THE HUMAN BODY PLAN

OBJECTIVES: 1. Define Anatomy and Physiology, and explain how they are related.

2. Outline the chemical composition of the human body. 3. List and describe the major characteristics of life. 4. Define homeostasis, and explain its importance to survival. 5. Describe a Homeostatic Mechanism. 6. Outline the levels of structural organization of the human body. 7. List the four types of tissues that make up the human body. 8. Explain how tissues, organs, and organ systems are organized. 9. Summarize the functions of the primary organ systems in the human body. 10. Identify the five human body cavities and the organs that each contains. 11. Properly use terms that describe relative positions, body sections, and body regions. 12. Outline the body planes The human body begins to take shape during the earliest stages of embryonic development. While the embryo is a tiny hallow ball of dividing cells, it begins forming the tissues and organs that compose the human body. By the end of its third week, human embryo has bilateral symmetry (a body plan in which the left and right sides mirror each other) and is developing vertebrate characteristics that will support an upright body. 1. The human body is a precisely structured container of Chemical Reactions. 2. Biology is the Study of Living Things including the Study of the Human Body. 3. The Study of body structure, which includes Size, Shape, Composition, and perhaps even Coloration, is called Anatomy. 4. The Study of HOW the body functions is called Physiology. 5. The study of large body structures is called gross Anatomy. 6. The study of a body area such as the foot is called regional Anatomy. 7. The study of an organ system's structure is called systemic Anatomy. 8. The study of the relationship between internal structure and surface features of the body is called surface Anatomy. 9. Microscopic Anatomy is the study of small body structures, often too small to be seen with the naked eye. 10. Histology is the study of tissues, and Cytology is the study of cells. 1

11. The study of changes in the body's structure over time is called developmental Anatomy: a specialized sub-field that deals with such changes prior to birth is called Embryology. 12. Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes of living things 13. The purpose of this course is to enable you to gain an understanding of Anatomy and Physiology with the emphasis on Normal Structure and Function. You will examine the anatomy and physiology of the major body systems. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION The human body has many levels of structural organization. Beginning with the smallest: Chemical level: Examines atoms and how they combine to form the molecules of the human body (water, sugar, protein, DNA). 2. Cellular level: Examines cells (the most basic structural and functional unit of any living thing). 3. Tissue level: Examines the 4 types of tissues (group of two or more cells of similar function or origin). a. Epithelia b. Connective c. Nervous d. Muscle 4. Organ level: Examines organs (a structure composed of at least 2 major tissue types) and their specific function for the body. 5. System level: Examines how 2 or more organs work together, each with a specific function, to accomplish a common purpose (ex. Cardiovascular system, Digestive system). 6. Organismal level: Examines how all of the organ systems function together to promote life.
1.

1. CHEMICAL LEVEL A. The Chemicals that make up the body may be divided into TWO major categories: INORGANIC AND ORGANIC. 1) INORGANIC CHEMICALS are usually simple molecules made of one or more elements other than CARBON. Examples: Water, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide (an exception), and Minerals such as iron, calcium, and sodium. 2

2) ORGANIC CHEMICALS are often VERY Complex and ALWAYS CONTAIN THE ELEMENTS CARBON AND HYDROGEN. Examples: Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids. 2. CELLULAR LEVEL A. The smallest living units of structure and function are cells. B. Cells are the smallest living subunits of a multicellular organism such as a human being. C. There are many different types of cells; each is made of chemicals and carries out specific chemical reactions. 3. There are only four tissue types. Every organ usually has all four tissue types, epithelium, connective, muscle, & nervous.

TISSUES
Linings and Coverings Epithelial Tissues Simple Epithelia Squamous Cuboidal Columnar Pseudostratified Squamous Transitional Cuboidal and Columnar

Classifying or Naming Epithelia

Stratified Epithelia

Tissues of the Human Body: An Introduction

Connective Tissues

Muscle Tissues Nervous Tissues

Exocrine Glands Ducts and Tubules Endocrine Glands Fluid Connective Lymph Tissues Blood Loose Connective Tissues Areolar Loose Connective Tissues Adipose Reticular Connective Tissues and Inflammation Proper Regular(collagen) Dense Connective Tissues Irregular(collagen) Regular(elastic) Compact Osseous Tissue Cancellous Supportive Hyaline Connective Tissues Cartilage Elastic Fibrocartilage Non-striated Smooth Muscle Skeletal Muscle Striated Cardiac Muscle Neurons Multipolar Neurons in CNS Nerves Nerves of the PNS Receptors Miessner's and Pacinian Corpuscles Glands

3&4. Major organ systems of the body

SUMMARY OF MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEMS SYSTEM MAJOR STRUCTURES FUNCTIONS Skeletal Muscular Integumentary Circulatory Respiratory Digestive Excretory and Urinary Nervous Bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and joints muscles (skeletal, cardiac, and smooth) Skin, hair nails heart, blood vessels, blood air passages, lungs Mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small and large intestines kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, skin, lungs brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs, receptors Eye, Ear, Nose, Tongue, Touch endocrine glands and hormones provides structure; supports and protects internal organs provides structure; supports and moves trunk and limbs; moves substances through body protects against pathogens; helps regulate body temperature transports nutrients and wastes to and from all body tissues carries air into and out of lungs, where gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) are exchanged stores and digests food; absorbs nutrients; eliminates waste eliminate waste; maintains water and chemical balance controls and coordinates body movements and senses; controls consciousness and creativity; helps monitor and maintain other body systems Serves as a communication channel between external and internal environment maintain homeostasis; regulates metabolism, water and mineral balance, growth and sexual development, and reproduction

Special senses

Endocrine Lymphatic Reproductive

Lymph nodes, spleen, lymph cleans and returns tissue fluid to the blood vessels and destroys pathogens that enter the body ovaries, uterus, mammary glands (in females), testes (in produce gametes and offspring males)

BODY CAVITIES 4

1. Many organs and organ systems in the human body are housed in compartments called BODY CAVITIES. Specialized to generate and transmit Electrochemical Impulses that regulate body functions. The Brain and Optic Nerves are examples. 2. These cavities protect delicate internal organs from injuries and from the daily wear of walking, jumping, or running. 3. The body cavities also permit organs such as the lungs, the urinary bladder, and the stomach to expand and contract while remaining securely supported. 4. The human body has FOUR Main Body Cavities that house and protect delicate internal organs. A. CRANIAL CAVITY - encases the brain. B. SPINAL CAVITY - extending from the cranial cavity to the base of the spine, surrounds the Spinal Cord. THE TWO MAIN CAVITIES IN THE TRUNK OF THE HUMAN BODY ARE SEPARATED BY A WALL OF MUSCLE CALLED THE DIAPHRAGM. C. THORACIC CAVITY - The upper compartment, contains the heart, the esophagus, and the organs of the respiratory system - the lungs, trachea, and bronchi. D. ABDOMINAL CAVITY - The lower compartment, contains organs of the digestive, reproductive, and excretory systems.

Right hypochondriac Right lobe of the liver Gallbladder Part of the duodenum Hepatic flexure of the colon Part of the right kidney Suprarenal gland

Epigastric Pyloric end of the stomach Duodenum Pancreas Aorta Portion of the liver

Left hypochondriac Stomach Spleen Tail of the pancreas Splenic flexure of the colon Upper part of the left kidney Suprarenal gland

Right lumber Ascending colon Lower half of the right kidney Part of the duodenum

Right iliac Cecum Appendix Lower end of the ileum Right ureter Right ovary in female

Umbilical Omentum Mesentery Transverse colon Lower part of the duodenum Jejunum and ileum Hypogastric or pubic Ileum Bladder

Left lumber Descending colon Lower half of the left kidney Parts of the jejunum and ileum

Left iliac Sigmoid colon Left ureter Left ovary in female

ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
To communicate effectively with one another, researchers and clinicians have develop a set of Terms to describe anatomy that have precise meaning. Use of these terms assumes the body in the ANATOMICAL POSITION. This means that the body is standing erect, face forward with upper limbs at the sides and with the palms forward. RELATIVE POSITION Terms of Relative position describe the location of one body part with respect to another. This includes the following: 1. SUPERIOR - means that a body part is above another part or is closer to the head. 2. INFERIOR - means that a body part is below another body part or toward the feet. 3. ANTERIOR means toward the front. 4. VENTRAL also means toward the front 5. POSTERIOR is the opposite of anterior; it means toward the back. 6. DORSAL - also is the opposite of anterior; it means toward the back. 7. MEDIAL relates to an imaginary midline dividing the body in equal right and left halves. Sample: The nose is medial to the eyes. 8. LATERAL means toward the side with respect to the imaginary midline. Sample: The ears are lateral to the eyes. 9. PROXIMAL describes a body part that is closer to a point of attachment or closer to the trunk of the body than another part. Sample: The elbow is proximal to the wrist. 10. DISTAL is the opposite of proximal. It means that a particular body part is farther from the point of attachment or farther from the trunk of the body than another part. Sample: The fingers are distal to the wrist. 11. SUPERFICIAL means situated near the surface. 12. PERIPHERAL also means outward or near the surface. 13. DEEP describes parts that are more internal. 14. CORTEX - the outer layer of an organ 15. MEDULLA - the inner portion of an organ. 6

PLANES OF THE BODY

Medical professionals often refer to sections of the body in terms of anatomical planes (flat surfaces). These planes are imaginary lines - vertical or horizontal - drawn through an upright body. The terms are used to describe a specific body part. Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane) A verticle plane running from side to side; divides the body or any of its parts into anterior and posterior portions. Sagittal Plane (Lateral Plane) A verticle plane running from front to back; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sides. Axial Plane (Transverse Plane) A horizontal plane; divides the body or any of its parts into upper and lower parts. Median plane Sagittal plane through the midline of the body; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left halves.

Components of Chemical Composition of the Body

In order to fully understand the mechanisms of human physiology it is important to have an understanding of the chemical composition of the body. This will come in handy when considering the various interactions between cells and structures.

Atoms
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An atom is the smallest unit of matter with unique chemical properties. Atoms are the chemical units of cell structure.

Atoms are made up of 3 types of particles electrons , protons and neutrons . These particles have different properties. Electrons are tiny, very light particles that have a negative electrical charge (-). Protons are much larger and heavier than electrons and have the opposite charge, protons have a positive charge. Neutrons are large and heavy like protons, however neutrons have no electrical charge. Each atom is made up of a combination of these particles. They consist of a central nucleus with protons and neutrons and orbit(s) of electrons. A proton carries a +1 positive charge, while a neutron has no charge. Thus the nucleus has a net positive charge. Electrons carry a 1 negative charge and are consequently attracted to the positive nucleus. In general, the number of protons usually equals the number of electrons. Atoms have unique (individual) chemical properties, and thus each type of atom is called a chemical element, or just element. It is possible for elements to exist in multiple forms, called isotopes; the only difference is the number of neutrons in the nucleus, while protons and electrons always stay the same as the original element. An isotope is most stable when the number of neutrons is about the same as the number of protons in the lighter elements, and slightly higher than the number of protons in the heavier elements. If the proportion is not a stable one, the isotope will be radioactive. The light elements that make up 99% of life are invisible gases in their pure state, yet obviously vital. Molecular bonds between these elements are governed by the principles of quantum mechanics, (Theory of the structure and behavior of atoms and molecules). The periodic table contains 103 elements. Most organisms are composed of only 16 chemical elements. The human body depends upon four major elements for form and function: Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), and Nitrogen (N). These four make up 99% by weight of all living matter. Oxygen is so vital to organic life on the earth that where it is not available to us we carry it with us: to the moon or to the bottom of the sea. We pump it into dying souls to help them, we squirt it into engines to help them burn. Oxygen is the basic component of all motion (chemical reactions) and without it, animation normally ceases. Nitrogen, less well known and appreciated, is just as vital. All proteins are built from it, and proteins are essential to all varieties of organic life. The handing down of plans for each organism depends on nitrogen because it is a component of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and without it, organized life would terminate. Carbon is very easy going in the liaisons it forms and because of this it is the element that defines what we call an organic compound (also called "life"). It will even form chains, rings and trees of 8

atoms with itself. It forms and links the long-chain molecules needed in a process as extraordinary and complex as life. Hydrogen is the simplest element, but the most gifted in chemical personality. Its propensity to form molecular bonds with so many of the other elements gives us some of our most vital molecules, water (hydrogen and oxygen) and carbohydrates (carbon and hydrogen chains). It is also the most abundant element in the universe and the fuel of the stars. From it all the other elements are made and this is the reason the simplest elements are the most abundant. Phosphorus is both a component of bone (in calcium phosphate) and a perfect vehicle for the subtle deployment of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), common to all living cells. Viruses lack ATP, but are sparked into activity when they acquire it from their hosts. This is an organic alliance between nitrogen, crucial to the utilization and conversion of energy, and phosphorus, crucial to its deployment, under the control of protein which nitrogen constructs. Magnesium is a vital component of chlorophyll, the single atom at the end of a long molecule. Without chlorophyll, the world would be a damp warm rock instead of the softly green haven of life that we know, for chlorophyll holds its magnesium eye to the sun and captures the energy of sunlight, in the first step of photosynthesis. Sodium is reponsible for conducting the electrical signals which are the nerve impulses telling muscles to act and transmitting sensory input to the brain. Iron appears as four bloody eyes in the center of the hemoglobin molecule, and its nonchalance in forming molecular bonds, enables it to carry an oxygen molecule through our bodies to where it is required and deposit it equally freely, for the greater good. When electrons are needed to drive a process in a living cell, it is often iron that is called to give one up.

Bonding
Atoms form molecules when two or more are bonded together. A1bondA2 = Molecule: A1A2 Covalent bonds are formed when electrons in the outer orbit are shared between two atoms. With this type of bond formed, molecules can rotate around their shared electrons and change shapes. Every atom forms a characteristic number of covalent bonds. The number of bonds depends on the number of electrons in the outer orbit. Ionic bonds are bonds formed between two oppositely charged ions. Cations are ions with a net positive charge. Anions are those with a net negative charge. 9

Ionic forms of elements are important to the body, as they are able to conduct electricity when dissolved in water. Theses ions are called electrolytes. NaCl Na+ + ClAn atom with a single electron in its outermost orbital is known as a free radical. Free radicals are highly reactive and short-lived. In organism terms, they are responsible for cellular breakdown. Sun damage is a classic example of free radicals acting on skin cells. Polar bonds are bonds in which the electrons are shared unequally. The unequal sharing gives the atom with the higher share a more negative charge and the one with the lower share of electrons has a slightly more positive charge. Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds between the hydrogen atom (more positive, lesser share of the electron) in one polar bond and an oxygen or nitrogen atom (more negative, greater share of the electron) in another polar bond. Water Water is the most common molecule in the human body (~98-99%). Both hydrogen atoms are attached to the single oxygen atom by polar bonds. The oxygen has a slightly negative charge and the hydrogen atoms each have a slightly positive charge. This allows for hydrogen bonds to form between the positive hydrogen atoms and the negative oxygen atoms of neighboring water molecules. The state of water is determined by the weak hydrogen bonds. The bonds remain intact in low temperatures and the water freezes. When the temperature rises the bonds weaken and water becomes a liquid. If the temperature is high enough the bonds will completely break and water becomes a gas. Solutions Substances dissolved in a liquid are called solutes, while the liquid itself is called the solvent. The term solution refers to the final product when solutes dissolve in a solvent. The terms hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic are used to compare solutions relative to their solute concentrations. Hypotonic solution[Gk. hypo, under + tonos, tension] A solution with a lesser solute concentration than another. (More solvent than solutes.) Hypertonic solution[Gk. hyper, above + tonos, tension] A solution with a greater solute concentration than another. (More solutes than solvent.) Isotonic solution[Gk. isos, equal + tonos, tension] Solutions of equal solute concentration. (Equal solutes to solvent.)

Since water is the most common molecule in the human body, it should be no surprise that water is the most abundant solvent. In the body, a majority of the chemical reactions involve molecules dissolved in water.

