POLYMER PROCESSING OPERATIONS

INTRODUCTION
Plastics:
A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-
synthetic organic solids that are moldable. Plastics are typically organic
polymers of high molecular mass, but they often contain other substances. They
are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, but many
are partially natural.
Plastics are usually classified by their chemical structure of the polymer’s
backbone and side chains. Some important groups in these classifications are
the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics.
Plastics can also be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis,
such as condensation, polyaddition, and cross-linking.
Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers

There are three types of plastics: thermoplastics, thermosetting polymers and

elastoers. Thermoplastics are the plastics that do not undergo chemical change
in their composition when heated and can be molded again and again. Examples
include polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride.
Thermosets can melt and take shape once; after they have solidified, they stay
solid. In the thermosetting process, a chemical reaction occurs that is
irreversible. The vulcanization of rubber is a thermosetting process. Before
heating with sulfur, the polyisoprene is a tacky, slightly runny material, but after
vulcanization the product is rigid and non-tacky.

Elastomers are the rubbers. Elastomers (E) are polymers that exhibit extreme
elastic extensibility when subjected to relatively low mechanical stress. Some
elastomers can be stretched by a factor of 10 and yet completely recover to their
original shape. Although their properties are quite different from thermosets,
they have a similar molecular structure that is different from the thermoplastics.

Thermoplastics are commercially the most important of the three types,

constituting around 70% of the tonnage of all synthetic polymers produced.
Thermosets and elastomers share the remaining 30% about evenly, with a slight
edge for the former. Common TP polymers include polyethylene,
polyvinylchloride, polypropylene, polystyrene, and nylon.

Examples of TS polymers are phenolics, epoxies, and certain polyesters. The

most common example given for elastomers is natural (vulcanized) rubber;
however, synthetic rubbers exceed the tonnage of natural rubber.

The growth in applications of synthetic polymers is truly impressive. On a

volumetric basis, current annual usage of polymers exceeds that of metals.
There are several reasons for the commercial and technological importance of
polymers:
 i. Plastics can be formed by molding into intricate part geometries, usually
with no further processing required. They are very compatible with net
shape processing.

ii. Plastics possess an attractive list of properties for many engineering

applications where strength is not a factor: (1) low density relative to
metals and ceramics; (2) good strengthto-weight ratios for certain (but not
all) polymers; (3) high corrosion resistance; and (4) low electrical and
thermal conductivity.

iii. On a volumetric basis, polymers are cost-competitive with metals.

iv. On a volumetric basis, polymers generally require less energy to produce

than metals.

v. This is generally true because the temperatures for working these

materials are much lower than for metals.

vi. Certain plastics are translucent and/or transparent, which makes them
competitive with glass in some applications.

vii. Polymers are widely used in composite materials

On the negative side, polymers in general have the following limitations:

i. Strength is low relative to metals and ceramics;

ii. Modulus of elasticity or stiffness is also low—in the case of elastomers,

of course, this may be a desirable characteristic;

iii. Service temperatures are limited to only a few hundred degrees because
of the softening of thermoplastic polymers or degradation of
thermosetting polymers and elastomers;

iv. Some polymers degrade when subjected to sunlight and other forms of
radiation; and

v. Plastics exhibit viscoelastic properties, which can be a distinct limitation

in load bearing applications.

FORMING AND SHAPING OF PLASTICS (PLASTICS PROCESSING):

Plastics can be shaped into a wide variety of products:

 Molded parts

 Extruded sections
  Films

 Sheets

 Insulation coatings on electrical wires

 Fibers for textiles

More Plastic Products

• In addition, plastics are often the principal ingredient in other materials, such
as Paints and varnishes, Adhesives, Various polymer matrix composites

