INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING

(ICT 201)

INTRODUCTION
Computers are an integral part of our lives. Wherever we are—sitting in our
homes, working in the office, teaching in the classroom, receiving lectures
driving on roads, sitting in a movie hall, etc.—our lives are directly or indirectly
affected by the computers. In this era of information, we depended on the storage,
flow and processing of data and information, which can only be possible with the
help of computers. The purpose of this course is to introduce you to the
“computer”.

Nowadays, computers are referred to as universal tools. They are used for the
reservation of tickets for airplanes and railways, payment of telephone and
electricity bills, deposit and withdrawal of money from banks, processing of
business data, forecasting of weather conditions, diagnosis of diseases, searching
for information on the Internet, etc. Computers are also use extensively in schools,
universities, organizations, music industry, movie industry, scientific research,
law firms, fashion industry, etc.

The term computer is derived from the word compute. The word compute means
to calculate. A computer is an electronic machine/device that accepts data from
the user, processes the data (performing calculations and operations), and
generates the desired output results that can be store under the control of a stored
program called software. Computer performs both simple and complex
operations, with speed and accuracy.

Haven defined computer, it’s important to know that computer is made up of two
interdepend unit namely, hardware and software.

COMPUTER HARDWARE
Computer hardware refers to the physical component of a computer system that can
be seen, feel, touched, and most importantly can be controlled by the software
components. The difference between computer hardware and any other physical
materials out there is that computer hardware apart from being physical, can respond
to event, and their functions are predefined, guided and controlled a program.
In this material computer hardware are categorized into the following, in other
materials it might more

i. Input/output unit
ii. System unit
 iii. Peripheral device

i. Input/output unit
This computer hardware unit can be bee separated as two units; input and output in
fact, most materials do that. The term input/output unit device refers to any computer
hardware components that facilitate users interact with the computer system in form
of input data operated and processed by the processing unit as per the program and
sent to the output unit for further action. An input device sends information to a
computer system for processing, and an output device reproduces or displays the
results of that processing. Input devices only allow for input of data to a computer
and output devices only receive the output of data from another device. Both
input/output device can be attached to the system internally or externally depend on
the type of computer system. The following table categorically lists down the input
and output device –

Input Device Output Device Input Device Output Device

Mouse Monitor Microphone Speaker

Keyboard Printer Camera Earphone

Scanner Projector Trackball Monitor

Touchpad Plotter Joystick Monitor

ii. System unit

The system or cabinet unit can be described as the black boss or chassis that
enclosed most of the other hardware units of a computer system such as central
processing unit (CPU), memory unit, communication unit, storage unit and power
supply unit (PSU).

iii. Peripheral devices

These are devices that can be attached to a computer system in order to enhance their
functionality. This includes Flash drive, printer, scanner, camera etc.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
A computer system consists of hardware and software. The computer hardware
cannot perform any task on its own. It needs to be instructed about the tasks to be
performed. Computer software or simply software is a program that enables a
computer to perform a specific task, as opposed to the physical components of the
system (hardware).
Software is a set of logical instructions that instructs the computer about the tasks to
be performed. Software tells the computer how the tasks are to be performed;
hardware carries out these tasks. Different sets of software can be loaded on the
same hardware to perform different kinds of tasks. For example, a user can use the
same computer hardware for writing a report or for running a payroll program. The
components like monitor, keyboard, processor, and mouse, constitute the hardware.
We will discuss the different categories of computer software.
There are two types of software:
 System Software
 Application Software

System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and
extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is
generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software products
comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the
hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between the
hardware and the end users. Some examples of system software are Operating
System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular
environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under
the category of Application software. Application software may consist of a single
program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing a simple text. It may
also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work
together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are the following:
 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
A brief overview of these characteristics are:
Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of
instructions per second. Some calculations that would have taken hours and days
to complete otherwise, can be completed in a few seconds using the computer.
For example, calculation and generation of salary slips of thousands of
employees of an organization, weather forecasting that requires analysis of a large
amount of data related to temperature, pressure and humidity of various places,
etc.
Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the
computer can accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10
decimal places.
Diligence: When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired
or fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed
and accuracy from the start till the end.
Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the
computer and also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be
Versatility Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks
with the same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter
document and in the next moment you may play music or print a document.
Computers have several limitations too. Computer can only perform tasks that it
has been programmed to do. Computer cannot do any work without instructions
from the user. It executes instructions as specified by the user and does not take its
own decisions.

HISTORY OF COMPUTER
Until the development of the first-generation computers based on vacuum tubes,
there had been several developments in the computing technology related to the
mechanical computing devices. The key developments that took place till the first
computer was developed are as follows
Calculating Machines ABACUS was the first mechanical calculating device for
counting of large numbers. The word ABACUS means calculating board. It
consists of bars in horizontal positions on which sets of beads are inserted. The
horizontal bars have10 beads each, representing units, tens, hundreds, etc. An
abacus is shown in

Abacus
 Pascal’s Adding and Subtraction Machine was developed by Blaise Pascal. It
could add and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.
Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine was a mechanical device that
could both multiply and divide. The German philosopher and mathematician
Gottfried Leibniz built it around 1673.
Punch Card System was developed by Jacquard to control the power loom in
1801. He invented the punched card reader that could recognize the presence of
hole in the punched card as binary one and the absence of the hole as binary
zero. The 0s and 1s are the basis of the modern digital computer. A punched
card is shown below

Punched card

Babbage’s Analytical Engine An English man Charles Babbage built a

mechanical machine to do complex mathematical calculations, in the year
1823. The machine was called as difference engine. Later, Charles Babbage
and Lady Ada Lovelace developed a general-purpose calculating machine, the
analytical engine. Charles Babbage is also called the father of computer.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
The computer has evolved from a large—sized simple calculating machine to a
smaller but much more powerful machine. The evolution of computer to the
current state is defined in terms of the generations of computer. Each generation of
computer is designed based on a new technological development, resulting in
better, cheaper and smaller computers that are more powerful, faster and efficient
than their predecessors. Currently, there are five generations of computer. In the
following subsections, we will discuss the generations of computer in terms of—
1. the technology used by them (hardware and software),
2. computing characteristics (speed, i.e., number of instructions executed per
second),
3. physical appearance, and
4. their applications.
First Generation (1940 to 1956): Using Vacuum Tubes
 Hardware Technology The first generation of computers used vacuum
tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. The input to the
computer was through punched cards and paper tapes. The output was
displayed as printouts.

Vacuum tube
 Software Technology The instructions were written in machine
language. Machine language uses 0s and 1s for coding of the
instructions. The first-generation computers could solve one problem at
a time.
 Computing Characteristics The computation time was in milliseconds.
 Physical Appearance These computers were enormous in size and required a
large room for installation.
 Application They were used for scientific applications as they were the
fastest computing device of their time.
 Examples UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC), and Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer (EDVAC).
The first-generation computers used a large number of vacuum tubes and thus
generated a lot of heat. They consumed a great deal of electricity and were
expensive to operate. The machines were prone to frequent malfunctioning and
required constant maintenance. Since first generation computers used machine
language, they were difficult to program.
Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Using Transistors
 Hardware Technology Transistors (Figure 1.5) replaced the vacuum tubes
of the first generation of computers. Transistors allowed computers to
 become smaller, faster, cheaper, energy efficient and reliable. The second
generation computers used magnetic core technology for primary memory.
They used magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for secondary storage. The
input was still through punched cards and the output using printouts. They
used the concept of a stored program, where instructions were stored in
the memory of computer.

Transistors
 Software Technology The instructions were written using the assembly
language.
Assembly language uses mnemonics like ADD for addition and SUB for
subtraction for coding of the instructions. It is easier to write instructions in
assembly language, as compared to writing instructions in machine
language. High-level programming languages, such as early versions of
COBOL and FORTRAN were also developed during this period.
 Computing Characteristics The computation time was in microseconds.
 Physical Appearance Transistors are smaller in size compared to vacuum
tubes, thus, the size of the computer was also reduced.
 Application The cost of commercial production of these computers
was very high, though less than the first generation computers. The
transistors had to be assembled
manually in second generation computers.
 Examples PDP-8, IBM 1401 and CDC 1604.