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Hydrophilic (water-loving) molecules are molecules that easily dissolve in water. In contrast, molecules that are not attracted to water are called hydrophobic molecules (water-fearing). They are molecules with electrically neutral covalent bonds (e.g., molecules with carbon chains). When non-polar molecules are mixed with water two phases (layers) are formed. A good example is mixing oil and water and then allowing the container to set for a while. There will be two distinct layers visible. Molecules with a polar/ionized region at one end and a non-polar region at the other end are called amphipathic, as the molecule has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic characteristics. If amphipathic molecules are mixed with water, the molecules form clusters with the polar (hydrophilic) regions at the surface, where they will come into contact with water, and the nonpolar (hydrophobic) regions nestled in the center of the cluster away from contact with water. The arrangement will increase the overall solubility in water. Concentration With regards to solutions, concentration is the amount of solute present in a unit volume of solution. Concentration values do not reflect the number of molecules present.

Ph, Acids, Bases and Buffers

Equilibrium is an important principal in chemistry and in life is maintained in the body by an on going push-pull principle which allows for an exquisite fine-tuning of the chemistry of the organism. One example of this is the maintenance of the acid-base balance or pH level of the fluids in which the cells are bathed. Acids and bases are interrelated chemicals and the correct balance is very important as life can only exist within a very narrow range of pH levels. Human blood maintains itself at pH 7.4 (+0.05) and death may result if a person's blood falls below pH 6.8 or rises above pH 7.8. The system of molecules and ions that prevents changes in H+ concentration and thus stabilizes the pH of a solution is called a buffer. A reversible reaction between an base, bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) and its conjugate (corresponding) acid, carbonic acid (H2CO3) is what stabilizes our blood. Suppose more H+ is added (say lactic acid). This would create a situation where the equilibrium between the two would shift toward the production of carbonic acid and the excess H+ would be used up combining with the HCO3- thus lowering the pH only slightly. In the opposite case, if the concentration of H+ in the blood is falling, the carbonic acid dissociates to yield free H+ and HCO3- and this keeps the pH from falling. The bicarbonate ions and the carbonic acid act as a buffer pair to prevent either decreases or increases in the pH, respectively. Acidity An acid is a molecule that releases protons (hydrogen ions) in solution. 11

Conversely, a base is a molecule that can accept a proton. Acids and bases can be further divided into strengths. A strong acid is an acid that releases all of its hydrogen ions in solution. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is an excellent example of a strong acid. Weak acids are those which do not completely ionize, or lose their hydrogen ions, in solution. Alkaline solutions are also known as basic solutions and thus have a lower concentration of hydrogen ions [H+]. The pH of alkaline solutions is greater than 7. Litmus papers are test strips that determine pH based upon color changes in the paper, after the strip is dipped into a solution. Organic molecules Organic molecules contain carbon backbones. Every carbon atom will form 4 covalent bonds with other atoms, specifically other carbon atoms as well as hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur atoms. By linking together of many smaller molecules, carbon is able to form very large polymers (macromolecules) many of which are important to human physiology. Carbohydrates These important carbon-based molecules are vital to life in that they provide cells with energy. Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a set proportion. Where n is any whole number, the formula is: Cn (H2O) n. H C OH Carbohydrates are easily soluble in water due to the polar hydroxyl (OH-) groups. Most are sweet tasting and are also known by the common name: sugar. Monosaccharides are the simplest sugars. Glucose (C6H12O6) is the most abundant, and is called blood sugar because it is the major monosaccharide in blood. The common monosaccharides in the body contain 5 or 6 carbon atoms and are called pentoses and hexoses, respectively. Disaccharides are carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharides linked together. Sucrose is composed of glucose and fructose. Maltose is composed of glucose and glucose chains. Lactose, milk sugar, is composed of glucose and galactose. Polysaccharides are formed when many monosaccharides link together into long chains. Glycogen in animal cells and starch in plant cells are both composed of thousands of glucose molecules linked together. Lipids a.k.a fats to the layman are predominantly composed of hydrogen and carbon atoms linked together by neutral covalent bonds. Lipids are non-polar and are consequently are not very soluble in water. There are four main classes of lipids to be aware of in learning about human physiology. Fatty acids are chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl group at one end. Generally, they are made of an even number of carbon atoms because they are synthesized by linking together fragments composed of two carbon atoms. If the chain is composed of double bonds, the chain is called an unsaturated fatty acid. Furthermore, if only one double bond is present in the chain, then it is a monounsaturated fatty acid, while if there is more than one double bond present it is called a polyunsaturated fatty acid. 12

Triacylglycerols, or triglycerides, account for the majority of lipids in the body. They are formed by linking each of the 3 hydroxyl groups of glycerol with the carboxyl groups of three fatty acids, hence the tri in the name. When a triacylglycerol is hydrolyzed, the fatty acids are released from the glycerol and the products can be metabolized in order to provide energy for cell functions. Phospholipids are close relatives of Triglycerides but one of its hydroxyl group is linked to a phosphate.Phospholipid has a non-polar region in the fatty acid, thus the molecule is amphipathic. Phospholipids are very important in building membranes within the body. Steroids are composed of 4 interconnected carbon atom rings. They may have a few polar hydroxyl groups attached to the rings. Steroids are not soluble in water due to their polarity. Sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen, are examples of steroids, as well as cholesterol and cortisol. Proteins In addition to the common four elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, proteins also contain sulfur and other elements in small amounts. Proteins are very large molecules of linked subunits called amino acids. They form very long chains. Amino acids are composed of an amino (NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group that are linked to a terminal carbon atom. The proteins in living organisms are composed of the same set of 20 amino acids. Each amino acid is distinguished by its side chain. As amino acids are joined together with peptide bonds they are forming a polypeptide, or a sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Glycoproteins are made when monosaccharides are covalently bonded to the side chains of specific amino acids in the protein (polypeptide). The specific amino acids that are singled out in the formation of a glycoprotein are serine and threonine.

Protein Structure Two things determine the primary structure of a protein. 1. The number of amino acids in the chain 2. Where each specific amino acid occurs in the chain. It is important to remember that a polypeptide chain is flexible as each amino acid can rotate around its peptide bonds. Therefore, polypeptide chains can be bent into a number of shapes or conformations. Nucleic Acids 13

Nucleic acids store, transmit and express genetic information. Nucleic acids are composed of subunits called nucleotides. Nucleotides contain a phosphate group, a sugar and a ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) stores genetic information in the sequence of the nucleotide subunits. DNA nucleotides contain a five carbon sugar called deoxyribose. A DNA molecule looks like a double helix. It consists of two chains of nucleotides coiled around each other held by hydrogen bonds between a purine base on one chain and a pyrimidine base on the other. RNA (ribonucleic acid) uses the information stored in DNA to write the instructions for linking together specific sequences of amino acids in order to form polypeptides per original DNA instructions. RNA is slightly different than DNA. Specifically, RNA is a single chain of nucleotides, contains the sugar ribose, and the pyrimidine base uracil is present instead of thymine.

LIFE PROCESSES or CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

1. All living organisms carry on certain processes that set them apart from nonliving things. 2. The Following are several of the more important life processes of Humans: A. METABOLISM is the sum of all the chemical reactions that occur in the body. One phase of Metabolism called CATABOLISM provides the ENERGY needed to sustain life by BREAKING DOWN substances such as food molecules. The other phase called ANABOLISM uses the energy from catabolism to MAKE various substances that form body structures and enable them to function. B. ASSIMILATION is the changing of absorbed substances into forms that are chemically different from those that entered body fluids. C. RESPONSIVENESS is the ability to detect and Respond to changes Outside or Inside the Body. Seeking Water to quench thirst is a response to water loss from body tissue. D. MOVEMENT includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, or even structures inside cells. E. GROWTH refers to an Increase in Body Size. It may be due to an increase in the size of existing cells, the number of cells, or the amount of substance surrounding cells. It occurs whenever an organism produces new body materials faster than old ones are worn out or replaced. F. DIFFERENTIATION is the process whereby unspecialized cells become specialized cells. Specialized Cells differ in Structure and Function from the cells from which they originated.

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G. REPRODUCTION refers either to the formation of new cells for Growth, Repair, or Replacement or to the making of a New Individual. H. Others Include: Respiration obtaining Oxygen. Digestion Chemically and mechanically breaking down food substances. Absorption The passage of substances through certain membranes. Circulation the movement of substances within the body in Body Fluids. Excretion Removal of wastes that the body produces. MAINTENANCE OF LIFE OR SURVIVAL NEEDS 1. The structures and functions of almost all body parts help maintain the Life of the Organism. The ONLY Exceptions are an Organisms Reproductive Structures, which ensure that its species will continue into the future. 2. Life requires certain Environmental Factors, including the Following: A. WATER this is the most abundant chemical in the body and it is required for many Metabolic Processes and provides the environment in which Most of them take place. Water also transports substances within the organism and is important in regulating body temperature. B. FOOD the Substances that provide the body with necessary Chemicals (Nutrients) in addition to Water. Food is used for Energy, supply the raw materials for building new living matter and still others help regulate vital chemical reactions. C. OXYGEN It is required to release Energy from food substances. This energy, in turn, drives metabolic processes. Approximately 20% of the air we breathe is oxygen. D. HEAT (BODY TEMPERATURE) - a form of energy, it is a product of Metabolic Reactions. Normal Body Temperature is around 37 C or 98 F. either low or high body temperatures are dangerous to the organism. E. PRESSURE (ATMOSPHERIC) Necessary for our Breathing.

HOMEOSTASIS
1. All of the above systems function together to help the Human Body to Maintain HOMEOSTASIS. 2. A person who is in good health is in a state of Homeostasis. 3. Homeostasis reflects the ability of the body to maintain relative Stability and to Function Normally despite constant Changes. 4. Changes may be External or Internal, and the body must Respond Appropriately. 5. The Proper Functioning of each Organ and Organ System has a role to perform in maintaining HOMEOSTASIS. 6. The Human Body uses Homeostasis Mechanisms to maintain its stable internal environment. Homeostasis Mechanisms work much like a Thermostat (NEGATIVE FEEDBACK) that is 15

sensitive to temperature and maintains a relative constant room temperature whether the room gets to Hot or Cold. Homeostasis and Feedback Homeostasis is one of the fundamental characteristics of living things. It refers to the maintenance of the internal environment within tolerable limits. All sorts of factors affect the suitability of our body fluids to sustain life; these include properties like temperature, salinity, acidity, and the concentrations of nutrients and wastes. Because these properties affect the chemical reactions that keep us alive, we have built-in physiological mechanisms to maintain them at desirable levels. When a change occurs in the body, there are two general ways that the body can respond. In negative feedback, the body responds in such a way as to reverse the direction of change. Because this tends to keep things constant, it allows us to maintain homeostasis. To illustrate the components involved in negative feedback, we can use the example of body temperature; the set point would be 98.6 degrees. The control center is what monitors the variable and compares it with the set point. Here, the control center for body temperature would be the hypothalamus of the brain. If the variable differs from the set point, the control center uses effectors to reverse the change. The effector in controlling body temperature would include the glands that sweat and the muscles that shiver. The second type of response is positive feedback. This means that if a change occurs in some variable, the response is to change that variable even more in the same direction. The result is a continuing spiral of change. (Eventually, negative feedback may take over to put a limit on things.) An example of positive feedback is the phenomenon of autocatalysis, which occurs in some digestive enzymes such as pepsin. Pepsin is a protein-digesting enzyme that works in the stomach. However, the stomach does not secrete pepsin; it secretes an inactive form, called pepsinogen. When one pepsinogen molecule becomes activated, it helps to activate other pepsinogens nearby, which in turn can activate others. In this way, the number of active pepsin molecules can increase rapidly, by using positive feedback.

Cell Structure
Your body is made of about 10 trillion cells. The largest human cells are about the diameter of a human hair, but most human cells are smaller -- perhaps one-tenth of the diameter of a human hair. Run your fingers through your hair now and look at a single strand. It is not very thick -- maybe 100 microns in diameter (a micron is a millionth of a meter, so 100 microns is a tenth of a millimeter). A typical human cell might be one-tenth of the diameter of your hair (10 microns). The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is sometimes called the building block of life. Some organisms, such as most bacteria, are unicellular (consist of a single cell). Other organisms, such as humans, are multicellular. The cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells. All cells come from preexisting cells. Vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and all cells contain the 16

hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. The word cell comes from the Latin cellula, meaning, a small room. There are two types of cells that make up all living things on earth: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells, like bacteria, have no 'nucleus', while eukaryotic cells, like those of the human body, do. So, a human cell is enclosed by a cell, or plasma, membrane. Enclosed by that membrane is the cytoplasm (with associated organelles) plus a nucleus.

Diagram of a human cell

The interior of the cell is divided into the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nucleus is a spherical or oval shaped structure at the center of the cell. The cytoplasm is the region outside the nucleus that contains cell organelles and cytosol, or cytoplasmic solution. The cytoplasm is the site where most cellular activities occur, such as many metabolic pathways, and processes such as cell and division. Intracellular fluid is collectively the cytosol and the fluid inside the organelles and nucleus. The cytosol is the portion of a cell that is not enclosed within membrane-bound organelles. The cytosol is a translucent fluid in which the other cytoplasmic elements are suspended. Cytosol makes up about 70% of the cell volume and is composed of water, salts and organic molecules

Cytoplasmic inclusions
The inclusions are small particles of insoluble substances suspended in the cytosol. A huge range of inclusions exist in different cell types, and range from crystals of calcium oxalate or silicon dioxide in plants, to granules of energy-storage materials such as starchs, glycogen, or polyhydroxybutyrate. 17

The nuclear envelope (NE) (also known as the perinuclear envelope, nuclear membrane, nucleolemma or karyotheca) is a double lipid bilayer that encloses the genetic material in eukaryotic cells. The NE serves as the physical barrier, separating the contents of the nucleus (DNA in particular) from the cytosol (cytoplasm). Numerous nuclear pores are inserted in the nuclear envelope and facilitate and regulate the exchange of materials ( proteins such as transcription factors, and RNA) between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Membranes
Membranes are the gateways to the cell. The plasma membrane is the selective barrier surrounding the cell. It provides a barrier to the movement of molecules between the intra and extracellular fluids. Extracellular means outside the cell. The plasma membrane also serves to anchor adjacent cells together and to the extracellular matrix. Various signals and inputs can alter the sensitivity and permeability of membranes, such as heat, or cold.

micro.magnet.fsu.edu

Membrane structure Membranes are made of a double layer of lipids, mainly

phospholipids, containing embedded proteins. The embedded proteins are important as facilitators in moving molecule through the membrane. The membrane itself is organized into a bimolecular layer; meaning that the non-polar region is organized in the middle (away from water as it is hydrophobic) and the polar regions are oriented toward the outside: the extracellular fluid and the cytosol. Another way to think of it is two rows of pins with their heads to the outside and the needle part to the inside. Heads, needles, needles, heads. The proteins embedded in membrane are categorized into two classes. Peripheral membrane proteins are proteins on the membrane surface, mainly the cystolic side where they interact with cytoskeletal elements in order to influence cell shape and motility. These proteins are not amphipathic and are bound to polar regions of the integral proteins. Integral membrane proteins span the entire width of the membrane, thus crossing through both the polar and non-polar regions of the structure. These proteins cannot be removed from the membrane without disrupting the lipid bi-layer. The plasma membrane also has an extracellular surface layer of monosaccharides that are linked to the membrane lipids and proteins. This layer is important in the intercellular recognition process.

Membrane Junctions
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Integrins are transmembrane proteins that bind to specific proteins in the extracellular matrix and to membrane proteins on adjacent cells. Integrins help to organize cells into tissues. They are also responsible for transmitting signals from the extracellular matrix to the cell interior. If two cells are adjacent, but separated, they may be junctured by desmosomes. Desmosomes are dense accumulations of protein at the cytoplasmic surface of the plasma membranes of both separate cells. They are infiltrated with protein fibers that extended into either cell. The purpose and function of desmosomes is to hold adjacent cells firmly in place in areas that are subject to stretching, such as skin. Another type of membrane junction is the tight junction. These junctions are formed by the actual physical joining of the extracellular surfaces of two adjacent plasma membranes. Tight junctions are important in areas where more control over tissue processes is needed, such as the epithelial cells in the intestine that are involved in absorption. Finally, gap junctions are actual protein channels that link the cytosols of adjacent cells. The drawback to this direct link is that it only permits smaller molecules to pass through.

