SHAPING PROCESSES FOR

PLASTICS
1. Properties of Polymer Melts
2. Extrusion
3. Production of Sheet, Film, and Filaments
4. Coating Processes
5. Injection Molding
6. Other Molding Processes
7. Thermoforming
8. Casting
9. Polymer Foam Processing and Forming
10. Product Design Considerations
 Plastic Products
Plastics can be shaped into a wide variety of
products:
Molded parts
Extruded sections
Films
Sheets
Insulation coatings on electrical wires
Fibers for textiles
Applications of plastics have increased at a much
faster rate than either metals or ceramics in the last
60 years
Many parts previously made of metals are now made of
plastics
Plastic containers have been largely substituted for
glass bottles and jars
Total volume of polymers (plastics and rubbers) now
exceeds that of metals
 Importance of Plastic
Shaping Processes
Almost unlimited variety of part geometries
Plastic molding is a net shape process
Further shaping is not needed
Less energy is required than for metals due to
much lower processing temperatures
Handling of product is simplified during production
because of lower temperatures
Painting or plating is usually not required
 Two Types of Plastics

1. Thermoplastics
 Chemical structure remains unchanged during
heating and shaping
 Comprises ~ 70% of total plastics tonnage
2. Thermosets
 Undergo a curing process during heating and
shaping, causing a permanent change in molecular
structure (called cross‑linking)
 Once cured, they cannot be remelted
 Polymer Melts
To shape a thermoplastic polymer it must be
heated so that it softens to the consistency of a
liquid
In this form, it is called a polymer melt
Important properties of polymer melts:
Viscosity
Viscoelasticity
 Viscosity of Polymer Melts
Fluid property that relates shear stress to shear
rate(Shear rate is the rate of change of velocity at which
one layer of fluid passes over an adjacent layer) during
flow
Due to its high molecular weight, a polymer melt is a
thick fluid with high viscosity
Most polymer shaping processes involve flow
through small channels or die openings
 Flow rates are often large, leading to high shear
rates and shear stresses, so significant pressures are
required in these processes
 Viscosity and Shear
Rate
Viscosity of a polymer
melt decreases with shear
rate
Thus the fluid becomes
thinner (flows more
easily) at higher shear
rates
 Viscosity and
Temperature
Viscosity
decreases with
temperature
Thus the fluid
becomes thinner
at higher
temperatures
 Viscoelasticity
Combination of viscosity and elasticity
Example: die swell in extrusion - hot plastic
expands when exiting the die opening (memory)
which the hot plastic expands when exiting the die opening.
The phenomenon can be explained by noting that the
polymer was contained in a much larger cross section before
entering the narrow die channel.
In effect, the extruded material ‘‘remembers’’ its former shape
and attempts to return to it after leaving the die orifice.
More technically, the compressive stresses acting on the
material as it enters the small die opening do not relax
immediately.
When the material subsequently exits the orifice and the
restriction is removed, the unrelaxed stresses cause the cross
section to expand
 Extrusion
Material is forced to flow through a die orifice to
provide long continuous product whose cross
section is determined by the shape of the orifice
Widely used for thermoplastics and elastomers to
mass produce items such as tubing, pipes, hose,
structural shapes, sheet and film, continuous
filaments, and coated electrical wire
Carried out as a continuous process; extrudate
(extruded product) is then cut into desired lengths
 Extruder
Components and features of a (single‑screw)
extruder for plastics and elastomers
Feedstock in pellet or powder form is fed into an
extrusion barrel where it is heated and melted and forced
to flow through a die opening by means of a rotating
screw.
The two main components of the extruder are the barrel
and the screw.
The die is not a component of the extruder; it is a special
tool that must be fabricated for the particular profile to
be produced.
 Extruder Barrel