Second generation computers generated a lot of heat but much less than the
first-generation computers. They required less maintenance than the first-
generation computers.
Third Generation (1964 to 1971): Using Integrated Circuits
 Hardware Technology The third-generation computers used the Integrated
Circuit (IC) chips. shows IC chips. In an IC chip, multiple transistors are
placed on a silicon chip. Silicon is a type of semiconductor. The use of IC
chip increased the speed and the efficiency of computer, manifold. The
keyboard and monitor were used to interact with the third-generation
computer, instead of the punched card and printouts.

IC chips
 Software Technology The keyboard and the monitor were interfaced
through the operating system. Operating system allowed different
applications to run at the same time. High-level languages were used
extensively for programming, instead of machine language and assembly
language.
 Computing Characteristics The computation time was in nanoseconds.
 Physical Appearance The size of these computers was quite small
compared to the second-generation computers.
 Application Computers became accessible to mass audience. Computers
were produced commercially, and were smaller and cheaper than their
predecessors.
 Examples IBM 370, PDP 11.
The third-generation computers used less power and generated less heat than the
second-generation computers. The cost of the computer reduced significantly, as
individual components of the computer were not required to be assembled
manually. The maintenance cost of the computers was also less compared to their
predecessors.

Fourth Generation (1971 to present): Using Microprocessors

 Hardware Technology They use the Large-Scale Integration (LSI) and the
Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) technology. Thousands of transistors
are integrated on a small silicon chip using LSI technology. VLSI allows
 hundreds of thousands of components to be integrated in a small chip. This
era is marked by the development of microprocessor. Microprocessor is a
chip containing millions of transistors and components, and, designed using
LSI and VLSI technology. A microprocessor chip is shown in this
generation of computers gave rise to Personal Computer (PC).
Semiconductor memory replaced the earlier magnetic core memory,
resulting in fast random access to memory. Secondary storage device like
magnetic disks became smaller in physical size and larger in capacity. The
linking of computers is another key development of this era. The computers
were linked to form networks that led to the emergence of the Internet. This
generation also saw the development of pointing devices like mouse, and
handheld devices.

Microprocessors
 Software Technology Several new operating systems like the MS-DOS and
MS- Windows developed during this time. This generation of computers
supported Graphical User Interface (GUI). GUI is a user-friendly interface
that allows user to interact with the computer via menus and icons. High-
level programming languages are used for the writing of programs.
 Computing Characteristics The computation time is in picoseconds.
 Physical Appearance They are smaller than the computers of the previous
generation. Some can even fit into the palm of the hand.
 Application They became widely available for commercial purposes.
Personal computers became available to the home user.
 Examples The Intel 4004 chip was the first microprocessor. The components
of the computer like Central Processing Unit (CPU) and memory were located
on a single chip. In 1981, IBM introduced the first computer for home use. In
1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh.
The microprocessor has resulted in the fourth-generation computers being
smaller and cheaper than their predecessors. The fourth-generation computers
are also portable and more reliable. They generate much lesser heat and require
less maintenance compared to their predecessors. GUI and pointing devices
facilitate easy use and learning on the computer. Networking has resulted in
resource sharing and communication among different computers.

Fifth Generation (Present and Next): Using Artificial Intelligence

The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop computers that are capable
of learning and self-organization. The fifth-generation computers use Super Large
Scale Integrated (SLSI) chips that are able to store millions of components on a
single chip. These computers have large memory requirements.

This generation of computers uses parallel processing that allows several

instructions to be executed in parallel, instead of serial execution. Parallel
processing results in faster processing speed. The Intel dual core microprocessor
uses parallel processing.

The fifth-generation computers are based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). They try to
simulate the human way of thinking and reasoning. Artificial Intelligence includes
areas like Expert System (ES), Natural Language Processing (NLP), speech
recognition, voice recognition, robotics, etc.
THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the processor is also often called the brain of
computer. CPU consists of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and
a set of registers which are temporary storage areas for holding data, and
instructions. ALU performs the arithmetic and logic operations on the data that is
made available to it. CU is responsible for organizing the processing of data and
instructions. CU controls and coordinates the activity of the other units of
computer. CPU uses the registers to store the data, instructions during
processing.

CPU executes the stored program instructions, i.e. instructions and data are stored
in memory before execution. For processing, CPU gets data and instructions from
the memory. It interprets the program instructions and performs the arithmetic and
logic operations required for the processing of data. Then, it sends the processed
data or result to the memory. CPU also acts as an administrator and is responsible
for supervising operations of other parts of the computer.
The CPU is fabricated as a single Integrated Circuit (IC) chip, and is also
known as the microprocessor. The microprocessor is plugged into the
motherboard of the computer (Motherboard is a circuit board that has
electronic circuit etched on it and connects the microprocessor with the
other hardware components).

CPU

Arithmetic Logic Unit

 ALU consists of two units—arithmetic unit and logic unit.
 The arithmetic unit performs arithmetic operations on the data that is
made available to it. Some of the arithmetic operations supported by the
arithmetic unit are—addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
 ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations, and uses registers to
hold the data that is being processed.
 The logic unit of ALU is responsible for performing logic operations.
Logic unit performs comparisons of numbers, letters and special
characters. Logic operations include testing for greater than, less than or
equal to condition.
Registers
 Registers are high-speed storage areas within the CPU, but have the
least storage capacity. Registers are not referenced by their address,
but are directly accessed and manipulated by the CPU during
instruction execution.
 Registers store data, instructions, addresses and intermediate results of
processing.
Registers are often referred to as the CPU’s working memory.
 The data and instructions that require processing must be brought in the
registers of CPU before they can be processed. For example, if two numbers
are to be added, both numbers are brought in the registers, added and the
result is also placed in a register.
 Registers are used for different purposes, with each register serving a specific
purpose. Some of the important registers in CPU are as follows—
o Accumulator (ACC) stores the result of arithmetic and logic
operations.
o Instruction Register (IR) contains the current instruction most recently
fetched.
o Program Counter (PC) contains the address of next instruction to be
processed.
o Memory Address Register (MAR) contains the address of next
location in the memory to be accessed.
o Memory Buffer Register (MBR) temporarily stores data from
memory or the data to be sent to memory.
o Data Register (DR) stores the operands and any other data.

CPU registers

 The number of registers and the size of each (number of bits) register in a
CPU helps to determine the power and the speed of a CPU.
 The overall number of registers can vary from about ten to many hundreds,
depending on the type and complexity of the processor.
 The size of register, also called word size, indicates the amount of data with
which the computer can work at any given time. The bigger the size, the
more quickly it can process
data. The size of a register may be 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits. For example, a 32–
bit CPU is one
 in which each register is 32 bits wide and its CPU can manipulate 32
bits of data at a time. Nowadays, PCs have 32–bit or 64–bit registers.
 32-bit processor and 64-bit processor are the terms used to refer to the size
of the registers. Other factors remaining the same, a 64-bit processor can
process the data twice as fast as one with 32-bit processor.

Control Unit

 The control unit of a computer does not do any actual processing of data. It
organizes the processing of data and instructions. It acts as a supervisor
and, controls and coordinates the activity of the other units of computer.
 CU coordinates the input and output devices of a computer. It directs the
computer to carry out stored program instructions by communicating with the
ALU and the registers. CU uses the instructions in the Instruction Register (IR)
to decide which circuit needs to be activated. It also instructs the ALU to
perform the arithmetic or logic operations. When a program is run, the Program
Counter (PC) register keeps track of the program instruction to be executed
next.
 CU tells when to fetch the data and instructions, what to do, where to store
the results, the sequencing of events during processing etc.
 CU also holds the CPU’s Instruction Set, which is a list of all operations
that the CPU can perform.

The function of a (CU) can be considered synonymous with that of a conductor of

an orchestra. The conductor in an orchestra does not perform any work by itself
but manages the orchestra and ensures that the members of orchestra work in
proper coordination.

