SHAPING PROCESSES FOR

PLASTICS

1. Properties of Polymer Melts

2. Extrusion
3. Production of Sheet, Film, and Filaments
4. Injection Molding
5. Other Molding Processes
 Plastic Products

 Plastics can be shaped into a wide variety of

products:
 Molded parts
 Extruded sections
 Films
 Sheets
 Insulation coatings on electrical wires
 Fibers for textiles
 Two Types of Plastics

1. Thermoplastics
 Chemical structure remains unchanged during
heating and shaping
2. Thermosets
 Undergo a curing process during heating and
shaping, causing a permanent change in
molecular structure (called cross‑linking)
 Once cured, they cannot be remelted
 Classification of
Shaping Processes
 Extruded products with constant cross section
 Continuous sheets and films
 Continuous filaments (fibers)
 Molded parts that are mostly solid
 Hollow molded parts with relatively thin walls
 Discrete parts made of formed sheets and films
 Castings
 Foamed products
 Polymer Melts

 To shape a thermoplastic polymer it must be heated

so that it softens to the consistency of a liquid
 In this form, it is called a polymer melt
 Important properties of polymer melts:
 Viscosity
 Viscoelasticity
 Viscosity of Polymer Melts

 Fluid property that relates shear stress to shear rate

during flow
 Due to its high molecular weight, a polymer melt is
a thick fluid with high viscosity
 Most polymer shaping processes involve flow
through small channels or die openings
 Flow rates are often large, leading to high
shear rates and shear stresses, so significant
pressures are required in these processes
 Viscosity and Shear Rate

 Viscosity of a polymer melt decreases with shear rate

 Thus the fluid becomes thinner (flows more easily) at
higher shear rates
 Viscosity and Temperature

 Viscosity
decreases with
temperature
 Thus the fluid
becomes thinner
at higher
temperatures
 Viscoelasticity

 Combination of viscosity and elasticity

 Example: die swell in extrusion - hot plastic expands
when exiting the die opening (memory)
 Extrusion

 Material is forced to flow through a die orifice to

provide long continuous product whose cross section
is determined by the shape of the orifice
 Widely used for thermoplastics and elastomers to
mass produce items such as tubing, pipes, hose,
structural shapes, sheet and film, continuous
filaments, and coated electrical wire
 Carried out as a continuous process; extrudate is
then cut into desired lengths
 Extruder

 Components and features of a (single‑screw)

extruder for plastics and elastomers
 Extruder Components

 Two main components of an extruder:

1. Barrel
2. Screw
 The die is not an extruder component
 It is a special tool that must be fabricated for the
particular profile to be produced
 Extruder Barrel

 Internal diameter typically ranges from 25 to 150

mm (1.0 to 6.0 in.)
 L/D ratios usually ~ 10 to 30: higher ratios for
thermoplastics, lower ratios for elastomers
 Feedstock fed by gravity onto screw whose
rotation moves material through barrel
 Electric heaters melt feedstock; subsequent
mixing and mechanical working adds heat which
maintains the melt
 Extruder Screw

 Divided into sections to serve several functions:

 Feed section - feedstock is moved from hopper and
preheated
 Compression section - polymer is transformed into
thick fluid, air mixed with pellets is extracted from
melt, and material is compressed
 Metering section - melt is homogenized and
sufficient pressure developed to pump it through die
opening
 Extruder Screw

 Components and features of a (single‑screw) extruder

for plastics and elastomers.
 Die End of Extruder

 Progress of polymer melt through barrel leads

ultimately to the die zone
 Before reaching the die, the melt passes through a
screen pack - series of wire meshes supported by a
stiff plate containing small axial holes
 Functions of screen pack:
 Filters out contaminants and hard lumps
 Builds pressure in metering section
 Straightens flow of polymer melt and removes its
"memory" of circular motion from screw
 Melt Flow in Extruder

 As screw rotates, polymer melt is forced to move

forward toward die; as in an Archimedian screw
 Principal transport mechanism is drag flow, Qd,
resulting from friction between the viscous liquid and
the rotating screw surfaces
 Compressing the polymer melt through the die
creates a back pressure that reduces drag flow
transport (called back pressure flow, Qb )
 Resulting flow in extruder is Qx = Qd – Qb
 Die Configurations and
Extruded Products
 The shape of the die orifice determines the
cross‑sectional shape of the extrudate
 Common die profiles and corresponding
extruded shapes:-
 Solid profiles
 Hollow profiles, such as tubes
 Wire and cable coating
 Sheet and film
 Filaments
 Extrusion of Solid Profiles

