dyula supported Samori because of his policies and promises of better economic conditions
through the creation of a larger state.
Samori promoted unity and trade by removing a number of customs charges among small states.
He exercised tight control over agriculture and markets and promoted exports so as to be able to
import war material.
Spy system: Samori had a wide network of Dyula acting as his spy system among the French in
Futas, the British in Freetown and the Tokolor on the Niger.
a) Nationalism - ancient Mali - Mansa -

g) destroying tribalism Musa
f) Islam reformist - role of reli-

gion b)Dyula background - traders - spies
e)Samori's personality - charismatic c) Diplomatic alliances
d) Marriage alliances Toure of Odienne
-this helped him to have a successful international diplomacy.
Diplomatic and matrimonial alliances: He expanded his authority into parts of Futa Jalon and
Tokolor territory around Dinguiray by means of diplomatic alliances with the fellow Tijaniyya of
the area.
-he made astute matrimonial alliances with some groups such as Toure and Odienne.
His personality: He had a charismatic personality and was therefore liked and respected.
-many could identify with Samori who was a commoner and from a poor family. He attacked
and destroyed the worldly position of the Chiefly class. –Samori promoted equality.
Islam as a unifying factor:
-Samori also appeared as an Islam reformist whose foundation had been laid by Al-Hajj Umar
who preached among the Mandinka.
-the Tijaniyya form of Islam which Samori followed appealed to the Mandinka whose traditional
culture emphasized the dignity and equality of men.
-The Mandinka unity was mainly to be based on law, way of life and thinking of Islam.
Religious leaders took their place alnogside the political and military. Taxation and law were to
be based on Islamic practice.
-in every village, Samori built mosques and schools to promote literacy and Islamic principles.
-To Samori, Islam was more a means to power rather than an end in itself.
-he maintained an impartial attitude about whether one was Islam or not.
NB:Samori was not a radical Muslim reformist; therefore he did not antagonize his people by
strictly enforcing Islam prohibitions except for the “no liquor” rule.His achievements in the
religious sphere were not as notable as his military accomplishments.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION
-the empire was divided into “162 districts of 20 villages each” (Madzingira:2010:72).
-Each district was headed by a chief and two solders known as sofas.
-the districts were grouped into ten large provinces or governments headed by governors who
were either relatives or close friends of Samori.
-the empire was governed by three parallel lines of authority; the traditional, the military and the
religious all headed by the Almami and his state council.
-Village heads were chosen by traditional methods. Their power was limited by the religious
leaders [the Imami and Qadi(Muslim Judge) who administered the law] and the sofa [military
and officer appointed by Samori].
-the sofas had to be individuals of unquestionable loyalty towards Samori.
-they were responsible for raising troops and supplies for the army and harvesting and selling of
products from the Almami’s communal farm.
-According to Thatcher (1990: 31) “this well trained and well equipped army was paid for
largely by a tax on gold and by the sale of slaves”.
-The Almami was the supreme political, judicial and religious head of the empire as well as its
military commander.
-the Imam was a religious leader appointed by Samori based on his religious reputation. He had a
crucial influence on judicial issues since the Mandinka Empire was based on Sharia law.
-Samori’s direct appointees who had no traditional claim to office were subject to his will on
promotion, transfer and dismissal.
The military
-some people viewed the Mandinka Empire as a military state because of the importance and
predominance of military officers [sofa].
-Samori exercised promotion on merit. He rewarded merits and encouraged soldiers to put their
talents at the disposal of the state.
The 3 parallel lines of authority:
1) Traditional (chief) 2) Military (Sofa) 3) Religious (Imami)
Headed by the Almami and state council
- Since education, discipline and national rather than tribal loyalty was emphasized in the army,
it was a fine training ground for political officers.
-Samori himself, possessed exceptional military expertise in terms of strategy, size, equipment
and discipline. He was a brilliant soldier.
Destroying Tribalism
-Samori tried to destroy tribalism by putting people of different ethnical backgrounds into the
same village.

-at each level of government, he saw to it that men of different families and tribes worked
together. This was also done to make sure that there would be no ‘ganging up’ on ethnic loyalty
against Samori’s authority.
-he tried to avoid distinctions between privileged and non-privileged classes by giving everyone
the chance to rise through the army to the highest places in the state.
Samori was an innovator, not a preserver of old customs and institutions.

-he created the essential ingredients of a modern state, a complex administration with an
appointed political service and an efficient and loyal army to carry out the will of the central
government.
-he fostered a quite recognized national spirit without which the existence of a state is not likely
to last for long.
ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
Tax Collection
-Samori was able to collect tax which gave him the resources to provide his army. The traders
were taxed and gold which was produced was also taxed.
-Villagers paid tribute in the form of gold and agricultural products.
Trade
-Trade provided tha basis of economic transformationand also economic and political stability.
Samori was a successful trader. He was part of the Dyula trading system.
-Gold was traded for fire arms and ivory brought income needed for paying expenses of the army
and administration.
-Samori expanded trade by eliminating small national boundaries.
-Samori also exercised an element of free enterprise.
Mining
-Mining of gold took place at Bure gold fields (Madzingira: 2010: 74).
-The special metal was used for acquiring weapons especially fire arms.
Tribute
Tribute was paid by vassals and this broughta steady state revenue.
SOCIAL ORGANISATION
Religion
-Samori founded his empire on religious basis.Thatcher is of the view that throughout his career
Samori did everything to promote Tijaniyya Islam.
-He renounced the traditional title “Faama” and insisted on calling himself the “Almami” a title
used by powerful Muslim Rulers.
-Samori advocated for the no liquor rule.
Marriage alliances
-Marriage across tribal boundarieswere encouraged to break the barriers of tribalism and this
gave way to a sense of national unity. Alliances were signed with Samori`s Tijaniyya brothers in
Futa Jalon and Tokolor.
-Marriage alliances with Toure of Odienne were also signed.
Destruction of the class system
-According to Webster distinction between privileged and non privileged classes were abolished
inorder to give everyone a chance to rise through the army to the highest positions in the state. It
is this social unity that enabled Samori to resist French aggression.

RELATIONS WITH FRENCH
-From the mid 1880s, European political interest on the African continent increased dramatically.
This was the period of the scramble for Africa.
-In West Africa, Britain and France were the most active.
-Samori’s Mandinka Empire stood directly in the path of the French expansion as a result
confrontation between Samori and the French was imminent.
-Samori fully realized the French ambition to conquer the whole Sudan and their military might
which he could not match.
-he looked for ways to preserve the independence of his empire or at least delay its annexation.
-he made an alliance with the British which would give him military [fire arms] and diplomatic
support.
-he also hoped to follow a policy of playing off the British against the French. Unfortunately for
Samori, this tactic did not work because the British and the French had already entered into an
agreement that defined their spheres of influence in Africa [As agreed at the Berlin West Africa
Conference of 1884-1885] (Webster: 232).
-the British government was more interested in their Freetown naval base and only wanted to use
the Mandinka to bargain for French concessions elsewhere in Africa.
-Samori was given false hope by the British governor, Edward Blyden, in Freetown who had
promised assistance.
-as a delaying tactic and a way of avoiding future conflicts, Samori signed the Treaty of
Bisandugu with the French in 1886.
–He did not know that he was selling away his country.
-through this treaty, Samori gave up all his territory north of the river Niger in return for French
friendship.
Why Samori signed the treaty
-he thought the Treaty could remove the causes of war or delay war to allow him to strengthen
his position.
-it would give him time to conclude an alliance with the British and buy arms form them.
-it would also eliminate the state of Sikasso and secure control of the trade route supplying
horses, which was controlled by Tieba, the king of Sikasso.
Why the French signed the Treaty

