18EEE403T - HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Unit-2
Energy Storage System

Dr. R. Femi
EEE
INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM
 Energy Storage Systems

• Energy Storage Systems are the set of methods and technologies used to store energy.
The stored energy can be drawn upon at a later time to perform useful operation.
• For instance, many renewable energy sources (such as wind, solar energy or solar energy,
tides) are intermittent.
• Sometimes the use of renewable energy is not direct when the energy is available, but at
other times. Then we need energy storage so that energy can be used when needed.
• Energy is available in various forms including radiation, chemical, gravitational potential,
electrical potential, electricity, elevated temperature, latent heat and kinetic.
• There are various methods and technologies to store various forms of energy.
• The choice of energy storage technology is typically dictated by application, economics,
integration within the system, and the availability of resources.
• Energy storage systems are also involved in converting energy from forms that are difficult
to store to forms that are more convenient or economical.
 EV Energy storage
• Conventional vehicle widely operates using an internal combustion engine (ICE) because of its well-
engineered and performance, consumes fossil fuels (i.e., diesel and petrol) and releases gases such as
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides, etc.
• The transportation sector is one of the leading contributors to the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
• The rise in fossil fuel price, environmental pollution and the limited lifetime of fossil fuels has led the
automobile manufacturers to look for an alternative to fossil fuel such as natural gas, hydrogen and
biofuel for the propulsion of the vehicle
• The sharp inclination in the emissions from conventional vehicles contribute to a significant increase in
environmental issues, besides the energy crises and low conversion efficiency leads to the evolution of
electric vehicles (EV).
• Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) have efficient fuel economy and reduce the overall running cost, but the
ultimate goal is to shift completely to the pure electric vehicle.
• Despite this, the main obstruction of HEV is energy storage capability.
• An EV requires high specific power (W/kg) and high specific energy (Wh/kg) to increase the distance
travelled and reduce the time required for charging.
• Topologies of EVs such as HEVs, plug-in HEVs are based on the diverse combination of batteries, fuel
cells, super-capacitor, flywheels, regenerative braking systems, which are used as energy sources and
energy storage devices.
 EV-Energy Storage system

• EV requires an energy storing system which is one of the concerns of today's EV

technology.
• Batteries are the energy storage means for EVs.
• Specific energy and specific power of electrochemical batteries are generally
much smaller than those of gasoline.
• Energy storage systems, usually batteries, are essential for all-electric vehicles,
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs),and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs).
• Energy storages:The devices that store energy, deliver energy outside (discharge),
and accept energy from outside (charge).
• In EV application energy storage has an important role as device used should
regulate and control the flow of energy.
• There are various factors for selecting the appropriate energy storage devices
such as energy density (Wh/kg), power density (W/kg), cycle efficiency (%), self-
charge and discharge characteristics, and life cycles
 Methods of Energy Storage Systems
• Electrochemical Energy Storage
– Flow battery
– Rechargeable battery
– Ultrabattery

• Electrical Energy Storage Systems

– Capacitor
– Super capacitor (Ultra capacitors)
– Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
BATTERY REQUIREMENT FOR HEV, PHEV AND EVS
Battery Requirement for HEV, PHEV and EVs
CD: Charge-depleting or EV mode refers to a mode of
vehicle operation that is dependent on the energy from
the battery pack. Battery electric vehicles operate solely
in this mode.

CS: Charge sustaining mode – Utilizes a combination of

engine and motor management to try and maintain the
ESS SOC at a specified level.
VARIOUS TYPES OF BATTERIES FOR EVS AND THEIR SPECIFICATIONS
VARIOUS TYPES OF BATTERIES FOR EVS AND THEIR SPECIFICATIONS
Balancing key performance parameters managing many tradeoffs
TYPES OF BATTERIES
 Types of Batteries
• Non-rechargeable batteries (primary batteries)
• Rechargeable batteries (secondary batteries)
 Non-rechargeable Batteries
These types of batteries are basically considered as primary batteries because they can be used only once. These
batteries cannot be recharged and used again. Let’s see about the regular, daily life primary batteries that we see.

• Alkaline batteries: It is basically constructed with the chemical composition of Zinc (Zn) and Manganese
dioxide (MnO2), as the electrolyte used in it is potassium hydroxide which is purely an alkaline substance the battery
is named as alkaline battery having he power density of 100 Wh/Kg.
Advantages:
• Cycle life is more
• More compatible and efficient for powering up portable devices.
• Shelf life is more.
• Small in size.
• Highly efficient.
• Low internal resistance so that discharge state in idle state is less.
• Leakage is low.
Disadvantages:
• Cost is a bit high. Except it everything is an advantage.
Applications:
• It can used in torches, remotes, wall clocks, small portable gadgets etc.
 Non-rechargeable Batteries
Coin cell batteries: The chemical composition of coil cell batteries is also alkaline in nature. Apart from
alkaline composition, lithium and silver oxide chemicals will be used to manufacture these batteries which are more
efficient in providing steady and stable voltage in such a small sizes. It has Power density of 270 Wh/Kg.
Advantages:
• Light in weight
• Small in size
• High density
• Low cost
• High nominal voltage (up to 3V)
• Easy to get high voltages by arranging serially
• Long shelf life
Disadvantages:
• Needs a holder
• Low current draw capability
Applications:
• These types of batteries are used in watches, wall clocks, weighing machines, and other low power miniature
electronic products etc.
 Rechargeable Batteries
• These types of batteries are generally called as secondary batteries
which can be recharged and can be reused. Though the cost is high, but
they can be recharged and reused and can have a huge life span when
properly used and safely charged.
– Lead-acid batteries
– Nickel-cadmium batteries (Ni-Cd)
– Nickel-metal hybrid batteries (Ni-MH)
– Lithium-ion batteries (Li-ion)
– Alkaline batteries
– Zinc-carbon batteries
– Coin cell batteries
– Zinc-air cells
– Sealed lead-acid batteries
Electrochemical Batteries
• Electrochemical batteries, more commonly referred to as “batteries,” are
electrochemical devices that convert electrical energy into potential chemical
energy during charging, and convert chemical energy into electric energy
during discharging.
• A “battery” is composed of several cells stacked together.
• A cell is an independent and complete unit that possesses all the
electrochemical properties.
• Basically, a battery cell consists of three primary elements: two electrodes
(positive and negative) immersed into an electrolyte.

A typical electrochemical battery cell Cut-off voltage of a typical battery

Lithium-Ion Batteries
• Lithium-ion batteries are currently used in most portable consumer
electronics such as cell phones and laptops because of their high energy per
unit mass relative to other electrical energy storage systems.
• They also have a high power-to-weight ratio, high energy efficiency, good
high-temperature performance, and low self-discharge.
• Most components of lithium-ion batteries can be recycled, but the cost of
material recovery remains a challenge for the industry.
• The U.S. Department of Energy is also supporting the Lithium-Ion Battery
Recycling Price to develop and demonstrate profitable solutions for collecting,
sorting, storing, and transporting spent and discarded lithium-ion batteries for
eventual recycling and materials recovery.
• Most of today's all-electric vehicles and PHEVs use lithium-ion batteries,
though the exact chemistry often varies from that of consumer electronics
batteries.
• Research and development are ongoing to reduce their relatively high cost,
extend their useful life, and address safety concerns in regard to overheating.
• Nickel–cadmium battery (Ni-Cd battery or NiCad battery) is a type
of rechargeable battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and
metallic cadmium as electrodes. The abbreviation Ni-Cd is derived from
the chemical symbols of nickel (Ni) and cadmium (Cd): the
abbreviation NiCad is a registered trademark of SAFT Corporation,
although this brand name is commonly used to describe all Ni–Cd
batteries.
• Wet-cell nickel-cadmium batteries were invented in 1899. A Ni-Cd
battery has a terminal voltage during discharge of around 1.2 volts which
decreases little until nearly the end of discharge. The
maximum electromotive force offered by a Ni-Cd cell is 1.3 V. Ni-Cd
batteries are made in a wide range of sizes and capacities, from portable
sealed types interchangeable with carbon-zinc dry cells, to large
ventilated cells used for standby power and motive power.
Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries
• Nickel-metal hydride batteries, used routinely in computer and medical equipment, offer reasonable
specific energy and specific power capabilities.
• Nickel-metal hydride batteries have a much longer life cycle than lead-acid batteries and are safe and
abuse tolerant.
• These batteries have been widely used in HEVs. The main challenges with nickel-metal hydride
batteries are their high cost, high self-discharge and heat generation at high temperatures, and the
need to control hydrogen loss.