COMPUTER MEMORY
Computers are used to perform various tasks in science, engineering, business,
education, entertainment and many other fields. They work at high speed, can handle
large volumes of data with great accuracy and have the ability to carry out a
specified sequence of operations without human intervention. The CPU handles the
processing of data and presents the results with the help of output devices. However,
the CPU requires memory to process the data, hold the intermediate results and to
store the output. So, computer memory refers to the electronic holding place for
instructions and data where the processor can reach quickly.
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided
into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique
address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the
computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory Units
Various units used to measure computer memory are as follows:
 Bit: It is the smallest unit of data on a machine and a single bit can hold only
one of two values: 0 or 1. Bit is represented by lower case b.
 Byte: A unit of eight bits is known as a byte. Hence, a byte is able to contain
any binary number between 00000000 and 11111111. It is represented by upper
case B.
 Kilobyte: In a decimal system, kilo stands for 1000, but in a binary system,
kilo refers to 1024. Therefore, a kilobyte is equal to 1024 bytes. It is usually
represented as KB.
 Megabyte: It comprises 1024 kilobytes or 10,48,576 bytes. However, since
this number is hard to remember, a megabyte can be thought of as million bytes.
Megabyte is the standard unit of measurement of RAM and is represented as MB.
 Gigabyte: It consists of 1024 megabytes (10,73,741,824 bytes). It is the
standard unit of measurement for hard disks and is often represented as GB.
 Terabyte: It refers to 1024 gigabytes and is often represented as TB. Terabyte
memory is usually associated with only super computers
Types of Computer Memory
Memory is primarily of three types −
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Cache Memory
 Secondary Memory
1. Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is
currently working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched
off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as
fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the
main memory.
Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
  Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
i. RAM
Random access memory (RAM) is like the computer's scratch pad. It allows the
computer to store data for immediate manipulation and to keep track of what is
currently being processed. It is the place in a computer where the operating system,
application programs and data in current use are kept so that they can be accessed
quickly by the computer's processor. RAM is much faster to read from and write to
than the other kinds of storage in a computer (like hard disk or floppy disk).
However, the data in RAM stays there only as long as the computer is running.
When the computer is turned off, RAM loses all its contents. When the computer is
turned on again, the operating system and other files are once again loaded into
RAM. When an application program is started, the computer loads it into RAM and
does all the processing there. This allows the computer to run the application faster.
Any new information that is created is kept in RAM and since RAM is volatile in
nature, one needs to continuously save the new information to the hard disk

ii. ROM (Read Only Memory)

Just like a human being needs instructions from the brain to perform actions in
certain event, a computer also needs special instructions every time it is started. This
is required because during the start-up operation, the main memory of the computer
is empty due to its volatile property, so there has to be some instructions (special
boot programs) stored in a special chip that could enable the computer system to
perform start-up operations and transfer the control to the operating system. This
special chip, where the start-up instructions are stored, is called read-only memory
(ROM). It is nonvolatile in nature, that is, its contents are not lost when the power is
switched off. The data and instructions stored in ROM can only be read and used,
but cannot be altered thereby making ROM much safer and secure than RAM. ROM
chips are used not only in the computer, but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven.
Generally, designers program ROM chips at the time of manufacturing circuits.
Burning appropriate electronic fuses to form patterns of binary information does
programming. These patterns of binary information are meant for specific
configurations, that is why different categories of computers are meant for
performing different tasks. For example, a microprogram, called system boot
program, contains a series of start-up instructions to check the hardware, that is, I/O
devices, memory and operating system in the memory. ROM performs the necessary
BIOS (basic input/output system) function to start the system and then transfers the
control over to the operating system.
2. CACHE MEMORY
A cache is a piece of very fast memory, made from high-speed static RAM that
reduces the time of accessing data. It is very expensive and generally incorporated
in the processor, where valuable data and program segments are kept. This enables
the processor to access data quickly whenever it is needed. Major reason for
incorporating cache in the system is that the CPU is much faster than the DRAM
and needs a place to store information that can be accessed rapidly. The cache
facilitates the system to catch up with the processor's speed. The cache fetches the
frequently used data from the DRAM and buffers (stores) it for further processor
usage. One analogy would be the cash a person keeps in his wallet, which is faster
and easier to access and spend, than money in the bank.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
 3. SECONDARY MEMORY
Primary memory is volatile in nature and has a very limited storage capacity. This
kind of memory is mainly used for processing the data. Being volatile, primary
memory cannot hold data or instructions once the computer is switched off.
Therefore, a computer requires more stable (nonvolatile) type of memory to store all
the data (files) and instructions (programs) even after the computer is turned off.
This kind of memory is known as secondary memory or auxiliary memory or
peripheral storage or secondary storage. As opposed to primary storage, which the
Central Processing Unit (CPU) uses for processing data and instructions, secondary
storage is used to store data and programs when they are not being processed.
Secondary storage includes devices like hard disks, floppy disks, CDs and magnetic
tapes. The secondary storage devices have a larger storage capacity. They are less
expensive as compared to primary storage devices, but slow in comparison.
Benefits of Secondary Storage
The benefits of secondary storage can be summarized as follows:
 Non-volatility: By nature, a secondary storage device is nonvolatile, that is, it does
not lose its contents even when its power is cut off. Hence, such devices do not
require a continuous supply of electricity as the primary memory does.
 Capacity: The secondary storage devices are used by organizations so that they can
store large volumes of data (equivalent of a room full of data on paper) in sets of
disks that take up less space than a breadbox. A simple diskette holds the equivalent
of 500 printed pages or one book. An optical disk can hold the equivalent of
approximately 500 books.
 Reliability: The data in secondary storage is safe because secondary storage is
physically reliable. However, sometimes, the disk may fail, but the overall
reliability of secondary storage is excellent. Moreover, it is more difficult to tamper
or illegally access the data on secondary storage as compared to data stored in
traditional file cabinets.
 Convenience: With the help of a computer, authorized people can locate and access
data quickly.
 Cost: It is less expensive to store data on a tape or disk (the principal means of
secondary storage) than to buy and house filing cabinets. Data that are reliable and
safe are less expensive to maintain than data subject to errors. Nevertheless, the
greatest savings can be found in the speed and convenience of filing and retrieving
the data.
 Reusability: The data remain in the secondary storage as long as it is not
overwritten or deleted by the user. When the data are placed in the RAM, the
computer actually makes a copy of that data in the memory. The user can change
the data as per requirement, and in case he/she wants to revert to the original copy,
 he/she can simply close the data file, as long as the modified work is not saved. In
that case, the CPU will replace the original copy with the modified copy.
 Portability: Modern-day storage devices like CD-ROMs and floppy disks are so
small that they can be easily ported from one computer to another. In addition, since
most of the storage devices are standardized, they can be used with almost every
computer irrespective of their construct.

OPERATING SYSTEM
In the early days of computer use, computers were huge machines, which were
expensive to buy, run and maintain. The user at that time interacted directly with the
hardware through machine language. This necessitated a search for a software,
which could perform basic tasks such as recognizing input from the keyboard,
sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the
disk and controlling peripheral devices such as printer and scanner. This search led
to the evolution of modern-day operating system (OS). This software is loaded onto
the top of the memory and performs all the aforesaid basic tasks. Initially, the
interface of the operating system was only character-based. This interface provides
the user with a command prompt and the user has to type all the commands to
perform various functions. As a result, the user had to memorize many commands.
With the advancement in technology, operating system became even more user-
friendly by providing graphical user interface (GUI). The GUI-based operating
system allows the user to interact with the system using visual objects such as
windows, pull-down menus, mouse pointers and icons. Consequently, the computer
operation became easy and intuitive.

Definition: An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer

hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer
programs.. Operating system along with hardware, application and other system
software, and users constitute a computer system. It is the most important part of any
computer system. It acts as an intermediary between a user and the computer
hardware.
The operating system has two objectives.
 Managing the Computer's hardware: The prime objective of the operating
system is to manage and control various hardware resources of a computer system.
These hardware resources include processor, memory, disk space and so on. The
operating system supervises the data of which input device is requesting for being
processed and which processed data are ready to be displayed on the output device.
In addition to communicating with hardware, the operating system provides an error-
handling procedure and displays an error notification. If a device is not functioning
properly, the operating system tries to communicate with the device again. If it is
still unable to communicate with the device, it provides an error message notifying
the user about the problem.