-they also wanted to buy time in order to destroy the Tokolor Empire before challenging Samori.
-they wanted to keep the British out of the Mandinka by claiming that through the Treaty,
Samori had ceded his empire to France.
–wanted to avoid the creation of Anglo-Mandinga alliance.
-The British made an enquiry and Samori informed them that he had not ceded his empire to
France. He requested an alliance with Britain and offered a railway concession as an inducement.
-with this false sense of security from the British, Samori made one of his greatest blunders.
-Between 1887-88 Samori invaded Sikasso, a fortified Islamic city in Western Sudan and lost
about 10000 men and all his horses.
-the attack turned Sikasso and other locals against Samori as Samori had invaded an Islamic
state. They signed alliances with the French to be “protected” from Samori.
-the attack tarnished Samori’s reputation since he had invaded an Islamic state.
-the French attack on Segu in 1890 made it impossible for Samori to make an alliance with Segu.

-Samori retrieved the Treaty of Bisandugu [of friendship] and sent it back to the French. THE
SEVEN YEARS WAR HAD STARTED.
-Samori tried desperately to seek alliances with the British or even cede his territory to the
British in Sierra Leone. – He would remain a religious leader in a British protectorate.
-The Sierra Leone government sent an envoy to Bisandugu who raised the Union Jack in
Samori’s southern towns without Britain’s approval.
-the British government had accepted the French of Bisandugu and feared for their own
territories in Africa.
-several envoys were eager to cooperate with the Mandinka but the British gvt was firm in its
resolve. ----They prohibited the Sierra Leone gvt from sending further envoys and exporting
arms to Samori.
-in 1892, Samori sent an envoy to London to clear the mystery of the British policy.
-Samori was ultimately abandoned to the French and he resorted to war which lasted from 1892-
1899.
-he became known as the “Napoleon of Sudan “because of his military strategies.
Mobilization and military tactics

-Samori depended on the army to acquire and later preserve his empire.
-His power rested in the loyalty of the army and not in his authority as a religious leader like Al-
Hajj Umar.
-the ranks of the army were filled mainly with captives who were trained as rifle-carrying
infantry men and were known as sofas.
-these men formed a standing army directly loyal to Samori, while in times of need a conscripted
reserve was also available, as well as a volunteer militia of those who owned horses.
-the army was supplies by a highly organized administration which ensured that supplies of all
sorts were available.
-apart from food, Samori organized groups of metal workers known as "forgerons" to
manufacture rifle parts and other military equipment.
-Forgerons were gun smiths who worked in army workshops.
Strategies
1] Shrewd diplomacy: He tried to play off the British against the French although this was not
successful.
2] Military strategies:
a] the scorched earth policy: this was adopted to make up for inadequate artillery. Samori’s army
would burn everything and relocate people leaving the French with no supplies and no one to
work for them. This slowed down and frustrated the French.
b] Guerilla warfare: This was another strategy devised to counter his technical shortcomings.
This strategy involved surprised attacks, raids and retreats.
-it was aimed at frustrating and demoralizing and weakening the French by sabotaging supply
lines.
-by avoiding pitched battles (direct fighting), Samori minimized losses but prolonged the period
of resistance with the hope of ultimate success.
c] Mass movement: he divided the army into three divisions. One armed with repeater rifles
attacked the French and retreated. The second group organized the population, evacuating them,

leading and protecting their retreat. The last group conquered and organized the new area in
preparation to receive the people.
-In the process of retreat, Samori attacked Kong for going into an alliance with the French.
-As he moved further South, Samori threatened the British at Asante who in turn gave him a
warning attack in 1896
-by 1898 it was clear that there was no hope for Samori. The French took over Sikasso, Bobo-
Diolasso and Dabakala.
-Samori was exiled to Gabon.
Why 7 years resistance?

Mandinka a military state: had about 90 000 to 100 000 potential soldiers.
-10 000 to 20 000 could be armed at a time.
Loyalty of the army:they respected Samori the Almami as a religious leader and shared
nationalistic feelings. They were all trained, armed, cared for; and there was promotion on merit.
Dyula background: they could source weapons and horses from the traders. Samori had his own
gunsmiths to repair and make guns when necessary.
Quick to organize the army and adopt new tactics: Samori organized his army on European rifle
units with bugle-call signals (a bugle was an instrument blown by a person).
-he abolished cavalry (horse soldiers) and the defense of the mud walled cities.
Guerilla warfare- surprise attacks, ambushes, cutting communication lines and scorched earth
policy were all adopted.
-Samori sent men as spies to train in the French armies.
Why was Samori defeated?

Military inadequacies: In spite of changed tactics, the French still had superior weapons.
Divisions in the empire: the empire was founded by a jihad with forced conversions in the North.
-the Sikasso siege was a big mistake by Samori. Instead of fighting fellow Mandinkas, Samori
should have concentrated on the French.
-the French could use divide and rule and supply Sikasso and the North with weapons.
Lack of Allies: Samori tried Ahmadu and Asante but failed.
Kong and Sikasso also refused to make alliances with Samori. Other leaders were jealous and
hostile to Samori who finally became isolated.
Starvation: According to Shillington, starvation, finally defeated Samori’s army. Having moved
to Dabakala, they could not get food from the traders and they also suffered from the effects of
the scorched earth policy.
Berlin Conference: It made it impossible for him to play off the British against the French. The
French would have to establish effective occupation; they would not trade and go.
Trade routes
- He lost the trade routes in Freetown and could not retreat further into Asante because the
British were in Asante.
1) In what way did the rise and fall of the Mandinka empire illustrate important features of,
and developments in, African history? (NOV 1994 CAMB)

2) Describe and explain the response of one of the following to Europeans in Africa: Samori
Toure, ruler of the Mandinka empire; Mutesa 1, Kabaka of Buganda; Lewanika, King of
the Lozi. What were the results of your chosen ruler? (NOV 1996 CAMB).
3) Explain Samori Toure`s long resistance against the French and his final defeat in 1898.
(NOV 2000 CAMB)
4) Account for Samouri Toure`s long resistance to French imperialism. Why was he
defeated in 1898? (NOV 20O3 ZIMSEC).
5) Analyse the means by which Samori Toure built the Mandinka Empire and identify its
main features. (JUNE 2004 CAMB)
6) Explain why Menelik II succeeded, and Samori Toure failed, to preserve their respective
kingdoms against European invasion. ( NOV 2004 ZIMSEC)
7) Account for Samori Toure`s success in building the Mandinka Empire. Analyse its main
political, economic and social features. (NOV 2007 CAMB)
8) Show the importance in the history of their res[pective regions of the careers of any two
of the following:
(a) Mkwawa of the Hehe
(b) Lobengula of the Ndebele
(c) Lewanika of the Lozi
(d) Jaja of Opobo
(e) Samouri Toure of the Mandinka(NOV 2008 ZIMSEC).
9) Explain the successful establishment of Samori Toure`s Mandinka empire in the Western
Sudan. Did its strength lie more in the political or in the economic field? (NOV 2010
CAMB).
10) Compare and contrast the politican and social systems of the Asante with that of the
Mandinka Empire in the 19th century. (NOV 2012 ZIMSEC)
11) With reference to one African state or people, analyse the strengths and weaknesses of
African resistance to European control during this period. (NOV 2011 ZIMSEC)
12) Examine the claim that Menelik II was a more successful ruler than Samori Toure. (NOV
2003 CAMB)

THE MAJI MAJI RISING 1905-1907 (TANZANIA)
 Maji –Maji means water –water.Maji is a Swahili name for water.