Lead-Acid Batteries
• Lead-acid batteries can be designed to be high power and are inexpensive, safe, and reliable.
• However, low specific energy, poor cold-temperature performance, and short calendar and lifecycle
impede their use.
• Advanced high-power lead-acid batteries are being developed, but these batteries are only used in
commercially available electric-drive vehicles for ancillary loads.
BATTERY CHARACTERIZATION
 Battery characteristics
The following must be taken into consideration when selecting a battery:

• Type.
• Voltage.
• Discharge curve.
• Capacity.
• Energy density.
• Specific energy density.
• Power density.
• Temperature dependence.
Charging Characteristics
Stage 1: Constant current (CC) charging or bulk charge
mode
• Assuming the battery is starting in a discharged
state, the charger is operating in constant current
mode, where the charger current is maintained at a
constant value and the battery voltage is allowed to
rise as it is being recharged. Approximately 80% of
battery capacity is returned in the constant current
region.
Stage 2: Constant Voltage (CV) Float mode
• The Float mode follows the constant current mode.
Float mode is where the battery voltage is
maintained at approximately 2.25 volts per cell, or
13.5 volts for a 12V battery. This charger will
maintain the battery indefinItely without boiling out
electrolyte or overcharging the battery.
Battery Voltage, Current and Resistance
Discharge Characteristics
Discharge Characteristics
 State of charge (SoC)
• State of charge (SoC) is the level of charge of an electric battery relative
to its capacity. The units of SoC are percentage points (0% = empty; 100%
= full). An alternative form of the same measure is the depth of
discharge (DoD), the inverse of SoC (100% = empty; 0% = full). SoC is
normally used when discussing the current state of a battery in use,
while DoD is most often seen when discussing the lifetime of the battery
after repeated use.
SOC and DOD
 State of Health (SOH)
• The State of Health is a "measurement" that reflects the general
condition of a battery and its ability to deliver the specified
performance compared with a fresh battery.
• The C-rate is the unit battery experts use to measure the speed
at which a battery is fully charged or discharged. For example,
charging at a C-rate of 1C means that the battery is charged
from 0-100% in one hour.
• C- and E- rates – In describing batteries, discharge current is often
expressed as a C-rate in order to normalize against battery capacity,
which is often very different between batteries. A C-rate is a
measure of the rate at which a battery is discharged relative to its
maximum capacity.
• A 1C rate means that the discharge current will discharge the entire
battery in 1 hour. For a battery with a capacity of 100 Amp-hrs, this
equates to a discharge current of 100 Amps. A 5C rate for this
battery would be 500 Amps, and a C/2 rate would be 50 Amps.
Similarly, an E-rate describes the dis-charge power to discharge the
entire battery in 1 hour.
 Battery Condition
• State of Charge (SOC)(%) – An expression of the present battery
capacity as a percentage of maximum capacity. SOC is generally
calculated using current integration to determine the change in
battery capacity over time
• Depth of Discharge (DOD) (%) – The percentage of battery capacity
that has been discharged expressed as a percentage of maximum
capacity. A discharge to at least 80 % DOD is referred to as a deep
discharge
 Battery Condition
• Terminal Voltage (V) – The voltage between the battery terminals
with load applied. Terminal voltage varies with SOC and
discharge/charge current.
• Open-circuit voltage (V) – The voltage between the battery
terminals with no load applied. The open-circuit voltage depends
on the battery state of charge, increasing with state of charge.
• Internal Resistance – The resistance within the battery, generally
different for charging and discharging, also dependent on the
battery state of charge. As internal resistance increases, the battery
efficiency decreases and thermal stability is reduced as more of the
charging energy is converted into heat.
 Battery Technical Specifications
• Nominal Voltage (V) – The reported or reference voltage of the battery, also
sometimes thought of as the “normal” voltage of the battery.
• Cut-off Voltage – The minimum allowable voltage. It is this voltage that generally
defines the “empty” state of the battery.
• Capacity or Nominal Capacity (Ah for a specific C-rate) – The coulometric
capacity, the total Amp-hours available when the battery is discharged at a
certain discharge current (specified as a C-rate) from 100 percent state-of-charge
to the cut-off voltage. Capacity is calculated by multiplying the discharge current
(in Amps) by the discharge time (in hours) and decreases with increasing C-rate.
• Energy or Nominal Energy (Wh (for a specific C-rate)) – The “energy capacity” of
the battery, the total Watt-hours available when the battery is discharged at a
certain discharge current (specified as a C-rate) from 100 percent state-of-charge
to the cut-off voltage. Energy is calculated by multiplying the discharge power (in
Watts) by the discharge time (in hours). Like capacity, energy decreases with
increasing C-rate.
 Battery Technical Specifications
• Cycle Life (number for a specific DOD) – The number of discharge-charge cycles the
battery can experience before it fails to meet specific performance criteria. Cycle life is
estimated for specific charge and discharge conditions. The actual operating life of the
battery is affected by the rate and depth of cycles and by other conditions such as
temperature and humidity. The higher the DOD, the lower the cycle life.
• Specific Energy (Wh/kg) – The nominal battery energy per unit mass, sometimes
referred to as the gravimetric energy density. Specific energy is a characteristic of the
battery chemistry and packaging. Along with the energy consumption of the vehicle, it
determines the battery weight required to achieve a given electric range.
• Specific Power (W/kg) – The maximum available power per unit mass. Specific power is
a characteristic of the battery chemistry and packaging. It determines the battery
weight required to achieve a given performance target.
• Energy Density (Wh/L) – The nominal battery energy per unit volume, sometimes
referred to as the volumetric energy density. Specific energy is a characteristic of the
battery chemistry and packaging. Along with the energy consumption of the vehicle, it
determines the battery size required to achieve a given electric range.
 Battery Technical Specifications
• Power Density (W/L) – The maximum available power per unit volume. Specific power
is a characteristic of the battery chemistry and packaging. It determines the battery size
required to achieve a given performance target.
• Maximum Continuous Discharge Current – The maximum current at which the battery
can be discharged continuously. This limit is usually defined by the battery
manufacturer in order to prevent excessive discharge rates that would damage the
battery or reduce its capacity. Along with the maximum continuous power of the
motor, this defines the top sustainable speed and acceleration of the vehicle.
• Maximum 30-sec Discharge Pulse Current –The maximum current at which the battery
can be discharged for pulses of up to 30 seconds. This limit is usually defined by the
battery manufacturer in order to prevent excessive discharge rates that would damage
the battery or reduce its capacity. Along with the peak power of the electric motor, this
defines the acceleration performance (0-60 mph time) of the vehicle.
• Charge Voltage – The voltage that the battery is charged to when charged to full
capacity. Charging schemes generally consist of a constant current charging until the
battery voltage reaching the charge voltage, then constant voltage charging, allowing
the charge current to taper until it is very small.
 Battery Technical Specifications
• Float Voltage – The voltage at which the battery is maintained after
being charge to 100 percent SOC to maintain that capacity by
compensating for self-discharge of the battery.
• (Recommended) Charge Current – The ideal current at which the
battery is initially charged (to roughly 70 percent SOC) under
constant charging scheme before transitioning into constant voltage
charging.
• (Maximum) Internal Resistance – The resistance within the battery,
generally different for charging and discharging
 Battery Characterization
• Capacity characterization
• Internal resistance characterization
• Open circuit voltage characterization
Electrical and Thermal Characterization of Battery
Internal Resistance
Characteristics
Comparison of
Battery
Characteristics
Battery
 A battery, which is actually an electric cell, is a device that produces electricity from a
chemical reaction.
 Battery consists of two or more cells connected in series or parallel, but the term is
generally used for a single cell.
 A cell consists of a negative electrode; an electrolyte, which conducts ions; a
separator, also an ion conductor; and a positive electrode.
 The electrolyte may be aqueous (composed of water) or nonaqueous (not
composed of water), in liquid, paste, or solid form.
 When the cell is connected to an external load, or device to be powered, the negative
electrode supplies a current of electrons that flow through the load and are accepted
by the positive electrode.
 When the external load is removed the reaction ceases.
 A primary battery is one that can convert its chemicals into electricity only once and
then must be discarded.
 A secondary battery has electrodes that can be reconstituted by passing electricity
back through it; also called a storage or rechargeable battery, it can be reused many
times.
 Lead Acid Battery
 French scientist named Nicolas Gautherot in the year 1801 observed that in the electrolysis
testing, there exists a minimal amount of current even when there is a disconnection of the
main battery.
 Whereas in the year, 1859 a scientist named Gatson developed lead acid battery and this was
the first one that gets recharged through the passage of reverse current.
 This was the initial version of this kind of battery whereas Faure then added many
enhancements to this and finally, the practical type of lead acid battery was invented by Henri
Tudor in 1886.
 Lead acid battery comes under the classification of rechargeable and secondary batteries.
 In spite of the battery’s minimal proportions in energy to volume and energy to weight, it holds
the capability to deliver increased surge currents.
 This corresponds that lead acid cells possess a high amount of power to weight proportions.
 These are the batteries that utilize lead peroxide and sponge lead to convert chemical energy
into electrical energy.
 These are mostly employed in substations and power systems due to the reason they have
increased cell voltage levels and minimal cost.
 Construction