• Many plastic shaping processes can be adapted to produce items made of

rubbers and polymer matrix composites

Plastics forming and shaping Processes

Process Characteristics
Extrusion Long, uniform, solid or hollow complex cross-sections; high
production rates; low tooling costs; wide tolerances.
Injection molding Complex shapes of various sizes, eliminating assembly; high
production rates; costly tooling; good dimensional
accuracy.
Structural foam molding Large parts with high stiffness-to-weight ratio; less
expensive tooling than in injection molding; low production
rates.
Blow molding Hollow thin-walled parts of various sizes; high production
rates and low cost for making containers.
Rotational molding Large hollow shapes of relatively simple shape; low tooling
cost; low production rates.
Thermoforming Shallow or relatively deep cavities; low tooling costs;
medium production rates.
Compression molding Parts similar to impression-die forging; relatively
inexpensive tooling; medium production rates.
Transfer molding More complex parts than compression molding and higher
production rates; some scrap loss; medium tooling cost.
Casting Simple or intricate shapes made with flexible molds; low
production rates.
Processing of composite Long cycle times; tolerances and tooling cost depend on
materials process.
 1. Extrusion
Extrusion is a process that can be compared to squeezing toothpaste out of a
tube. Thermoplastic granules are forced through a heated barrel and the fused
polymer is then squeezed through a die that is the profile of the extruded
component.
It can also be referred to as a compression process in which material is forced to
flow through a die orifice to provide long continuous product whose cross-
sectional shape is determined by the shape of the orifice.
The extrusion is cooled by water or air as it leaves the die and is finally cut to
the required length. The shape of the die can be varied from a simple hole with
a centrally supported core to produce tubes such as pipes, to very complex
sections for curtain tracks or hollow window frames.
It is widely used for thermoplastics and elastomers to mass produce items such
as tubing, pipes, hose, structural shapes, sheet and film, continuous filaments,
and coated electrical wire
It is carried out as a continuous process as follows an the extrudate is then cut
into desired lengths
 Raw materials are thermoplastic pellets, granules, or powder
 Placed in hopper and fed into extruder barrel
 Screw blends pellets and pushes them down the barrel – through the feed,
transition/melt, and pumping sections
 Barrel is heated from outside, and by friction
 Plastic (or elastomer) is liquefied and forced through a die under pressure
 Pellets for other plastics processes are made by extruding small-diameter
rod and chopping into short segments

Illustration of the Extrusion process

Two Main Components of an Extruder
1. Barrel
2. Screw
• Die - not an extruder component, It is a special tool that must be fabricated for
particular profile to be produced
Die Swell
Extruded material "remembers" its former shape when in the larger cross-
section of the extruder and attempts to return to it after leaving the die orifice
Extrusion of Solid Profiles

• Regular shapes such as

Rounds
Squares

• Irregular cross-sections such as

Structural shapes
Door and window moldings
Automobile trim

Hollow Profiles
Examples: tubes, pipes, hoses, and other cross-sections containing holes.
• Hollow profiles require mandrel to form the shape
• Mandrel held in place using a spider
Polymer melt flows around legs supporting the mandrel to reunite into a
monolithic tube wall
Mandrel often includes an air channel through which air is blown to maintain
hollow form of extrudate during hardening

Sheet and Film Production Processes

Most widely used processes are continuous, high production operations
Processes include:
• Slit-Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film
• Blown-Film Extrusion Process
• Calendering
Slit-Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film
Production of sheet and film by conventional extrusion, using a narrow slit as
the die opening
Slit may be up to 3 m wide and as narrow as around 0.4 mm
A problem in this method is uniformity of thickness throughout width of stock,
due to drastic shape change of polymer melt during its flow through die
Edges of film usually must be trimmed because of thickening at edges
Blown-Film Extrusion Process
Combines extrusion and blowing to produce a tube of thin film
Process begins with extrusion of tube that is drawn upward while still molten
and simultaneously expanded by air inflated into it through die mandrel
Air is blown into tube to maintain uniform film thickness and tube diameter

Calendering
Calendering is used to produce plastic sheeting and products such as floor tiles,
coated fabrics and coverings for car interiors. Fused thermoplastic is extruded
on to heated rotating rollers that squeeze the material into a continuous sheet or
film. The film is cooled by jets of air or water, before being cut to suitable
lengths or loaded onto rolls.
Feedstock is passed through a series of rolls to reduce thickness to desired gage
Equipment is expensive, but production rate is high
Process is noted for good surface finish and high gage accuracy
Typical materials: rubber or rubbery thermoplastics.