 The war gets its name because of the belief among Africans that magic portion of
water, oil and millet seeds would turn Germany bullets into water. The prophet
Kinjikitile Ngwale offered the holy water from the river Rufiji.
 It was the most important armed resistance against Europeans in East Africa.
 It is an example of POST PACIFICATION PRIMARY RESISTANCE.
AFRICAN RESISTANCE
 According to Mwijage (2004:137) “resistance means a phenomenon where by Africans

became hostile to European encroachment”. It is grouped into two; that is, passive and
armed resistance.
 Passive Resistance mearnt unarmed opposition. This was often depicted through the non
cooperation of Africans in business and politics among other areas.
 Armed resistance mearnt that the “African rulers led armed soldiers to oppose the
European invaders from imposing themselves in their territories”(Mwijage:2004:137-
138).
 The terms originated with T.O Ranger`s study of central and East Africa.
 According to Ranger resistance manifested in ways ranging from protest and non –
compliance (Passive resistance) to revolt and ending in the emergence of movements of
national liberation in the post Second World War era. The two main types of armed
resistance were as follows:
1) Initial Primary Resistance
 According to Eric Stokes it connotes the forcible ,instinctualattempt of an unmodified
traditional structure to extrude a foreign body. It involved those who instantly put up a
fight against European rule and it occurred upto 1914.
 In Tanganyika John IIffe has shown that relatively few policies reacted in such a purely
negative and irrational terms to German penetration.
 Initial primary resistance was the confrontation against the establishment of colonial rule.
The battle was waged by the native community armies, and the religious, political and
military leaders, for example, Kabarega of Bunyoro, Samouri Toure of Mandinka,
Menelik 11 of Ethiopia or Nana of Itsekiriland.
2) Post Pacification Primary Resistance
 Eric Stokes defines it as a resistance which “engages the total society , the
traditional power structure having been removed or profoundly modified” .
 The post pacification resistance generally involved many participants and covered
large areas.
 It involves new forms of leadership mostly religious nature.
 There is mass commitment and unity through hatred of western rule.

 Examples include the Maji maji uprising (1905-1907) on the Tanzanian mainland,
the Nama and Herero uprising (1904-1907) in Namibia and the Shona and Ndebele
uprising (1896-1897) in Zimbabwe.
3) Post Pacification Secondary Resistance

 Secondary resistors “occurred in those areas where the rulers at the beginning
welcomed Europeans without recognizing that they were endangering their
independence, later when they realized the peril, they felt that they must rebel”
(Mwijage:2004:138).
 Examples include Jaja of Opobo, Lobengula of Matebeleland, Kabaka Mwanga of
Buganda and Prempeh 1 of Asante.
ECONOMIC CAUSES of the Maji-Maji
Forced Labour
 Africans were forced to work in public works. The Germans produced the 12 day`s
labour tax which was payable annually by all adult males.
 Germans used forced labour to build brick administrative buildings and farmhouses in
plantations.
 The conditions of service were often humiliating and inhuman.
Land
 Land was alienated to European companies. Land was bought very cheaply and
sometimes the government ordered the Africans to sell land to the companies.
 In 1910, for example ,the colonial administration annexed all unoccupied land on the
false assumption that it was ownerless.
 The Germans introduced a cash crop economy in which they confiscated fertile land from
its citizen owners.
Taxation
 According to Mwijage (2004:151) “The natives were compelled to pay taxes that could
help to finance or run the central colonial government administration, social amenities,
and infrastructure, including schools buildings, offices, roads and railways”.
 The taxation system forced people to travel distant places in forests to collect bees wax
and rubber ,which they could then sell to earn a few coins to pay the tax.
 This meant neglecting food production .Failure to pay the tax resulted in a severe
punishment and social humiliation
 A man that failed to pay tax was jailed and flogged in public regardless of his adulthood
or status in society until a relative paid on his behalf.

 The Akidas and Jumbes who collected tax imployed the iron hand including the
expropriation of cattle, property and goats and that evoked bewilderment and deep rooted
hostility that ignited the war.
The Cotton Programme
 The Germans forced people of the South –East to grow cotton for textile industry in
Germany.
 Cotton was unpopular because it required hard work , considerable growing time ,picking
and protection from Vermin ,especially birds and wild pigs
 Cash crops decreased acreage for food crops .Africans were forced to work on German
owned plantations and to work under Jumbes (headman)
 The 1903-04 harvest was so poor that the workers were not paid at all. According to Tidy
(2005:154) “the beginning of the Maji –Maji rising coincided with the beginning of the
1905 cotton picking season”.
 Workers were given very low wages and worked under severe conditions (The Zaramo
refused low wages). The use of force made a rebellion possible
SOCIAL CAUSES OF THE MAJI-MAJI
Activities of German Christian Missionaries

 They (Christian Missionaries) ordered the administration to burn the sacred huts of
traditional priests on the grounds that these were havens of ‘witchcraft’ though often the
traditional priests were strong opponents of witchcraft.
 This understandably upset the people who had been holding these as true religions.
 Besides, the Germans had imposed the policy of dismantling African customs, including
initiation and circumcision, and substituted them with Western ones.
 The Maji Maji uprising was therefore waged by the people inorder to restore their
degraded culture.
Abuse of Women
 The Ngindo were angry because of the abuse of their women by mercenary soldiers in
the German army.
 The Wangindo husbands were furious with the German sleeping with their women. As
this behavior was tantamount to adultery, which in Ungindo was punished by death for
the offender, war against the Germans became inevitable.
The Ngoni wanted to revenge
 The Ngoni like the Ndebele were the most powerful society of south-eastern
Tanganyika.

 They wanted to revengeBomaMassascre of 1897 when their political leaders and
generals had been treacherously imprisoned or butchered by the German administration.
 They had been the dominant political and military group before German occupation so
they resented the reduction of their status.
 Chobruma, the Ngoni king, had a personal reason for fighting the Germans because they
had given protection to a young Ngoni man who had seduced one of his wives.
Spirit medium
 The spirit medium played an important role in contributing to the war.