Internal diameter typically ranges from 25 to 150 mm
(1.0 to 6.0 in.)
L/D ratios usually ~ 10 to 30: higher ratios for
thermoplastics, lower ratios for elastomers
(accommodate the feed, compression and melt zones
so that the melt is in the correct state when it enters
the die)
Feedstock fed by gravity onto screw whose rotation
moves material through barrel
Electric heaters melt feedstock; subsequent mixing
and mechanical working adds heat which maintains
the melt
 Extruder Screw
 Divided into sections to serve several functions:
 Feed section: The feed section, located at the rear of
the screw apparatus, contains a hopper that delivers
resin pellets into the machine. As the screw turns, it
draws the plastic forward with threads, or “flights.”
Barrel heaters help the plastic develop a tacky skin to
improve friction between the plastic and the barrel
wall. Without this friction, it would be difficult for the
plastic to achieve lateral movement.
Compression Section: As the plastic moves forward, it
enters the transition, or melt, section. In this stage, the root
diameter of the screw increases, while the flights decrease in size
in order to melt the plastic by compressing and shearing it
against the barrel wall. The barrier screw is specifically designed
with the transition section in mind. These screws have special
barrier flights that improve mixing and melting by dividing the
molten and solid plastic into separate channels. The barrier
flights are smaller in diameter than regular flights, and provide a
passage for melted plastic while blocking the solid pellets until
they liquefy. As the plastic continues along the transition
section, the melt channel increases in width, while the solid
section decreases until there are no plastic pellets left.
 Metering Section: After the plastic is melted and
compressed, it is channeled into the metering section.
Here, the plastic undergoes pressurized pumping,
while the root diameter of the screw and the flight size
remain constant. Some extrusion screws use special
mixing heads to homogenize the plastic before it
travels into the next section
operation of the screw
 Die End of Extruder
Progress of polymer melt through barrel leads
ultimately to the die zone
Before reaching the die, the melt passes through a
screen pack - series of wire meshes supported by a
stiff plate containing small axial holes
Functions of screen pack:
Filters out contaminants and hard lumps
Builds pressure in metering section
Straightens flow of polymer melt and removes its
"memory" of circular motion from screw
 Melt Flow in Extruder
As screw rotates, polymer melt is forced to move
forward toward die; as in an Archimedian screw
Principal transport mechanism is drag flow, Qd,
resulting from friction between the viscous liquid
and the rotating screw surfaces
Compressing the polymer melt through the die
creates a back pressure that reduces drag flow
transport (called back pressure flow, Qb )
Resulting flow in extruder is Qx = Qd – Qb
 Die Configurations and
Extruded Products
The shape of the die orifice determines the
cross‑sectional shape of the extrudate
Common die profiles and corresponding extruded
shapes:
Solid profiles
Hollow profiles, such as tubes
Wire and cable coating
Sheet and film
Filaments
 Extrusion of Solid
Profiles
Regular shapes such as
Rounds
Squares
Irregular cross sections such as
Structural shapes
Door and window moldings
Automobile trim
House siding
 Extrusion Die for
Solid Cross Section
(a) Side view cross section of extrusion die for solid
regular shapes, such as round stock; (b) front view
of die, with profile of extrudate
Cooling is accomplished by air blowing, water spray, or
passing the extrudate through a water trough
To compensate for die swell, the die opening is made
long enough to remove some of the memory in the
polymer melt. In addition, the extrudate is often
drawn (stretched) to offset expansion from die swell
For shapes other than round, the die opening is
designed with a cross section that is slightly different
from the desired profile, so that the effect of die swell
is to provide shape correction
 Hollow Profiles