 A Lead Acid Battery consists of Plates, Separator, and Electrolyte, Hard Plastic with
a hard rubber case.
 In the batteries, the plates are of two types, positive and negative.
 The positive one consists of Lead dioxide and negative one consists of Sponge
Lead.
 These two plates are separated using a separator which is an insulating material.
 This total construction is kept in a hard plastic case with an electrolyte.
The electrolyte is water and sulfuric acid.
 The hard plastic case is one cell. A single cell store typically 2.1V.
 Due to this reason, A 12V lead acid battery consists of 6 cells and provide 6 x
2.1V/Cell = 12.6V typically.
 It is highly dependable on the active material (Electrolyte quantity) and the plate’s
size. lithium battery storage capacity is described in mAh or milliamp-hour rating,
but in the case of Lead Acid battery, it is Amp hour.
Construction-Lead Acid Battery
Container:
 Container part is constructed with ebonite, lead-coated wood, glass, hard rubber made of the
bituminous element, ceramic materials, or forged plastic which are placed on the top to eliminate
any kind of electrolyte discharge.
 Whereas in the container bottom section, there exist four ribs where two are placed on the
positive plate and the others on the negative plate.
 Here, the prism acts as a base for both the plates and additionally it safeguards the plates from
short-circuit.
 The components that are utilized for the construction of the container should be free from
sulphuric acid, they should not bend or permeable and do not hold any kinds of impurities which
leads to electrolyte damage.
Plates:
 The plates in lead acid battery are constructed in a different way and all are made up of similar
types of the grid which is constructed of active components and lead.
 The grid is crucial to establish conductivity of current and for spreading equal amounts of
currents to the active components.
 There are, in general, two methods of producing the active materials of the cell and attaching
them to lead plates. These are known after the names of their inventors.
1. Plante plates or formed lead acid battery plates.
 If there is uneven distribution, then there will be loosening of the active component. The
plates in this battery are of two kinds.
 Those are of plante/formed plates and Faure/pasted plates.
 The formed plates are mainly employed for static batteries and they have heavyweight
and expensive too.
 But they have long durability and these are not easily prone to lose their active
components even in continuous charging and discharging processes. These have
minimal capacity to weight proportion.
 While the pasted process is mostly used for the construction of negative plates than that
of positive plates. The negative active component is somewhat complicated and they
experience a slight modification in charging and discharging processes.
Active Component:
 The component which actively involves in the chemical reaction processes that happen
in the battery mainly at the time of charging and discharging is termed as an active
component.
 The active components are:
1. Lead peroxide – It forms a positive active component.
2. Sponge lead – This material forms the negative active component
3. Diluted sulphuric acid – This is mainly utilized as an electrolyte
Separators
 These are of thin sheets that are constructed of porous rubber, coated leadwood,
and glass fiber. The separators are positioned in between the plates to provide active
insulation. They have a grooved shape on one side and a smooth finish on other
edges.
Battery Edges
 It has positive and negative edges having diameters of 17.5 mm and 16 mm.
 Lead is a chemical element (symbol is Pb and the atomic number is 82).
 It is a soft and malleable element.
 A battery, which consists of Lead and anhydrous plumbic acid (sometimes wrongly
called as lead peroxide), is called as Lead Acid Battery.
 Working of the Lead Acid battery
 The chemical process involved in Lead Acid is battery’s charging and discharging condition.
 The diluted sulfuric acid H2SO4 molecules break into two parts when the acid dissolves.
 It will create positive ions 2H+ and negative ions SO4-.
 The two electrodes are connected as plates, Anode and Cathode.
 Anode receives the negative ions and cathode attracts the positive ions.
 This bonding in Anode and SO4- and Cathode with 2H+ interchange electrons and which is
further react with the H2O or with the water (Diluted sulfuric acid, Sulfuric Acid + Water).
 The battery has two states of chemical reaction, Charging and Discharging.
 when the battery is connected with the charger, the sulfuric acid molecules break into two ions,
positive ions 2H+ and negative ions SO4-.
 The hydrogen exchange electrons with the cathode and become hydrogen, this hydrogen reacts
with the PbSO4 in cathode and form Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) and Lead (Pb).
 On the other hand, SO4- exchange electrons with anode and become radical SO4.
 This SO4 reacts with PbSO4 of anode and create the lead peroxide PbO2 and sulfuric acid
(H2SO4).
 The energy gets stored by increasing the gravity of sulfuric acid and increasing the cell potential
voltage.
 Charging
 When the sulfuric acid dissolves, its molecules break up into positive hydrogen
ions (2H+) and sulphate negative ions (SO4—) and move freely.
 If the two electrodes are immersed in solutions and connected to DC supply then
the hydrogen ions being positively charged and moved towards the electrodes
and connected to the negative terminal of the supply.
 The SO4— ions being negatively charged moved towards the electrodes
connected to the positive terminal of the supply main (i.e., anode).
 Each hydrogen ion takes one electron from the cathode, and each sulphates ions
takes the two negative ions from the anodes and react with water and form
sulfuric and hydrogen acid.
 The oxygen, which produced from the above equation react with lead oxide and
form lead peroxide (PbO2.)
 Thus, during charging the lead cathode remain as lead, but lead anode gets
converted into lead peroxide, chocolate in colour.
 If the DC source of supply is disconnected and if the voltmeter connects between
the electrodes, it will show the potential difference between them.
 If wire connects the electrodes, then current will flow from the positive plate to the
negative plate through external circuit i.e. the cell is capable of supplying electrical
energy.
Chemical Action During Discharging
 When the cell is full discharge, then the anode is of lead peroxide (PbO2)
and a cathode is of metallic sponge lead (Pb).
 When the electrodes are connected through a resistance, the cell discharge
and electrons flow in a direction opposite to that during charging.
 The hydrogen ions move to the anode and reaching the anodes receive one
electron from the anode and become hydrogen atom.
 The hydrogen atom comes in contacts with a PbO2, so it attacks and forms
lead sulphate (PbSO4), whitish in colour and water according to the
chemical equation.
 The each sulphate ion (SO4—) moves towards the cathode and reaching
there gives up two electrons becomes radical SO4, attack the metallic lead
cathode and form lead sulphate whitish in colour according to the chemical
equation.
Chemical Action During Recharging