 Maji-Maji means water-water which was used to protect men against German bullets
(immunity to German bullets).
 Spirit medium especially Kinjikitile carried the war message. Spirit mediums acted as
focal points of inspiration and leadership.
 According to Mwijage (2004:152) Kinjikitile “inspired a high spirit courage,
determination and morale of resisting by sprinkling magic water on peoples` bodies
before the war, giving the Africans false confidence that the Germany bullets would be
ineffective and could turn into water. Tragically, this belief was untrue”.
POLITICAL CAUSES of the Maji-Maji
Advent of Arab Akidas(poor administration)

 The Germans imposed Arab Akidas among theWamatumbi.
 The Arab Akidaswere hated by historically because they were previously
involved in slave trade and slavery. The Germans were now using Arab Akidas
to administer and look after areas such as Chumo, Kibata, and Samanga etc.
 The Akidas used their positions to retaliate against the Wamatumbi.
 Therefore, the Wamatumbi waited for the right time to retaliate against poor
administration.
Loss of independence
 The arrival of the Germans in 1900 turned Tanganyika into German East Africa.
 The coming of the Germans meant loss of independence of the South Africans.
 Germans ruled with an iron first as evidenced by exploitation and oppression in the
plantations.
 To make matter worse Africans were forced to part ways their peasant economic system
and join German methods especially plantations.
 Therefore, economic instability accompanied by the desire of liberty the Africans made
war inevitable.

The tradition of resisting foreigners
 The tribes of Southeast Tanganyika had cultivated the long tradition of cohesion versus
foreign intrusion.
 They opposed the Ngoni and the long distance Arab merchants, who constantly invaded
them and interfered with their day to day routine of life.
 Thus this cultural practice of resisting the intruders assisted them against German
imposition.
THE COURSE OF THE WAR

 The Maji maji rising started in July 1905 when the Pogoro of Kitope disagreed to pick
cotton
 The plantations, missions, administrative bomas and Swahili shops were all captured and
besieged.
 Many German plantation owners, missionaries and government officials were
assassinated.
 The coastal town of Samanga, near Kilwa, was attacked and set on fire.
 In September, the Ngoni entered the battle. They were however easily suppressed when
the Germans pinned down resistance and assassinated the Ngoni resistors in the great
massacre of Ngoni at Uwereka.
 The strength of the uprising was weakened as Chabruma the Ngoni chief was killed.
 The final blow came in 1907 when many died due to the ineffectiveness and false
protection given by the magic water.
 The uprising ended when Kinjikitile Ngwale and Gama, the paramount chief of the
Southern Ngoni, were arrested and butchered.
Results / Impacts of the war

1. Heavy loss of life on the African side – at least 75000 Africans died. The Germans
got reinforcements from Somaliland, New Guinea and the Germans progressively
destroyed the uprising. They were further assisted by the British navy. This war
resulted in the depopulation of Southern Tanganyika.
2. Discredit upon African traditional religions- especially when it was proven that the
Maji did not provide protection from bullets. Faith alone exhibited serious
shortcoming as was evidenced by German fire powder. The Africans learnt the
futility of depending on fake religious beliefs.
3. It provided an experience of united mass action that would be drawn upon by later
political leaders. The nationalistic movement that was inspired by the Maji Maji
survived upto the period of the 20th century, when Africans struggled for their
independence. It was the nationalistic spirit implanted by the Maji Maji that aided

the nationalistic movement. Ultimately, Tanganyika attained independence under
the leadership of Julius K. Nyerere.
4. Many Africans changed methods of dealing with Germans-instead of resisting
many started acquiring European skills using them to better their positions in their
own societies.
5. The German government was forced to rethink its colonial policies. Bernard
Dernburg(Colonial Minister in 1906) undertook important changes in the colonial
administration, for example, eradicating abuses such as excessive corporal
punishment and forced labour and this made colonialism more acceptable to
Africans. Albrecht Von Rechenburg the governor aimed at preventing events like
the Maji-Maji from occurring again through reforms and economic incentives for
example, markets for cash crops, he encourage African agriculture. Africans were
also given an option to participate in cash crop production or not.
6. Killing of religious priest for example Kinjikitile. Kinjikitile and his assistant were
hanged on the 4th of August 1905.
7. The end of the war had mixed fortunes for the East Africans- colonialism was
imposed, taxation, forced labour, the command cotton program was abandoned,
African education was promoted.
8. There was the spread of large scale famine and starvation due to the scorched earth
policy that was employed by the Germans to suppress the uprising. Villages, homes
and farms were completely destroyed. As a result there was large scale migration.
The survivors affected by famine after the war deserted the areas and found their
new settlement at the coastal areas.
9. The Maji –Maji eventhough unsuccessful unified so many people from different
ethnic groups. Earlier resistance had been tribal in organization and method but the
Maji Maji embraced many tribes. Therefore, its major success might be that it
marked an important stage which further inspired the Africans to fight colonialism
later.
Causes of the defeat

1. The Germans suppressed the uprising by eradicating their base and eradicating what
supported the fighters. This was accomplished through a scorched earth policy in which
they destroyed their villages and farms, thus starving the resistors.
2. The Germans had superior automatic weapons such as machine guns. The Matumbi had
only 8 000 guns which were obsolete. They were armed with bows, arrows, and spears
that were unequalled with the weapons of the Germans.
3. Lack of modern militarytechniques: the Maji Maji soldiers were only unified by religious
sentiment while they were poorly organized without modern military strategy and
technique. Apart from superior weapons the Germans had too much military strategies.

4. Poor military communication: There was poor communication between different tribes
that were engaged actively in the battle. Each tribe fought in isolation. Their leaders too
differed in grievances and motives.
5. The Maji Maji did not spread to larger areas thus was unable to incorporate larger
powerful communities like the Hehe and Nyamwezi.
6. The Germans made an alliance with some African chiefs against the resistors, for
example, some of the Hehe joined the Germans because their traditional rivals the Ngoni,
Pogoro and Sagara were resisting Germans. Similarly Chief Kiwanga of Mahange,
collaborated with the Germans in 1905 as a token for their assistance to smash Mkwawa
in the 1890s.
Similarities with the First Chimurenga
[Nature of the rising]
 It covered a large area –most of South East Tanganyika, South of the line from Kilosa to
Dar-es- Salaam.
 The wars were mass revolts involving all the people including women and children.
 It united many separate ethnic communities in a single movement.
 In both “risings” the Europeans used the scorched earth policy inorder to suppress the
rising. In Tanzania Von Gotzen instructed his troops to move through the country
destroying crops, removing and burning any grain already harvested and destroying
villages in the same way the British destroyed Shona and Ndebele villages.
 It was dominated by charismatic and revolutionary religious prophets rather than
hereditary and conservative traditional political leaders. In Tanzania the people were
united by the Kolelo snake god cult, a spirit possession and witchcraft eradication cult
that passed rapidly over clan and ethnic boundaries. Like Mwari the Kolelo cult involved
priest interpreters of an oracle.
NB: Kolelo cult transformed from a purely religious to a political movement mostly because
of the nature of Germany colonization in Tanganyika.
PAST EXAMINATION QUESTION
1) With reference to the Ndebele – Shona Rising and the Maji Maji Rising identify the main
features of post pacification primary resistance movements. Compare and contrast the
results of the two risings, both for Africans and the colonial powers. (NOV 2000
CAMB)
2) Analyse the main features of post pacification primary resistance with reference to the
Ndebele – Shona rising and the Maji Maji rising. Compare and contrast the results of
these two risings. (NOV 2003 CAMB).