Cell Organelles
Cell organelles are the little workhouses within the cell. All the functions of life take place in each individual cell. The organelles are of different size and density and will settle out at specific rates.

Overview of organelles
The nucleus is in the center of most cells. Some cells contain multiple nuclei, such as skeletal muscle, while some do not have any, such as red blood cells. The nucleus is the largest membrane-bound organelle. Specifically, it is responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information. The nucleus is surrounded by a selective nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope is composed of two membranes joined at regular intervals to form circular openings called nuclear pores. The pores allow RNA molecules and proteins modulating DNA expression to move through the pores and into the cytosol. The selection process is controlled by an energy-dependent process that alters the diameter of the pores in response to signals. The chromatin becomes vital at the time of cell division as it becomes tightly condensed thus forming the rod like chromosomes with the enmeshed DNA. Inside the nucleus is a filamentous region called the nucleolus. This serves as a site where the RNA and protein components of ribosomes are assembled. The nucleolus is not membrane bound, but rather just a region. Ribosomes are the sites where protein molecules are synthesized from amino acids. They are composed of proteins and RNA. Some ribosomes are found bound to granular endoplasmic reticulum, while others are free in the cytoplasm. The proteins synthesized on ribosomes bound to granular endoplasmic reticulum are transferred from the lumen (open space inside endoplasmic reticulum) to the golgi apparatus for secretion outside the cell or distribution to other organelles. 19

 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is collectively a network of membranes enclosing a singular continuous space. As mentioned earlier, granular endoplasmic reticulum is associated with ribosomes (giving the exterior surface a rough or granular appearance). Sometimes granular endoplasmic reticulum is referred to as rough ER. The granular ER is involved in packaging proteins for the Golgi apparatus. The agranular or smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is the site of lipid synthesis. In addition, the agranular ER stores and releases calcium ions/Ca 2+. The golgi apparatus is a membranous sac that serves to modify and sort proteins into secretory/transport vesicles. The vesicles are then delivered to other cell organelles and the plasma membrane. Most cells have at least one Golgi apparatus, although some may have multiple. The apparatus is usually located near the nucleus. Endosomes are membrane-bound tubular and vesicular structures located between the plasma membrane and the golgi apparatus. They serve to sort and direct vesicular traffic by pinching off vesicles or fusing with them. Mitochondria are some of the most important structures in the human body. They are the site of various chemical processes involved in the synthesis of energy packets called ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Each mitochondrion is surrounded by two membranes. The outer membrane is smooth, while the inner one is folded into tubule structures called cristae. Mitochondria are unique in that they contain small amounts of DNA containing the genes for the synthesis of some mitochondrial proteins. The DNA is inherited solely from the mother. Cells with greater activity have more mitochondria, while those that are less active have less need for energy producing mitochondria. Lysosomes are bound by a single membrane and contain highly acidic fluid. The fluid acts as digesting enzymes for breaking down bacteria and cell debris. They play an important from in the cells of the immune system. Lysosomes are organelles that contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). They digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria. The membrane surrounding a lysosome allows the digestive enzymes to work at the 4.5 pH they require. Peroxisomes are also bound by a single membrane. They consume oxygen and work to drive reactions that remove hydrogen from various molecules in the form of hydrogen peroxide. They are important in maintaining the chemical balances within the cell. Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides. The cell could not house these destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system. These organelles are often called a "suicide bag" because of their ability to detonate and destroy the cell. Vesicle In cell biology, a vesicle is a relatively small intracellular, membrane-enclosed sac that transports substances. The vesicle is separated cytosol by at least one lipid bilayer. Vesicles store, transport, or digest cellular products and waste. Vesicles can fuse with the plasma 20

stores or from the

membrane, releasing their contents outside the cell. Vesicles are a basic tool of the cell for organizing metabolism, transport, buoyancy control, enzyme storage, as well as being chemical reaction chambers.

Some types of vesicles

Transport vesicles can move molecules between locations inside the cell, e.g., proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus. Synaptic vesicles are located at presynaptic terminals in neurons and store neurotransmitters. Gas vesicles are used by Archaea, Bacteria and planktonic microorganisms, possibly to control vertical migration by regulating the gas content and thereby buoyancy, and possibly to position the cell for maximum solar light harvesting. Lysosomes are membrane-bound digestive organelles that can digest macromolecules (break them down to small compounds) that were taken in from the outside of the cell by an endocytic vesicle. Matrix vesicles are located within the extracellular space, or matrix. These cell-derived vesicles are specialized to initiate biomineralization of the matrix in a variety of tissues, including bone, cartilage, and dentin. During normal calcification, a major influx of calcium and phosphate ions into the cells accompanies cellular apoptosis (genetically determined self-destruction) and matrix vesicle formation. Calcium-loading also leads to formation of phosphatidylserine:calcium:phosphate complexes in the plasma membrane mediated in part by a protein called annexins. Matrix vesicles bud from the plasma membrane at sites of interaction with the extracellular matrix. Thus, matrix vesicles convey to the extracellular matrix calcium, phosphate, lipids and the annexins which act to nucleate mineral formation. These processes are precisely coordinated to bring about, at the proper place and time, mineralization of the tissue's matrix. Multivesicular body, or MVB, is a membrane-bound vesicle containing a number of smaller vesicles.

Vacuoles Vacuoles store food and waste. Some vacuoles store extra water. They are often described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane. Some cells, most notably Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which are able to pump water out of the cell if there is too much water. Vacuoles also play a major role in autophagy, maintaining a balance between biogenesis (production) and degradation (or turnover), of many substances and cell structures. In general, vacuole functions include:

Removing unwanted structural debris Isolating materials that might be harmful or a threat to the cell Containing waste products 21

Maintaining internal hydrostatic pressure or turgor within the cell Maintaining an acidic internal pH Containing small molecules Exporting unwanted substances from the cell

Centrosome (the cytoskeleton organiser) The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell - a key component of the cytoskeleton. It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus. Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell division and help in the formation of the mitotic spindle. A single centrosome is present in the animal cells. A centriole is a barrel shaped organelle found in most animal eukaryotic cells, though absent in higher plants and fungi. The walls of each centriole are usually composed of nine triplets of microtubules (protein of the cytoskeleton). The cytoskeleton is a filamentous network of proteins that are associated with the processes that maintain and change cell shape and produce cell movements. The cytoskeleton also forms tracks along which cell organelles move propelled by contractile proteins attached to their various surfaces. Like a little highway infrastructure inside the cell.

Types of filaments make up the cytoskeleton. 1. Microfilaments are the thinnest and most abundant of the cytoskeleton proteins. They are composed of actin, a contractile protein, and can be assembled and disassembled quickly according to the needs of the cell or organelle structure. 2. Intermediate filaments are slightly larger in diameter and are found most extensively in regions of cells that are going to be subjected to stress. Desmosomes in the skin will contain filaments. Once these filaments are assembled they are not capable of rapid disassembly. 3. Microtubules are hollow tubes composed of a protein called tubulin. They are the thickest and most rigid of the filaments. Microtubules are present in the axons and long dendrite projections of nerve cells. They are capable of rapid assembly and disassembly according to need. Microtubules are structured around a cell region called the centrosome, which surrounds two centrioles composed of 9 sets of fused microtubules. These are important in cell division when the centrosome generates the microtubluar spindle fibers necessary for chromosome separation. 4. Finally, cilia are hair-like motile extensions on the surface of some epithelial cells. They have a central core of 9 sets of fused microtubules. In association with a contractile protein, these microtubules produce movement in cilia. Ciliar 22

movements propel the luminal contents of hollow organs lined with ciliated epithelium. Structures outside the cell wall Capsule It is present only in some bacteria outside the cell wall. It is gelatinous in nature. The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as bacillus anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci. Capsules not stained by ordinary stain and can detected by special stain. The capsule is antigenic. The capsule has antiphagocytic function so it determines the virulence of many bacteria. It also plays a role in attachment of the organism to mucous membranes. Flagella Flagella are the organ of mobility. They arise from cytoplasm and extrude through the cell wall. They are long and thick thread like appendages, protein in nature, formed of flagellin protein (antigenic). They can not be stained by gram stain. They have a special stain. According to their arrangement they may be monotrichate, amphitrichate, lophotrichate, peritrichate. Fimbriae (pili) They are short and thin hair like filaments, formed of protein called pilin (antigenic). Fimbriae are responsible for attachement of bacteria to specific receptors of human cell (adherence). There are special types of pili called (sex pili) involved in the process of conjunction.

Movement of molecules across cell membranes Passive transport mechanisms

Diffusion Diffusion is essentially the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration as a result of thermal motion. Diffusion is an important process in human physiology. Specifically, diffusion is the mechanism of movement of oxygen, nutrients and other molecules across the capillary walls and the movement of other molecules across membranes. When diffusion between two compartments is equal, meaning no net movement, the system has reached diffusion equilibrium.

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 Osmosis Osmosis is the net diffusion of water across a membrane. If the membrane is only permeable to water (i.e. not to the solute) then diffusion equilibrium will be reached with a net increase in volume of the compartment that had a higher osmolarity to begin with. Osmolarity is the total solute concentration of a solution and is measured in units called osmols. Therefore, water concentration in a with

solution is negatively correlated

the number of solute particles. Osmotic pressure is the pressure that must be applied to prevent the net flow of water into a solution separated by a membrane. The osmotic pressure increases with increases in osmolarity. Water will then move from regions of lower osmotic pressure to regions of higher osmotic pressure. When a system reaches equilibrium, the osmolarities of intra- and extracellular fluids are the same. An isotonic solution is a solution which cells will neither swell nor shrink; this is assuming that the cells are placed into a solution of non-penetrating solutes with the same osmolarity as the extracellular fluid. The key thing is that there is no net movement in an isotonic solution. In a hypotonic solution, the solution contains less non-penetrating solutes, and the cells therefore absorb water and the cells swell. Finally, a hypertonic solution is one in which the solution contains more non-penetrating solutes and water moves out of the cells and they shrink. Mediated Transport Systems There are integral membrane proteins called transporters that mediate movement of molecules that are too polar or too large to move across a membrane by diffusion. In order to accomplish this, a solute (molecule to be transported) binds to a specific site on a transporter on one surface of the membrane. The transporter then changes shape in order to expose the bound solute to the opposite side of the membrane. The solute then dissociates from the transporter and finds itself on the other side of where it started. Facilitated Diffusion Facilitated diffusion moves solutes from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration until the concentrations become equalized on both sides of the membrane.

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Active Transport mechanisms Active

Transport
This form of molecule movement requires energy in order to move solute against its electrochemical gradient. Energy is required to either: I. Alter the affinity of the binding site on different sides of the membrane. Alter the rates at which the binding site on the transporters is shifted from one side of the membrane to the other. Furthermore, there are two ways in which a flow of energy can be coupled to transporters. Primary active transport requires energy is provided by ATPase. II. Sodium, potassiumATPase (Na, KATPase) is present in plasma membranes which works by moving 3 Na+ ions out of a cell and 2 K+ ions in, resulting in a net transfer of positive charge outside the membrane. III. CalciumATPase in plasma membranes moves Ca2+ ions from the cytosol to the extracellular fluid, while CaATPase in membranes of organelles moves Ca2+ from cytosol into the organelle lumen (space). IV. HydrogenATPase in plasma membranes moves hydrogen ions (H+ or protons) out of cells. Secondary active transport provides energy from the flow of ions from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. There are technically two types of secondary active transport. o Cotransport: occurs if a molecule moves in the same direction as the ion providing the energy. An example is the movement of amino acids using sodium ions. o Countertransport: occurs when the molecule moves in the opposite direction as the ion providing the energy. An example is the movement of calcium ions using sodium ions. 25

In sum, with ions the movement is from high to low concentration, and molecules from low to high.

Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a transportation process that requires energy. The main mechanism is that regions of the plasma membrane fold into the cell which forms small pockets on the inside of the cell. These pockets pinch off into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell. Fluid endocytosis refers to when the vesicles formed enclose a small volume of extracellular fluid. However, if certain molecules in the extracellular fluid happen to bind to specific proteins on the plasma membrane and are then carried into the cells with extracellular fluid, the process is then called adsorptive endocytosis. Collectively, these two processes are also called pinocytosis and are demonstrated by most cells. Some cells will engulf large foreign particles via a process called phagocytosis. This only happens in specialized cells that are relatively few in number and occurrence. The types of particles engulfed include bacteria and cell debris. Endosomes are usually fused with endocytic vesicles at some point in the process, and the contents of the packets are then passed into organelles such as Lysosomes. Both pinocytosis and phagocytosis are examples of endocytic processes. The big thing to remember is that the movement of particles is from the outside of the plasma membrane to the inside.

Exocytosis
In order to move things from the inside of the cell to the outside, membrane-bound vesicles in the cytoplasm will fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents outside the cell. The bound vesicle material then assimilates into the plasma membrane. In this fashion, portions of the plasma membrane lost during endocytosis can be replaced. Additionally, the process provides a route by which membrane impermeable molecules, such as protein hormones, that are synthesized by cells can be released into the extracellular fluid.

Epithelial Transport
The luminal (or apical or mucosal) membrane is the plasma membrane surface of an epithelial cell that faces a hollow or fluid filled chamber. The baso-lateral (or serosal) membrane is the surface of plasma membrane on the opposite side usually adjacent to a network of blood vessels. Substances can cross a layer of epithelial cells via two pathways.

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I. The paracellular pathway refers to diffusion between adjacent cells in the epithelium. This pathway is limited to small ions and water because of the presence of tight junctions. II. The transcellular pathway refers to the movement into an epithelial cell from one side, then diffusion through the cytosol and exit through the opposing membrane. The transport and permeability characteristics of the luminal and baso-lateral membranes are not the same due to the presence of different ion channels and transporters. Substances, therefore, are able to move from a region of lower concentration on one side to a higher concentration on the other.

Glands
Gland cells secrete organic molecules synthesized by their own cellular processes and they also secrete salts and water, moving them from one extracellular compartment to another. The rate of secretion is controlled by chemical or neural signals and work by: o o o Altering the rate of synthesis Altering the rate of exocytosis via calcium channels Altering the pumping rate of transporters and opening rate of ion channels

Two types of glands: 1) Endocrine glands will release their secretions directly into the interstitial fluid surrounding the gland cells. Endocrine glands secrete hormones. 2) Exocrine glands utilize ductworks in order to connect to epithelial surfaces. The secretions flow through the ductworks or onto the surface of the epithelium. Sweat and salivary glands are examples of exocrine function. Genetic Code Genes are sequences of DNA nucleotides that carry and transmit the information specifying amino acid sequences for protein synthesis. Each DNA molecule contains many genes. The genome refers collectively to the total genetic information coded in a cell. With the exception of reproductive cells, all human cells contain 46 DNA molecules in each cell nucleus. Each DNA molecule corresponds to a chromosome. Each chromosome is packaged with proteins called histones. The complex of chromosome and histones are called nucleosomes. 27

RNA molecules are responsible for transferring information from DNA to the site of protein synthesis. RNA molecules themselves are synthesized according to the information coded in DNA. transcription DNA -> mRNA translation -> Protein

The genetic code is universal in all cells. Replication and Expression of Genetic Information Each cell has 44 autosomes, chromosomes that contain genes that produce the proteins governing cell structure and function, and 2 sex chromosomes containing the genes which determine sex. Each parent contributes half of these (22) autosomes and (1) sex chromosome. Each pair of autosomes has homologous genes coding for the same protein. Each time a cell divides, all the 46 chromosomes, each corresponding to a DNA molecule, must be replicated and identical copies passed to each of the new daughter cells. Therefore, all cells (except sperms and eggs) have an identical set of DNA (and therefore genes). What makes one cell different from another is the differential expression of various sets of genes. DNA Replication DNA is the only molecule in a cell able to duplicate itself without information from some other cell component. During replication, the two strands of double helix separate and each exposed strand acts as a template to which free deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates are base paired. The enzyme DNA polymerase then links the free nucleotides forming a strand complementary to each template strand, forming two identical DNA molecules.