 For recharging, the anode and cathode are connected to the positive and
the negative terminal of the DC supply mains.
 The molecules of the sulfuric acid break up into ions of 2H+ and SO4—.
 The hydrogen ions being positively charged moved towards the cathodes
and receive two electrons from there and form a hydrogen atom.
 The hydrogen atom reacts with lead sulphate cathode forming lead and
sulfuric acid according to the chemical equation.
 SO4— ion moves to the anode, gives up its two additional electrons becomes
radical SO4, react with the lead sulphate anode and form leads peroxide and
lead sulphuric acid according to the chemical equation.
 The charging and discharging are represented by a single reversible
equation
 Nickel Cadmium Battery NiCd

 The first NiCd battery was created by Waldemar Jungner of Sweden in 1899.
 This battery uses nickel oxide in its positive electrode (cathode), a cadmium
compound in its negative electrode (anode), and potassium hydroxide solution
as its electrolyte.
 The Nickel Cadmium Battery is rechargeable, so it can cycle repeatedly.
 A nickel cadmium battery converts chemical energy to electrical energy upon
discharge and converts electrical energy back to chemical energy upon
recharge.
 In a fully discharged NiCd battery, the cathode contains nickel hydroxide
[Ni(OH)2] and cadmium hydroxide [Cd(OH)2] in the anode.
 When the battery is charged, the chemical composition of the cathode is
transformed and the nickel hydroxide changes to nickel oxyhydroxide [NiOOH].
 In the anode, cadmium hydroxide is transformed to cadmium. As the battery is
discharged, the process is reversed, as shown in the following formula.
 Cd + 2H2O + 2NiOOH —> 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2
 Construction of Nickel-Cadmium Battery Voltage
 The operation of a nickel-cadmium battery is similar to that of other batteries.
Nickel and cadmium are used to increase performance.
 Since a battery is a DC voltage source, it must have two potential points: positive
and negative, commonly known as anode and cathode.
 A coating of nickel oxide NiO2 is held around the redox in a nickel-cadmium
battery.
 This nickel oxide coating serves as a cathode. A coating of KaOH is held above
the nickel oxide layer to serve as a separator.
 It should be remembered that this separator layer must be wet or damp. Its aim is
to provide the chemical reaction with the required OH negative ions.
 Cadmium is mounted above the separator plate. In a nickel-cadmium battery, the
cadmium coating serves as the anode.
 The nickel layer acts as a positive electrode collector, while the cadmium layer
acts as a negative electrode collector, as seen in the diagram.
 KOH or NaOH is used as a separator layer between the two layers.
 Its role is to supply OH ions. A safety valve, sealing pad, insulation ring, insulation
gasket, and an exterior case round out the package.
 The insulator ring's job is to keep the two layers apart by providing insulation. The insulator
gasket is where the insulation ring is held close at hand. This ring is attached to the
separator plate. The outer case serves to shield the inner layers from external causes such
as battery failure and mishandling. It should be remembered that working with the battery is
often unsafe due to chemical reactions that occur inside the battery.
 The battery case is never opened so all of the layers are visible and could hurt the person
using it. When the unit is not in operation, it is often advised that the battery be removed.
 The nickel-cadmium battery is constructed similarly to lead-acid batteries. It is made up of
three basic layers. The nickel layer is first, followed by the separator layer, and then the
cadmium layer. The nickel layer functions as a positive electrode collector, while the
cadmium layer functions as a negative electrode collector.
 KOH or NaOH is used as a separator layer between the two layers. Its role is to supply OH
ions. A safety valve, sealing pad, insulation ring, insulation gasket, and an exterior case
round out the package. The insulator ring's job is to keep the two layers apart by providing
insulation. The insulator gasket is where the insulation ring is held close at hand. This ring
is attached to the separator plate.
 The outer case serves to shield the inner layers from external causes such as battery
failure and mishandling. It should be remembered that working with the battery is often
unsafe due to chemical reactions that occur inside the battery. The layers, in combination
with the separator layer, create the required chemical reaction and the potential difference.
 The chemical equations representing the chemical reaction can be given as :

 The first equation represents the reaction between the cathode layer nickel and the separator. It
gives an output of Nickel oxide OH ions.
 The need for the separator layer as mentioned before is the provide the OH ions required for the
chemical reaction.
 For the provision of H20, the separator layer is soaked with water for the initial reaction. Later
H2O is obtained as one of the byproducts.
 On the anode side, the cadmium layer is also combined with OH ions which are obtained from
the separators layer.
 This results in cadmium oxide and electrons. It may be noted that the electrons in both the
equations get canceled.
 Also, OH ions get canceled. The reminder equation is given by the third equation, where nickel is
combined with cadmium and water.
 It results in nickel oxide and cadmium oxide.
 Working Principle:
 The chemical reaction in the Nickle-Cadmium battery or cell is perfectly reversible.
 When fully charged the positive plate is Ni(OH)2 and Negative plate is Cd(OH)2 ,
While discharging the Positive plate converts into Ni(OH)3 and the negative plate is
converted into pure Cd.
 The chemical conversion is reverted when a discharged battery is charged again.

Electrical Characteristics:
 The average EMF of Nickle-Cadmium battery is 1.2 V per cell. However, the EMF of
a cell can go as high as up to 1.4 v , when the cell is fully charged.
The average charging voltage of Nickle-Cadmium battery is 1.45 V and trickle
charging rating is 1.35 V.
 The Ampere-hour efficiency under normal operating conditions is about 80% and
watt-hour efficiency is about 65%. The self discharge rate is about 10% per month
and energy density is about 40-60 watt-hour per kg.
 Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) battery
 Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) battery has become pervasive in today’s technology
climate, powering everything from cellular phones to hybrid electric vehicles.
 The NiMH battery started its life as an evolution from the nickel hydrogen battery used
in aerospace applications.
 Because of their exceptional cycle life and reasonable specific energy, nickel
hydrogen batteries were attractive for aerospace applications;
 however nickel hydrogen batteries have poor volumetric efficiency and require tanks
of compressed hydrogen gas and platinum catalysts.
 NiMH batteries are the result of configuring a battery using metal hydride hydrogen
storage materials as one of the battery electrodes.
 NiMH batteries have been in development for well over twenty years, but were mere
laboratory curiosities before the development of advanced metal hydride electrodes
that were capable of being charged and discharged in a cell environment without
failure.
 The basic work performed in multi-component metal hydride alloys has paved the
way for the current generation of high performance, long life NiMH batteries in use
today in nearly every application.
 Nickel metal hydride battery
 A nickel metal hydride battery (NiMH or Ni–MH) is a type of rechargeable battery.
 A Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) battery system is an energy storage system based on
electrochemical charge/discharge reactions that occur between a positive electrode
(cathode) that contains nickel oxyde-hydroxide as the active material and a negative
electrode (anode) that is composed of a hydrogen-absorbing alloy.
 The electrodes are separated by a permeable membrane which allows for electron
and ionic flow between them and is immersed in an electrolyte that is made up of
aqueous potassium hydroxide that undergoes no significant changes during
operation.
 The chemical reaction at the positive electrode is similar to that of the nickel–
cadmium cell (NiCd), with both using nickel oxide hydroxide (NiOOH).
 However, the negative electrodes use a hydrogen-absorbing alloy instead of
cadmium.
 NiMH batteries can have two to three times the capacity of NiCd batteries of the
same size, with significantly higher energy density, although much less than lithium-
ion batteries.
 They are typically used as a substitute for similarly shaped non-rechargeable
alkaline batteries, as they feature a slightly lower but generally compatible cell
voltage, and are less prone to leaking and explosion.
 Construction:
 Nickel-metal hydride batteries consist of :
 a positive plate containing nickel hydroxide as its principal active material,
 a negative plate mainly composed of hydrogen-absorbing alloys,
 a separator made of fine fibers, an alkaline electrolyte, a metal case and a sealing
plate provided with a self-resealing safety vent.
 Their basic structure is identical to that of Ni-Cd batteries.
 With cylindrical nickel-metal hydride batteries, the positive and negative plates
are seperated by the separator, wound into a coil, inserted into the case, and
sealed by the sealing plate through an electrically insulated gasket.
Principle of Electrochemical Reaction Involved in Batteries:
 Nickel-metal hydride batteries employ nickel hydroxide for the positive electrode
similar to Ni-Cd batteries.
 The hydrogen is stored in a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the negative
electrode, and an aqueous solution consisting mainly of potassium hydroxide
for the electrolyte.
 Their charge and discharge reactions are shown below.