 Providing an Interface: The operating system organizes applications so that
the users can easily access, use and store them. When an application is opened, the
operating system assists the application to provide the major part of the user
interface. It provides a stable and consistent way for applications to deal with the
hardware without the user having to know all the details of the hardware. If the
program is not functioning properly, the operating system again takes control, stops
the application and displays appropriate error message.
The User Interface
Operating system organizes applications so that the users can easily access them, use
them and store the application data. When an application is opened, the operating
system lets the application provide the majority of the user interface. The operating
system still has the responsibility of providing access to the hardware for whatever
the application needs. If the program cannot function properly, the operating system
again takes control, stops the application, and displays an error message. An
effective interface of an operating system does not concern the user with the internal
working of the system. A good user interface should attempt to anticipate the users’
requirements, and assist them in gathering information and using necessary tools.
Common interfaces provided by different operating systems can be categorized as
command line interface (CLI ) and graphical user interface (GUI ).
1. Command Line Interface: In early days of computing, operating systems
provided the user with the facility of entering commands via an interactive terminal.
Those were the only means of communication between a program and its user, based
solely on textual input and output. Commands were used to initiate programs,
applications and so on. A user had to learn many commands for proper operation of
the system.
 A Command Line Interface
2. Graphical User Interface: With the development in chip designing technology,
computer hardware became quicker and cheaper, which led to the birth of GUI-
based operating system. These operating systems provide users with pictures rather
than just characters to interact with the machine. The operating system displays
icons, buttons, dialog boxes and so on, on the screen. The user sends instructions by
moving a pointer on the screen (generally mouse) and selecting certain objects by
pressing buttons on the mouse while the mouse pointer is pointing at them.

A Graphical User Interface

How Operating System Manages Hardware Resources

FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

The main functions of a modern operating system are as follows:
 Process Management: As a process manager, the operating system handles
the creation and deletion of processes, suspension and resumption of processes and
scheduling and synchronization of processes. NB: A process is an execution of a
sequence of instructions or programs by the central processing unit (CPU). It can
also be referred to as the basic unit of a program that the operating system deals with
the help of the processor. For example, a text editor program running on a computer
is a process.
 Memory Management: As a memory manager, the operating system handles
the allocation and deallocation of memory space as required by various programs.
 File Management: The operating system is responsible for creation and
deletion of files and directories. It also takes care of other file-related activities such
as organizing, storing, retrieving, naming, and protecting the files.
 Device Management: Operating system provides input/output subsystem
between process and device driver. It handles the device caches, buffers and
interrupts. It also detects the device failures and notifies the same to the user.
 Security Management: The operating system protects system resources and
information against destruction and unauthorized use.
 User Interface: Operating system provides the interface between the user and
the hardware. The user interface is the layer that actually interacts with the computer
operator. The interface consists of a set of commands or menus through which a user
communicates with a program.

Examples of Operating Systems

1. Disk Operating System:
As the name suggests, the operating System is used for operating the system or the
computer. It is a set of computer programs and also known as DOS (Disk Operating
System). The main functions of DOS are to manage disk files, allocate system
resources according to the requirement. DOS provides features essential to control
hardware devices such as Keyboard, Screen, Disk Devices, Printers, Modems and
programs.
Basically, DOS is the medium through which the user and external devices attached
to the system communicate with the system. DOS translate the command issued by
the user in the format that is understandable by the computer and instruct computer
to work accordingly. It also translates the result and any error message in the format
for the user to understand.
EXAMPLES: DOS primarily consists of Microsoft's MS-DOS and a
rebranded IBM version under the name PC DOS, both of which were introduced in
1981. Later compatible systems from other manufacturers are DR DOS(since 1988
by Digital Research, later Novell, Caldera, Lineo, and DeviceLogics), ROM-
DOS (since 1989 by Datalight), PTS-DOS (since 1993 by Paragon
Technology and PhysTechSoft), Embedded DOS (by General
Software), FreeDOS (1998), and RxDOS. MS-DOS dominated the IBM PC
compatible market between 1981 and 1995.
 PC-DOS/MS DOS:
MS-DOS, in full Microsoft Disk Operating System, the dominant operating
system for the personal computer (PC) throughout the 1980s. The acquisition and
marketing of MS-DOS were pivotal in the Microsoft Corporation’s transition
to software industry giant.
American computer programmer Timothy Paterson, a developer for Seattle
Computer Products, wrote the original operating system for the Intel Corporation’s
8086 microprocessor in 1980, initially calling it QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating
System), which was soon renamed 86-DOS. A year later, fledgling company
Microsoft purchased exclusive rights to sell the system, renamed MS-DOS,
to IBMfor their newly developed IBM-PC. IBM-compatible versions were marketed
as PC-DOS. Version 1.0 was released in 1981; additional upgraded versions kept
pace with the rapidly evolving PC. Windows 95, introduced by Microsoft in 1995,
incorporated MS-DOS 7.0 but ultimately superseded the MS-DOS platform. Starting
with Windows NT, Microsoft’s operating systems were designed independently of
MS-DOS, though they were capable of running some MS-DOS applications.
Although MS-DOS enjoyed enormous popularity in the 1980s and early 1990s,
the technology did not always keep pace with its competition. The system lacked
the multitasking, multiuser capabilities of the UNIX operating system; and MS-DOS
was limited to a command line interface, in contrast to the user-friendly graphical
user interface (GUI) of the early Macintosh computer from Apple Inc. Although
MS-DOS ceased to be marketed as a stand-alone operating system, the relatively
simple, stable platform is still used in some embedded computer systems.

2. WINDOWS Operating System

A computer operating system (OS) developed by Microsoft Corporation to
run personal computers (PCs). Featuring the first graphical user interface (GUI)
for IBM-compatible PCs, the Windows OS soon dominated the PC market.
Approximately 90 percent of PCs run some version of Windows.

The first version of Windows, released in 1985, was simply a GUI offered as
an extension of Microsoft’s existing disk operating system, or MS-DOS. Based in
part on licensed concepts that Apple Inc. had used for its Macintosh System
Software, Windows for the first time allowed DOS users to visually navigate a
virtual desktop, opening graphical “windows” displaying the contents of electronic
folders and files with the click of a mouse button, rather than typing commands and
directory paths at a text prompt.

Subsequent versions introduced greater functionality, including native Windows File

Manager, Program Manager, and Print Manager programs, and a
more dynamic interface. Microsoft also developed specialized Windows packages,
including the networkable Windows for Workgroups and the high-powered
Windows NT, aimed at businesses. The 1995 consumer release Windows 95
fully integrated Windows and DOS and offered built-in Internet support, including
the World Wide Web browser Internet Explorer.

With the 2001 release of Windows XP, Microsoft united its various Windows
packages under a single banner, offering multiple editions for consumers,
businesses, multimedia developers, and others. Windows XP abandoned the long-
used Windows 95 kernel (core software code) for a more powerful code base and
offered a more practical interface and improved application and memory
management. The highly successful XP standard was succeeded in late 2006
by Windows Vista, which experienced a troubled rollout and met with considerable
marketplace resistance, quickly acquiring a reputation for being a large, slow, and
resource-consuming system. Responding to Vista’s disappointing adoption rate,
Microsoft in 2009 released Windows 7, an OS whose interface was similar to that of
Vista but was met with enthusiasm for its noticeable speed improvement and its
modest system requirements.

Windows 8 in 2012 offered a start screen with applications appearing as tiles on a

grid and the ability to synchronize settings so users could log on to another Windows
8 machine and use their preferred settings. In 2015 Microsoft released Windows 10,
which came with Cortana, a digital personal assistant like Apple’s Siri, and the Web
browser Microsoft Edge, which replaced Internet Explorer. Microsoft also
announced that Windows 10 would be the last version of Windows, meaning that
users would receive regular updates to the OS but that no more large-scale revisions
would be done.