Cell Division and Cell Cycle

The period between the end of one division and the beginning of the next division is called interphase. A cell spends most of its time in interphase. The cell division process that produces new cells for growth, repair, and the general replacement of older cells is called mitosis. In this process, a somatic cell divides into two complete new cells that are identical to the original one. Human somatic cells go through the 6 phases of mitosis in 1/2 to 1 1/2 hours, depending on the kind of tissue being duplicated. Some human somatic cells are frequently replaced by new ones and other cells are rarely duplicated. Hair, skin, and fingernails are replaced constantly and at a rapid rate throughout our lives. You get a new stomach lining every three to four days. In contrast, brain and nerve cells in the central nervous system are rarely produced after we are a few months old. Subsequently, if they are destroyed later, the loss is usually permanent, as in the case of paraplegics. Liver cells usually do not reproduce after an individual has finished growing and are not replaced except when there is an injury. Based on regenerating ability, there are three types of cells. With one type, it is a normal process for some cells to routinely divide and replace cells that have a limited lifespan (e.g., skin epithelial 28

cells and hematopoietic stem cells). These are referred to as labile cells. Some other cells usually have a long lifespan with normally a low rate of division (stable cells). Stable cells can rapidly divide upon demand. The third category of cells is the permanent cells. They never divide and do not have the ability for replication even when stressed or some cells die. Examples of these type cells are listed below:

Mitosis
What is (and is not) mitosis? Mitosis is the process of nuclear division plus cytokinesis by which a cell duplicates its genetic information (DNA) and produces two identical daughter cells during prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Interphase is often included in discussions of mitosis, but interphase is technically not part of mitosis, but rather encompasses stages of the cell cycle.

Interphase

Prophase

Prometaphase

Metaphase

Anaphase

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Cytokinesis

Telophase

Phases of cell Division

Interphase The cell is engaged in normal metabolic activity and is the stage just before actual preparation for mitosis (the next four phases that lead up to and include nuclear division). Chromosomes are not clearly discerned in the nucleus, although a dark spot called the nucleolus may be visible. The cell may contain a pair of centrioles, which are organizational sites for microtubules. Prophase Chromatin in the nucleus begins to condense and becomes visible in the light microscope as chromosomes. The nucleolus disappears. Centrioles begin moving to opposite ends of the cell and fibers extend from the centromeres. Some fibers cross the cell to form the mitotic spindle. Prometaphase The nuclear membrane dissolves, marking the beginning of prometaphase. Proteins attach to the centromeres creating the kinetochores. Microtubules attach at the kinetochores and the chromosomes begin moving. Metaphase Spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the middle of the cell nucleus. This line is referred to as the metaphase plate. This organization helps to ensure that in the next phase, when the chromosomes are separated, each new nucleus will receive one copy of each chromosome. Anaphase The paired chromosomes separate at the kinetochores and move to opposite sides of the cell. 30

Motion results from a combination of kinetochore movement along the spindle microtubules and through the physical interaction of polar microtubules. Telophase Chromatids arrive at opposite poles of cell, and new membranes form around the daughter nuclei. The chromosomes disperse and are no longer visible under the light microscope. The spindle fibers disperse, and cytokinesis or the partitioning of the cell may also begin during this stage. Cytokinesis In animal cells, cytokinesis results when a fiber ring composed of a protein called actin around the center of the cell contracts pinching the cell into two daughter cells, each with one nucleus.

Body tissues Body tissues grow by increasing the number of cells that make them up. The cells reproduce themselves exactly. One cell doubles by dividing into two. Two cells become four and so on.

This happens very fast between conception and adulthood. But once we are grown up, most cells only reproduce in order to replace others that have died, for example through injury or illness. Some cells carry on reproducing. These include sperm cells, hair cells, cells in the gut and cells that make blood in the bone marrow. Not all cells carry on being able to reproduce. Most cells mature and become specialised for their particular job in the body. Mature cells may lose the ability to reproduce as they develop. But there will always be enough immature cells around (called stem cells) to replace cells that are damaged or killed.

How cells grow and reproduce When more cells are needed by the body, some cells double up to increase their numbers. They do this very precisely so that the new cells are exactly the same as the old ones. Each cell makes copies of all its genes. Then it splits into two with one set of genes in each new cell. The diagram below shows a cell dividing into two.

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If even more cells are needed, these new cells will rest for a while and then reproduce again. The cells will carry on doing this until enough cells have been made.

How cells know when to stop growing Normal growth and healing is very orderly and precise. The cells somehow know when there are enough new cells to mend a cut or stop a finger growing for ever. The diagram below shows this happening.

Scientists are still finding out how the cells do this. It seems that the cells send chemical messages to each other. The messages come from the genes inside the cells. Some genes become activated and tell cells to reproduce and other genes tell them not to. How new cells end up in the right place Why does a growing finger end up finger shaped? It seems the cells have a natural ability to stick together in the right place. Scientists call this cell adhesion.

Molecules on the surface of the cell match those on its neighbours. It is a bit like having a post code. The code makes it very difficult for the cell to move to the wrong place. But if it does find itself in a place where its post code is different from its neighbours, it dies. 32

How long cells carry on doubling It seems that human cells are pre-programmed to reproduce up to 50 or 60 times maximum. Then they die. Stem cells provide a pool of dividing cells that the body uses to restock damged or old cells. Other things can make the cell self destruct before it gets as far as doubling 60 times. If the genes of a cell are very badly damaged, or if it becomes detached from its proper place as explained above, it will self destruct. This is called 'apoptosis'. Scientists are doing a lot of work on apoptosis at the moment. If the scientists can understand what makes a cell self destruct, they might be able to use this to develop cancer treatments in the future.

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Meiosis
The genetic information each person carries in his or her cells is a combination of some genetic information from the mother and some from the father. Human cells contain 46 chromosomes divided into 23 pairs. In each pair, one chromosome came from the mother and the other from the father. The genes from the mother are passed to the child in a special cell called an egg. The genes from the father are passed to the child in a special cell called a sperm. Meiosis is the name of the process in which sex cells convert from diploid cells to haploid cells as a woman produces eggs or a man produces sperm, which contains twenty-three (23) single chromosomes instead of pairs. These two (2) haploid cells then unite in fertilization to form a new diploid cell that multiply and develop into a whole new individual (baby).

The biological process of creating a child begins in the ovaries of women and the testicles of men, where meiosis takes place. In meiosis, a normal diploid cell (having 2 copies of each chromosome) undergoes a special form of cell division to create haploid gametes (having one copy of each chromosome). The female gamete is called an egg, and the male gamete is called a sperm. When an egg from the mother and a sperm from the father join together, they fuse to form a new diploid cell called a zygote, a process called fertilization. Based on this new arrangement of genetic information, combined from the mother and the father, the zygote develops into a unique individual. It is necessary to produce haploid cells through meiosis, because if a normal diploid male cell were combined with a normal diploid female cell, the resulting cell would have four copies of each chromosome! Because female cells have two X chromosomes, all eggs have one X chromosome. Male cells, on the other hand, have one X and one Y chromomsome, so each sperm can have either an X or a Y. The gender of the zygote formed depends on the sex chromosome of the sperm. Genetic disease can result from the inheritance of mutant genes, which produce abnormal structure or function. Familial hypercholesterolemia, cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell anemia, hemophilia, muscular dystrophy are single gene diseases. Polygenic diseases result from several defective genes, each of which by itself has little effect. Examples are diabetes, hypertension, and cancer. 35

Chromosomal diseases result from addition or deletion of whole or portions of chromosomes during meiosis. Example is Down's syndrome or trisomy 21 in which the egg has an extra copy of chromosome 21.

Comparison of Meiosis and Mitosis

Tissue level
A. a tissue is a group of similar cells working together used to carry out a specialized function. (i.e., such cells cannot usually live on their own but are acting as one important component of the human machine as a whole B. there are only four tissue types. Every organ usually has all four tissue types, epithelium, connective, muscle, & nervous.

Epithelial tissue
Epithelial tissues are widespread throughout the body. They form the covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs, and are the major tissue in glands. They perform a variety of functions that include protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and sensory reception. 1. Closely packed cells with very little intercellular matrix that often these cells form cellular junctions (e.g. in the stomach). 2. Can divide frequently (a stomach epithelial cell can be replaced once every 48 hrs.) 36

3. Can be good at making organic chemicals in large amounts (e.g. glands and skin making keratin). 4. Usually has a basement membrane Epithelial cells may be squamous, cuboidal, or columnar in shape and may be arranged in single or multiple layers.

1. Simple cuboidal epithelium is found in glandular tissue and in the kidney tubules. 2. Simple columnar epithelium lines the stomach and intestines. 3. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium lines portions of the respiratory tract and some of the tubes of the male reproductive tract. 4. Transitional epithelium can be distended or stretched. Glandular epithelium is specialized to produce and secrete substances.

Connective tissues
Connective tissues bind structures together, form a framework and support for organs and throughout the body as a whole. Connective tissues are characterized by: 1. The primary feature is that the individual cells are very dispersed from each other. 2. There is a considerable amount of intercellular material - the latter often makes the tissue behave in the desired way. 3. Usually well vascularized. (Exceptions are cartilage and tendons) 4. Fibroblasts commonly occur and may be the major constituent of the connective tissue in question can release the structural protein of collagen. 5. Protein of extracellular matrix: collagen (the primary component of jello) &/or elastin. a. collagen is the most abundant protein of the human body. 37

b. the deterioration of collagen has often been implicated as a major component of aging. 6. nonprotein matrix molecules: proteoglycans (polysaccharides attached to a protein core), hyaluronic acid (nonbranched polysaccharide), minerals (calcium phosphate), and water. 7. Connective tissue cell types often occur in three forms: a. ___blast (a bud or sprout) is a cell that makes more of its kind and is also often important in producing the extracellular material. (e.g., an osteoblast makes bone) b. ___cyte (a cell) is the primary cell of the tissue, important in the maintenance of the tissue and often important in producing the extracellular material. (e.g., an osteocyte is a bone cell that maintains bone) c. ___clast (break) is a cell that breaks down and removes the extracellular material. (e.g., an osteoclast is a cell that breaks down bone) The types of connective tissue include loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, dense fibrous connective tissue, elastic connective tissue, cartilage, osseous tissue (bone), and blood.

Connective tissue proper

Areolar (or loose) connective tissue holds organs and epithelia in place, and has a variety of proteinaceous fibres, including collagen and elastin. It is also important in inflammation. Adipose tissue contains adipocytes, used for cushioning, thermal insulation, lubrication (primarily in the pericardium) and energy storage. [fat] Dense connective tissue (or, less commonly, fibrous connective tissue) forms ligaments and tendons. Its densely packed collagen fibres have great tensile strength. Reticular connective tissue is a network of reticular fibres (fine collagen, type III) that form a soft skeleton to support the lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen.)

Specialized connective tissues

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Blood functions in transport. Its extracellular matrix is blood plasma, which transports dissolved nutrients, hormones, and carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate. The main cellular component is red blood cells. Bone makes up virtually the entire skeleton in adult vertebrates. Cartilage makes up virtually the entire skeleton in chondrocytes. In most other vertebrates, it is found primarily in joints, where it provides cushioning. The extracellular matrix of cartilage is composed primarily of collagen.

Tissue membranes
Body membranes are thin sheets of tissue that cover the body, line body cavities, and cover organs within the cavities in hollow organs. They can be categorized into epithelial and connective tissue membrane. Epithelial Membranes Epithelial membranes consist of epithelial tissue and the connective tissue to which it is attached. The two main types of epithelial membranes are the mucous membranes and serous membranes Mucous Membranes Mucous membranes are epithelial membranes that consist of epithelial tissue that is attached to an underlying loose connective tissue. These membranes, sometimes called mucosae, line the body cavities that open to the outside. The entire digestive tract is lined with mucous membranes. Other examples include the respiratory, excretory/urinary, and reproductive tracts. Serous Membranes Serous membranes line body cavities that do not open directly to the outside, and they cover the organs located in those cavities. Serous membranes are covered by a thin layer of serous fluid that is secreted by the epithelium. Serous fluid lubricates the membrane and reduces friction and abrasion when organs in the thoracic or abdominopelvic cavity move against each other or the cavity wall. Serous membranes have special names given according to their location. For example, the serous membrane that lines the thoracic cavity and covers the lungs is called pleura. Connective Tissue Membranes Connective tissue membranes contain only connective tissue. Synovial membranes and meninges belong to this category. Synovial Membranes Synovial membranes are connective tissue membranes that line the cavities of the freely movable joints such as the shoulder, elbow, and knee. Like serous membranes, they line cavities that do not open to the outside. Unlike serous membranes, they do not have a layer of epithelium. Synovial membranes secrete synovial fluid into the joint cavity, and this lubricates the cartilage on the ends of the bones so that they can move freely and without friction. Meninges The connective tissue covering on the brain and spinal cord, within the dorsal cavity, are called meninges. They provide protection for these vital structures.

Cartilage
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Cartilage is a type of dense connective tissue. It is composed of collagenous fibers and/or elastin fibers, and cells called chondrocytes, all of which are embedded in a firm gel-like ground substance called the matrix. Cartilage is avascular (contains no blood vessels) and nutrients are diffused through the matrix. Cartilage serves several functions, including providing a framework upon which bone deposition can begin and supplying smooth surfaces for the movement of articulating bones. Cartilage is found in many places in the body including the joints, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the bronchial tubes and between intervertebral discs. There are three main types of cartilage: hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage.

Types of cartilage
There are three different types of cartilage, each with special characteristics adapted to their function.

Hyaline cartilage
Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type of cartilage. The name hyaline is derived from the Greek word hyalos, meaning glass. This refers to the translucent matrix or ground substance. It is avascular hyaline cartilage that is made predominantly of type II collagen. Hyaline cartilage is found lining bones in joints (articular cartilage or, commonly, gristle) and is also present inside bones, serving as a center of ossification or bone growth. In addition, hyaline cartilage forms most of the embryonic skeleton.

Elastic cartilage
Elastic cartilage (also called yellow cartilage) is found in the pinna of the ear and several tubes, such as the walls of the auditory (Eustachian) tubes and larynx and especially in the epiglottis. Cartilage is present to keep the tubes permanently open. Elastic cartilage is similar to hyaline cartilage but contains elastic bundles (elastin) scattered throughout the matrix. This provides a tissue which is stiff yet elastic.

Fibrocartilage
Fibrocartilage (also called white cartilage) is a specialized type of cartilage found in areas requiring tough support or great tensile strength, such as between intervertebral discs, the pubic and other symphyses, and at sites connecting tendons or ligaments to bones. There is rarely any clear line of demarcation between fibrocartilage and the neighboring hyaline cartilage or connective tissue. The fibrocartilage found in intervertebral disks contains more collagen compared to hyaline. In addition to the type II collagen found in hyaline and elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage contains type I collagen that does form fiber bundles seen under the light microscope. Fibrocartilage seems to lack a perichondrium but indeed it has perichondrium but it can not be seen due to type I collagen. When the hyaline cartilage at the end of long bones such as the femur is damaged, it is often replaced with fibrocartilage, which does not withstand weightbearing forces as well.

Summary functions 1. connects (e.g. fascia, tendons) 40

2. Supports (e.g. cartilage and bone ==> in these cases the cells of this tissue secretes a structural protein called collagen [the most abundant protein of the body]). 3. Transports (e.g. blood) (vascular tissue) 4. Defends (e.g. spleen, macrophages, fibroblasts) 5. Storage, insulation (e.g. adipose (fat))

Muscle tissue
Muscle tissue is composed of cells that have the special ability to shorten or contract in order to produce movement of the body parts. The tissue is highly cellular and is well supplied with blood vessels. The cells are long and slender so they are sometimes called muscle fibers, and these are usually arranged in bundles or layers that are surrounded by connective tissue. Actin and myosin are contractile proteins in muscle tissue. Muscle tissue can be categorized into skeletal muscle tissue, smooth muscle tissue, and cardiac muscle tissue.