 As can be seen by the overall reaction given above, the chief characteristics of
the principle behind a nickel-metal hydride battery is that hydrogen moves from
the positive to negative electrode during charge and reverse during discharge,
with the electrolyte taking no part in the reaction; which means that there is no
accompanying increase or decrease in the electrolyte
Secondary Battery Technology Comparison
 Lithium-ion batteries
 Lithium-ion batteries are incredibly popular these days.
 Appln:in laptops, PDAs, cell phones and iPods- most energetic rechargeable batteries
available.
 Lithium-ion batteries have also been in the news lately. That’s because these batteries
have the ability to burst into flames occasionally.
 It's not very common — just two or three battery packs per million have a problem — but
when it happens, it's extreme. In some situations, the failure rate can rise, and when that
happens you end up with a worldwide battery recall that can cost manufacturers millions
of dollars.
 Lithium-ion batteries are popular because they have a number of important
advantages over competing technologies:
• They're generally much lighter than other types of rechargeable batteries of the
same size.
• The electrodes of a lithium-ion battery are made of
lightweight lithium and carbon.
• Lithium is also a highly reactive element, meaning that a lot of energy can be
stored in its atomic bonds. This translates into a very high energy density for
lithium-ion batteries.
• A typical lithium-ion battery can store 150 watt-hours of electricity in 1 kilogram of
battery. A NiMH (nickel-metal hydride) battery pack can store perhaps 100 watt-
hours per kilogram, although 60 to 70 watt-hours might be more typical. A lead-
acid battery can store only 25 watt-hours per kilogram.
• Using lead-acid technology, it takes 6 kilograms to store the same amount of
energy that a 1 kilogram lithium-ion battery can handle. They hold their charge.
• A lithium-ion battery pack loses only about 5 percent of its charge per month,
compared to a 20 percent loss per month for NiMH batteries.
• They have no memory effect, which means that you do not have to completely
discharge them before recharging, as with some other battery chemistries.
• Lithium-ion batteries can handle hundreds of charge/discharge cycles.
• The lithium-ion cells can be either cylindrical batteries that look almost identical to AA cells,
or they can be prismatic, which means they are square or rectangular The computer, which
comprises:
• One or more temperature sensors to monitor the battery temperature
• A voltage converter and regulator circuit to maintain safe levels of voltage and current
• A shielded notebook connector that lets power and information flow in and out of the battery
pack
• A voltage tap, which monitors the energy capacity of individual cells in the battery pack
• A battery charge state monitor, which is a small computer that handles the whole charging
process to make sure the batteries charge as quickly and fully as possible.
 If the battery pack gets too hot during charging or use, the computer will shut down the flow
of power to try to cool things down. If you leave your laptop in an extremely hot car and try
to use the laptop, this computer may prevent you from powering up until things cool off. If
the cells ever become completely discharged, the battery pack will shut down because the
cells are ruined. It may also keep track of the number of charge/discharge cycles and send
out information so the laptop's battery meter can tell you how much charge is left in the
battery.
 It's a pretty sophisticated little computer, and it draws power from the batteries. This power
draw is one reason why lithium-ion batteries lose 5 percent of their power every month
when sitting idle
 Working-Lithium ion battery
 A battery is made up of an anode, cathode, separator, electrolyte, and two current
collectors (positive and negative).
 The anode and cathode store the lithium.
 A positive electrode connects to the battery's positive or + terminal. A negative
electrode connects to the negative or − terminal. And a chemical called an electrolyte in
between them.
 The electrolyte carries positively charged lithium ions from the anode to the cathode and
vice versa through the separator.
 The movement of the lithium ions creates free electrons in the anode which creates a
charge at the positive current collector.
 The electrical current then flows from the current collector through a device being powered
(cell phone, computer, etc.) to the negative current collector.
 The separator blocks the flow of electrons inside the battery.
 CHARGE/DISCHARGE
 While the battery is discharging and providing an electric current, the anode releases
lithium ions to the cathode, generating a flow of electrons from one side to the other.
 When plugging in the device, the opposite happens:
 Lithium ions are released by the cathode and received by the anode.
 The positive electrode is typically made from a chemical compound called lithium-
cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) or lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4).
 The negative electrode is generally made from carbon (graphite). The electrolyte
varies from one type of battery to another.
 The electrolyte carries positively charged lithium ions from the anode to the
cathode.
 The movement of the lithium ions creates free electrons in the anode which
creates a charge at the positive current collector.
 The electrical current then flows from the current collector through a device being
powered (cell phone, computer, etc.) to the negative current collector.
 The separator blocks the flow of electrons inside the battery.
 While the battery is discharging and providing an electric current, the anode releases
lithium ions to the cathode, generating a flow of electrons from one side to the other.
 When plugging in the device, the opposite reaction happens, the cathode releases
lithium ions and anode receives them.

 In this battery, the energy density and power density are most common things of the
battery.
 Generally, the energy density measures in watt-hours per kilogram (wh/kg) and is the
amount of energy the battery can store with respect to its mass.
 Power density measures in watts per kilogram (W/kg) and is the amount of power of
battery with respect to its mass.
 Advantages of Lithium-ion Battery
1. Lithium-ion batteries have a significantly low self-discharge rate as compared to the other type of
batteries.
2. They have a high energy density.
3. There exists no memory effect in lithium-ion batteries.
4. The average life span of lithium-ion batteries is ten times more than the traditional lead-acid batteries.
5. The charging rate of lithium-ion batteries is high.
6. Lithium-ion batteries work efficiently under extreme conditions such as high pressure and temperature
fluctuations.
7. Lithium-ion batteries are lightweight and compact in size. Typically, the weight of lithium-ion batteries is
roughly 50-60% less than the standard lead-acid batteries.
8. Installation of lithium-ion batteries is comparatively easy.
9. These types of batteries are flexible, less bulky, and safe to use.
10. Lithium-ion batteries are available in a variety of shapes and sizes.
11. The voltage level of a lithium-ion battery does not drop and is maintained constantly throughout the use.
12. The capacity of a lithium-ion battery is approximately 25-50% more than the lead-acid battery.
13. They require low maintenance.
14. Lithium-ion batteries are non-hazardous as they do not emit any toxic gas.
 Disadvantages of Lithium-ion Battery