3. UNIX Operating System

UNIX is a multiuser, multitasking operating system widely used for Internet servers,
workstations, and mainframe computers that was developed by Bell Laboratories in
1969.
It was developed by AT&T Corporation’s Bell Laboratories in the late 1960s as a
result of efforts to create a time-sharing computer system. In 1969 a team led by
computer scientists Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie created the first version of
UNIX on a PDP-7 minicomputer, which was chosen mainly because of Thompson’s
familiarity with the system from his hobby work on it. UNIX was quickly adapted
for another computer, and the team ported (modified) it to the PDP-11 by late 1970.
This would be the first of many ports of UNIX.
UNIX systems also have a graphical user interface (GUI) similar to Microsoft
Windows which provides an easy-to-use environment. However, knowledge of
UNIX is required for operations which aren't covered by a graphical program, or for
when there is no windows interface available, for example, in a telnet session.
The main components of the UNIX operating system structure are the kernel layer,
the shell layer and the application layer.
Details about these are given as follows:

Kernel
The kernel provides a bridge between the hardware and the user. It is a software
application that is central to the operating system. The kernel handles the files,
memory, devices, processes and the network for the operating system. It is the
responsibility of the kernel to make sure all the system and user tasks are performed
correctly.

Shell
The program between the user and the kernel is known as the shell. It translates the
many commands that are typed into the terminal session. These commands are
known as the shell script. There are two major types of shells in UNIX. These are
Bourne shell and C Shell. The Bourne shell is the default shell for version 7 UNIX.
The character $ is the default prompt for the Bourne shell. The C shell is a command
processor that is run in a text window. The character % is the default prompt for the
C shell.

Applications
The applications and utility layer in UNIX includes the word processors, graphics
programs, database management programs, commands etc. The application
programs provide an application to the end users.
For example, a web browser is used to find information while gaming software is
used to play games. The requests for service and application communication systems
used in an application by a programmer is known as an application program
interface (API).

4. LINUX Operating System

Linux is the best-known and most-used open source operating system that manages
the communication between computer software and hardware.
Linux was created in the early 1990s by Finnish software engineer Linus Torvalds
(a then-student at the University of Helsinki) and the Free Software
Foundation (FSF).
Companies and individuals choose Linux for their servers because it is secure, and
you can receive excellent support from a large community of users. Many of the
devices you own probably, such as Android phones, digital storage devices, personal
video recorders, cameras, wearables, and more, also run Linux. Even your car has
Linux running under the hood.
In many ways, Linux is similar to other operating systems you may have used
before, such as Windows, OS X, or iOS. Like other operating systems, Linux has a
graphical interface, and types of software you are accustomed to using on other
operating systems, such as word processing applications, have Linux equivalents. In
many cases, the software’s creator may have made a Linux version of the same
program you use on other systems. If you can use a computer or other electronic
device, you can use Linux.

But Linux also is different from other operating systems in many important ways.
First, and perhaps most importantly, Linux is open source software. The code used
to create Linux is free and available to the public to view, edit, and—for users with
the appropriate skills—to contribute to.
Linux comprises of a number of pieces:
 The Bootloader: The software that manages the boot process of your
computer. For most users, this will simply be a splash screen that pops up and
eventually goes away to boot into the operating system.
 The kernel: This is the one piece of the whole that is actually called “Linux”.
The kernel is the core of the system that manages the CPU, memory, and peripheral
devices. The kernel is the “lowest” level of the OS.
 Daemons: These are background services (printing, sound, scheduling, etc)
that either start up during boot, or after you log into the desktop.
 The Shell: You’ve probably heard mention of the Linux command line. This
is the shell – a command process that allows you to control the computer via
commands typed into a text interface.
 Graphical Server: This is the sub-system that displays the graphics on your
monitor. It is commonly referred to as the X server or just “X”.
 Desktop Environment: This is the piece of the puzzle that the users actually
interact with. There are many desktop environments to choose from (Unity,
GNOME, Cinnamon, Enlightenment, KDE, XFCE, etc). Each desktop environment
includes built-in applications (such as file managers, configuration tools, web
browsers, games, etc).
 Applications: Linux offers thousands upon thousands of high-quality software
titles that can be easily found and installed.

Linux has a number of different versions to suit nearly any type of user. From new
users to hard-core users, you’ll find a “flavor” of Linux to match your needs. These
versions are called distributions (or, in the short form, “distros.”) Nearly every
distribution of Linux can be downloaded for free, burned onto disk (or USB thumb
drive), and installed (on as many machines as you like).
The most popular Linux distributions are: Ubuntu Linux, Linux Mint, Arch
Linux, Deepin, Fedora, Debian, openSUSE.
 WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM AND APPLICATION PACKAGES
Windows is an operating system designed by Microsoft. The operating system is
what allows you to use a computer. Windows comes preloaded on most new
personal computers (PCs), which helps to make it the most popular operating system
in the word.
Windows makes it possible to complete all types of everyday tasks on your
computer. For example, you can use Windows to browse the Internet, check your
email, edit digital photos, listen to music, play games, and do much more.
Windows is also used in many offices because it gives you access to productivity
tools such as calendars, word processors, and spreadsheets.
Microsoft released the first version of Windows in the mid-1980s. There have been
many versions of Windows since then, but the most recent ones include Windows
10 (released in 2015), Windows 8 (2012), Windows 7 (2009), Windows
Vista (2007), and Windows XP (2001).
ADVANTAGEs OF WINDOWS:
1. Microsoft has made several advancements and changes that have made it a much
easier to use Operating System, and although arguably it may not be the easiest
Operating System, it is still Easier than Linux.
2. Because of the large amount of Microsoft Windows users, there is a much larger
selection of available software programs, utilities, and games for Windows.
3. Microsoft Windows includes its own help section, has vast amount of available
online documentation and help, as well as books on each of the versions of
Windows.
Navigating Windows
Whether you're new to computers or just Windows, it's important to learn the basics
of using your computer. If it all seems a little overwhelming right now, don't worry!
We'll take you through it step by step and show you some of the most fundamental
things you'll need to know, including how to work with the desktop, open and close
windows, and turn off your computer.
The desktop
Once your computer has finished starting up, the first thing you'll see is the desktop.
You can think of the desktop as the main workspace for your computer. From here,
you can view and manage your files, open applications, access the Internet, and
much more.
To create a shortcut:
1. Locate and right-click the desired folder, then select Send to Desktop
(create shortcut)
Working with applications
An application—also known as a program—is a type of software that allows you
to complete tasks on your computer. Windows comes with many built-in
applications you can use. For example, if you want to browse the Internet, you can
use Microsoft Edge (or Internet Explorer if you're using Windows 8 or earlier).
To open an application:
1. Using your mouse, click the Start button, then select the desired
application. If you don't see the one you want, click All Programs to
see a complete list of applications. In our example, we'll
open Microsoft Edge.
2. The application will appear in a new window.
Working with windows
Whenever you open a file, folder, or application, it will appear in a new window.
You can have multiple items open at the same time in different windows. You'll use
windows all the time, so it's important to know how to switch between open
windows, how to move and resize windows, and how to close windows when you're
done using them.
Parts of a window
You'll see the same three buttons in the upper-right corner of almost every window.
These buttons allow you to perform several functions, including these below.
 Click the Minimize button to hide the window. The window will be
minimized to the taskbar. You can then click the icon for that window
on the taskbar to make it reappear.

 Click the Maximize button to make the window fill the entire screen.

 If the screen is maximized, the Maximize button will be temporarily

replaced by the Restore button. Just click it to return the window to its
original size.

 Click the Close button to close the window.

To move a window:
1. Click and drag the top of the window to move it to the desired location
on the screen. When you're done, release the mouse.
2. The window will appear in the new location.
To resize a window:
1. Hover the mouse over any corner of the window, then click and drag
the mouse to make the window larger or smaller. When you're done,
release the mouse.
2. The window will be resized

If you have more than one window open at the same time, you can quickly switch
between them by clicking the icon for that window on the taskbar.

To shut down your computer:

 Click the Start button, then the Power icon, then click Shut down.

The Taskbar
The task bar was introduced with Wi1ndows 95 and has been part of every version
of Windows since then. It is the bar that spans the bottom of the screen and contains
the Start button on the left side and the systray on the right. The task bar also
includes the current time on the far right side and can hold shortcuts to programs
directly to the right of the Start button.
The taskbar view
When multiple windows are open in a program, the icon will look "stacked" on
the taskbar.

Pin a program to the taskbar

You can Pin programs to the taskbar and access them with a single click of the
mouse.
 To Pin a program, drag it to the taskbar and release.