Skeletal muscle fibers are cylindrical, multinucleated, striated, and under voluntary control. Skeletal muscle is usually attached to the skeleton. Skeletal muscles are used to create movement, by applying force to bones and joints; via contraction. They generally contract voluntarily (via somatic nerve stimulation), although they can contract involuntarily through reflexes. Smooth muscle cells are spindle shaped, have a single, centrally located nucleus, and lack striations, found within the "walls" of hollow organs and elsewhere like the bladder and abdominal cavity, the uterus, male and female reproductive tracts, the gastrointestinal tract, the respiratory tract, the vasculature, the skin and the ciliary muscle and iris of the eye.. They are called involuntary muscles. Cardiac muscle is a type of involuntary striated muscle found within the heart. Its function is to "pump" blood through the circulatory system by contracting. Cardiac muscle has branching fibers, one nucleus per cell, striations, and intercalated disks. Its contraction is not under voluntary control.

Nervous tissue 41

Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. it is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities. it stimulates muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the environment, and plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning. to do all these things, cells in nervous tissue need to be able to communicate with each other by way of electrical nerve impulses. The cells in nervous tissue that generate and conduct impulses are called neurons or nerve cells. These cells have three principal parts: the dendrites, the cell body, and one axon. The main part of the cell, the part that carries on the general functions, is the cell body. Dendrites are extensions, or processes, of the cytoplasm that carry impulses to the cell body. An extension or process called an axon carries impulses away from the cell body. Nervous tissue also includes cells that do not transmit impulses, but instead support the activities of the neurons. These are the glial cells (neuroglial cells), together termed the neuroglia. Supporting, or glia, cells bind neurons together and insulate the neurons. Some are phagocytic and protect against bacterial invasion, while others provide nutrients by binding blood vessels to the neurons.

42

Skin
Anatomy of the skin
Objectives:
1. Outline the structure of the skin. 2. Distinguish between the two layers that form the skin. 3. Identify two types of glands found in the skin, and describe their functions. 4. Describe the structure of nails. 5. Describe the structure of hair. 6. List the functions of the skin.

The skin is a vital organ that covers the entire outside of the body, forming a protective barrier against pathogens and injuries from the environment. the skin is the body's largest organ; covering the entire outside of the body, it is about 2 mm thick and weighs approximately six pounds.

43

The color, thickness and texture of skin vary over the body. there are two general types of skin; thin and hairy, which is more prevalent on the body, and thick and hairless, which is found on parts of the body that are used heavily and endure a large amount of friction, like the palms of the hands or the soles of the feet. Basically, the skin is comprised of two layers that cover a third fatty layer. These three layers differ in function, thickness, and strength. The outer layer is called the epidermis; it is a tough protective layer that contains the melanin-producing melanocytes. The second layer (located under the epidermis) is called the dermis; it contains nerve endings, sweat glands, oil glands, and hair follicles. Under these two skin layers is a fatty layer of subcutaneous tissue, known as the subcutis or hypodermis. The skin contains many specialized cells and structures:

Basket cells basket cells surround the base of hair follicles and can sense pressure. Blood vessels blood vessels carry nutrients and oxygen-rich blood to the cells that make up the layers of skin and carry away waste products. Hair erector muscle (arrector pili muscle) the arrector pili muscle is a tiny muscle connected to each hair follicle and the skin. When it contracts it causes the hair to stand erect, and a "goosebump" forms on the skin. Hair follicle the hair follicle is a tube-shaped sheath that surrounds the part of the hair that is under the skin and nourishes the hair. It is located in the epidermis and the dermis. Hair shaft - the hair shaft is the part of the hair that is above the skin. Langerhans cells - these cells attach themselves to antigens that invade damaged skin and alert the immune system to their presence. Melanocyte a melanocyte is a cell that produces melanin, and is located in the basal layer of the epidermis. Merkel cells merkel cells are tactile cells of neuroectodermal origin located in the basal layer of the epidermis. Pacinian corpuscle a pacinian corpuscle is a nerve receptor located in the subcutaneous fatty tissue that responds to pressure and vibration. Sebaceous gland - sebaceous glands are small, sack-shaped glands which release an oily substance onto the hair follicle that coats and protects the hair shaft from becoming brittle. These glands are located in the dermis.

44

Sensory nerves the epidermis is innervated with sensory nerves. These nerves sense and transmit heat, pain, and other noxious sensations. When they are not functioning properly sensations such as numbness, pins-and-needles, pain, tingling, or burning may be felt. Stratum corneum the stratum corneum is outermost layer of the epidermis, and is comprised of dead skin cells. It protects the living cells beneath it by providing a tough barrier between the environment and the lower layers of the skin. Sweat gland (sudoriferous gland) - these glands are located in the epidermis and produce moisture (sweat) that is secreted through tiny ducts onto the surface of the skin (stratum corneum). When sweat evaporates, skin temperature is lowered.

The epidermis
The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin, and protects the body from the environment. The thickness of the epidermis varies in different types of skin; it is only .05 mm thick on the eyelids, and is 1.5 mm thick on the palms and the soles of the feet. The epidermis contains the melanocytes (the cells in which melanoma develops), the langerhans' cells (involved in the immune system in the skin), merkel cells and sensory nerves. The epidermis layer itself is made up of five sub layers that work together to continually rebuild the surface of the skin: 1. The basal cell layer The basal layer is the innermost layer of the epidermis, and contains small round cells called basal cells. The basal cells continually divide, and new cells constantly push older ones up toward the surface of the skin, where they are eventually shed. The basal cell layer is also known as the stratum germinativum due to the fact that it is constantly germinating (producing) new cells.

The basal cell layer contains cells called melanocytes. Melanocytes produce the skin coloring or pigment known as melanin, which gives skin its tan or brown color and helps protect the deeper layers of the skin from the harmful effects of the sun. Sun exposure causes melanocytes to increase production of melanin in order to protect the skin from damaging ultraviolet rays, producing a suntan. Patches of melanin in the skin cause birthmarks, freckles and age spots. Merkel cells, 45

which are tactile cells of neuroectodermal origin, are also located in the basal layer of the epidermis. 2. The squamous cell layer The squamous cell layer is located above the basal layer, and is also known as the stratum spinosum or spiny layer due to the fact that the cells are held together with spiny projections. Within this layer are the basal cells that have been pushed upward, however these maturing cells are now called squamous cells, or keratinocytes. Keratinocytes produce keratin, a tough, protective protein that makes up the majority of the structure of the skin, hair, and nails. The squamous cell layer is the thickest layer of the epidermis, and is involved in the transfer of certain substances in and out of the body. The squamous cell layer also contains cells called langerhans cells. These cells attach themselves to antigens that invade damaged skin and alert the immune system to their presence. 3. The stratum granulosum & 4. The stratum lucidum The keratinocytes from the squamous layer are then pushed up through two thin epidermal layers called the stratum granulosum and the stratum lucidum. As these cells move further towards the surface of the skin, they get bigger and flatter and adhere together, and then eventually become dehydrated and die. This process results in the cells fusing together into layers of tough, durable material, which continue to migrate up to the surface of the skin. 5. The stratum corneum The stratum corneum is the outermost layer of the epidermis, and is made up of 10 to 30 thin layers of continually shedding, dead keratinocytes. The stratum corneum is also known as the horny layer, because its cells are toughened like an animals horn. As the outermost cells age and wear down, they are replaced by new layers of strong, long-wearing cells. The stratum corneum is sloughed off continually as new cells take its place, but this shedding process slows down with age. Complete cell turnover occurs every 28 to 30 days in young adults, while the same process takes 45 to 50 days in elderly adults.

The dermis
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The dermis is located beneath the epidermis and is the thickest of the three layers of the skin (1.5 to 4 mm thick), making up approximately 90 percent of the thickness of the skin. The main functions of the dermis are to regulate temperature and to supply the epidermis with nutrientsaturated blood. Much of the bodys water supply is stored within the dermis. This layer contains most of the skins specialized cells and structures, including:

Blood vessels - the blood vessels supply nutrients and oxygen to the skin and take away cell waste and cell products. The blood vessels also transport the vitamin d produced in the skin back to the rest of the body. Lymph vessels - the lymph vessels bathe the tissues of the skin with lymph, a milky substance that contains the infection-fighting cells of the immune system. These cells work to destroy any infection or invading organisms as the lymph circulates to the lymph nodes. Hair follicles - the hair follicle is a tube-shaped sheath that surrounds the part of the hair that is under the skin and nourishes the hair. Sweat glands the average person has about 3 million sweat glands. Sweat glands are classified according to two types: Apocrine glands are specialized sweat glands that can be found only in the armpits and pubic region. These glands secrete a milky sweat that encourages the growth of the bacteria responsible for body odor. Eccrine glands are the true sweat glands. Found over the entire body, these glands regulate body temperature by bringing water via the pores to the surface of the skin, where it evaporates and reduces skin temperature. These glands can produce up to two liters of sweat an hour; however, they secrete mostly water, which doesnt encourage the growth of odor-producing bacteria. Sebaceous glands - sebaceous, or oil, glands, are attached to hair follicles and can be found everywhere on the body except for the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. These glands secrete oil that helps keep the skin smooth and supple. The oil also helps keep skin waterproof and protects against an overgrowth of bacteria and fungi on the skin. Nerve endings the dermis layer also contains pain and touch receptors that transmit sensations of pain, itch, pressure and information regarding temperature to the brain for interpretation. If necessary, shivering (involuntary contraction and relaxation of muscles) is triggered, generating body heat. Collagen and elastin - the dermis is held together by a protein called collagen, made by fibroblasts. Fibroblasts are skin cells that give the skin its strength and resilience. Collagen is a tough, insoluble protein found throughout the body in the connective tissues that hold muscles and organs in place. In the skin, collagen supports the epidermis, lending it its durability. Elastin, a similar protein, is the substance that allows the skin to spring back into place when stretched and keeps the skin flexible. 47

The dermis layer is made up of two sublayers: 1. The papillary layer The upper, papillary layer contains a thin arrangement of collagen fibers. The papillary layer supplies nutrients to select layers of the epidermis and regulates temperature. Both of these functions are accomplished with a thin, extensive vascular system that operates similarly to other vascular systems in the body. Constriction and expansion control the amount of blood that flows through the skin and dictate whether body heat is dispelled when the skin is hot or conserved when it is cold. 2. The reticular layer The lower, reticular layer is thicker and made of thick collagen fibers that are arranged in parallel to the surface of the skin. The reticular layer is denser than the papillary dermis, and it strengthens the skin, providing structure and elasticity. It also supports other components of the skin, such as hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands. The subcutis The subcutis is the innermost layer of the skin, and consists of a network of fat and collagen cells. The subcutis is also known as the hypodermis or subcutaneous layer, and functions as both an insulator, conserving the body's heat, and as a shock-absorber, protecting the inner organs. It also stores fat as an energy reserve for the body. The blood vessels, nerves, lymph vessels, and hair follicles also cross through this layer. The thickness of the subcutis layer varies throughout the body and from person to person.

Hair and nails

1. Hair is produced by cells at the base of structures called hair follicles. 2. Hair follicles are tubelike pockets of epidermal cells that extend into the dermis. 3. Individual hairs are actually large columns of dead cells that have filled with keratin.. 4. Rapid cell growth at the base of the hair follicle in the hair root causes hair to grow longer. Hair gets its color from melanin. 5. Hair follicles are in close contact with sebaceous glands. The oily secretions of these glands help maintain the condition of each individual hair. 6. Hair protects and insulates the body. 7. Most individual hairs grow for several years and then fall out. 48

8. Nails grow from and area of rapidly dividing cells known as the nail matrix or nail root. 9. The nail matrix is located near the tips of the fingers and toes. 10. During cell division, the cells fill with keratin and produce a tough, strong platelike nail that covers and protects the tips of the fingers and toes. 11. Nails rest on a bed of tissue filled with blood vessels, giving the nails a pinkish color. 12. Nails grow at a rate of 0.5 to 1.2 mm per day, with fingernails growing faster than toenails.

Functions of the skin

It shields the body against heat, light, injury, and infection. the skin also helps regulate body temperature, gathers sensory information from the environment. Stores water, fat, and vitamin d. Plays a role in the immune system protecting us from disease.

The Nervous system

49

Objectives:
1. Outline the general functions (four functions) of the nervous system. 2. Identify the two main parts of the central nervous system. 3. Describe the structure of a neuron and describe the functions of each major part. 4. Distinguish between sensory neurons (receptor), motor neurons and interneurons. 5. Summarize the electrical and chemical conditions of resting potential. 6. Outline the electrical and chemical changes that occur during an action potential. 7. Describe how the central nervous system is protected from injury. 8. Describe the structure of the spinal cord and its major functions. 9. Describe the structure of a spinal nerve. 10. Explain the role of neurotransmitters in transmitting a signal across a synapse. 11. Explain how information passes from one neuron to another. 12. Describe the roles of the sensory and motor divisions of the peripheral nervous system. 13. Distinguish between the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. 14. Distinguish between the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division. 15. Summarize a spinal reflex (the patellar reflex). 16. Name the parts of a reflex arc, and describe the functions of each part. 17. Name the cranial nerves and lists their major functions. 18. Summarize the functions of the major parts of the brain.

Introduction
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The nervous system is the body's information gatherer, storage center and control system. Its overall function is to collect information about the external conditions in relation to the body's internal state, to analyze this information, and to initiate appropriate responses to satisfy certain needs (maintain homeostasis). The most powerful of these needs is survival. 1. Communication is vital to the survival of living organisms. 2. To interact with their environment, multicellular organisms have developed a communication system at the cellular level. 3. Specialized cells (neurons) allow messages to be carried from one cell to another so that communication among all body parts is smooth and efficient. 4. In humans, these cells called neurons make up the nervous system. 5. The nervous system controls and coordinates all essential functions of the human body. 6. The nervous system receives and relays information about activities within the body and monitors and responds to internal and external changes. 7. The nervous system has four functions that enable the body to respond quickly. The nervous system: a. Gathers information both from the outside world and from inside the body. Sensory function b. Transmits the information to the processing area of the brain and spinal cord. c. Processes the information to determine the best response. Integrative function d. Sends information to muscles, glands, and organs (effectors) so they can respond correctly (Muscular contraction, glandular secretions or motor function.

Neuron structure
1. The cells that carry messages throughout the nervous system are called neurons. 2. The neuron is the basic functional unit of the nervous system. 3. Whatever their specific function, all neurons have the same physical parts:

The Anatomy of a neuron 51

4. A neuron consists of three main parts: a. Cell body - the largest part, contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm (area between the nucleus and the cell membrane), most of the metabolic activity of the cell, including the generation of atp (adenine triphosphate compound that stores energy) and synthesis of protein. b. Dendrites - short branch extensions spreading out from the cell body. Dendrites receive stimulus (action potentials) and carry impulses from the environment or from other neurons and carry them toward the cell body. c. Axon - a long fiber that carries impulses away from the cell body. Each neuron has only one axon. The axon ends in a series of small swellings called axon terminals. 7. Neurons may have dozens or even hundreds of dendrites but usually only one axon. 8. The axons of most neurons are covered with a lipid layer known as the myelin sheath. 9. The myelin sheath both insulates and speeds up transmission of action potentials through the axon. 10. In the peripheral nervous system, myelin is produced by schwann cells, which surround the axon. 11. Gaps (nodes) (approximately 1 micrometer wide) in the myelin sheath along the length of the axon are known as the nodes of ranvier. These gaps expose the axonal membrane to the extracellular fluid. Since fat serves as a good insulator, the myelin sheaths speed the rate of transmission of an electrical impulse along the axon. The electrical impulse jumps from one node to the next at a rate as fast as 120 meters/second. This rapid rate of conduction is called saltatory conduction. Myelinated axons are rare in the autonomic nervous system.