Examples: tubes, pipes, hoses, and other cross

sections containing holes
Hollow profiles require mandrel to form the shape
Mandrel held in place using spider legs
 Polymer melt flows around legs supporting the mandrel to
reunite into a monolithic tube wall
Mandrel often includes an air channel for blowing air
to maintain hollow form of extrudate
 Extrusion Die for
Hollow Shapes
 Side view of extrusion die for hollow cross sections; Section A ‑A is a
front view of how mandrel is held in place; Section B‑B shows tube
prior to exiting die; die swell enlarges diameter
 Wire and Cable
Coating
Polymer melt is applied to bare wire as it is pulled at
high speed through die
A slight vacuum is drawn between wire and polymer to
promote adhesion of coating
Wire provides rigidity during cooling
Usually aided by passing coated wire through a water
trough
Product is wound onto large spools at speeds up to 50
m/s (10,000 ft/min)
Extrusion Die for
Coating Wire
 DEFECTS IN EXTRUSION
Melt Fracture: in which the stresses acting on the melt
immediately before and during its flow through the die are
so high as to cause failure, manifested in the form of a
highly irregular surface on the extrudate.
melt fracture can be caused by a sharp reduction at the die
entrance, causing turbulent flow that breaks up the melt.
A more common defect in extrusion is sharkskin, in
which the surface of the product becomes roughened
upon exiting the die.
As the melt flows through the die opening, friction at the
interface results in a velocity profile across the cross
section.
Tensile stresses develop at the surface as this material is
stretched to keep up with the faster moving center core.
These stresses cause minor ruptures that roughen the
surface.
 If the velocity gradient becomes extreme, prominent
marks occur on the surface, giving it the appearance of a
bamboo pole; hence, the name bambooing for this more
severe defect
 Polymer Sheet and
Film
Film - thickness below 0.5 mm (0.020 in.)
Packaging - product wrapping material, grocery
bags, and garbage bags
Stock for photographic film
Pool covers and irrigation ditch liners
Sheet - thickness from 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) to about
12.5 mm (0.5 in.)
Flat window glazing
Thermoforming stock
 Materials for
Polymer Sheet and Film

All thermoplastic polymers

Polyethylene, mostly low density PE
Polypropylene
Polyvinylchloride
Cellophane
 Sheet and Film
Production Processes
Most widely used processes are continuous, high
production operations
Processes include:
Slit‑Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film
Blown‑Film Extrusion Process
Calendering
 Slit‑Die Extrusion
of Sheet and Film
Production of sheet and film by conventional
extrusion, using a narrow slit as the die opening
Slit may be up to 3 m (10 ft) wide and as narrow as
around 0.4 mm (0.015 in)
A problem is thickness uniformity throughout width
of stock, due to drastic shape change of polymer melt
as it flows through die
Edges of film usually must be trimmed because of
thickening at edges
Slit Die Extrusion
 Cooling
This is usually done by immediately directing the
extrudate into a quenching bath of water or onto chill rolls
Contact with the cold rolls quickly quenches and solidifies
the extrudate; in effect, the extruder serves as a feeding
device for the chill rolls that actually form the film.
 The process is noted for very high production speeds—5
m/s (1000 ft/min). In addition, close tolerances on film
thickness can be achieved. Owing to the cooling method
used in this process, it is known as chill-roll extrusion.
 Blown‑Film Extrusion
Process
Combines extrusion and blowing to produce a tube
of thin film
 Process sequence:
1. Extrusion of tube
2. Tube is drawn upward while still molten and expanded
by air inflated into it through die
 Air is blown into tube to maintain uniform film
thickness and tube diameter
A ‘‘frost line’’ marks the position along the upward
moving bubble where solidification of the polymer
occurs.
Air pressure in the bubble must be kept constant to
maintain uniform film thickness and tube diameter.
The air is contained in the tube by pinch rolls that
squeeze the tube back together after it has cooled.
Guide rolls and collapsing rolls are also used to restrain
the blown tube and direct it into the pinch rolls. The
flat tube is then collected onto a windup reel.
 Calendering
Feedstock is passed through a series of rolls to
reduce thickness to desired gage
Expensive equipment, high production rates
Process is noted for good surface finish and high
gage accuracy
Typical materials: rubber or rubbery thermoplastics
such as plasticized PVC
Products: PVC floor covering, shower curtains, vinyl
table cloths, pool liners, and inflatable toys
 Fiber and Filament
Products
Definitions:
Fiber - a long, thin strand whose length is at least 100
times its cross‑section
Filament - a fiber of continuous length
Applications:
Fibers and filaments for textiles
 Most important application
Reinforcing materials in polymer composites
 Growing application, but small relative to textiles
 Materials for Fibers
and Filaments
Fibers can be natural or synthetic
Natural fibers constitute ~ 25% of total market
 Cotton is by far the most important staple
 Wool production is much less than cotton