1. The charging capacity of a lithium-ion battery gets reduced over time because of
the loss of lithium ions in the solid electrolyte interphase and cathode-electrolyte
interphase.
2. If the separator of the lithium-ion batteries gets damaged, they are susceptible to
fire hazards.
3. They are relatively expensive.
4. If the battery runs out of lithium ions, it can not be replaced. Thus, the battery
cannot be used after the tentative life span.
 Example:2
 Calculate the suitable charging current in Amps and the needed charging time in hrs
for a 12V, 120Ah battery.
 Solution:
 First of all, we will calculate charging current for 120 Ah battery. As we know
that charging current should be 10% of the Ah rating of battery.
 Therefore,
 Charging current for 120Ah Battery = 120 Ah x (10 ÷ 100) = 12 Amperes.
 But due to some losses, we may take 12-14 Amperes for batteries charging purpose
 But due to some losses, we may take 12-14 Amperes for batteries charging purpose
instead of 12 Amps
 Suppose we took 13 Amp for charging purpose,
 then,
 Charging time for 120Ah battery = 120 ÷ 13 = 9.23 Hrs.
 But this was an ideal case…

 Practically, it has been noted that 40% of losses occurs in case of battery charging.
 Then 120 x (40 ÷ 100) = 48 (120Ah x 40% of losses)
 Therefore, 120 + 48 = 168 Ah ( 120 Ah + Losses)
 Now Charging Time of battery = Ah ÷ Charging Current
 Putting the values;
 168 ÷ 13 = 12.92 or 13 hrs. ( in real case)
Example : 4

 Calculate the Charging time of battery if 10 A current is applied to the 100 Ah

battery.

 Solution : 100Ah/10A= 10 hrs

Example : 5

2200mAh battery with a load that draws 300mA. Calculate the Discharge time:

Solution

 2200/300 = 7.3hours
Example : 6

 For 100 Ah,12V, 100 Watts battery calculate the discharging time

 Solution : 100 AH X 12V/ 100 Watts = 12 hrs

 Say, (with 40% loss at the max = 12 x 40 /100 = 4.8 hrs) For sure, the backup
will lasts up to 4.8 hrs.
Example : 7
 Calculate the charging time of 2300 mAh battery the the C-rating of 0.5C, 2C
and 30 C.
Example : 8
Example : 9
 Consider 25C battery rated 1300 mAh
Example 10
Introduction-Diagnosing battery faults
Battery diagnosis
 Diagnosing lead-acid battery faults
Servicing batteries
In use, a battery requires very little attention other than the following when
necessary:
 Clean corrosion from terminals using hot water.
 Terminals should be smeared with petroleum
 jelly or Vaseline, not ordinary grease.

Battery faults
 Any electrical device can suffer from two main faults; these are either open
circuit or short circuit.
 A battery is no exception but can also suffer from other problems, such as
low charge or low capacity.
 Often a problem – apparently with the vehicle battery –can be traced to
another part of the vehicle such as the charging system.
 Repairing modern batteries is not possible.
 Most of the problems listed in table will require the battery to be replaced.
 In the case of sulphation it is sometimes possible to bring the battery back to
life with a very long low current charge.
 A fortieth of the ampere-hour capacity or about a 1/200 of the cold start
performance, for about 50 hours, is an appropriate rate.
 Testing batteries
 For testing the state of charge of a non-sealed type of battery, a
hydrometer can be used
 The hydrometer comprises a syringe that draws electrolyte from a cell,
and a float that will float at a particular depth in the electrolyte according Hydrometer test of a
to its density. battery
 The density or specific gravity is then read from the graduated scale on
the float.
 A fully charged cell should show 1.280, 1.200 when half charged and
1.130 if discharged.
 Most vehicles are now fitted with maintenance free batteries and a
hydrometer cannot be used to find the state of charge.
 This can only be determined from the voltage of the battery
Safety

The following points must be observed when working with batteries:

 Good ventilation.
 Protective clothing.
 Supply of water available (running water
 preferable).
 First aid equipment available, including eye-wash.
 No smoking
Battery Problems : Non Manufacturing
Defects
 Physical Damage
If the battery is stored, handled or fitted incorrectly, if the connectors leads are hammered
onto terminals, leads are not correctly fastened, the battery will have damage to casing
and/or terminals. This is not a manufacturing fault.

 Sulphation
If a battery is allowed to stand in a discharged state either on or off a vehicle for
a period of time, a chemical reaction takes place which will permanently impair
the performance and life of the battery, this process is called “sulphation”.
 Wear and Tear
As the battery is cycled, i.e. charged and discharged, the active materials within the battery plates
are in motion in order to release the electricity stored by the battery. Every time the battery is
charged and discharged a small amount of active material is permanently lost from the plates.
 Deep Cycling
every time a battery is charge and discharge cycled a small amount of material is lost. If a battery is
subjected to deep discharging (greater than 35%) and rapid charging the process is accelerated.
Additionally if the recharge does not recover the discharge cycle in full, the battery will exhibit loss
of performance and concentration of the acid can occur between plates which can lead to corrosion
and loss of performance.
 Overcharging
If the alternator regulator is not set properly, or alternator voltage control circuit
fails, then the battery can be subjected to an excessive charge.
If left unchecked the battery will overheat and will start to evaporate the
electrolyte. The overcharging will accelerate the break up of the active material
and grids and the battery will lose performance. Examination of the battery will
typically show low acid level and usually a black coating on filler plugs and a strong
smell. It is recommended that the alternator charging voltage is checked by a
mechanic. This is not a manufacturing fault.

 Undercharging
Undercharging occurs if the battery is not receiving enough charge to return it to a
full state of charge, this will slowly cause sulphation. This fault can occur if the car
is being used only occasionally for short journeys, or for Start-Stop urban motoring.
Undercharging will occur if alternator voltage is low (13.6-13.8volts), the alternator
belt is loose or battery cables are worn and causing high resistance – If in doubt
seek advice from an auto electrician.
Battery Problems : Manufacturing
Defects
 Short Circuit/dead cell
Typically seen in a battery within 12 months service life. One cell will show a
dramatically lower acid specific gravity reading than the others. The problem
cell will usually boil visibly under a high discharge, all other remaining cells will
show a good specific gravity reading of 1.26 or above. Short Circuit/dead cells
seen in later life are usually associated with the recovery of a
sulphated/overdischarged battery. It is possible to see variable acid specific
gravities between cells if sulphation is the route cause.

 Internal Break
The battery will have good specific gravity but no voltage reading. Check for any
physical damage which may have caused an internal break.
Basic battery modeling: Static and dynamic
electric circuit model
 Battery Modelling
Modeling Based on Equivalent Electric Circuits
 A commonly used simple battery model is shown in Figure.
 It consists of an ideal battery with open-circuit voltage Voc and a constant
equivalent internal resistance Rint .
 The battery terminal voltage is Vt .
 Voc can be obtained from the open-circuit measurement, and Rint can be
measured by connecting a load and measuring both the terminal voltage and
current, at fully charged condition.
 The terminal voltage Vt can be written as

Simple battery model

Battery model accounting for the
different charging and discharging
resistances
• The sign of the battery current, I b, appears to be positive in discharging mode and
negative
in charging mode.
• These models have the disadvantage of not being sensitive to dynamic events in the
battery.
• In order to model such dynamic or transient effects in a battery, a capacitor is added to
the model as a parallel branch.
• The “RC model”; takes power as an input and maintains the battery output voltage
within the high- and low voltage limits.
• The “RC model” can predict the average internal battery temperature as a function of
time while driving and during soak periods.
• In this model, the capacitor Cb is large enough to hold the capacity of the battery and
the smaller capacitor Cc is used to reflect the dynamic changes in the battery.
Battery charging control
 Battery Charging Control

 Charging technology plays a key role in maximizing battery performance.

 A proper battery charging technique ensures battery safety and increases
system reliability.
 The primary requirement of the charging process is to provide a fast and
efficient way of charging without degrading the battery.
 Some of the factors to be taken into account while charging the battery are:
• Avoiding overcharging and undercharging.
• Fast charging without affecting the battery life.
• Maintaining a good quality of charging current.
 Conventional charging methods include passive charging, constant current
(CC) charging, CV charging, and CC–CV charging.
 The pulse charging method is gaining popularity because of its advantages
over CC and CV charging.
 Passive charging

 The simplest method is passive charging.