• Products: PVC floor covering, shower curtains, vinyl table cloths, pool
liners, and inflatable boats and toys

2. Injection Molding
This process is one of the most common of all plastics manufacturing processes.
The polymer, in granule form, is heated until fused and forced into a closed
mould. Because of the viscous (thick, syrupy) nature of the fused polymer, very
high pressures are needed to make it flow, which means that the machine and
mould have to be very strong to withstand the forces involved.
In simple terms. the polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and forced to
flow under high pressure into a mold cavity where it solidifies; molded part is
then removed from cavity

• Produces discrete components almost always to net shape

• Typical cycle time is approximately 10 to 30 sec., but cycles of one

minute or more are not uncommon
• Mold may contain multiple cavities, so multiple moldings are produced
each cycle
Injection Molded Parts (Moldings):
Complex and intricate shapes are possible
No Shape limitations:
Has Capability to fabricate a mold whose cavity is the same geometry as part
Shape must allow for part removal from mold
Part size from approx. 50 g up to approx 25 kg, e.g., automobile bumpers

• Injection molding is economical only for large production quantities due

to high cost of mold
Injection Molding Machine
It has two principal components:
1. Injection unit – melts and delivers polymer melt, operates much like an
extruder
2. Clamping unit – opens and closes mold each injection cycle
Example

A typical industrial injection moulding machine uses a screw to force the

granules along a heated barrel, and when the granules become fused the screw is
used as a plunger to force the polymer into the mould. The moulds are usually
made from high-grade steel to withstand the forces involved and must also be
highly polished to produce a very good finish on the product, as any scratches
will show up in the moulded plastic surface. Because of the ability of the plastic
to show even the smallest of marks very fine detail can be cut into the surface of
the mould, for example in the form of trade marks, lettering or textures.
3. Rotational Moulding
Rotational moulding is used to produce hollow thermoplastic products such as
drums, storage tanks and litterbins. A carefully calculated amount of plastic is
placed in a closed mould that is heated in an oven and rotated slowly around
both a vertical and horizontal axes. The plastic material fuses and sticks to the
hot mould surface, building up the required thickness. The mould is then
gradually cooled by air or water while still rotating. The mould is opened, the
finished product removed and the mould reloaded and closed for the next cycle.
The time it takes to make one of the products is known as the product’s cycle
time.

4. Compression Molding
It is an old and widely used molding process for thermosetting plastics.
Compression moulding is one of the oldest manufacturing technologies
associated with plastics and was used in 1854, for example, by Samuel Peck to
make picture frames from shellac mixed with wood flour.
The process is almost always used with thermosetting plastics. A carefully
weighed amount of thermosetting polymer is placed into a preheated lower
mould cavity. The mould is then closed by the placing of the upper half and
subjected to further heat, and pressure provided by a press, often of several
hundred tons capacity.
The pressure and heat causes polymerisation and the flow of the plasticized
material within the mould.
Applications also include rubber tires and polymer matrix composite parts
Molding compound available in several forms: powders or pellets, liquid, or
preform
Amount of charge must be precisely controlled to obtain repeatable
consistency in the molded product