12. Messages take the form of electrical signals, and are known as impulses. A neuron carries impulses in only one direction. In addition to neurons, the nervous system is populated with another category of cells, glial cells. Glial cells are approximately 10 times more plentiful than neurons. But since they are approximately one-tenth the size, they take up equal space. Glia is a Greek term meaning glue. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells form the myelin sheaths that insulate axons in the central and 52

peripheral nervous systems, respectively. The tiny microglia and the star-shaped astrocytes remove waste materials that are created primarily when neurons die. Both glial types release chemicals in the vacinity of dying neurons (for e.g., following a stroke) and promote the growth of dendrites and axons of healthy neurons in the same area, perhaps stimulating recovery of function. Nitric oxide speeds up the dying process when released close to weakened neurons. 13. Neurons can be classified into three types structurally and functionally: Structurally: Number of processes, or neurites A. Unipolar neuron (one process, usually an axon) B. Bipolar neuron (two processes, usually two dendrites or one axon, one dendrite) C. Multipolar neuron (many processes, usually only one axon) Functionally a. Sensory (receptor) neurons (afferent) - carry impulses from the sense organs (receptors) to the brain and spinal cord. Receptors detect external or internal changes and send the information to the central nervous system in the form of impulses by way of the afferent neurons. b. Motor neurons (efferent) - carry impulses from the brain and spinal cord to muscles or glands. Muscles and glands are two types of effectors. In response to impulses, muscles contract and glands secrete. c. Interneurons - connect sensory and motor neurons and carry impulses between them. They are found entirely within the central nervous system. Size and length of axon a. projection neuron (Golgi type I)--large neurons with long axons b. local neuron (Golgi type II)--small neurons with short axons Shape (a) (b) (c) (d) pyramidal = pyramid-shaped soma stellate = star-shaped soma granule = grain-like; small and round many more exotic types; e.g. chandelier cells have a dendritic trees that resemble chandeliers

Effect on target (a) excitatory neuron (b) inhibitory neuron

Nerve impulses
1. The nervous tissue (groups of cells that conduct impulses) displays electrical activity in the form of a nerve impulse, which is a flow of electrical charges along the cell membranes of a neuron. 53

2. This electrical activity is due to movement of ions (charge particles) across the cell membrane. Sodium - na+, and potassium - k+. 3. The movement of these ions is affected by their ability to pass through the cell membrane, their concentration inside and out of the cell, and their charge. 4. Neurons have an electrical charge different from the extracellular fluid that surrounds them. A difference in electrical charge between two locations is called a potential.

Resting potential
1. A nerve cell has electrical potential across its cell membrane because of a difference in the number of positively and negatively charged ions on each side of the cell membrane. 2. The electrical potential is due to proteins in the neuron known as sodium-potassium pumps move sodium ions (na+) out of the cell and actively pump potassium ions (k+) into the cell. 3. The result of this active transport of ions is the cytoplasm of the neuron contains more k+ ions and fewer na+ ions than the surrounding medium. 4. The cytoplasm also contains many negative charges proteins molecules and ions. 5. K+ ions can leak out across the membrane more easily than na+ ions can leak in. 6. The negatively charged protein molecules and ions do not leak in or out. 7. The net result of the leakage of positively charged ions out of the cell is a negative charge on the inside of the neuron's cell membrane. 8. The charge difference is known as the resting potential of the neuron's cell membrane. 9. As a result of its resting potential, the neuron is said to be polarized. 10. Polarized = negatively charged on the inside of the cell membrane, and positively charged on the outside. 11. A neuron maintains this polarization until it is stimulated. 12. A stimulus is a change in the environment that may be of sufficient strength to initiate an impulse. 13. The ability of a neuron to respond to a stimulus and convert it into a nerve impulse is known as excitability.

The moving impulse

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1. A nerve impulse causes a movement of ions across the cell membrane of a neuron similar to a ripple passing along the surface of a pond. 2. The cell membrane of a neuron contains thousands of tiny molecules known as gates. (sodium and potassium) 3. These gates allow either sodium or potassium ions to pass through. 4. Generally the gates on a neuron are closed. 5. A nerve impulse starts when pressure or other sensory inputs, disturbs a neuron's plasma membrane, causing sodium gates to open. 6. At the beginning of an impulse, the sodium gates open, allowing positively charged na+ ions to flow inside the cell membrane. 7. The inside of the membrane temporarily becomes more positive than the outside. This is called depolarized. 8. The membrane is now said to be depolarized: the charge inside the axon changes from negative to positive as sodium ions enter the interior. 9. As the impulse passes, the potassium gates open, allowing positively charged k+ ions to flow out. Repolarized: the inside of the axon resumes a negative charge. 10. The membrane is now said to be repolarized. Once again negatively charged on the inside and positively charged on the outside. 11. The depolarization and repolarization of a neuron membrane is called an action potential. Action potential is another name for a nerve impulse or simply an impulse. 12. After a nerve impulse is a period when the neuron is unable to conduct a nerve impulse called the refractory period. 14. The refractory period is a very short period during which the sodium-potassium pump continues to return sodium ions to the outside and potassium ions to the inside of the axon, thus returning the neuron to resting potential.

Propagation
1. An impulse is self-propagating. Once started it continues, and moves only in one direction, like the falling of dominos.

Myelin sheath
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1. Myelin sheaths greatly increase the speed of impulse along an axon. 2. Myelin is composed of 80% lipid and 20% protein. 3. Myelin is made of special cells called schwann cells that forms an insulated sheath, or wrapping around the axon. 4. There are small nodes or gaps called the nodes of ranvier between adjacent myelin sheath cells along the axon. 5. As an impulse moves down a myelinated (covered with myelin) axon, the impulse jumps form node to node instead of moving along the membrane. 6. This jumping from node to node greatly increases the speed of the impulse. 7. Some myelinated axons conduct impulses as rapid as 200 meters per second.

The threshold
1. The strength of an impulse is always the same. 2. Either there is an impulse in response to a stimulus or there is not. 3. A stimulus must be of adequate strength to cause a neuron to conduct an impulse. 4. The minimum level of a stimulus that is required to activate a neuron is called the threshold. 5. Any stimulus weaker than the threshold will produce no impulse. 6. Any stimulus stronger than the threshold will produce an impulse. 7. A nerve impulse follows the all-or-none principle.

Communication between neurons crossing the synaptic cleft or synapse

1. The axon ends with many small swellings called axon terminals. 2. At these terminals the neuron may make contact with the dendrites of another neuron, with a receptor, or with an effector. 3. Receptors are special sensory neurons in sense organs that receive stimuli from the external environment. 4. Effectors are muscles or glands that bring about a coordinate response. 5. The point of contact at which impulses are passed from one cell to another are known as the synaptic cleft or synapse. 6. The axon terminals at a synapse contain tiny vesicles, or sacs. These tiny vesicles are filled with chemicals known as neurotransmitters. (acetylcholine) 7. A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance that is used by one neuron to signal another. The impulse is changed from and electrical impulse to a chemical impulse (electrochemical impulses). 8. When an impulse reaches the axon terminal, dozen of vesicles fuse with the cell membrane and discharge the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft (gap).

Divisions of the Nervous System

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The nervous system has two major divisions. a. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system (cns). The spinal cord carries messages from the body to the brain, where they are analyzed and interpreted. Response messages are then passed from the brain through the spinal cord and to the rest of the body. b. The peripheral nervous system (pns) consists of the neurons not included in the brain and spinal cord. Some peripheral neurons collect information from the body and transmit it toward the cns. The peripheral nervous system (pns) is responsible for the body functions which are not under conscious control - like the heartbeat or the digestive system. The nervous system uses electrical impulses, which travel along the length of the cells (neurons). These impulses can travel at up to 250 miles per hour, while other systems such as the endocrine system may take many hours to respond with hormones. The smooth operation of the peripheral nervous system is achieved by dividing it into sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. These are opposing actions and check on each other to provide a balance. The functioning nervous system is an enormous network of "one-way streets". The following table shows how the nervous system can be divided. The bottom row of the table contains the names of specific areas within the brain.

Structure of the nervous system The brain

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The human brain is responsible for overseeing the daily operations of the human body and for interpreting the vast amount of information it receives. The adult human brain weighs an average of 1.4 kg, or about 2 percent of the total body weight. Despite this relatively small mass, the brain contains approximately 100 billion neurons. Functioning as a unit, these neurons make up the most complex and highly organized structure on earth. The brain is responsible for many of the qualities that make each individual unique-thoughts, feelings, emotions, talents, memories, and the ability to process information. Much of the brain is dedicated to running the body, the brain is responsible for maintaining homeostasis by controlling and integrating the various systems that make up the body. 1. The brain is the main switching unit of the central nervous system; it is the place to which impulses flow and from which impulses originate. 2. The spinal cord provides the link between the brain and the rest of the body. 3. The brain is protected by a bony covering called the skull. 4. The brain is also wrapped in three layers of connective tissue known as the meninges. 5. Connective tissue connects one tissue to another. 6. The inner most layer, which covers and is bound to the surface of the brain, is called pia mater. 7. It is a fiberous layer made up of many blood vessels which carry food and oxygen to the brain. 8. The outer layer, called the dura mater, is composed of thick connective tissue. 9. The arachnoid is the thin, elastic, weblike layer between the pia mater and the dura mater. 10. Between the pia mater and the arachnoid is a space filled with cerebrospinal fluid. 11. Cerebrospinal fluid separates the middle and inner meninges and fills four interconnected ventricles, or cavities in the brain. Within the ventricles, cerebrospinal fluid acts as a transport medium for substances that are important to brain function. 12. The cerebrospinal fluid is a clear liquid that protects the brain from mechanical injury by acting as a shock absorber. 13. In order for the brain to perform its functions, it must have a constant supply of food and oxygen. 14. If the oxygen supply to the brain is cut off even for a few minutes, the brain will usually suffer enormous damage. Such damage may result in death.

Parts of the brain

The brain has three main parts: 58

a. The cerebrum b. The cerebellum c. The brain stem. The cerebrum 1. The cerebrum is the control center of the brain. 2. The largest and most prominent part of the human brain is the cerebrum which accounts for 85% of the weight of a human brain. 3. The cerebrum is responsible for all the voluntary (conscious) activities of the body. 4. It is the site of intelligence, learning and judgment. 5. It functions in language, conscious thought, memory, personality development, vision, and other sensations. 6. The cerebrum takes up most of the space in the cavity that houses the brain. (skull) 7. The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres, the left and right cerebral hemispheres. 8. There is a deep grove that separates the two hemispheres called the medial longitudinal fissure (or longitudinal cerebral fissure, or longitudinal fissure, or interhemispheric fissure). 9. The hemispheres are connected in a region known as the corpus callosum. 10. The right and left cerebral hemispheres are linked by a bundle of neurons called a tract. 11. The tract tells each half of the brain what the other half is doing. 12. The most obvious feature on the surface of each hemisphere are numerous folds. 13. These folds and the groves increase the surface area of the cerebrum. The ridges are called gyri, and the grooves are called sulcus. 14. The cerebrum, which looks like a wrinkled mushroom, is positioned over the rest of the brain. 15. It contains thick layers of unmyelinated neurons, which look gray k.a "gray matter") 59

16. The increased surface area permits the large number of neurons to fit easily within the confines of the skull. 17. Scientist have discovered that the left side of the body sends its sensations to the right hemisphere of cerebrum, and the right side of the body send its sensations to the left hemisphere. 18. Commands to move muscles are generated in the same way the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. 19. The right hemisphere is associated with creativity and artistic ability. 20. The left hemisphere is associated with analytical and mathematical ability. 21. The cerebrum consists of two surfaces. a. The folded outer surface is called the cerebral cortex and consists of gray matter (unmyelinated neurons). b. The inner surface is called the cerebral medulla, which is made up of bundles of myelinated axons k.a the white matter. The myelin gives the white mater its white color. 22. Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into four regions called lobes. 23. These lobes are named for the skull bones that cover them, frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. The frontal lobe is an area in the brain beneath the frontal bones of the skull, at the front of each cerebral hemisphere, in front of (anterior to) the parietal lobes and superior to the temporal lobes .

The frontal lobes is associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement/ motor function, emotions, impulse control, judgment, language production, working memory, sexual behavior, socialization, spontaneity and problem solving.. People who have damaged frontal lobes may experience problems with these aspects of cognitive function, being at times impulsive; impaired in their ability to plan and execute complex sequences of actions; perhaps persisting with one course of action or pattern of behavior when a change would be appropriate (perseveration).

The parietal lobe is a lobe in the brain beneath the parietal bones of the skull. It is positioned above (superior to) the occipital lobe and behind (posterior to) the frontal lobe. The parietal lobe is defined by four anatomical boundaries: the central sulcus separates the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe; the parieto-occipital sulcus separates the parietal and occipital lobe; the 60

lateral sulcus (sylvian fissure) is the most lateral boundary separating it from the temporal lobe; and the medial longitudinal fissure divides the two hemispheres.

The parietal lobe is associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli. Additional roles include integrating sensory information from various parts of the body, knowledge of numbers and their relations, and in the manipulation of objects. Portions of the parietal lobe are involved with visuospatial processing.

The temporal lobes are part of the cerebrum beneath the temporall bones of the skull. Temporal Lobe is associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech (Broca's area and Wernicke's area, involved in language processing, speech production, and comprehension.). The occipital lobe is the visual processing center, containing most of the anatomical region of the visual cortex. The occipital lobes are the smallest of four true lobes in the human brain. It is located in the rearmost portion of the skull, beneath the occipital bones of the skull. The lobes rest on the tentorium cerebelli, a process of dura mater that separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum. The function of the occipital lobe is associated with visual processing for control vision and color recognition.

Cortical Area Prefrontal Cortex Motor Association Cortex Primary Motor Cortex

Function

Problem Solving, Emotion, Complex Thought Coordination of complex movement Initiation of voluntary movement 61

Primary Somatosensory Cortex Receives tactile information from the body Sensory Association Area Processing of multisensory information Visual Association Area Complex processing of visual information Visual Cortex Detection of simple visual stimuli Wernicke's Area Language comprehension Auditory Association Area Complex processing of auditory information Auditory Cortex Detection of sound quality (loudness, tone) Speech Center (Broca's Area) Speech production and articulation

The cerebellum 1. The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain, and is located at the back of the skull. 2. The cerebellum coordinates muscle movements. 3. The cerebellum coordinates and balances the actions of muscles so that the body can move gracefully and efficiently. 4. The cerebellum controls balance, posture, and coordination. 5. The cerebellum receives sensory impulses from muscles, tendons, joints, eyes, and ears, as well as input from other brain centers. 6. It processes information about position and controls posture by keeping skeletal muscles in a constant state of partial contraction. 7. The cerebellum coordinates rapid and ongoing movements. 8. A major part of learning how to perform physical activities seems to be related to training the cerebellum to coordinate the proper muscles. 9. Because the function of the cerebellum is involuntary (not under conscious control), learning a completely new physical activity can be very difficult.

The brain stem 1. The brain stem connects the brain to the spinal cord. 62

2. The brain stem, which maintains life support systems, consist of the diencephalon, medulla oblongata, pons, and the midbrain. 3. The brain stem controls vital body processes. 4. The brain stem not only coordinates and integrates all incoming information; it also serves as the place of entry or exit for ten of the twelve cranial nerves. 5. The upper brain stem, the diencephalon, contains important relay centers for information entering an exiting the brain. 6. The lower brain stem consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain. 7. The lowest part of the brain stem is the medulla oblongata. 8. The medulla contains white mater that conducts impulses between the spinal cord and brain. 9. The medulla controls involuntary functions that include, breathing, blood pressure, heart rate, digestion, swallowing, and coughing. 10. Another important part of the medulla is a group of cells known as the reticular activating system or reticular formation (ras). 11. The reticular activation system (ras) actually helps to alert, or awaken, the upper parts of the brain, including the cerebral cortex. 12. Such actions keep the brain alert and conscious. 13. The ras also helps to control respiration and circulation and serves as a filtering system for incoming sensory signals. 14. For example, we awaken to the sound of an alarm clock, to a bright light flash, or to a painful pinch because activity in the ras that arouses the cerebral cortex. 15. Just above the medulla, the brainstem enlarges to form the pons. 16. Pons mean bridge, and this area of the brain stem contains mostly white matter that provides a link between the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum. 17. Above the pons and continuous with it is the midbrain, the smallest division of the lower brain stem. 18. Areas of the midbrain are involved in hearing and vision.