Synthetic fibers constitute ~ 75% of total fiber

market
 Polyester is the most important
 Others: nylon, acrylics, and rayon
 Fiber and Filament
Production - Spinning
For synthetic fibers, spinning = extrusion of polymer
melt or solution through a spinneret, then drawing
and winding onto a bobbin
Spinneret = die with multiple small holes, the term is a
holdover from methods used to draw and twist natural
fibers into yarn or thread
Three variations, depending on polymer:
1. Melt spinning
2. Dry spinning
3. Wet spinning
 Melt Spinning
Melt spinning is used when the starting polymer can best be
processed by heating to the molten state and pumping through
the spinneret, much in the manner of conventional
extrusion
 Typical spinneret is 6 mm (0.25 in) thick and contains ~ 50
holes of diameter 0.25 mm (0.010 in)
 Filaments are drawn and air cooled before being spooled
onto bobbin
 Final diameter wound onto bobbin may be only 1/10 of
extruded size
 Used for polyester and nylon filaments
 Dry Spinning
Similar to melt spinning, but starting polymer is in
solution and solvent can be separated by
evaporation
First step is extrusion through spinneret
Extrudate is pulled through a heated chamber which
removes the solvent, leaving the polymer
Used for filaments of cellulose acetate and acrylics
 Wet Spinning

Similar to melt spinning, but polymer is again in

solution, only solvent is non‑volatile
To separate polymer, extrudate is passed through a
liquid chemical that coagulates or precipitates the
polymer into coherent strands which are then
collected onto bobbins
Used for filaments of rayon (regenerated cellulose)
 COATING PROCESSES
Plastic (or rubber) coating involves application of a
layer of the given polymer on to a substrate material.
wire and cable coating
Planar coating,
contour coating
 Planar coating
Planar coating is used to coat fabrics, paper, cardboard,
and metal foil; these items are major products for some
plastics.
In the roll method, the polymer coating material is
squeezed against the substrate by means of opposing
rolls
In the doctor blade method, a sharp knife edge controls
the amount of polymer melt that is coated onto the
substrate.
 In both cases, the coating material is supplied either by
a slit-die extrusion process or by calendering
 Contour coating
Contour coating of three-dimensional objects can be
accomplished by dipping or spraying.
Dipping involves submersion of the object into a
suitable bath of polymer melt or solution, followed by
cooling or drying.
Spraying (such as spray painting) is an alternative
method for applying a polymer coating to a solid
object
 Injection Molding
Polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and
forced to flow under high pressure into a mold
cavity where it solidifies and the molding is then
removed from the cavity
Produces discrete components to net shape
Typical cycle time 10 to 30 sec, but cycles of one
minute or more are not uncommon
Mold may contain multiple cavities, so multiple
moldings are produced each cycle
 Injection Molded Parts
Complex and intricate shapes are possible
Shape limitations:
Capability to fabricate a mold whose cavity is the
same geometry as part
Shape must allow for part removal from mold
Part size from  50 g (2 oz) up to  25 kg (more
than 50 lb), e.g., automobile bumpers
Injection molding is economical only for large
production quantities due to high cost of mold
 Injection Molding
Machine
Two principal components:
1. Injection unit
 Melts and delivers polymer melt
 Operates much like an extruder
2. Clamping unit
 Opens and closes mold each injection cycle
 Injection Molding Machine