Raw thermoplastic materials containing fillers may be compressed whilst cold

into small blocks of predetermined weight called preforms. Using preforms in
compression moulds saves having to weigh out powdered material each time the
mould is filled and decreases the cycle time, as the preforms may be preheated.
A development of compression moulding is transfer moulding. In this process
the thermosetting polymer is first loaded into a heating chamber above the
mould cavity and allowed to polymerise. It is then squeezed through channels
into the mould cavity by the action of a powerful press. Transfer moulding is
used when complex mouldings are required and the polymer needs to flow
quickly around the mould cavity.
Many plastic articles have metal parts included within them during the
moulding process. These metal parts are called inserts, and may, for example,
be in the form of captive nuts used in conjunction with bolts to hold other parts
of the final product assembly. The inserts are placed in recesses in the lower
mould either by hand or by using loading jigs before the polymer is introduced
into the mould. Compression and transfer moulding are manufacturing
techniques that lend themselves to the inclusion of moulded inserts. When
inserts are used the technique is often termed insert moulding.
Materials and Products in Compression Molding
Materials: phenolics, melamine, urea-formaldehyde, epoxies, urethanes, and
elastomers
Typical thermoset moldings: electric plugs, sockets, and housings; pot handles,
and dinnerware plates
5. Transfer Molding
Thermoset charge is loaded into a chamber immediately ahead of mold cavity,
where it is heated; pressure is then applied to force soft polymer to flow into
heated mold where it cures

• Two variants:

1. Pot transfer molding - charge is injected from a "pot" through a vertical

sprue channel into cavity
2. Plunger transfer molding – plunger injects charge from a heated well
through channels into cavity

(a) Pot transfer molding

(b) plunger transfer molding
6. Blow Molding
Blow moulding is a simple process where compressed air is introduced
underneath a warmed sheet of thermoplastic material forcing the material into a
mould cavity, or allowing it to expand freely into the shape of a hemisphere. It
is a molding process in which air pressure is used to inflate soft plastic into a
mold cavity
It is a good way of forming large domes, which when made out of clear acrylic
sheet are often used in shop displays. Also it is important for making one-piece
hollow plastic parts with thin walls, such as bottles
Since these items are used for consumer beverages in mass markets, production
is typically organized for very high quantities

• Accomplished in two steps:

1. Fabrication of a starting tube, called a parison

2. Inflation of the tube to desired final shape

• Forming the parison is accomplished by either

• Extrusion or

• Injection molding

Extrusion blow molding

Injection blow molding
Materials and Products in Blow Molding
Blow molding is limited to thermoplastics
Materials: high density polyethylene, polypropylene (PP), polyvinylchloride
(PVC).

• Products: disposable containers for liquid consumer goods, large

shipping drums (55 gallon) for liquids and powders, large storage tanks (2000
gallon), gasoline tanks, toys, and hulls for sail boards and small boats

7. Thermoforming
Flat thermoplastic sheet or film is heated and deformed into desired shape
using a mold
Heating usually accomplished by radiant electric heaters located on one or both
sides of starting plastic sheet or film. Widely used in packaging of products and
to fabricate large items such as bathtubs and internal door liners for
refrigerators
Vacuum thermoforming
This is a very common manufacturing process used, for example, to make a
range of plastics packaging. Think of the boxes sandwiches come in, or the
inner in a chocolate box, or your acrylic bath. It is really the opposite of blow
moulding. Instead of the warmed plastic sheet being forced into a mould by air
pressure, in vacuum forming the air is drawn out from under the softened plastic
sheet, so it is forced over or into a mould by atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum forming is a very common and effective way of producing complex
shapes in thermoplastic sheeting.
Negative Molds vs. Positive Molds
Negative mold – concave cavity
Positive mold - convex shape

• Both types are used in thermoforming

• For positive mold, heated sheet is draped over convex form.

Materials for Thermoforming

Only thermoplastics can be thermoformed, since extruded sheets of
thermosetting or elastomeric polymers have already been cross-linked and
cannot be softened by reheating
Common TP polymers: polystyrene, cellulose acetate, cellulose acetate
butyrate, ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene), PVC, acrylic
(polymethylmethacrylate), polyethylene, and polypropylene

8. Casting
Pouring liquid resin into a mold, using gravity to fill cavity, where polymer
hardens

• Both thermoplastics and thermosets are cast

Thermoplastics: acrylics, polystyrene, polyamides (nylons) and PVC

Thermosetting polymers: polyurethane, unsaturated polyesters, phenolics, and
epoxies

• Simpler mold, Suited to low quantities