The upper brain stem - diencephalon The thalamus and hypothalamus 63

1. The thalamus and hypothalamus are found in the part of the brain between the brain stem and cerebrum. 2. The thalamus, which is composed of gray matter, serves as a switching station for sensory input. With the exception of smell, each sense channels its sensory nerves through the thalamus. 3. The thalamus passes information to the proper region of the cerebrum for further processing. 4. Immediately below the thalamus is the hypothalamus, which is the control center for hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger, and body temperature. 5. Parts of the diencephalon and the cerebrum are included in an important group of connected brain centers called the limbic system. 6. The limbic system includes the thalamus, the hypothalamus, some deeper parts of the cerebral cortex, and centers in the temporal lobes. 7. The limbic system plays an important role in emotions, memory, and motivation, among other things.

Cranial Nerves
The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that can be seen on the ventral (bottom) surface of the brain. Some of these nerves bring information from the sense organs to the brain; other cranial nerves control muscles; other cranial nerves are connected to glands or internal organs such as the heart and lungs. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII Olfactory Nerve Optic Nerve Oculomotor Nerve Trochlear Nerve Trigeminal Nerve Smell Vision Eye movement; pupil dilation Eye movement Somatosensory information (touch, pain) from the Face and head; muscles for chewing. Abducens Nerve Eye movement Facial Nerve Taste (anterior 2/3 of tongue); somatosensory information from ear; controls muscles used in facial expression. Vestibulocochlear Nerve Hearing; balance Glossopharyngeal Nerve Taste (posterior 1/3 of tongue); Somatosensory information from tongue, tonsil, pharynx; controls some muscles used in swallowing. Vagus Nerve Sensory, motor and autonomic functions of viscera (glands, digestion, heart rate) Spinal Accessory Nerve Controls muscles used in head movement. Hypoglossal Nerve Controls muscles of tongue

The Blood-Brain-Barrier (BBB) "Keep Out"

Anatomy of the BBB 64

The BBB is semi-permeable; that is, it allows some materials to cross, but prevents others from crossing. In most parts of the body, the smallest blood vessels, called capillaries, are lined with endothelial cells. Endothelial tissue has small spaces between each individual cell so substances can move readily between the inside and the outside of the vessel. However, in the brain, the endothelial cells fit tightly together and substances cannot pass out of the bloodstream. (Some molecules, such as glucose, are transported out of the blood by special methods.) Glial cells (astrocytes) form a layer around brain blood vessels and may be important in the development of the BBB. Astrocytes may be also be responsible for transporting ions from the brain to the blood. Development: the BBB is not fully formed at birth. Functions of the BBB The BBB has several important functions: Protects the brain from "foreign substances" in the blood that may injure the brain. Protects the brain from hormones and neurotransmitters in the rest of the body. Maintains a constant environment for the brain. General Properties of the BBB Large molecules do not pass through the BBB easily. Low lipid (fat) soluble molecules do not penetrate into the brain. However, lipid soluble molecules, such as barbituate drugs, rapidly cross through into the brain. Molecules that have a high electrical charge to them are slowed. The BBB can be broken down by: Hypertension (high blood pressure): high blood pressure opens the BBB Hyperosmolitity: a high concentration of a substance in the blood can open the BBB. Microwaves: exposure to microwaves can open the BBB. Radiation: exposure to radiation can open the BBB. Infection: exposure to infectious agents can open the BBB. Trauma, Ischemia, Inflammation, Pressure: injury to the brain can open the BBB. 65

The spinal cord

1. The spinal cord acts as a communication link between the brain and the peripheral nervous system. 2. The spinal cord is continuous with the brain and emerges from an opening at the base of the skull. The spinal cord is located in the vertebral foramen/canal and is about 45 cm long in men and 43 cm long in women. The length of the spinal cord is much shorter than the length of the bony spinal column. In fact, the spinal cord extends down to only the last of the thoracic vertebrae. Therefore, nerves that branch from the spinal cord from the lumbar and sacral levels must run in the vertebral canal for a distance before they exit the vertebral column. This collection of nerves in the vertebral canal at the terminal end at the lumbar region, is called the cauda equina (which means "horse tail"). The peripheral regions of the cord contains neuronal white matter tracts containing sensory and motor neurons. The central region is a four-leaf clover shape that surrounds the central canal (an anatomic extension of the fourth ventricle) and contains nerve cell bodies. The three meninges that cover the spinal cord -the outer dura mater, the arachnoid membrane, and the innermost pia mater -- are continuous with that in the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres, with cerebrospinal fluid found in the subarachnoid space. 3. There are 31 pairs/ segments of spinal nerves: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral and 1 coccygeal. The nerves are named according to their respective vertebrae. A pair of spinal nerves exits/ emerges from each segment of the spinal cord. Nerves are axons that are bundled together. 4. Each spinal nerve consists of a dorsal root and a ventral root. 5. The dorsal roots contain neurons that carry signals to the central nervous system from various kinds of sensory neurons. 6. The ventral roots contain the axons of motor neurons, which are neurons that contact and carry information to the muscles and glands (effectors). 7. Within the spinal cord and else where in the body are interneurons, which are neurons that connect neurons to each other. 66

8. In addition to carrying impulses to and from the brain, the spinal cord regulates reflexes. 9. A reflex is the simplest response to a stimulus. 10. Sneezing and blinking are two examples of reflexes. 11. A reflex produces a rapid motor response to a stimulus because the sensory neuron synapses directly with a motor neuron in the spinal cord. 12. Reflexes are very fast, and most reflexes never reach the brain. 13. Blinking to protect your eyes from danger is a reflex. 14. Sensory neurons carry impulses from receptors to the spinal cord. 15. Motor neurons carry impulses from the spinal cord to the effectors. 16. Within the spinal cord, motor and sensory neurons are connected by interneurons.

The peripheral nervous system

1. All of the nervous system outside the spinal cord and brain is known as the peripheral nervous system (pns). 2. The peripheral nervous system can be divided into two divisions: a. The sensory division (afferent) 67

b. The motor division (efferent) 3. The sensory division transmits impulses from sense organs - such as the ears and taste buds- to the central nervous system. 4. The motor division transmits impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles or glands (effectors). 5. The motor division is further into: a. The somatic nervous system b. The autonomic nervous system

The somatic nervous system

1. The somatic nervous system regulates activities that are under conscious control, movement of skeletal muscles. 2. Every time you lift your finger or wiggle your toes, you are using the motor neurons of the somatic nervous system. 3. Many nerves within this system are part of reflexes and can act automatically. 4. A reflex sample: a. Step on a tack with your bare foot. B. Receptors in the skin stimulated. C. The sensory neurons carry the impulse to spinal cord. D. A group of neurons in the spinal cord automatically activates motor neurons. E. These motor neurons cause the muscles (effectors) in your leg to contract, pulling you foot away. 5. Notice that this message did not go to the brain, but was completed in the spinal cord. (reflex) 6. The receptor, sensory neuron, motor neuron, and effector that are involved in this quick response are together known as a reflex arc.

The patellar reflex

1. In the patellar reflex, a sensory neuron with a receptor that detects stretch in the quadriceps muscle (upper thigh) sends signals to the spinal cord. 68

2. This impulse activates a motor neuron, that leads back to the quadriceps muscle (the effector), causing it to contract. 3. The impulse also activates an interneuron that has an inhibitory, or calming, effect on the motor neurons of the hamstrings in the lower thigh. 4. The contraction of the quadriceps coupled with the relaxation of the hamstring extends the lower leg. This type of reflex is a true spinal reflex; that is, it involves only neurons in the body and spinal cord, and completely bypasses the brain.

The autonomic nervous system

1. The autonomic nervous system regulates activities that are automatic, or involuntary. 2. The nerves of the autonomic nervous system control functions of the body that are not under conscious control. 3. The autonomic nervous system seems to be concerned with striking a balance or maintaining homeostasis in the functioning of many organs of the body, examples: contraction in the heart, digestion, heart rate, breathing, salivation, and bladder. 4. The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into two parts: a. The sympathetic division b. The parasympathetic division 5. The two parts have opposite effects on the organs they control. 6. Most organs controlled by the autonomic division are under control of both sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons. Example: heart rate is speeded up by the sympathetic nervous system, and It is slowed down by the parasympathetic nervous system. 7. The sympathetic division generally activates organs or speeds up. 8. The parasympathetic division generally retards organs or slows down.

The Autonomic Nervous System

Structure Iris (eye muscle) Salivary Glands Oral/Nasal Mucosa Heart Sympathetic Stimulation Pupil dilation Saliva production reduced Mucus production reduced Heart rate and force increased 69 Parasympathetic Stimulation Pupil constriction Saliva production increased Mucus production increased Heart rate and force decreased

Lung Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Liver Kidney Adrenal medulla Bladder

Bronchial muscle relaxed Peristalsis reduced Motility reduced Motility reduced Increased conversion of glycogen to glucose Decreased urine secretion Norepinephrine and epinephrine secreted Wall relaxed Sphincter closed

Bronchial muscle contracted Gastric juice secreted; motility increased Digestion increased Secretions and motility increased

Increased urine secretion

Wall contracted Sphincter relaxed

Excitable Cells
Excitable cells are those that can be stimulated to create a tiny electric current. Muscle cells and nerve cells (neurons)are excitable. The electric current in neurons is used to rapidly transmit signals through the animal. in muscles is used to initiate contraction. The Resting Potential All cells (not just excitable cells) have a resting potential: an electrical charge across the plasma membrane, with the interior of the cell negative with respect to the exterior. The size of the resting potential varies, but in excitable cells runs about -70 millivolts (mv).

The resting potential arises from two activities: 1. The sodium/potassium ATPase. This pump pushes only two potassium ions (K+) into the cell for every three sodium ions (Na+) it pumps out of the cell so its activity results in a net loss of positive charges within the cell. 2. Some potassium channels in the plasma membrane are "leaky" allowing a slow facilitated diffusion of K+ out of the cell (red arrow). Ionic Relations in the Cell

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The sodium/potassium ATPase produces a concentration of Na+ outside the cell that is some 10 times greater than that inside the cell a concentration of K+ inside the cell some 20 times greater than that outside the cell. The concentrations of chloride ions (Cl-) and calcium ions (Ca2+) are also maintained at greater levels outside the cell EXCEPT that some intracellular membranebounded compartments may also have high concentrations of Ca2+ (green oval) Depolarization Certain external stimuli reduce the charge across the plasma membrane. mechanical stimuli (e.g., stretching, sound waves) activate mechanically-gated sodium channels certain neurotransmitters (e.g., acetylcholine) open ligand-gated sodium channels. In each case, the facilitated diffusion of sodium into the cell reduces the resting potential at that spot on the cell creating an excitatory postsynaptic potential or EPSP. If the potential is reduced to the threshold voltage (about -50 mv in mammalian neurons), an action potential is generated in the cell. The nerve impulse; In the resting neuron, the interior of the axon membrane is negatively charged with respect to the exterior (A). As the action potential passes (B), the polarity is reversed. Then the outflow of K+ ions quickly restores normal polarity (C). At the instant pictured in the diagram, the moving spot, which has traced these changes on the oscilloscope as the impulse swept past the intracellular electrode, is at position C. Action Potentials If depolarization at a spot on the cell reaches the threshold voltage, the reduced voltage now opens up hundreds of voltage-gated sodium channels in that portion of the plasma membrane. During the millisecond that the channels remain open, some 7000 Na+ rush into the cell. The sudden complete depolarization of the membrane opens up more of the voltage-gated sodium channels in adjacent portions of the membrane. In this way, a wave of depolarization sweeps along the cell. This is the action potential (In neurons, the action potential is also called the nerve impulse.) The refractory period A second stimulus applied to a neuron (or muscle fiber) less than 0.001 second after the first will not trigger another impulse. The membrane is depolarized (position B above), and the neuron is in its refractory period. Not until the -70 mv polarity is reestablished (position C above) will the neuron be ready to fire again. 71

Repolarization is first established by the facilitated diffusion of potassium ions out of the cell. Only when the neuron is finally rested are the sodium ions that came in at each impulse actively transported back out of the cell. In some human neurons, the refractory period lasts only 0.001-0.002 seconds. This means that the neuron can transmit 500-1000 impulses per second. The action potential is all-or-none The strength of the action potential is an intrinsic property of the cell. So long as they can reach the threshold of the cell, strong stimuli produce no stronger action potentials than weak ones. However, the strength of the stimulus is encoded in the frequency of the action potentials that it generates.

Myelinated Neurons The axons of many neurons are encased in a fatty sheath called the myelin sheath. It is the greatly expanded plasma membrane of an accessory cell called the Schwann cell. Where the sheath of one Schwann cell meets the next, the axon is unprotected. The voltage-gated sodium channels of myelinated neurons are confined to these spots (called nodes of Ranvier). The inrush of sodium ions at one node creates just enough depolarization to reach the threshold of the next. In this way, the action potential jumps from one node to the next. This results in much faster propagation of the nerve impulse than is possible in nonmyelinated neurons.

Synapses The coordination of cellular activities in animals is usually considered to involve 1. an endocrine system: where the response is to hormones: chemicals secreted into the blood by endocrine glands and carried by the blood to the responding cell. 2. a nervous system: response to electrical impulses passing from the central nervous system to muscles and glands. But, in fact, coordination by the nervous system is also chemical. Most neurons achieve their effect by releasing chemicals, the neurotransmitters, on a receiving cell: another neuron (a "postsynaptic" neuron) 72

 a muscle cell a gland cell So the real distinction between nervous and endocrine coordination is that nervous coordination is faster and more localized (Neurotransmitters are chemicals that act in a paracrine fashion.) The junction between the axon terminals of a neuron and the receiving cell is called a synapse. (Synapses at muscle fibers are also called neuromuscular junctions or myoneural junctions.) Action potentials travel down the axon of the neuron to its end(s), the axon terminal(s). Each axon terminal is swollen forming a synaptic knob. The synaptic knob is filled with membrane-bounded vesicles containing a neurotransmitter. Arrival of an action potential at the synaptic knob opens Ca2+ channels in the plasma membrane. The influx of Ca2+ triggers the exocytosis of some of the vesicles. Their neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter molecules bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. These receptors are ligand-gated ion channels. Excitatory synapses The neurotransmitter at excitatory synapses depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane (of a neuron in this diagram). Example: acetylcholine (ACh) Binding of acetylcholine to its receptors on the postsynaptic cell opens up ligand-gated sodium channels. These allow an influx of Na+ ions, reducing the membrane potential. This reduced membrane potential is called an excitatory postsynaptic potential or EPSP. If depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane reaches threshold, an action potential is generated in the postsynaptic cell. Inhibitory synapses The neurotransmitter at inhibitory synapses hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane. Example: gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) at certain synapses in the brain. 73

Binding of GABA to GABAA receptors on the postsynaptic neuron opens up ligand-gated chloride (Cl) channels. This is a fast response taking only about 1 millisecond. to GABAB receptors activates an internal G protein and a "second messenger" that leads to the opening of nearby potassium (K+) channels. As you might expect, this is a slower response, taking as long as 1 second. In both cases, the resulting facilitated diffusion of ions (chloride IN; potassium OUT) increases the membrane potential (to as much as 80 mv). This increased membrane potential is called an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) because it counteracts any excitatory signals that may arrive at that neuron. A hyperpolarized neuron appears to have an increased threshold. Actually, the threshold voltage (about 50 mv) has not changed. It is simply a question of whether the depolarization produced by excitatory synapses on the cell minus the hyperpolarizing effect of inhibitory synapses can reach this value or not. Some neurotransmitters Acetylcholine (ACh) Widely used at synapses in the peripheral nervous system. Released at the terminals of all motor neurons activating skeletal muscle. all preganglionic neurons of the autonomic nervous system the postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. Also mediates transmission at some synapses in the brain. These include synapses involved in the acquisition of short-term memory. Drugs that enhance ACh levels acetylcholinesterase inhibitors are now used in elderly patients with failing memory (e.g., Alzheimer's patients).