Diagram of an injection molding machine, reciprocating screw

type (some mechanical details are simplified)
 Injection Unit of
Molding Machine
Consists of barrel fed from one end by hopper
containing supply of plastic pellets
Inside the barrel is a screw with two functions:
1. Rotates for mixing and heating polymer
2. Acts as a ram (i.e., plunger) to inject molten plastic
into mold
 Non‑return valve near tip of screw prevents melt from
flowing backward along screw threads
 Later in cycle ram retracts to its former position
 Clamping Unit of
Molding Machine
 Functions:
1. Holds two halves of mold in proper alignment with
each other
2. Keeps mold closed during injection by applying a
clamping force sufficient to resist injection force
3. Opens and closes mold at the appropriate times in
molding cycle
 Injection Molding Cycle

(1) Mold is closed

 Injection Molding Cycle

(2) Melt is injected into cavity

 Injection Molding Cycle

(3) screw is retracted

 Injection Molding Cycle

(4) mold is opened and part is ejected

 The Mold
The special tooling in injection molding – custom
designed and fabricated for the part to be produced
When production run is finished, the mold is
replaced with a new mold for the next part
Various types of molds for injection molding:
Two-plate mold
Three-plate mold
Hot-runner mold
 Two‑Plate Mold
Features
Cavity – geometry of part but slightly oversized to
allow for shrinkage
Fabricated by machining the mating surfaces of two
mold halves
Distribution channel through which polymer melt
flows from nozzle into mold cavity
Sprue - leads from nozzle into mold
Runners - lead from sprue to cavity (or cavities)
Gates - constrict flow of plastic into cavity
Ejection system – to eject molded part from cavity at
end of molding cycle
Ejector pins built into moving half of mold usually
accomplish this function
Cooling system - consists of external pump connected
to passageways in mold, through which water is
circulated to remove heat from the hot plastic
Air vents – to permit evacuation of air from cavity as
polymer melt rushes in
 Three‑Plate Mold
Uses three plates to separate parts from sprue and
runner when mold opens
Advantages over two-plate mold:
As mold opens, runner and parts disconnect and
drop into two containers under mold
Allows automatic operation of molding machine
The sprue and runner in a conventional two- or three-plate
mold represent waste material. In many instances they can be
ground and reused; however, in some cases the product must
be made of ‘‘virgin’’ plastic (plastic that has not been previously
molded).
 Hot‑Runner Mold
Eliminates solidification of sprue and runner by
locating heaters around the corresponding runner
channels
While plastic in mold cavity solidifies, material in
sprue and runner channels remains molten, ready
to be injected into cavity in next cycle
Advantage:
Saves material that otherwise would be scrap in the
unit operation
 Injection Molding Machines
Injection molding machines differ in both injection unit
and clamping unit
Name of injection molding machine is based on the type
of injection unit used
Reciprocating-screw injection molding machine
This design uses the same barrel for melting and injection of
plastic
Plunger-type injection molding machine
Plastic pellets are fed from a hopper into the first stage,
which uses a screw to drive the polymer forward and melt it.
This barrel feeds a second barrel, which uses a plunger to
inject the melt into the mold. Older machines used one
plunger-driven barrel to melt and inject the plastic.
Several clamping designs
Mechanical (toggle)
Hydraulic
 Thermoplastic Foam Injection Molding
molding of thermoplastic parts that possess a dense
outer skin surrounding a lightweight foam center.
Such parts have high stiffness-to weight ratios suitable
for structural applications.
Produced either by introducing a gas into molten plastic
in injection unit or by mixing a gas producing ingredient
with starting pellets
A small amount of melt is injected into mold cavity,
where it expands to fill cavity
Foam contacting cold mold surface collapses to form
dense skin, while core retains cellular structure
 Multi-Injection Molding Processes
Unusual effects can be achieved by multiple injection
of different polymers to mold a part.
The polymers are injected either simultaneously or
sequentially, and there may be more than one mold
cavity involved.
Sandwich molding involves injection of two separate
polymers one is the outer skin of the part and the other is
the inner core, which is typically a polymer foam.
A specially designed nozzle controls the flow sequence of
the two polymers into the mold.
The sequence is designed so that the core polymer is
completely surrounded by the skin material inside the
mold cavity.
The final structure is similar to that of a structural foam
molding.
However, the molding possesses a smooth surface, thus
overcoming one of the major shortcomings of the
previous process. In addition, it consists of two distinct
plastics, each with its own characteristics suited to the
application.
Another multi-injection molding process involves
sequential injection of two polymers into a two-
position mold.
With the mold in the first position, the first polymer is
injected into the cavity.
 Then the mold opens to the second position, and the
second melt is injected into the enlarged cavity.
The resulting part consists of two integrally connected
plastics.
Bi-injection molding is used to combine plastics of
two different colors (e.g., automobile tail light covers)
or to achieve different properties in different sections
of the same part.
 Injection Molding of Thermosets
They use a reciprocating-screw injection unit, but the
barrel length is shorter to avoid premature curing and
solidification of the TS polymer