3) What were the similarities and differences between (a) the causes and (b) the results of
the Hehe and Maji Maji Risings in German East Africa (JUNE 2004 CAMB).
4) Compare and contrast the Ndebele – Shona Rising (1896-1897) and the Maji Maji Rising
(1905-1907) with reference to their causes and results. (NOV 2007 CAMB).
5) Explain why the people of Tanganyika rose against the Germans in 1905. What effects
did this have on the people of Tanganyika? (NOV 2008 ZIMSEC).
6) Analyse the main features of post pacification primary resistance with reference to the
Ndebele Shona risings and the Maji Maji Rising. Compare and contrast the results of
these two risings. (NOV 2010 ZIMSEC).
7) Analyse the causes of the Maji Maji Rising (1905-07). What changes in German colonial
policy followed? (NOV 2010 CAMB).
8) Compare and contrast any two examples of opposition to colonial rule in East and
Central Africa between 1885 and 1914. (NOV 2013 CAMB)
9) Analyse the causes and nature of the Shona and Ndebele Uprisings of 1896- 1897. (NOV
2013 ZIMSEC)

COLLABORATION
This was a process whereby the African leaders would cordially receive or invite the Europeans,
whites, assimilated their ways of life, and acted as hand in gloves for the establishment of
colonial rule. Collaboration can be divided into: (a) Adaptation / Career Collaborators (b)
Mercenary method (c) Non- confrontation.
a) Adaptation / Career Collaborators
These collaborators entered into agreement with foreigners inorder to receive trading profit and
persued the opportunity of being promoted and nominated to serve in the colonial government.
They earned many rewards as a token of assisting Europeans establish colonial rule. Examples
include Lewanika of the Lozi.
b) Mercenary Method
These leadersthought that by entering and making treaty of friendship with the foreigners, the
intruders could assist them suppress their traditional foes. Examples include Chief Maleale of
Malangu on Mt Kilimanjaro made an alliance with the Germans because they would assist him
against the intimidation posed by his traditional foe Mkwawa, Chief of the Hehe.
c) Non –Confrontation
It was actualized by centralized societies including the Bemba, Lunda and Lozi. They did not
oppose the invaders, for they were unprepared for confrontation. In exchange the Chiefs received
a portion of taxation, for example, Lewanika took ten percent of the collected tax in Lozi during
British rule.
LEWANIKA OF THE LOZI
Lewanika`s full name was Litunga Lewanika and he was King of the Lozi of Barotseland. The
kingdom was located in presentday Western Zambia.
 Lewanika`s position was different from Lobengula`s because of a number of reasons.

There are also a number of similarities between the two.
 Lewanika just like Lobengula faced threats from all over. Lewanika faced threats from
the Boers, Portuguese, British as well as from Ndebele raiders.
 Lewanika wanted to preserve his position by alliances with Europeans.
 He established good relations with European missionaries for instance Coillard, who
advised him. He also used European presence to educate his people.
 Lewanika`s situation was different from Lobengula`s. There was no gold in Barotseland
as in the anticipated Second Rand in his territory.
 He was aware of European strength as he was well informed by his people working in the
Kimberly mines.

 Unlike Lobengula, Lewanika did not wait like a fly waiting to be caught by a chameleon.
Instead of Europeans coming to seek concessions, he made the initiative.
 He was clever to learn from Khama of Tswanaland who had secured protection from the
British in 1883. Besides, Lewanika made use of his advisor Coillard to write a letter to
the British asking for rights of Barotseland in its entirerity to the British.
 Lewanika thought that he was dealing with the Queen`s represantatives. He thought he
was getting protection from foreign attacks.
THE LOCHNER TREATY
Theconcession was signed between Lewanika and the BSAC representative F.E Lochner on 27
June 1890. Lochner was accompanied by Khama`s regular messenger Makaatsa to Lewanika and
was fully supported by Coillard was a close missionary to Lewanika. Makaatsa was later bribed
by Lochner.
Agreements
Lewanika was promised protection from foreign attacks. He feared the Ndebele raids the most.
1. Lewanika was also promised £2000 per year and according to A.J Wills, “a royalty on
mineral exported under the concession” was also to be given to Lewanika.
2. Technical schools were to be built for the development of Lewanika`s country.
3. The company also pledged NOT to “interfere in any matter concerning the Kings power
and authority over any of his subjects” (Madzingira :2010:153).
4. There was also to be an escorted British resident to reside permanently at the King`s
court.
In return the King granted:
1. No administrative rights.
2. “The sole, absolute, exclusive and perpertual right and power” to search for, dig and win
and keep any and all minerals in Barotseland (Madzingira:2010: 153).
 No permission whatsoever was sought from a number of other independent chiefs

of the Lunda, Ila, Tonga or Toka.
NB: The significance of the Lochner concession was that the Lozi had taken an independent
initiative to open a window on the modern world with results which affected the history of
Central Africa.
THE AFTERMATH OF THE CONCESSION
When Lewanika reralized that he had been cheated and was dealing only with a private company
and not the British government he became “crazy with anger” (Madzingira :2010:152).

 He initially repudiated the concession but later acknowledged it when facing threats from
the Portuguese.
 In October 1897 Lewanika got what he wanted as Robert Corydon arrived as the British
resident. He however came without the £14 000 which the company now owed the King
according to the terms of the Lochner Treaty.
 By 1900, the British were in control of Barotseland even though Lewanika maintained his
sovereignity as he was the permanent Chief of Barotseland.
 Eventually, Lewanika`s politics of survival finally failed as the British established
indirect rule and gradually Lewanika was powerless.
BENEFITS OF COLLABORATION
Lewanika wanted his to learn the white man`s superior skills.
 He wanted his people to be better equipped to deal with the increased number of
Europeans who were bound to appear.
 In March 1887, the first Paris Missionary Society at Sefula was inaugurated.
 Lewanika`s children and nephews learnt at the private school.
As a result of collaboration Lewanika or Lozi or Barotseland benefited a lot because:
1. Technicals schools were established.

2. Postal services were developed.
3. Lewanika established good relations with the British.
4. Trade
5. He was able to retain his power (although it was short lived).
6. He got the protection from the British
7. Peaceful existence with the Europeans—Diplomatic relations with the British
were established.
WHY DID THE AFRICANS COLLABORATE?
Africans collaborated because of reasons ranging from disunity, insecurity, poor organization,
religious influences and archaic weapons.
1. Some of the societies allied with the foreigners because they were incapable to hold out
against the invaders and they saw that it was fruitless to fight, as they were weak
militarily. King Glele of Dahomey is quoted as saying, “He who makes the gunpowder
must win the war”. This compelled him to befriend them.
2. Some African leaders sought an alliance with the Europeans as they considered that it
was one of the means of avoiding confrontation and keeping off their rival neighbours,