 Regular shapes such as

 Rounds
 Squares
 Irregular cross sections such as
 Structural shapes
 Door and window moldings
 Automobile trim
 House siding
 Extrusion Die for
Solid Cross Section
 (a) Side view cross section of extrusion die for solid
regular shapes, such as round stock; (b) front view of
die, with profile of extrudate
 Hollow Profiles

 Examples: tubes, pipes, hoses, and other cross

sections containing holes
 Hollow profiles require mandrel to form the shape
 Mandrel held in place using spider legs
 Polymer melt flows around legs supporting the
mandrel to reunite into a monolithic tube wall
 Mandrel often includes an air channel for blowing
air to maintain hollow form of extrudate
 Extrusion Die for Hollow Shapes

 Side view of extrusion die for hollow cross sections; Section A‑A is
a front view of how mandrel is held in place; Section B‑B shows
tube prior to exiting die; die swell enlarges diameter
 Wire and Cable Coating

 Polymer melt is applied to bare wire as it is pulled at

high speed through die
 A slight vacuum is drawn between wire and polymer
to promote adhesion of coating
 Wire provides rigidity during cooling
 Usually aided by passing coated wire through a water
trough
 Product is wound onto large spools at speeds up to 50
m/s (10,000 ft/min)
Extrusion Die for Coating Wire
 Polymer Sheet and Film

 Film - thickness below 0.5 mm (0.020 in.)

 Packaging - product wrapping material, grocery
bags, and garbage bags
 Stock for photographic film
 Pool covers and irrigation ditch liners
 Sheet - thickness from 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) to about
12.5 mm (0.5 in.)
 Flat window glazing
 Thermoforming stock
 Materials for
Polymer Sheet and Film
 All thermoplastic polymers
 Polyethylene, mostly low density PE
 Polypropylene
 Polyvinyl chloride
 Cellophane
 Polypropylene
Polyethylene

Polyvinyl chloride Cellophane

 Sheet and Film
Production Processes
 Most widely used processes are continuous, high
production operations
 Processes include:
 Slit‑Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film
 Blown‑Film Extrusion Process
 Calendering
 Slit‑Die Extrusion
of Sheet and Film
 Production of sheet and film by conventional
extrusion, using a narrow slit as the die opening
 Slit may be up to 3 m (10 ft) wide and as narrow
as around 0.4 mm (0.015 in)
 A problem is thickness uniformity throughout width
of stock, due to drastic shape change of polymer
melt as it flows through die
 Edges of film usually must be trimmed because of
thickening at edges
Slit Die Extrusion
 Blown‑Film Extrusion Process

 Combines extrusion and blowing to produce a tube of

thin film
 Process sequence:
1. Extrusion of tube
2. Tube is drawn upward while still molten and
expanded by air inflated into it through die
 Air is blown into tube to maintain uniform film
thickness and tube diameter
Blown-film
Process
 Calendering

 Feedstock is passed through a series of rolls to

reduce thickness to desired gage
 Expensive equipment, high production rates
 Process is noted for good surface finish and high
gage accuracy
 Typical materials: rubber or rubbery thermoplastics
such as plasticized PVC
 Products: PVC floor covering, shower curtains,
vinyl table cloths, pool liners, and inflatable toys
Calendering
 Fiber and Filament Products

 Definitions:
 Fiber - a long, thin strand whose length is at least
100 times its cross‑section
 Filament - a fiber of continuous length
 Applications:
 Fibers and filaments for textiles
 Most important application
 Reinforcing materials in polymer composites
 Growing application, but small relative to textiles
 Materials for Fibers and
Filaments
 Fibers can be natural or synthetic
 Natural fibers constitute ~ 25% of total market
 Cotton is by far the most important staple
 Wool production is much less than cotton
 Synthetic fibers constitute ~ 75% of total fiber
market
 Polyester is the most important
 Others: nylon, acrylics, and rayon
 Fiber and Filament Production -
Spinning
 For synthetic fibers, spinning = extrusion of polymer
melt or solution through a spinneret, then drawing and
winding onto a bobbin
 Spinneret = die with multiple small holes, the term is
a holdover from methods used to draw and twist
natural fibers into yarn or thread
 Three variations, depending on polymer:
1. Melt spinning
2. Dry spinning
3. Wet spinning
 Melt Spinning