Curing is the most time-consuming step in the cycle.
The part can be removed from the mold before curing
is completed, so that final hardening occurs because of
retained heat within a minute or two after removal.
 An alternative approach is to use a multiple-mold
machine, in which two or more molds are attached to
an indexing head served by a single injection unit.
Reaction Injection Molding
Reaction injection molding (RIM) involves the mixing
of two highly reactive liquid ingredients and
immediately injecting the mixture into a mold cavity,
where chemical reactions leading to solidification
occur.
Urethanes, epoxies, and urea-formaldehyde are
examples of these systems.
 Compression Molding
Widely used molding process for thermosetting
plastics
Also used for rubber tires and polymer matrix
composite parts
Molding compound available in several forms:
powders or pellets, liquid, or preform
Amount of charge must be precisely controlled to
obtain repeatable consistency in the molded
product
 Compression Molding
(1) TS charge is loaded, (2) and (3) compression
and curing, and (4) part is ejected and removed
 Molds for Compression
Molding
Simpler than injection molds
No sprue and runner system in a compression mold
Process itself generally limited to simpler part
geometries due to lower flow capabilities of TS
materials
Mold must be heated, usually by electric resistance,
steam, or hot oil circulation
 Compression Molding
Materials
Molding materials:
and Products
Phenolics, melamine, urea‑formaldehyde, epoxies,
urethanes, and elastomers
Typical compression-molded products:
Electric plugs, sockets, and housings; pot handles,
and dinnerware plates
 Transfer Molding
TS charge is loaded into a chamber immediately
ahead of mold cavity, where it is heated; pressure is
then applied to force soft polymer into heated mold
where it cures
Two variants:
Pot transfer molding - charge is injected from a "pot"
through a vertical sprue channel into cavity
Plunger transfer molding – plunger injects charge
from a heated well through channels into cavity
 Pot Transfer Molding
 (1) Charge loaded into pot, (2) soft polymer is pressed into
mold cavity and cured, and (3) part is ejected
 Plunger Transfer Molding
 (1) Charge loaded into pot, (2) soft polymer is pressed into
mold cavity and cured, and (3) part is ejected
BLOW MOLDING
Blow molding is more suited to the mass production of
small disposable containers, whereas rotational molding
favors large, hollow shapes.
Molding process in which air pressure is used to inflate soft
plastic into a mold cavity
Important for making one‑piece hollow plastic parts
with thin walls, such as bottles
 Because these items are used for consumer beverages
in mass markets, production is typically organized for
very high quantities
 Steps
Blow molding is accomplished in two steps:
1. fabrication of a starting tube of molten plastic, called
a parison (same as in glass-blowing)
2. inflation of the tube to the desired final shape.
Forming the parison is accomplished by either
extrusion or injection molding.
 Extrusion Blow
Molding
 (1) Extrusion of parison; (2) parison is pinched at top and
sealed at bottom around blow pin as the mold closes; (3)
tube is inflated; and (4) mold is opened
 Injection Blow Molding
 (1) Parison is injected molded around blowing rod; (2) mold
is opened and parison is moved to blow mold; (3) soft
polymer is inflated; and (4) mold is opened
Advantages
higher production rate
greater accuracy in the final dimensions
Lower scrap rates
less wasteful of material
 Stretch Blow Molding
Variation of injection blow molding in which
blowing rod stretches the soft parison for a more
favorable stressing of polymer than conventional
blow molding
Resulting structure is more rigid, more transparent,
and more impact resistant
Most widely used plastic is polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) which has very low permeability and is
strengthened by stretch blow molding
 Ideal as container for carbonated beverages
 Stretch Blow Molding
(1) Injection molding of parison; (2) stretching; and
(3) blowing
 Rotational Molding
Process uses gravity inside a rotating mold to
produce a hollow part shape
Alternative to blow molding for larger parts with
more complex external geometries
 But lower production rates than blow molding
Mostly for thermoplastic polymers but thermoset
and elastomer applications are not uncommon
Products: boat hulls, sandboxes, buoys, garbage cans,
large containers and storage tanks
 Rotational Molding
Performed on
three-station
indexing table:
(1) unload-load,
(2) heat and
rotate mold, (3)
cool the mold
A predetermined amount of polymer powder is loaded
into the cavity of a split mold
 The mold is then heated and simultaneously rotated
on two perpendicular axes, so that the powder
impinges on all internal surfaces of the mold, gradually
forming a fused layer of uniform thickness.
While still rotating, the mold is cooled so that the
plastic skin solidifies
 The mold is opened, and the part is unloaded.
Rotational speeds used in the process are relatively
slow. It is gravity, not centrifugal force, that causes
uniform coating of the mold surfaces.
 Thermoforming
Flat thermoplastic sheet or film is heated and
deformed into desired shape using a mold
Heating usually accomplished by radiant electric
heaters located on one or both sides of starting
plastic sheet or film
Widely used in packaging of products and to
fabricate large items such as bathtubs, contoured
skylights, and internal door liners for refrigerators
 Vacuum
(1) Flat plastic
Thermoforming
sheet is
softened by
heating
 Vacuum
Thermoforming
(2) The softened sheet
is placed over a concave
mold cavity
 Vacuum
Thermoforming
(3) Vacuum draws
the sheet into the
cavity
 Vacuum Thermoforming