for example the Yao of Southern Tanzania sought friendship with the Germans against
Chief Mkwawa of the Hehe and the Fante made friendship with the British because of the
hostile attitude of Asante.
3. Others collaborated as they hoped to gain from the Europeans or even acquire arms from
them.
4. Some collaborated because they desired to have the atmosphere of peace and promote
human development, for they had been subjectd to constant warfare that disrupted the
harmony and evolution of economic sectors like trade in their societies. They hoped that
by collaborating with the whites, they might have superior armies through military
assistance and suppress their enemies for example the Fante were constantly tortured by
the Asante.
5. Some collaborated with foreigners for they were of the idea that this would provide
them with favoured opportunities in colonial governments. For example, the Creoles of
Sierra Leone invited British colonial rule because they hoped that the British might give
them unlimited opportunities in the field of trade, evengelisation and provide them top
posts in the new government.
6. Some African societies had been devoured by internal squabble pertaining to successions,
hence, Africans associated with Europeans inorder to defend themselves against their
rivals for political domination.
7. Individuals made friendship with the invaders because they were opportunistic self-
seekers hoping to acquire wealth, prestige, rewards and loot.
8. Most rulers of Africa collaborated because they were ignorant of the Europeans`
intention. They were lured into a false sence of security by presents and bribes and were
sometimes persuaded ti sign treaties beyond their understanding. The European
presentation and language led them to believe that the Europeans were genuine friends
and offered them the alliance for which they longed. Examples include Lobengula of the
Ndebele, Jaja of Opobo and Samouri Toure of the Mandinka. These people collaborated
with the Europeans, but the moment they realized European intentions, they took up arms
and went to war but it was too late.
9. Missionary enterprises in Africa led to African collaboration with the Europeans. Some
European missionaries persuaded the people that resistance mearnt backwardness. The
missionaries feared that the resistors` souls were at stake. Before colonialism very few
missionaries were successful in Africa such that the missionaries advocated for
colonialism inorder topave way for missionary work. Christian converts aided the
Europeans in signing treaties in which Africans ceded their territories and independence.
These Africans often became the first benefiaries of colonialism.

1. Explain the response of two of the following to the encroachment of Europeans on their
territory: Mkwawa of the Hehe; Mwanga, Kabaka of Buganda; Lobengula, King of the
Ndebele; Lewanika, King of the Lozi. ( NOV 2002 CAMB).
2. Why, and with what results, did Lobengula resist the British but Lewanika seek their
protection?(NOV 2004 CAMB).
3. “Africans who resisted Europeans, lost; those who collaborated, gained”. Examine the
truth of this assertion with reference to events in East and Central Africa. (NOV 2005
CAMB)
4.

THEORIES OF COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION / RULE
There were four different policies initiated by European governments in the governance of their
colonial possessions in Africa. These were:
1. Assimilation
2. Association or Partnership or Paternalism
3. Indirect rule
4. Direct rule
Assimilation
The word assimilation means absorbing. Tidy (1986: 114) defines assimilation as ‘’the
absorption of the African to a European culture and European acceptance of the African as a
partner in government, business and missionary enterprise.’’It It embraced the idea of developing
Africans as imitations of Europeans. It was inspired by the noble ideas of the French revolution;
the egalitarian principles of the revolution, that is, liberty, equality and fraternity. The system
was in use prior to the spread of social Darwinism and was specifically practiced in Senegal and
Algeria.
The policy was not spread into the hinterland and lasted only until the racial superiority theories
of the late 19th century began to undermine relations between the French and the Africans.
Assimilation worked on four different levels in French colonies:
(a) Administrative Assimilation

This was a policy where there was no distinction administratively between the metropolis
and the colonies, that is France and its colonies. This meant that the people of the
communes were to be treated as if they lived in France, just in distant departments and
each of the communes was run exactly as if they were in France with elected
municipalities, mayors and so on.
(b) Political Assimilation
This gave the people of the communes the right to have a representative sit in national
assembly in France although until 1914, this representative was normally elected from
the white Frenchmen who lived in the communes.
(c) Economic Assimilation
Was whereby economies of the colonies were be integrated into economies of the
metropolis. This economic intergration had long lasting effects.
(d) Personal Assimilation
Was whereby French citizenship was conferred on the people living in the Communes of
Senegal. It was the Frenchification of Africans. According to Okoth (1996:211) personal
assimilation was “part of the French` civilizing mission`”. The African people who lived
in the four communes of Dakar,St Louis, Govee, Rufisquewere given theopportunity to

speak French , live under French law and receive French political and civil rights.
Children born in thecommunes were treated as if they had been born in France,
automatically becoming French citizens. Beyond the communes, if one wanted to be
awarded a French citizenship, there were certain criteria which had to be met such as
(1)French literacy (2) being able to show proof of ones loyalty to France and (3) having
served in the French civil service for a certain number of years. In about 100 years.Only
about 80 000 people from the four communes became French citizens while about 2 000
from beyond the communes did as well. The policy of assimilation was re-thought and
was later abandoned because of a number of reasons. Assimilation faced a number of
problems and was abandoned for association.
Reasons why Assimilation was abandoned / Why Assimilation failed.
(1) According to Mwijage (2008:190) “the policy was resisted at its grassroots in France.
French scholars and politicians expressed their views that it was unwise and unrealistic
for Africans to be transformed into Frenchmen. They forwaded the notion that Africans
are a distinct people and far away from Europe, with their own culture and traditions that
needed to be esteemed and preserved”.
(2) Politically speaking, the existence of the Assimilated colonies and their representation
began to develop into a thorny issue. The assimilated people were often too ‘’vocal in
their criticism‘’(Okoth: 1988:21) of French policies and this became embarrassing.
Therefore, “The policy was denounced by the French as devoid of vision, for it was ---
digging its own grave. The French opposed it for Assimilation might poison colonial
acquisition since it would eventually expropriate France of its sources of labour and raw
materials” (Mwijage:2008:190). If handled on equal basis the African representatives
were likely to influence whites in decision and policy making.
(3) Assimilation was largely uneconomic. According the African the same treatment as the
European was “considered uneconomical squandering of French funds that was likely to
overburden taxpayers in France”. The policy of Indirect rule was considered inexpensive
and could facilitate colonial exploitation.
(4) As French trade began to expand, it became evident that in some instances assimilating
the people with whom trade was being carried out disrupted the way of life of the people
and the efficiency of the trading system. There was also the fear that the assimilated
traders would outmanoeuvre the French traders undermining their profits. It also became
clear that if the colonized people were to be truly assimilated, part of the metropolitan
budget would have to be spent on affording these people the same education, culture and
social benefits accorded to the people who lived in France.
(5) As the French continued in their quest to conquer new lands and people, they came across
states which were completely different in their religions, moral and cultural beliefs to the
French, that it became clear that there was very little chance of assimilating these people.
These culture differences were a stumbling block for the French-some African kingdoms

had a culture fabric that was impossible to untie thus assimilation never infiltrated into
these area.
(6) The growth of social Darwinism and other theories which advocated the superiority of
white people over blacks began to take hold of much of Europe. Thus the idea of
assimilation began to be questioned. If the policy was to be practiced in all French
colonies, the truth would be that there would be more black French people living in
Africa than there would be white French people living in France. An idea which was not
welcome from a nationalist perspective.
(7) Religious differences
West Africans were mostly Muslims and not Christians. This difference in it religion
made difficult for the French to assimilate Africans.
(8) Culture problem
The French were concerned with the cultural difference between French and the colonies.
There were languages differences that were a stumbling block to any meaningful
application of the assimilation policy e.g., French and the colonies operated under
different legal system in matter of marriage, inheritance and land cases and forceful
implanting of the French system in Africa where they were neither understood nor
accepted became a burden. This culture disparity was enormous and may French men
began wondering whether it was realistic or worthwhile trying to assimilate Africans.
(9) Natural Problems
For Africans to enjoy the same privileges as the French, needed to open up the interior
through constructing roads, railways etc. this policy of ‘’ opening up’’ the country was
indeed appropriate to start the Frenchification of Africans. The system was intended to
link the river Niger with important ports or common areas such as Dakar, Conakry,
Abidjanand Cotonou.Thisplan led to a number of problems especially tropical disease to
the extent that the French were reluctant to undertake the projects.
N.B So was the French who began to abandon the theory of assimilation and began to
adopt association more.
British Assimilation
Britainpracticed assimilation in West Africa around Freetown, LagosBathurst,Fante areas of the