 Starting polymer is heated to molten state and

pumped through spinneret
 Typical spinneret is 6 mm (0.25 in) thick and
contains ~ 50 holes of diameter 0.25 mm (0.010 in)
 Filaments are drawn and air cooled before being
spooled onto bobbin
 Final diameter wound onto bobbin may be only
1/10 of extruded size
 Used for polyester and nylon filaments
 Melt spinning
of continuous
filaments
 Dry Spinning

 Similar to melt spinning, but starting

polymer is in solution and solvent can
be separated by evaporation
 First step is extrusion through
spinneret
 Extrudate is pulled through a
heated chamber which removes
the solvent, leaving the polymer
 Used for filaments of cellulose
acetate and acrylics
 Wet Spinning

 Similar to melt spinning, but polymer is again in solution, only

solvent is non‑volatile
 To separate polymer, extrudate is passed through a liquid
chemical that coagulates or precipitates the polymer into
coherent strands which are then collected onto bobbins
 Used for filaments of rayon (regenerated cellulose)
 Subsequent Processing of
Filaments
 Filaments produced by any of the three processes
are usually subjected to further cold drawing to align
crystal structure along direction of filament axis
 Extensions of 2 to 8 are typical
 Effect is to significantly increase tensile strength
 Drawing is done by pulling filament between two
spools, where winding spool is driven at a faster
speed than unwinding spool
 Injection Molding

 Polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and

forced to flow under high pressure into a mold cavity
where it solidifies and the molding is then removed
from the cavity
 Produces discrete components to net shape
 Typical cycle time 10 to 30 sec, but cycles of
one minute or more are not uncommon
 Mold may contain multiple cavities, so multiple
moldings are produced each cycle
 Injection Molded Parts

 Complex and intricate shapes are possible

 Shape limitations:
 Capability to fabricate a mold whose cavity is the
same geometry as part
 Shape must allow for part removal from mold
 Part size from  50 g (2 oz) up to  25 kg (more
than 50 lb), e.g., automobile bumpers
 Injection molding is economical only for large
production quantities due to high cost of mold
 Injection Molded Parts

A collection of
plastic injection
molded parts
(courtesy of
George E. Kane
Manufacturing
Technology
Laboratory, Lehigh
University)
 Polymers for Injection Molding

 Injection molding is the most widely used molding

process for thermoplastics
 Some thermosets and elastomers are injection
molded
 Modifications in equipment and operating
parameters must be made to avoid premature
cross‑linking of these materials before injection
 Injection Molding Machine

 Two principal components:

1. Injection unit
 Melts and delivers polymer melt
 Operates much like an extruder
2. Clamping unit
 Opens and closes mold each injection cycle
 Injection Molding Machine

Diagram of an injection molding machine, reciprocating screw

type (some mechanical details are simplified)
 Injection Unit of Molding Machine

 Consists of barrel fed from one end by hopper

containing supply of plastic pellets
 Inside the barrel is a screw with two functions:
1. Rotates for mixing and heating polymer
2. Acts as a ram (i.e., plunger) to inject molten plastic
into mold
 Non‑return valve near tip of screw prevents melt
from flowing backward along screw threads
 Later in cycle ram retracts to its former position
 Clamping Unit of Molding
Machine
 Functions:
1. Holds two halves of mold in proper alignment
with each other
2. Keeps mold closed during injection by applying a
clamping force sufficient to resist injection force
3. Opens and closes mold at the appropriate times
in molding cycle
 Injection Molding Cycle

 (1) Mold is closed

 Injection Molding Cycle

 (2) Melt is injected into cavity

 Injection Molding Cycle

 (3) screw is retracted

 Injection Molding Cycle

 (4) mold is opened and part is ejected

 The Mold

 The special tooling in injection molding – custom

designed and fabricated for the part to be produced
 When production run is finished, the mold is replaced
with a new mold for the next part
 Various types of molds for injection molding:
 Two-plate mold
 Three-plate mold
 Hot-runner mold
 Two-Plate Mold

 Details of a
two‑plate mold for
thermoplastic
injection molding:
(a) closed
 Mold has two
cavities to produce
two cup‑shaped
parts with each
injection shot
 Two-Plate Mold

 Details of a
two‑plate mold for
thermoplastic
injection molding:
(b) open
 Two‑Plate Mold Features

 Cavity – geometry of part but slightly oversized to

allow for shrinkage
 Fabricated by machining the mating surfaces of
two mold halves
 Distribution channel through which polymer melt
flows from nozzle into mold cavity
 Sprue - leads from nozzle into mold
 Runners - lead from sprue to cavity (or cavities)
 Gates - constrict flow of plastic into cavity
 More Two‑Plate Mold Features