 To Unpin a program, simply right-click on the icon and select Unpin.

Working with files
Understanding how to work with files and folders is an important part of using your
computer. Once you understand how files and folder work, you'll use them all the
time. In this lesson, we'll show you the absolute basics of working with files,
including how to open files, move your files into folders, and delete files.

What is a file?
There are many different types of files you can use. For example, Microsoft Word
documents, digital photos, digital music, and digital videos are all types of files. You
might even think of a file as a digital version of a real-world thing you can interact
with on your computer. When you use different applications, you'll often
be viewing, creating, or editing files.
Files are usually represented by an icon. In the image below, you can see a few
different types of files below the Recycle Bin on the desktop.

What is a folder?
Windows uses folders to help you organize files. You can put files inside a folder,
just like you would put documents inside a real folder. In the image below, you can
see some folders on the desktop.

File Explorer
You can view and organize files and folders using a built-in application known
as File Explorer (called Windows Explorer in Windows 7 and earlier versions).
To open File Explorer, click the File Explorer icon on the taskbar, or double-click
any folder on your desktop. A new File Explorer window will appear. Now you're
ready to start working with your files and folders.
From File Explorer, double-click a folder to open it. You can then see all of the files
stored in that folder.
Notice that you can also see the location of a folder in the address bar near the top of
the window.

To open a file:
There are two main ways to open a file:
 Find the file on your computer and double-click it. This will open the
file in its default application. In our example, we'll open a Microsoft
Word document (BdayInvites.docx), which will open in Microsoft
Word.
 Open the application, then use the application to open the file. Once the
application is open, you can go to the File menu at the top of the
window and select Open.
Moving and deleting files
As you begin using your computer, you will start to collect more and more files,
which can make it more difficult to find the files you need. Fortunately, Windows
allows you to move files to different folders and delete files you no longer use.
To move a file:
It's easy to move a file from one location to another. For example, you might have a
file on the desktop that you want to move to your Documents folder.
 1. Click and drag the file to the desired location.
2. Release the mouse. The file will appear in the new location. In this
example, we have opened the folder to see the file in its new location.
 You can use this same technique to move an entire folder. Note that
moving a folder will also move all of the files within that folder.
To create a new folder:
1. Within File Explorer, locate and select the New folder button. You can
also right-click where you want the folder to appear, then select New > Folder.
2. The new folder will appear. Type the desired name for the folder and
press Enter. In our example, we'll call it School Documents.
3. The new folder will be created. You can now move files into this folder.
To rename a file or folder:
You can change the name of any file or folder. A unique name will make it easier to
remember what type of information is saved in the file or folder.
1. Click the file or folder, wait about one second, and click again. An
editable text field will appear.
2. Type the desired name on your keyboard and press Enter. The name
will be changed.
 You can also right-click the folder and select Rename from the menu that
appears
To delete a file or folder:
If you no longer need to use a file, you can delete it. When you delete a file, it is
moved to the Recycle Bin. If you change your mind, you can move the file from the
Recycle Bin back to its original location. If you're sure you want to permanently
delete the file, you will need to empty the Recycle Bin.
1. Click and drag the file to the Recycle Bin icon on the desktop. You can
also click the file to select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard.
2. To permanently delete the file, right-click the Recycle Bin icon and
select Empty Recycle Bin. All files in the Recycle Bin will be permanently deleted.
 Note that deleting a folder will also delete all of the files within that folder.

The Concept of Software Packages

The term "software package" has multiple uses in IT. It’s most common use is to
refer to multiple software programs bundled together and sold as a set.
In a traditional sense, a software package is simply multiple applications or code
modules that work together to meet various goals and objectives. One of the most
prominent examples is something like the Microsoft Office package, which includes
individual applications such as Word, Excel, Access and PowerPoint.

Microsoft Office
Microsoft Office (or simply Office) is a suite of desktop productivity applications
that is designed specifically to be used for office or business use. It is a proprietary
product of Microsoft Corporation and was first released in 1990. Microsoft Office is
available in 35 different languages and is supported by Windows, Mac and most
Linux variants. It mainly consists of Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Access, OneNote,
Outlook and Publisher applications.
Office applications have grown substantially closer with shared features such as a
common spell checker, OLE data integration and Visual Basic for
Applications scripting language. Microsoft also positions Office as a development
platform for line-of-business software under the Office Business Applications brand.
On July 10, 2012, Softpedia reported that Office is used by over a billion people
worldwide.

Lotus Smart Suite

SmartSuite is an office suite from Lotus Software. The company made versions of
its office suite for IBM OS/2 and Microsoft Windows, and was first released in
1992.
The following applications are included in SmartSuite for Microsoft Windows:
Lotus Word Pro — word processor; previously called Ami Pro; .lwp files
Lotus 1-2-3 — spreadsheet; .123, .wk1, .wk3, .wk4 files
Lotus Freelance Graphics — presentation software; .prz files
Lotus Approach — relational database; .apr (data entry and reports), .dbf (database)
files
Lotus Organizer — personal information manager; .org, .or2, .or3 files
Lotus SmartCenter — a toolbar that let users quickly access programs,
calendar, Internet bookmarks, and other resources
Lotus FastSite — web design software; .htm files
Lotus ScreenCam — screen recording software for demos and
tutorials; .scm, .exe, .wav files

MS Encarta
Encarta, in full Microsoft Encarta Multimedia Encyclopedia, multimedia digital
encyclopedia produced by Microsoft Corporation (1993–2009). Initially a CD-
ROM product, the Encarta brand later expanded to include an Internet-based
incarnation and was bundled with other Microsoft products.
What is Encyclopedia? An Encyclopedia is
a book, set of books, optical disc, mobile device, or online informational resource co
ntainingarticles on various topics, usually in alphabetical arrangement, covering all b
ranches ofknowledge or, less commonly, all aspects of one subject.
The possibility of a digital encyclopedia was first discussed at Microsoft in 1985.
The company approached a range of reference publishers before signing a
nonexclusive contract with Funk & Wagnalls to use their 29-volume New
Encyclopedia in establishing a database in 1989. The project, however, was put on
hold in 1990 due to concerns about the commercial viability of the product. After
efforts resumed in 1991, the company proceeded to illustrate the approximately
25,000 articles using an array of sound files and maps as well as more than 5,000
public domain images and a small selection of videos. Approximately 40 percent of
the articles were biographies. Additional features included a time line of human
history, a dictionary and thesaurus, and a quiz game called MindMaze. The
encyclopaedia was later offered in a range of foreign-language and regionally
specific editions.
The initial CD product was released in March 1993 with a retail price of nearly
$400, equivalent to such competitors as Compton’s MultiMedia Encyclopedia.
Following slow sales, later that year the CD was given away with the Windows
software suite that was included with the purchase of many computers, and the
stand-alone price was dropped to $99. The price reduction effectively catalyzed sales
that outstripped competitors. Prices continued to drop throughout the product’s life
span.
WORD PROCESSING PACKAGEs
Word processing packages are software programs used to create, edit and view
documents on a computer. Two popular word processors are Microsoft Word and
Pages for Mac.
Microsoft Word is available for PC and Mac computers, tablets and phones.
Numerous features allow users to make fine adjustments to documents, such as
precisely positioning photos within a document that contains primarily written text.
Other features help authors share documents with others.

Microsoft office Word (2013)

Word 2013 is a word processing application that allows you to create a variety
of documents like letters, flyers, and reports. With the introduction of
several enhanced features—including the ability to create and collaborate on
documents online—Word 2013 gives you the ability to do more with your word
processing projects.
The Word Start Screen
When you open Word 2013 for the first time, the Word Start Screen will appear.
From here, you'll be able to create a new document, choose a template, or access
your recently edited documents.
 From the Word Start Screen, locate and select Blank document to
access the Word interface.
The Word 2013 Interface

Working with the Word environment

Word 2013 uses features like the Ribbon and the Quick Access toolbar—where
you will find commands to perform common tasks in Word—as well as Backstage
view.

The Ribbon
Word 2013 uses a tabbed Ribbon system instead of traditional menus. The Ribbon
contains multiple tabs, each with several groups of commands. You will use these
tabs to perform the most common tasks in Word.