Gold coast. Here Africans were given given the status of being British subjects and lived under
British legal, educational, political and religious system. The people who were the products of
this system were Englishmen who could hold office ‘’at all level in the judiciary, the school
system and the civil service up to and including the position of acting Governor’’ (Webster:
1896: 212). The situation changed because of the spread of racist theories between 1880 and
1900. Assimilation was abandoned and the policy indirect rule was adopted with serious
consequences for the so called ‘’Black Englishmen’’ e.g. .in 1892, Sierra Leone’s civil was 50%
Creole and by 1917 was only 10% Creole.

Portuguese Assimilation
In theory the Portuguese followed the policy of assimilation from the beginning but it was never
really implemented with much verve. The greatest stumbling block to true assimilation was the
fact that the Portuguese were so involved with slave trade & therefore could not really develop
colonies, assimilate and then condemn the people to slavery. It was also extremely difficult to
achieve the requisite level of education and culture knowledge in order to be assimilated as the
Portuguese did not invest much in the field of education in their colonies. Ultimately, a handful
of Africans were awarded assimilado status.
Association / Paternalism
According to Mwijage (2008:180) association “was adopted when the French colonial authorities
realized that assimilation was not only not practical but also unacceptable in many parts of their
territory. It was a sort of partenalism where the French took direct control of their spheres of
influence outside Senegal”. Association was adopted by the French after the failure of
Assimilation. For its advantages you turn to the disadvantages of Assimilation as discussed
above.
Indirect Rule (British Policy)
It means using a form of government that was already in existence in the African Societies. It
meant ruling through chiefs and tradition institutions. Therefore, it was a marriage of
convenience between the European colonisers and traditional African rules. Indirect rule
supposed that African society was static. It aimed at preserving African culture and traditional
institutions. It was a cheap way of administering a colony. Britain had a few administrators and
therefore decided to train African Chiefs.
General Application
Indirect rule was applied at local government level but did not apply to central government. The
system revolved on the African chiefs who formed the basis of the African government. The
chief appointed all who were responsible to him. The chief was responsible to the British
resident who remained in the background (so the chief was more of a stooge). The Chief and his
officials presided over the law courts which applied the African law. Chiefs’ agents levied taxes
part of which were sent to the central government and the remainder was used at local level to
build roads, markets, cemetery facilities, schools and even salaries for local authorities
(officials). British officials oversaw the collection of taxes and operation of courts through
chiefs. Indirect Rule worked successfully in areas where chief’s authority was acceptable to the
people. Indirect Rule was successful in Nigeria where Lugard successfully implemented it.
Orders from the British officials were to appear as emanating not from them but the chiefs who
had no option but to obey all orders given to them. Thus, some historians for

exampleAssaOkoth argued that Indirect Rule was more of a myth than a reality since the chief
did not make independent decisions but simply acted as a medium of British administration.
Why the British favoured Indirect Rule
(1) It was cheap or not expensive as compared to direct rule. Indigenous rulers did not have
to be paid high salaries. Administrative expenses were low especially considering that in
most of the areas traditional African administrative structures were well set up, for
example, the Caliphate in Nigeria. Its success in Nigeria was largely because ‘’ of the
pre-existing authority of the emirs was respectable, legitimate institution through whom
the British could work while keeping in the background.’’ (Tidy:2001: )
(2) Lord Lugard and his disciples believed that Indirect rule was the best way of preparing
the way for eventual Africans self –governance. To Lurgard, Indirect rule was a way of
tutoring/mentoring Africans to self- rule. This point brings out the white superiority
complex. They wanted to develop Africans economically, socially, and politically
Lurgard once wrote that the attitude of the resident is that of a watchful advisor rather
than an interfering agent.
(3) The British in particular had very little knowledge about land, people and culture.
Lurgard himself confessed that the people did not know the culture of West Africa. It was
rather convenient to use the local people. Lurgardrealised that it would be impossible for
him to rule the conquered people without making use of their own rulers in whom they
had faith. He therefore appointed new emirs to the thrones left vacant as a result of the
Caliphate wars of 1903 which had led to the death of some of the emirs and the removal
or banning of others who had refused to cooperate with the British.
(4) Indirect Rule gave the appearance of minimum interference in African affairs. This was
partly because the British lacked manpower to staff all the colonies. There was less
interference or disruption of the social order as very few whites were involved in the
exercise. The British government had 42 officials for the whole protectorate. The number
included doctors and non-administrative officers, but of the approved only 31 had been
sent to Nigeria.
(5) Some historians argue that the British adopted indirect rule because of the nature of the
treaties they signed.
(6) The scarcity of British officials (refer to 4)
Weaknesses of Indirect Rule
(1) Indirect rule encourage stagnation and discouraged progressand reform. European rulers,
for example,. Lurgard had little faith in African ability to reform and develop without
European help. Lurgard in particular disliked Western educated Africans. Africans
whether educated or not were the subordinates. Therefore,indirect rule was weak as it
alienated the educated African elite who were given no role in it.

(2) Indirect rule was unsuitable as a foundation for future self-government. Conservative
elements in traditional government were removed and in Northern Nigeria it was a barrier
to modernisation. Traditional rulers were puppets of the British government thus Bishop
Tugwell of Nigeria referred to it as ‘’Direct Rule by Indirect means.’’
(3) Could only be effectively applied to centralized communities for, example, Fulani- Hausa,
Ngwato, Lozi etc. It was less applicable to decentralised communities such as Igbo, Tiv in
Eastern Nigeria and most Kenya communities. In some cases the British used (semi-
imperialists / sub-imperialists) warrant chiefs to govern on their behalf. The British
successfully used the Lozi to rule their neighbours on behalf on the central government. It
however led to serious protests and unrest in areas where there were no traditional chiefs
and the British authorities appointed warrant chiefs to act as substitutes.
(4) It permitted no, place for the western educated Africans, whose numbers increased
steadily with the spread of missionary education. The western educated Africans looked
upon Lugard as the symbol of the worst-aspects of British imperialism.
Indirect Rule in Northern Nigeria-Sokoto Caliphate (British success)
It was a success for the British in the sense that they were able to maintain law, peace and
order. Political organisation of the caliphate suited well with the British policies. The society
was the divided into emirs who collected taxes. After conquering Nigeria, Lugard confirmed
all the co-operative emirs and used them as local government. They were allowed to govern in
their own way. Under colonial rule, very few emirs were disposed than before the colonial
rule. British support could keep any unpopular emir in power. The British allowed the
traditional rulers to practice corruption and injustice. The colonisers did not interfere in
religion as Islam remained important and popular.
Indirect Rule in Yoruba land
Lugard’s belief that indirect rule would be implemented anywhere proved false. In Yorubaland
the people had a centralized government headed by the Oyo. Lugard thought that he had found a
system of government similar to that in Sokoto. The British attempted to make Oyo the chief for
central authority but the Yoruba refused. The refusal of the Yoruba to accept the Oyo as their
chief was the main cause of the Oyo-Yoruba wars in the 19th century. In the 1890s the British
had recognized Ibadan as one of the most important or powerful states in Yoruba land and yet
they were trying to make it subordinate to Oyo. The educated elite played a crucial role in
Yoruba land. In Ibadan, the educated were advisers to the chiefs. Thus, this group clashed with
Lugard leading to his eventual failure and ultimately the failure of Indirect Rule in Yorubaland.
Direct Rule
Direct Rule meant rule by direct means. The colonial power was directly involved in the
administration of the states. Chiefs were not recognized. Administrative structures like those in
Europe were set up. There are no examples of direct rule in Tropical Africa. These policies, that