 Ejection system – to eject molded part from cavity at

end of molding cycle
 Ejector pins built into moving half of mold usually
accomplish this function
 Cooling system - consists of external pump
connected to passageways in mold, through which
water is circulated to remove heat from the hot plastic
 Air vents – to permit evacuation of air from cavity as
polymer melt rushes in
 Three‑Plate Mold

Uses three plates to separate parts from sprue and

runner when mold opens
 Advantages over two-plate mold:
 As mold opens, runner and parts disconnect and
drop into two containers under mold
 Allows automatic operation of molding machine
 Hot‑Runner Mold

 Eliminates solidification of sprue and runner by

locating heaters around the corresponding runner
channels
 While plastic in mold cavity solidifies, material in
sprue and runner channels remains molten, ready to
be injected into cavity in next cycle
 Advantage:
 Saves material that otherwise would be scrap in
the unit operation
 Injection Molding Machines

 Injection molding machines differ in both injection unit

and clamping unit
 Name of injection molding machine is based on the
type of injection unit used
 Reciprocating-screw injection molding machine
 Plunger-type injection molding machine
 Several clamping designs
 Mechanical (toggle)
 Hydraulic
 Shrinkage

 Polymers have high thermal expansion coefficients,

so significant shrinkage occurs during solidification
and cooling in mold
Plastic Typical Shrinkage, mm/mm (in/in)
Nylon‑6,6 0.020
Polyethylene 0.025
Polystyrene 0.004
PVC 0.005
 Compensation for Shrinkage

 Dimensions of mold cavity must be larger than

specified part dimensions:
Dc = Dp + DpS + DpS2
where Dc = dimension of cavity; Dp = molded part
dimension, and S = shrinkage value
 Third term on right hand side corrects for
shrinkage in the shrinkage
 Shrinkage Factors

 Fillers in the plastic tend to reduce shrinkage

 Injection pressure – higher pressures force more
material into mold cavity to reduce shrinkage
 Compaction time - similar effect – longer time forces
more material into cavity to reduce shrinkage
 Molding temperature - higher temperatures lower
polymer melt viscosity, allowing more material to be
packed into mold to reduce shrinkage
 Thermoplastic Foam Injection
Molding
 Molding of thermoplastic parts that possess dense
outer skin surrounding lightweight foam center
 Part has high stiffness‑to‑weight ratio
 Produced either by introducing a gas into molten
plastic in injection unit or by mixing a gas‑producing
ingredient with starting pellets
 A small amount of melt is injected into mold cavity,
where it expands to fill cavity
 Foam contacting cold mold surface collapses to form
dense skin, while core retains cellular structure
 Injection Molding of Thermosets

 Equipment and operating procedure must be modified to

avoid premature cross‑linking of TS polymer
 Reciprocating‑screw injection unit with shorter barrel
length
 Temperatures in barrel are relatively low
 Melt is injected into a heated mold, where cross‑linking
occurs to cure the plastic
 Curing is the most time‑consuming step in cycle
 Mold is then opened and part is removed
 Reaction Injection Molding

 Two highly reactive liquid ingredients are mixed and

immediately injected into a mold cavity where
chemical reactions leading to solidification occur
 RIM was developed with polyurethane to produce
large automotive bumpers and fenders
 RIM polyurethane parts have a foam internal
structure surrounded by a dense outer skin
 Other materials: urea‑formaldehyde and epoxies
 Compression Molding

 Widely used molding process for thermosetting

plastics
 Also used for rubber tires and polymer matrix
composite parts
 Molding compound available in several forms:
powders or pellets, liquid, or preform
 Amount of charge must be precisely controlled to
obtain repeatable consistency in the molded product
 Compression Molding

 (1) TS charge is loaded, (2) and (3) compression and

curing, and (4) part is ejected and removed
 Molds for Compression Molding

 Simpler than injection molds

 No sprue and runner system in a compression mold
 Process itself generally limited to simpler part
geometries due to lower flow capabilities of TS
materials
 Mold must be heated, usually by electric resistance,
steam, or hot oil circulation
 Compression Molding Materials
and Products
 Molding materials:
 Phenolics, melamine, urea‑formaldehyde, epoxies,
urethanes, and elastomers
 Typical compression-molded products:
 Electric plugs, sockets, and housings; pot handles,
and dinnerware plates