The Quick Access toolbar

Located just above the Ribbon, the Quick Access toolbar lets you access common
commands no matter which tab is selected. By default, it shows the Save, Undo,
and Repeat commands. You can add other commands depending on your
preference.
To add commands to the Quick Access toolbar:
1. Click the drop-down arrow to the right of the Quick Access toolbar.
2. Select the command you want to add from the drop-down menu. To
choose from more commands, select More Commands.

3. The command will be added to the Quick Access toolbar.

The Backstage view

Backstage view gives you various options for saving, opening a file, printing, and
sharing your document.
To access Backstage view:
1. Click the File tab on the Ribbon. Backstage view will appear.

Creating and Opening Documents

Word files are called documents. Whenever you start a new project in Word, you'll
need to create a new document, which can either be blank or from a template.
You'll also need to know how to open an existing document.
To create a new blank document:
When beginning a new project in Word, you'll often want to start with a new blank
document.
1. Select the File tab. Backstage view will appear.
2. Select New, then click Blank document.
3. A new blank document will appear.

Inserting Text
If you're new to Microsoft Word, you'll need to learn the basics of working
with text so you can type, reorganize, and edit text. Basic tasks include the
ability to add, delete, and move text, as well as the ability to find and
replace specific words or phrases.
Using the insertion point to add text
The insertion point is the blinking vertical line in your document. It indicates where
you can enter text on the page. You can use the insertion point in a variety of ways:
  Blank document: When a new blank document opens, the insertion
point is located in the top-left corner of the page. If you want, you can
begin typing from this location.

Adding spaces: Press the spacebar to add spaces after a word or in between
text.
New paragraph line: Press Enter on your keyboard to move the
insertion point to the next paragraph line.
Manual placement: After you've started typing, you can use the mouse to
move the insertion point to a specific place in your document. Simply click
the location in the text where you want to place it.
In a new blank document, you can double-click the mouse to move the
insertion point elsewhere on the page.
To select text:
Before applying formatting to text, you'll first need to select it.
1. Place the insertion point next to the text you want to select.
2. Click the mouse, and while holding it down drag your mouse over the
text to select it.
3. Release the mouse button. You have selected the text. A highlighted
boxwill appear over the selected text.

Other shortcuts include double-clicking a word to select it and triple-

clicking to select a sentence or paragraph. You can also select all of the text in
the document by pressing Ctrl+A on your keyboard.
To delete text:
There are several ways to delete—or remove—text:
 To delete text to the left of the insertion point, press the Backspace key
on your keyboard.
 To delete text to the right of the insertion point, press the Delete key
on your keyboard.
  Select the text you want to remove, then press the Delete key.
If you select text and start typing, the selected text will automatically be deleted and
replaced with the new text.

Copying and moving text

Word allows you to copy text that is already in your document and paste it to other
areas of the document, which can save you time. If there is text you want to move
from one area of the document to another, you can cut and paste or drag and
drop the text.
To copy and paste text:
Copying text creates a duplicate of the text.
1. Select the text you want to copy.
2. Click the Copy command on the Home tab. You can also right-click
the selected text and select Copy.
3. Place the insertion point where you want the text to appear.
4. Click the Paste command on the Home tab.
5. The text will appear.
To cut and paste text:
1. Select the text you want to cut.
2. Click the Cut command on the Home tab. You can also right-click the
selected text and select Cut.
3. Place your insertion point where you want the text to appear.
4. Click the Paste command on the Home tab. The text will appear.
You can access the cut, copy, and paste commands by using keyboard shortcuts.
Press Ctrl+X to cut, Ctrl+C to copy, and Ctrl+V to paste.
To open an existing document:
In addition to creating new documents, you'll often need to open a document that
was previously saved.
1. Navigate to Backstage view, then click Open.
2. Select Computer, then click Browse.
3. The Open dialog box appears. Locate and select your document, then
click Open.
 If you've opened the desired presentation recently, you can browse
your Recent Documents rather than search for the file.

Saving a Document
When you create a new document in Word, you'll need to know how to save it so
you can access and edit it later. As with previous versions of Word, you can save
files to your computer. If you prefer, you can also save files to the
cloud using OneDrive. You can even export and share documents directly from
Word.
 Save and Save As
Word offers two ways to save a file: Save and Save As. These options work in
similar ways, with a few important differences:
 Save: When you create or edit a document, you'll use the Save command to
save your changes. You'll use this command most of the time. When you
save a file, you'll only need to choose a file name and location the first
time. After that, you can click the Save command to save it with the same
name and location.
 Save As: You'll use this command to create a copy of a document while
keeping the original. When you use Save As, you'll need to choose a
different name and/or location for the copied version.

To save a document:
It's important to save your document whenever you start a new project or make
changes to an existing one. Saving early and often can prevent your work from being
lost. You'll also need to pay close attention to where you save the document so it
will be easy to find later.
1. Locate and select the Save command on the Quick Access toolbar.
2. The Save As pane will appear in Backstage view.
3. Choose where to save the file.
To save the document to your computer, select Computer, then
click Browse.
4. The Save As dialog box will appear. Select the location where you
want to save the document.
5. Enter a file name for the document, then click Save.
6. The document will be saved. You can click the Save command again to
save your changes as you modify the document.
 You can also access the Save command by pressing Ctrl+S on your
keyboard.
Auto Recovery
Word automatically saves your documents to a temporary folder while you are
working on them. If you forget to save your changes or if Word crashes, you can
restore the file using AutoRecover.
To use AutoRecover:
1. Open Word 2013. If autosaved versions of a file are found,
the DocumentRecovery pane will appear.
2. Click to open an available file. The document will be recovered.
 By default, Word autosaves every 10 minutes. If you are editing a
document for less than 10 minutes, Word may not create an
autosaved version.
If you don't see the file you need, you can browse all autosaved files
from Backstage view. Select the File tab, click Manage Versions,
then choose Recover Unsaved Documents.
Formatting Text
Formatted text can draw the reader's attention to specific parts of a document
and emphasize important information. In Word, you have several options for
adjusting the font of your text, including size, color, and inserting
special symbols. You can also adjust the alignment of the text to change how
it is displayed on the page.
To change the font:
By default, the font of each new document is set to Calibri. However, Word provides
many other fonts you can use to customize text and titles.
1. Select the text you want to modify.
2. On the Home tab, click the drop-down arrow next to the Font box. A
menu of font styles will appear.
3. Move the mouse over the various font styles. A live preview of the font
will appear in the document. Select the font style you want to use.
4. The font will change in the document.
To change the font size:
1. Select the text you want to modify.
2. Select the desired font size formatting option:
3. The font size will change in the document.
To use the Bold, Italic, and Underline commands:
The Bold, Italic, and Underline commands can be used to help draw attention to
important words or phrases.
 1. Select the text you want to modify.
2. On the Home tab, click the Bold (B), Italic (I), or Underline (U)
command in the Font group. In our example, we'll click Bold.
3. The selected text will be modified in the document.
Printing Documents
Once you've created your document, you may want to print it to view and
share your work offline. It's easy to preview and print a document in Word
using the Print pane.
To access the Print pane:
1. Select the File tab. Backstage view will appear.
2. Select Print. The Print pane will appear.
You can also access the Print pane by pressing Ctrl+P on your
keyboard.
To print a document:
1. Navigate to the Print pane and select the desired printer.
2. Enter the number of copies you want to print.
3. Select any additional settings if needed.
4. Click Print.

Using Tables
A table is a grid of cells arranged in rows and columns. Tables are useful for
various tasks such as presenting text information and numerical data. In
Word, you can create a blank table, convert text to a table, and apply a
variety of styles and formats to existing tables.
To insert a blank table:
1. Place your insertion point where you want the table to appear, then
select the Insert tab.
2. Click the Table command.