(4) plastic hardens on

contact with the cold
mold surface, and the
part is removed and
later trimmed from the
web
 Pressure Thermoforming
(1) Heated plastic
sheet is
positioned above
the convex mold
 Negative Molds vs.
Positive Molds
Negative mold has concave cavity, as in previous
series of diagrams
Positive mold has convex shape
Both types are used in thermoforming
For positive mold, heated sheet is draped over convex
form and negative or positive pressure forces plastic
against mold surface
 POLYMER FOAM PROCESSING AND
FORMING
A polymer foam is a polymer-and-gas mixture, which
gives the material a porous or cellular structure
The most common polymer foams are polystyrene
(Styrofoam) and polyurethane. Other polymers used
to make foams include natural rubber (‘‘foamed
rubber’’) and polyvinylchloride (PVC).
Polymer foams can be classified as elastomeric,
in which the matrix polymer is a rubber, capable of
large elastic deformation
 flexible, in which the matrix is a highly
plasticized polymer such as soft PVC
rigid, in which the polymer is a stiff thermoplastic
such as polystyrene or a thermosetting plastic such
as a phenolic.
Depending on chemical formulation and degree of
cross-linking, polyurethanes can range over all
three categories.
Common gases used in polymer foams are air,
nitrogen, and carbon dioxide
The gas is introduced into the polymer by several
methods, called foaming processes.
mixing a liquid resin with air by mechanical agitation,
then hardening the polymer by means of heat or
chemical Reaction
mixing a physical blowing agent with the polymer a gas
such as nitrogen (N2) or pentane (C5H12), which can be
dissolved in the polymer melt under pressure, so that the
gas comes out of solution and expands when the pressure is
subsequently reduced
mixing the polymer with chemical compounds, called
chemical blowing agents, that decompose at elevated
temperatures to liberate gases such as CO2 or N2 within
the melt.