 This method is also the worst method for the health of a battery.
 In passive charging, the battery is connected to a DC link which has a fixed
voltage higher (hopefully by only a small percentage) than the rated voltage of
the battery.
 The charging current is unregulated in this method and can spike greatly and
possibly stay at a charging current above the safe value.
 As a result, there is the risk of overcurrent and definitely overvoltage.
 This method is not recommended for critical systems.
CV charging:
 The second method is CV charging.
 For example, for a 12V battery, the charging voltage would be maintained at a value of about 12.1V regardless
of the SOC.
 As a result of CV charging, the current supplied to the battery is unregulated.
 In turn, with a low initial SOC there is a high current spike of unknown duration that could exceed the safe
charging current for the battery.
 This is a very fast method of charging with an exponential profile; however, the initial current spike can be
damaging.
CC Charging:
 In the CC scheme, the charging voltage is varied and tracks the SOC of the battery to maintain a CC at the
battery’s DC link. As a result, the charging current profile of the battery stays well below the safe charging rate.
 A great advantage of this method is that it prevents heat from building up during the charging process and thus
increases the life of the battery.
 The disadvantage of this method is that the constant higher current, even at the end of the charging cycle, could
lead to the growth of deposits which could short the plates in the batteries.
 As a result, the method is harmful at the end of the charging cycle. This method also requires monitoring of both
voltage and current measurements.
 It is slower than CV charging and has a linear charging profile.
CC–CV charging:
 In the CC–CV charging method, in the first stage a CC is maintained for charging
the battery.
 This current level is regulated at the safe charge limit by increasing or decreasing
the terminal voltage level of the charging source.
 Once the battery reaches a certain SOC or voltage value, the current is decreased
(voltage decreased) to prevent damaging currents at the end stage.
 This particular charging stage is usually called the floating charge. This method
combines the best attributes of both the CV and CC methods and eliminates their
disadvantages.
 It is slower than the previously mentioned methods; however, it is the safest for the
battery
Pulsed current Charging:
 The final charging method to mention is the pulsed current method.
 This method is similar to pulse width modulation in that the pulse duration is proportional to the SOC.
 When the SOC is low, the pulses have a longer duration; when the SOC approaches 100%, the pulse
duration is reduced to near zero.
 At any pulse duration, there will be a rest period in which the charging current is low.
 The relaxation period between pulses equalizes the chemical reaction in the battery as the ions diffuse
and distribute evenly throughout the battery.
 This process normalizes the ion concentration in the battery and thus prevents the negative effect
experienced in CC charging.
 Because of the equal charge distribution, battery performance as well as battery life are enhanced.
 The charging rate can be controlled by varying the width of the pulses.
 This type of charging is advantageous over CC charging in that the charging rate is higher and battery
internal impedance is kept lower.
 This is the fastest method of the above-mentioned. methods and is becoming more popular with
charging protocols. However, it would require a power electronics converter with a dedicated control
algorithm.
What are ultracapacitors and
supercapacitors?
 The terms supercapacitor and ultracapacitor can be used synonymously. They are called super or
ultra because they can store much more energy than ordinary capacitors – passive electronic
devices that store electrical energy in an electric field.
 Future technologies, be it wearables, IoT devices, smart meters or electric cars, require energy
storage systems to have much larger storage capability, rapid charge/discharge cycling and
improved endurance – ultracapacitors fit that bill.
 Ultracapacitors have several advances over batteries, such as the widely used lithium-ion
batteries: they can be charged and discharged within seconds; they work well in extreme
temperatures; they have up to 60 times more power than batteries; they are very reliable with
long lifetimes; and they are safe.
 The difference comes from the fact that ultracapacitors store energy in an electric
field, rather than in a chemical reaction, like batteries.
 These characteristics makes supercapacitors very suitable for applications in
consumer electronics, hybrid electric vehicles and industrial power management.
 Batteries and ultracapacitors are complementary technologies: batteries provide
energy for the long term (slow energy storage) while ultracapacitors provide fast
reaction and high power to deal with demand fluctuations (fast energy storage).
 Supercapacitors are ideal for demanding environments that require high power
and constant cycling, such as in electric vehicles. A good example is KERS (Kinetic
Energy Recovery Systems), where braking energy is stored and re-used for
acceleration or lighting.
 Supercapactiors fast reaction times are also ideal in environments that require a
stable power quality, where even a tiny disturbance of a few microseconds in
power quality can lead to huge damages without ultracapacitors to protect the
equipment, infrastructure and grid with immediate response.
How Does a Supercapacitor Work?
 Supercapacitors consist of two electrodes separated by an ion-permeable
membrane (separator), and an electrolyte ionically connecting both
electrodes. When the electrodes are polarized by an applied voltage, ions in
the electrolyte form electric double layers of opposite polarity to the
electrode's polarity.
 A supercapacitor differs from an ordinary capacitor in two important ways: its
plates effectively have a much bigger area; and the distance between them is
much smaller, because the separator between them works in a different way
to a conventional dielectric.
 For example, positively polarized electrodes will have a layer of negative ions
at the electrode/electrolyte interface along with a charge-balancing layer of
positive ions adsorbing onto the negative layer. The opposite is true for the
negatively polarized electrode.
Increasing An Ultracapacitors Value
Ultra-capacitor: symmetric and
Asymmetric
 The first design is symmetrical and the second design is asymmetrical. A symmetrical
ultracapacitor uses the same materials for each electrode, a non-conducting separator, and an
electrolyte inside its design.
 An asymmetrical supercapacitor uses a single carbon electrode in conjunction with an additional
electrode of a different material, a non-conducting separator, and an aqueous electrolyte inside its
design.
Ultra-capacitor modeling
 Modelling of Ultracapacitors
 In any capacitor, the electrical energy is stored by using a positively charged electrode
surface and a negatively charged electrode surface with a dielectric separator between
them.
 In supercapacitors or ultracapacitors, special carbon-based electrodes are made to
provide an extremely large internal active surface area.
 The charge and energy stored in a capacitor are given by

where ε is the permittivity of the dielectric medium,

A is the plate area, and d is the distance between the
plates.