3. A drop-down menu containing a grid of squares will appear. Hover the mouse
over the grid to select the number of columns and rows in the table.
4. Click the mouse, and the table will appear in the document.
5. You can now place the insertion point anywhere in the table to add text.
 To move the insertion point to the next cell, press the Tab key while typing. If
the insertion point is in the last cell, pressing the Tab key will automatically
create a new row.
Modifying tables
It's easy to modify the look and feel of any table after adding it to a document. Word
includes different options for customizing a table, including adding rows or
columns and changing the table style.
To add a row or column:
1. Hover the mouse near the location where you want to add a row or
column, then click the plus sign that appears.
2. A new row or column will appear in the table.
Alternatively, you can right-click the table, then hover the mouse
over Insert to see various row and column options.
To delete a row or column:
1. Place the insertion point in the row or column you want to delete.
2. Right-click the mouse, then select Delete Cells... from the menu that
appears.
3. A dialog box will appear. Select Delete entire row or Delete entire
column, then click OK.
4. The column or row will be deleted.

Using Textboxes
Text boxes can be useful for drawing attention to specific text. They can also be
helpful when you need to move text around in your document. Word allows you
to format text boxes and the text within them as WordArt.
To insert a text box:
1. Select the Insert tab, then click the Text Box command in
the Text group.
2. A drop-down menu will appear. Select Draw Text Box.
3. Click, hold, and drag to create the text box.

4. The insertion point will appear inside the text box. You can now type to
create text inside the text box.
5. If you want, you can select the text and then change the font, color,
and size by using the commands on the Home tab.
6. Click anywhere outside of the text box to return to your document.
To move a text box:
1. Click the text box you want to move.
 2. Hover the mouse over one of the edges of the text box. The mouse will
change into a cross with arrows .
3. Click, hold, and drag the text box to the desired location.

To resize a text box:

1. Click the text box you want to resize.
2. Click, hold, and drag any of the sizing handles on the corners or sides
of the text box until it is the desired size.

Creating WordArt
In addition to adding effects to a text box, you can add effects to the text inside the
text box, which is known as WordArt. For the most part, the types of effects you
can add are the same as the ones you can add to shapes or text boxes (shadow, bevel,
etc.). However, you can also Transform the text to give it a wavy, slanted, or
inflated look.

Generally, you shouldn't use WordArt in more formal documents like resumes and
cover letters because it may appear too casual.

To apply a quick style to text:

A quick style will automatically apply several effects to your text at once. You can
then refine the look of your text by adding or modifying text effects.
1. Select the text box, or select some text inside of the text box.
2. On the Format tab, click the Quick Styles command in the WordArt
Stylesgroup. A drop-down menu of text styles will appear. Select
the style you want to use.
 3. The text will appear in the selected style. If you want, you can change
the font or font color from the Home tab.
To convert regular text into WordArt:
For text to be formatted as WordArt, it must be inside a text box. However, there is a
shortcut that allows you to convert text into WordArt even if it's not in a text box.
1. Select the text you want to convert, then click the Insert tab.
2. Click the WordArt drop-down arrow in the Text group. A drop-down
menu of WordArt styles will appear. Select the style you want to use.
3. Word will automatically create a text box for the text, and the text will
appear in the selected style. If you want, you can change
the font or font color from the Home tab.

THE INTERNET
It is difficult to define the internet simply because it is not a single entity. Instead, it
is an immensely complex combination of thousands of technologies and dozens of
services used by tens of millions of peoples around the world each day. While overly
simplistic definition like “Internet is a network of networks” is technically accurate.
Internet mean INTERnation Network, a network of all the computer networks above
the globe. So, Internet is a network of networks, made by joining computer networks
together. These different computers and networks are united with the common
thread of protocols like Internet Protocol (IP) and Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP).

INTRANET
An intranet is a computer network that uses Internet Protocol (IP) technology to
securely share any part of an organization’s information within that organization. It
is the connection of
computer networks in a local area. Sometimes, the term refers only to the
organization’s
internal Website, but may be a more extensive part of the organization’s information
technology infrastructure. It may host multiple private websites and constitute an
important component and focal point of internal communication and collaboration.
Any of the well-known Internet protocols may be found in an intranet, such as
HTTP (web services), SMTP (e-mail), and FTP (file transfer protocol). Internet
technologies are often deployed to provide modern interfaces to legacy information
systems hosting corporate data. An intranet can be understood as a private analog of
the Internet, or as a private extension of the Internet.
EXTRANET
An Extranet is the extension of an Intranet to include public access. An Extranet can
allow public access to employees, customers, clients or partners. The Extranet uses
Internet protocols so users can navigate with a browser, but resides on the
company’s private server rather than on a public Internet server. Extranet access
from the Internet can be controlled through various architectures that are password
or username specific. In other words, areas of the Extranet will be available
according to password credentials. This limits users to Extranet pages relevant to the
business they might be conducting, while keeping other areas of the Extranet private
and secure.
World Wide Web (WWW)
Is one of the services that can be used on Internet which enables us to view and
search contents in a form of web-pages

DATA TRANSER
Download is a term that implies taking a copy of digital data from a network
computer to a local computer, and upload means placing digital content on a
network computer from a local computer. For example, when you saved a copy of a
document from a web site to your computer (download). Likewise, when you finish
preparing a document and placed it on the network computer (upload).
Bitrate represents speed at which data is transferred through a network. It is
measured in bps (bit per second). The number of bits transferred in one second tells
us how many bits can be transferred through a network in one second.
1,000 bit/s rate = 1 kbps (one kilobit or one thousand bits per second)

1,000,000 bit/s rate = 1 Mbps (one megabit or one million bits per second)

1,000,000,000 bit/s rate = 1 Gbps (one gigabit or one billion bits per second)

Ways to connect to the Internet:

 Dial-up: Internet access method uses a modem (56k) and a telephone line.
 Mobile: Connecting by using a mobile network (GPRS, EDGE, UMTS,
HSPA)
 Satellite: Commonly used in parts of the world where there is no proper
infrastructure and there is no other way of accessing the Internet
 Wireless (Wi-Fi): Data is transferred between computers by using radio
frequencies (2,4 GHz) and the corresponding antennas

E-MAIL, IM, VOIP, BLOG

E-mail is the transmission of text messages via Internet. Using attachment, users can
exchange files like images, multimedia, documents, etc. E-mail addresses consist of
a username, @ sign ("at") and a domain name, e.g. [email protected],
where “mark.marich” is the username and “ITdesk.info” is the domain name.

IM (Instant Messaging) service is used for instant message exchange and real time
communication. Besides textual communication and video conferencing, they allow
file transfer as well. Some of the popular IM services are: WindowsLiveMessenger,
Skype, and GoogleTalk.

VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is a term for technology that enables
digitalization and transfer of sound (and multimedia sessions) over the Internet.
Therefore, it enables sound communication much like the telephone call. In short,
VoIP protocol enables audio/video communication between users.

Blog (web log) is a form of Internet media in which users can re-post or write their
opinion on any topic. It can be personal (a form of Internet diary), thematic, or in
the form of journals. Blogs are popular because end-users do not need to have
advanced computer knowledge, or knowledge of webpage creation, in order to be
present on the Internet and write about various topics, i.e. state their opinion.
Blogging has greatly facilitated the exchange of interests, ideas, opinions, and
contributed to realization of human right to free expression. Some use blogs to share
their art, personal aesthetic, or to collect virtual clippings from websites online.
Entries published on blogs are called posts, which may allow a space below for
visitors to leave their comments. Besides text, it is possible to exchange multimedia
files, such as photos or videos. In order to share your texts, pictures, video clips,
etc., it is necessary to create a personal account on websites that offer this type of
service. In case you simply wish to browse the content, it is not necessary to open a
personal account.

VIRTUAL COMMUNITIES
The term "virtual community" encompasses a group of people who communicate
via social networks, forums, IM service, blogs. We call it a community, since they
are a collection of people who participate in a group of their interests, thus forming
a virtual community, because it does not involve physical contact, but is carried out
by means of ICT technologies.

Social Networks are free online services that provide users with various forms of
presentation and communication. Some of the more popular social networks are:
Facebook, Twitter, Google+, Whatsapp etc.

Forum is a service that allows users to exchange opinions. It can be compared to

bulletin boards on which participants leave their messages, while others leave their
comments. Examples of forums are: Reddit, TED Conversations.

Chatroom is a webpage or part of a webpage which allows a real-time information

exchange. Unlike the instant messaging writing software, it does not require
computer installation, only a web browser and Internet connection.