is, Direct and Indirect Rule were often used in conjunction with each other. It required a large
population of European administrators to implement direct rule. However, in white settler
colonies such as, South Africa, South Rhodesia, Kenya and Algeria direct rule was not generally
applied. In some cases, both were ‘’mixed’’. Few Africans who lived in mines or some urban
centres could be said to have been under the direct rule of Europeans. The British favoured
Indirect Rule more than Direct rule largely because it was cheap.
1) ‘’ Convenience and self-interest rather than principle led British to adopt a system of
indirect rule in most of her African colonies’’ How far do you agree.
2) Show how and explain why Indirect Rule took different forms and enjoyed varying
success in different British territories. (NOV 1994 CAMB)
3) How and why did both the British and the French systems of colonial administration in
West Africa change in this period? (NOV 1996 CAMB)
4) When and why did the British adopt the system of Indirect Rule to administer most of
their African colonies? What were the strengths and weaknesses of this system? (NOV
2000 CAMB)
5) When and why did the French replace their policy of “assimilation” by that of
“association”? How did the later differ from the former? (NOV 2001 CAMB)
6) “The British system of Indidrect rule had more advantages than disadvantages as
compared to assimilation in governing Africa”. Discuss.(NOV 2003 ZIMSEC)
7) In French colonial territories, what were the differences between the administrative
systems of ‘assimilation’ and ‘association’? When and why did the French move from
one to the other? (JUNE 2004 CAMB).
8) What was the French policy of Assimilation? Why did they abandon it for Association?
(NOV 2004 ZIMSEC)
9) When, why, and to what extent did the French replace their system of ‘assimilation’ by
that of ‘association’? What were the differences between the two systems? ( NOV 2006
CAMB).
10) Compare andcontrast the British system of Indirect Rule with the French system of
Association. (NOV 2008 ZIMSEC).
11) “In theory, the French policy of Assimilation had a lot in its favour, in practice, it proved
unworkable and it was gradadually abandoned.” How valid is this statement?(NOV 2009
ZIMSEC).
12) When and why did the British adopt the system of Indirect Rule as the favoured system
of administration for their African colonies? What were the strengths and weaknesses of
this system? (NOV 2010 ZIMSEC / NOV 2007 CAMB).
13) Why did Lugard`s system of Indirect Rule work more successfully in Northern Nigeria
than in other regions of that country? (NOV 2010 CAMB).

14) Why did the Frenchadopt a policy of “association” or “paternalism” in their West African
colonies? How similar or different was this policy to Indirect rule? (NOV 2011 CAMB).
15) Assess the contribution made by Indirect rule to development in West Africa. (NOV
2011 ZIMSEC).
16) Explain the French policy of Assimilation. Why did the French abandon the policy of
Assimilation for Association in administering their colonies in West Africa.(NOV 2012
ZIMSEC).
17) How similar and how different were the British policy of Indirect Rule and the French
policy of Association. (JUNE 2013 ZIMSEC).
18) How far do you agree that convenience and self intrest rather than principle explain
Britain`s policy of indirect rule in her African territories? (Nov 2013 CAMB)
19) Compare and contrast the British system of Indirect rule and French system of
Association as practiced in West Africa. (NOV 2013 ZIMSEC)

Transatlantic Slave Trade - Dahomey and Asante

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Transatlantic Slave Trade - Dahomey and Asante

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Transatlantic Slave Trade - Dahomey and Asante

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Author:Mutsawashe Kafesu n Liberty Kafesu

“A” LEVEL HISTORY SCHOOL SYLLABUS

PAPER 4: THE HISTORY OF TROPICAL AFRICA, 1855 – 1914

MAIN TEXT BOOK : MICHEAL TIDY

TOPICS TO BE COVERED WILL BE DISTRIBUTED AS FOLLOWS:

1. THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

5. THE NIGER DELTA STATES

7. THE PARTITION OF AFRICA

8. AFRICAN RESPONSE TO IMPERIALISM

9. AFRICAN COLONIAL RESISTANCE

Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

HISTORY OF TROPICAL AFRICA

ZIMSEC CODE: 9155/4

Ajayi, J.F.A. (eds).History of West Africa.Volume 2. Essex, Longman, 1987.

Curtin, P. (etal).African History from Earliest Times to Independence (Second Edition).

Hopkins, A.G.An Ecomic History of West Africa. Essex, Longman, 1993.

Isichei, Elizabeth.History of West Africa since 1800. London, Macmillan Publishers,1985.

McEwan, P.J.M.Nineteenth Century Africa. Oxford, Oxford University Press,1978.

Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

Tindall, P.E.N.History of Central Africa. London, Longman, 1978.

Rodney, W.How Europe Underdeveloped Africa.Dar es Salam, Tanzania Publishing House,

THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

FACTORS WHICH LED TO THE RISE OF TRANS ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

2) The scientific racist attitudes towards blacks

SLAVERY AND SLAVE TRADE IN WEST AFRICA

Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

TRANSITION TO LEGITIMATE TRADE

 Legitimate-trade in simpler terms was a shift from trading in humans to trading in

Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

Transition to groundnuts in Senegambia

 Changes in the transport sector

 Availability of export substitutes

Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

2. Anti-slavery movements were established e.g. British Anti-Slavery Movementwith

Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

4. Economists for exampleAdamSmith arguedthat slave labour was inherently

5. The slave trade destroyed itself

Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

This is a subject which according to A.GHopkins’ words “has provoked a number of

2 Growth of nation states

Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

-before moving to Zanzibar, he introduced clove plantation to the Island of Pemba.

-the rest of the area had self rule.

-observance of customs and economic rules was his economic policy.

-traders had to pay 50% duty on all goods at all ports.

Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

-he worked towards the development

He sold this loot and made great profit.

He also gained great respect and support for being so audacious

He was able to trade and maintain control using the river.

Mutsawashe Natasha rambamudzodzo

In 1905, Tippu Tip died in Zanzibar.

Were of great influence in the central African region.

The kingdom collapsed after Zwangendava’s death into 5 sections