where Vmax and Vmin denote maximum and minimum allowable voltage for the
ultracapacitor.
 Supercapacitors get their name from their ability to store high energy.
 This can be done by increasing the area of parallel plates in a capacitor. The capacitance is
increased by decreasing the separation distance between the parallel plates.
 This is the key to modern capacitors, but the voltage across the capacitor must be small
otherwise the capacitor may be damaged and act like a short circuit. This puts a limit on the
maximum energy a capacitor can store.
 Connecting capacitors in series decreases the effective capacitance and increases the
voltage across them.
 The energy stored now increases, but not as the voltage squared because of the problem of
voltage imbalance among the cells.
 The fundamental reason for the voltage mismatch between the series-connected cells is due
to the variation of capacitance between the cells. The problem can be avoided by charge
equalizing circuits.
 These circuits balance the charge on the adjacent capacitors keeping the cell voltage the
same.
 The simplest equivalent electric circuit model for an ultracapacitor consists of a capacitance
in series with an internal resistance, which models all the energy losses in the ultracapacitor.
 This model can capture to a large extent the essential behavior and dynamics of the
ultracapacitor for most modeling and analysis needs.
Equivalent circuit-Supercapacitor
Operation of flywheel and fuel cell
 Operation of flywheel and fuel cell
 The use of flywheels for storing energy in mechanical form is not a new
concept.
 More than 25 years ago, the Oerlikon Engineering Company in Switzerland
made the first passenger bus solely powered by a massive flywheel.
 This flywheel, which weighed 1500 kg and operated at 3000 rpm, was
recharged by electricity at each bus stop.
 The traditional flywheel is a massive steel rotor with hundreds of kilograms that
spins on the order of ten hundreds of rpm.
 On the contrary, the advanced flywheel is a lightweight composite rotor with
tens of kilograms and rotates on the order of 10,000 rpm; it is the so-called
ultrahigh-speed flywheel.
 The concept of ultrahigh-speed flywheels appears to be a feasible means for
fulfilling the stringent energy storage requirements for EV and HEV
applications, namely high specific energy, high specific power, long cycle life,
high-energy efficiency, quick recharge, maintenance free characteristics, cost
effectiveness, and environmental friendliness.
 Operation Principles of Flywheels
 A rotating flywheel stores energy in the kinetic form as
 where Jf is the moment of inertia of the flywheel in kgm2/sec and ωf is the angular
velocity of the flywheel in rad/sec.
 Enhancing the angular velocity of the flywheel is the key method of increasing
its energy capacity and reducing its weight and volume.
 At present, a speed of over 60,000 rpm has been achieved in some
prototypes.
 With current technology, it is difficult to directly use the it is difficult to directly
use the mechanical energy stored in a flywheel to propel a vehicle, due to the
need for continuous variation transmission (CVT) with a wide gear ratio
variation range.
 The commonly used approach is to couple an electric machine to the flywheel
directly or through a transmission to constitute a so-called mechanical battery.
 The electric machine, functioning as the energy input and output port, converts
the mechanical energy into electric energy or vice versa.
Basic structure of a typical flywheel system
 Flywheel energy storage
 Flywheel energy storage (FES) works by accelerating a rotor (flywheel)
to a very high speed and maintaining the energy in the system as
rotational energy.
 When energy is extracted from the system, the flywheel's rotational
speed is reduced as a consequence of the principle of conservation of
energy; adding energy to the system correspondingly results in an
increase in the speed of the flywheel.
 Most FES systems use electricity to accelerate and decelerate the
flywheel, but devices that directly use mechanical energy are being
developed.
 Advanced FES systems have rotors made of high strength carbon-fiber
composites, suspended by magnetic bearings, and spinning at speeds
from 20,000 to over 50,000 rpm in a vacuum enclosure.
 Such flywheels can come up to speed in a matter of minutes –
reaching their energy capacity much more quickly than some other
forms of storage.
 Flywheel energy storage
 A flywheel is a rotating mechanical device that is used to store rotational energy that
can be called up instantaneously.
 At the most basic level, a flywheel contains a spinning mass in its center that is driven
by a motor – and when energy is needed, the spinning force drives a device similar to
a turbine to produce electricity, slowing the rate of rotation.
 A flywheel is recharged by using the motor to increase its rotational speed once
again.
 Flywheel technology has many beneficial properties that enable us to improve
our current electric grid.
 A flywheel is able to capture energy from intermittent energy sources over time, and
deliver a continuous supply of uninterrupted power to the grid.
 Flywheels also are able to respond to grid signals instantly, delivering frequency
regulation and electricity quality improvements.
 Flywheels are traditionally made of steel and rotate on conventional bearings; these
are generally limited to a revolution rate of a few thousand RPM.
 More advanced flywheel designs are made of carbon fiber materials, stored in
vacuums to reduce drag, and employ magnetic levitation instead of conventional
bearings, enabling them to revolve at speeds up to 60,000 RPM.
 Flywheel energy storage systems

 Flywheel energy storage systems (FESS) use electric energy input which is stored in the
form of kinetic energy. Kinetic energy can be described as “energy of motion,” in this case
the motion of a spinning mass, called a rotor.
 The rotor spins in a nearly frictionless enclosure. When short-term backup power is required
because utility power fluctuates or is lost, the inertia allows the rotor to continue spinning and
the resulting kinetic energy is converted to electricity.
 Most modern high-speed flywheel energy storage systems consist of a massive rotating
cylinder (a rim attached to a shaft) that is supported on a stator – the stationary part of an
electric generator – by magnetically levitated bearings. To maintain efficiency, the flywheel
system is operated in a vacuum to reduce drag. The flywheel is connected to a motor-
generator that interacts with the utility grid through advanced power electronics.
 Some of the key advantages of flywheel energy storage are low maintenance, long life (some
flywheels are capable of well over 100,000 full depth of discharge cycles and the newest
configurations are capable of even more than that, greater than 175,000 full depth of
discharge cycles), and negligible environmental impact.
 Flywheels can bridge the gap between short-term ride-through power and long-term energy
storage with excellent cyclic and load following characteristics.
 Fuel cell

 A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical reaction. Every

fuel cell has two electrodes called, respectively, the anode and cathode. The
reactions that produce electricity take place at the electrodes.
 Every fuel cell also has an electrolyte, which carries electrically charged
particles from one electrode to the other, and a catalyst, which speeds the
reactions at the electrodes.
 Hydrogen is the basic fuel, but fuel cells also require oxygen. One great appeal
of fuel cells is that they generate electricity with very little pollution–much of the
hydrogen and oxygen used in generating electricity ultimately combine to form
a harmless byproduct, namely water.
 One detail of terminology: a single fuel cell generates a tiny amount of direct
current (DC) electricity. In practice, many fuel cells are usually assembled into a
stack. Cell or stack, the principles are the same.
 Fuel cell

 The purpose of a fuel cell is to produce an electrical current that can be directed outside
the cell to do work, such as powering an electric motor or illuminating a light bulb or a city.
Because of the way electricity behaves, this current returns to the fuel cell, completing an
electrical circuit.
 The chemical reactions that produce this current are the key to how a fuel cell works.
 There are several kinds of fuel cells, and each operates a bit differently. But in general
terms, hydrogen atoms enter a fuel cell at the anode where a chemical reaction strips them
of their electrons. The hydrogen atoms are now "ionized," and carry a positive electrical
charge. The negatively charged electrons provide the current through wires to do work. If
alternating current (AC) is needed, the DC output of the fuel cell must be routed through a
conversion device called an inverter.
Working
Working

 Oxygen enters the fuel cell at the cathode and, in some cell types (like the one
illustrated above), it there combines with electrons returning from the electrical
circuit and hydrogen ions that have traveled through the electrolyte from the anode.
In other cell types the oxygen picks up electrons and then travels through the
electrolyte to the anode, where it combines with hydrogen ions.
 The electrolyte plays a key role. It must permit only the appropriate ions to pass
between the anode and cathode. If free electrons or other substances could travel
through the electrolyte, they would disrupt the chemical reaction.
 Whether they combine at anode or cathode, together hydrogen and oxygen form
water, which drains from the cell. As long as a fuel cell is supplied with hydrogen
and oxygen, it will generate electricity.
 Even better, since fuel cells create electricity chemically, rather than by combustion,
they are not subject to the thermodynamic laws that limit a conventional power plant
(see "Carnot Limit" in the glossary). Therefore, fuel cells are more efficient in
extracting energy from a fuel. Waste heat from some cells can also be harnessed,
boosting system efficiency still further
Operation of hydraulic energy storage
system
 Hydraulic energy storage systems store energy by compressing air similar to a battery storing
energy in an electric circuit. Existing hydraulic accumulator designs are large and heavy due
to the need for two storage tanks and do not have the high energy density needed for many
applications.

 The need for two storage tanks and two accumulators can be eliminated and the entire
hydraulic energy storage system is an open loop. The storage requirement is smaller because
depressurized air is not stored. The hydraulic open loop accumulator works by drawing air in
from the atmosphere and expelling air into the atmosphere. A separate hydraulic pump
maintains the pressure balance of the air by increasing the amount of hydraulic fluid in the
system. This results in a steady pressure of air and up to 24 times the energy density of a
standard hydraulic accumulator.

 This hydraulic energy storage system has applications in energy storage for wind turbines,
regenerative braking systems for hybrid cars that could partially power the car, and energy
storage for power construction equipment.