Nicotinic vs. Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors ACh acts on two different types of receptor: 1. nicotinic receptors are found at the neuromuscular junction of skeletal (only) muscles, on the post-ganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic nervous system, and on many neurons in the brain (e.g. in the ventral tegmental area). Nicotine is an agonist (hence the name) curare is an antagonist (hence its ability to paralyze skeletal muscles) 2. muscarinic receptors are found at the neuromuscular junctions of cardiac and smooth muscle as well as on glands, and on the post-ganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system. Muscarine (a toxin produced by certain mushrooms) is an agonist. Atropine is an antagonist (hence its use in acetylcholinesterase poisoning) 74

Amino acids Glutamic acid (Glu); used at excitatory synapses in the central nervous system (CNS). Essential for long term potentiation (LTP), a form of memory. Like GABA, Glu acts on two types of CNS synapses: FAST (~1 msec) with Glu opening ligand-gated Na+ channels; SLOW (~1 sec) with Glu binding to receptors that turn on a "second messenger" cascade of biochemical changes that open channels allowing Na+ into the cell. Glycine (Gly). Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA); used at inhibitory synapses in the CNS (see above). Catecholamines Synthesized from tyrosine (Tyr) Noradrenaline (also called norepinephrine). Released by postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. Also used at certain synapses in the CNS. Dopamine. Used at certain synapses in the CNS. Other monoamines Serotonin (also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine or 5HT). Synthesized from tryptophan (Trp). Histamine Both of these neurotransmitters are confined to synapses in the brain.

Peptides A selection of 8 of the 40 or more peptides that are suspected to serve as neurotransmitters in the brain. The first five also serve as hormones. Vasopressin (ADH) Oxytocin Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) Angiotensin II 75

Cholecystokinin (CCK) Substance P Two enkephalins Met-enkephalin (Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Met) Leu-enkephalin (Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Leu) Turning Synapses Off Once its job is done, the neurotransmitter must be removed from the synaptic cleft to prepare the synapse for the arrival of the next action potential. Two methods are used: Reuptake. The neurotransmitter is taken back into the synaptic knob of the presynaptic neuron by active transport. All the neurotransmitters except acetylcholine use this method. Acetylcholine is removed from the synapse by enzymatic breakdown into inactive fragments. The enzyme used is acetylcholinesterase. Nerve gases used in warfare (e.g., sarin) and the organophosphate insecticides (e.g., parathion) achieve their effects by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase thus allowing ACh to remain active. Atropine is used as an antidote because it blocks ACh muscarinic receptors.

Drugs and Synapses Many drugs that alter mental state achieve at least some of their effects by acting at synapses. GABA Receptors The GABAA receptor is a ligand-gated chloride channel. Activation of the receptors increases the influx of chloride (Cl) ions into the postsynaptic cell raising its membrane potential and thus inhibiting it. A number of drugs bind to the GABAA receptor. They bind at sites different from the spot where GABA itself binds, but increase the strength of GABA's binding to its site. Thus they enhance the inhibitory effect of GABA in the CNS. These drugs include: sedatives like phenobarbital, beverage alcohol (ethanol), anti-anxiety drugs like Valium, Librium, Halcion (all members of a group called benzodiazepines) In view of their common action, it is not surprising that they act additively; taken together (e.g., alcohol and Valium) these drugs can produce dangerous overdoses. The recreational (and illegal) drug -hydroxybutyrate binds to the GABAB receptor. 76

Catecholamine synapses Many antidepressant drugs (the so-called tricyclic antidepressants like amitriptyline ["Elavil"]) interfere with the reuptake of noradrenaline and serotonin from their synapses and thus enhance their action at the synapse. The popular antidepressant fluoxetine ("Prozac"), seems to block only the reuptake of serotonin. Dopamine synapses: One class of dopamine receptor is bound by such drugs as chlorpromazine and haloperidol. Binding of these drugs leads to increased synthesis of dopamine at the synapse and eases some of the symptoms of schizophrenia. Synapses blocking pain signals The two enkephalins are released at synapses on neurons involved in transmitting pain signals back to the brain. The enkephalins hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane thus inhibiting it from transmitting these pain signals. The ability to perceive pain is vital. However, faced with massive, chronic, intractable pain, it makes sense to have a system that decreases its own sensitivity . Enkephalin synapses provide this intrinsic pain suppressing system. Opiates such as heroin, morphine, codeine and methadone bind these same receptors. This makes them excellent pain killers. However, they are also highly addictive. By binding to enkephalin receptors, they enhance the pain-killing effects of the enkephalins. A homeostatic reduction in the sensitivity of these synapses compensates for continued exposure to opiates. This produces tolerance, the need for higher doses to achieve the prior effect. If use of the drug ceases, the now relatively insensitive synapses respond less well to the soothing effects of the enkephalins, and the painful symptoms of withdrawal are produced.

Cerebro-spinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), Liquor cerebrospinalis, is a clear bodily fluid that occupies the subarachnoid space and the ventricular system around and inside the brain. Ventricles are a system of four communicating cavities within the brain that are continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord. The four ventricles consist of the two lateral ventricles, the third ventricle and the fourth ventricle:

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1. Lateral ventricles: The lateral ventricles are in the cerebral hemispheres. Each lateral ventricle consists of a triangular central body and four horns. The lateral ventricles communicate with the third ventricle through what is called the interventricular foramen (opening). 2. The third ventricle is a median (midline) cavity in the brain that is bounded by the thalamus and hypothalamus on either side. Anteriorly (in front) the third ventricle communicates with the lateral ventricles and posteriorly (in back) the third ventricle communicates with what is called the aqueduct of the midbrain (or the aqueduct of Sylvius). 3. The fourth ventricle is the most inferior (lowest) of the four ventricles of the brain. It extends from the aqueduct of the midbrain to the central canal of the upper end of the spinal cord with which it communicates by the two foramina (openings) of Luschka and the foramen (opening) of Magendie. The ventricles are filled with cerebrospinal fluid, which is formed by structures called choroid plexuses located in the walls and roofs of the ventricles. More specifically the CSF occupies the space between the arachnoid mater (the internal layer of the brain cover, meninges) and the pia mater (the most superficial layer of the brain). Moreover it constitutes the content of all intra-cerebral (inside the brain, cerebrum) ventricles, cisterns and sulci (singular sulcus), as well as the central canal of the spinal cord. It is an approximately isotonic solution and acts as a "cushion" or buffer for the cortex, providing also a basic mechanical and immunological protection to the brain inside the skull.

Circulation
It is produced from arterial blood in the brain by modified ependymal cells in the choroid plexus. It circulates from the choroid plexus through the interventricular foramina (foramen of Monro) into the third ventricle, and then through the mesencephalic duct (cerebral aqueduct) into the fourth ventricle, where it exits through two lateral apertures (foramina of Luschka) and one median aperture (foramen of Magendie). It then flows through the cerebromedullary cistern down the spinal cord and over the cerebral hemispheres. CSF is absorbed across the arachnoid villi into the venous circulation. The arachnoid villi act as one-way valves between the subarachnoid space and the dural sinuses. The rate of absorption correlates with the CSF pressure. N:B: Traditionally, it has been thought that CSF returns to the vascular system by entering the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid granulations. However, some have suggested that CSF flow along the cranial nerves and spinal nerve roots allow it into the lymphatic channels; this flow may play a substantial role in CSF reabsorbtion, particularly in the neonate, in which arachnoid granulations are sparsely distributed. 78

Amount and constitution

The cerebrospinal fluid is produced at a rate of 500 ml/day (0.2 - 0.7 ml per minute). Since the brain can only contain 150 ml, large amounts are drained primarily into the blood through arachnoid granulations in the Superior sagittal sinus. This continuous flow into the venous system dilutes the concentration of larger, lipoinsoluble molecules penetrating the brain and CSF. The CSF contains approximately 0.3% plasma proteins, or 15 to 40 mg/dL, depending on sampling site. The CSF pressure, measured at lumbar puncture (LP), is 100-180 mm of H2O (8-15 mm Hg) with the patient lying on the side and 200-300 mm with the patient sitting up.

Function
The cerebrospinal fluid has many putative roles including mechanical protection of the brain, distribution of neuroendocrine factors and prevention of brain ischemia. The prevention of brain ischemia is made by decreasing the amount of cerebrospinal fluid in the limited space inside the skull. This decreases total intracranial pressure and facilitates for blood perfusion.

Sensory systems
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. List the stimuli to which each of the five types of sensory receptors respond. Describe the structure of the eye and the roles of rods and cones. identify the parts of the ear responsible for hearing and for maintaining balance. Compare the senses of smell and taste. discuss how taste and smell are detected. compare the detection of touch, temperature, and pain. name the parts of the ear and explain the function of each part. 79

8.

name the parts of the eye and explain the function of each part.

Sensory systems
Human experience is affected by both internal and external stimuli. Humans are able to distinguish among many different types of stimuli by means of a highly developed system of sense organs. 1. There are million of neurons in the body that do not receive impulses from other neurons. Instead these neurons which are called sensory receptors react directly to stimulation from the environment. 2. Many receptors that enable the body to receive information from the environment are located in highly specialized organs called sense organs. 3. Examples of stimulation include: light, sound, motion, chemical, pressure, pain or changes in the temperature. 4. Once these sensory receptors are stimulated, they transform one form of energy from the environment (light, sound) into another form of energy (action potential) that can be transmitted to other neurons. These action potentials (impulses) reach the central nervous system (cns). 5. A sensory receptor is a neuron that is specialized to detect a stimulus. There are many kinds of sensory receptors, and they can be categorized on the basis of the type of stimuli they respond to: a. Mechanoreceptors - respond to movement, pressure, and tension. b. Photoreceptors (rods and cones) - respond to variations in light. c. Chemoreceptors - respond to chemicals. d. Thermoreceptors - respond to changes in temperature. e. Pain receptors - respond to tissue damage - pain! 6. The sensory receptors are contained in the sense organs. 7. Each of the five senses (sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch) has a specific sense organ associated with it. 8. The most familiar sense organs are the eyes, ears, nose, skin and taste buds. These organs have receptors that can respond to stimuli by producing nerve impulses in a sensory neuron. 9. The receptors convert the energy of a stimulus into electrical energy that can travel in the nervous system. 10. Receptors inside the body informs the cns about the conditions of the body.

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11. Example: temperature receptors throughout the body detect changes in temperature. This information travels to the hypothalamus, which helps control body temperature. 12. Specialized cells (receptors) within each sense organ enable it to respond to particular stimuli. 13. Messages from sense organs to the cns are all in the form of nerve impulses. How does are brain know whether incoming impulse is sound or light? 14. This information is built into the "wiring" in the pathways of neurons that synapse with each other, and into the location in the brain where the information arrives. 15. The brain knows if the information received is from a sensory neuron that comes from light receptors cells when it gets the message.

Hearing and balance

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1. The ear is really two sense organs in one. It not only detects sound waves, it also senses the position of the head, whether it is still, moving in a straight line, or rotating and carries nerve impulses for both hearing and balance from the ear to the brain. 2. Sound is nothing more than vibrations in the air around us. 3. Deep low-pitched sounds result from slow vibrations. High-pitched sounds are caused from faster vibrations. 4. In addition to pitch, sounds differ by their loudness or volume. 5. The sense organ that can distinguish both pitch and loudness of sounds are the ears. 6. The ear is made up of three different sections: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. These parts all work together so you can hear and process sounds. The external ear called the pinna or auricle (say: or-ih-kul), is composed of irregular plate of elastic cartilage covered with skin, and an occasional hair. Its rim, the helix, is somewhat thicker, and its fleshly, dangling lobule (earlobe) lacks supporting cartilage. The size and shape of the auricle vary considerably from individual to individual, usually being larger in the male than in the female. A considerable number of muscle fibres are attached to the auricle. It helps to collect sounds and funnels them into the auditory canal. The auditory canal connects the external ear with the tympanic membrane, also called the eardrum. 7. The auditory canal contains small hairs and wax producing glands that prevent foreign objects from entering the ear. 8. The auditory canal extends into the bone of the head, but stops at the eardrum or tympanic membrane. 9. The eardrum is the beginning of the middle ear. 10. Sound vibrations strike the eardrum and are transmitted through three tiny bones: the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup).

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11. The stirrup transfers the vibrations to a thin membrane covering an opening called the oval window. 12. This membrane transmits the vibrations to the cochlea, which begins the inner ear. 13. The cochlea is snail shaped, consisting of three fluid filled chambers that are separated by membranes. 14. The middle chamber contains the organ of corti, which is the organ of hearing. 15. When the fluid vibrates, tiny hair cells lining the cochlea are pushed back and forth, providing stimulation that is turned into nerve impulses. 16. These nerve impulses are carried to the brain by the auditory or acoustic nerve. 17. The ears also contain structures for detecting stimuli that make us aware of our movements and allow us to maintain our balance. 18. Located within the inner ear just above the cochlea are three tiny canals that lie at right angles to each other. 19. They are called the semicircular canals because they each make half a circle. They are approximately orthogonal to each other, and are called

horizontal (or lateral) anterior (or superior) posterior (or inferior)

20. The semicircular canals and the two tiny sacs located behind them help us to sense balance or equilibrium. 21. Both the canals and the sacs are filled with fluid and lined with hair cells (mechanoreceptors). 22. There are also tiny grains of calcium carbonate and protein called otoliths, otoliths roll back and forth in response to gravity, acceleration, and deceleration. 23. The movement of fluid and otoliths bend the hair on the hair cells, and in turn sends the impulses to the brain that enable it to determine body motion and position. How We Hear 83

When we hear sound, we are transducing the movement of "air" molecules into electrical signals in the brain. This process is made possible by external structures which detect these movements and convert them into neural energy, and by circuits within the nervous system which convert these signals into what we perceive as sound. A Little Bit About Sound Sounds are created by waves of high and low pressure travelling through the atmosphere. Sound waves can be thought of much as the waves that we can see in the water of the oceans; neither the ocean as a whole nor the water molecules in it have to move very far for ripples to appear to move across its surface. In the case of sound waves, the "ripples" are areas of changing pressure that move through the air out from the sound's source. Our sense of hearing allows us to detect several dimensions of sound. We can discern the loudness, the pitch, and the timbre of a sound as well as where it came from. What we perceive as loudness is the amplitude of the sound, or the difference between the high- and low-pressure parts of the sound waves. (This corresponds to the height of waves at the ocean.) Pitch indicates the frequency of the sound, or how far apart or close together the waves are. Timbre represents the complexity of the sound, or the number of simpler wave patterns of which one complex sound is made. Turning Air Movement Into Neural Energy. The cochlea is part of the inner ear and is shaped a little bit like a snail's shell. It is filled with a fluid through which sound waves pass. Sound vibrations are transmitted into the cochlea when the stapes moves the oval window. The round window is covered by a flexible membrane which allows the fluid in the cochlea to move back and forth in response to sound vibrations. Because the oval window is much smaller than the tympanic membrane, small vibrations of the tympanic membrane at some frequencies result in relatively large vibrations of the oval window; in other words, the middle ear serves to amplify certain tones. Inside the cochlea is a structure called the basilar membrane, which runs nearly the entire length of the cochlea. Attached to the basilar membrane are hair cells, which move when the fluid of the cochlea moves; the hair cells convert sound into signals that are sent to the brain. Different parts of the basilar membrane flex in response to different kinds of sound. Hair cells at the area of the basilar membrane which is flexed are activated, and send messages through the cochlear nerve to the brain. At the top of each hair cell are a number of cilia, which are connected to each other by extremely fine fibers called of protein called tip links. Hair cells are activated by the tension that is placed on the tip links when the cilia are moved. Ordinarily, there is a little bit of tension on the tip links and, consequently,

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the hair cells are very slightly activated. Movement of fluid over the hair cells causes them to send impulses to the brain. Sound In The Brain The ear sends impulses to the brain through the auditory nerve to the midbrain; at this point, most of the auditory in one side of the brain has come from the ear on the opposite side. This information passes through the thalamus and is sent to the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex, which is involved in decoding the information sent from the ears and processing the more complex aspects of sounds.

Importance of the sense of hearing 1 First orientation in the world and development of language skills An unborn child perceives sounds, voices and even music in his mothers womb and retains this information as unconscious memories in his brain. Later on, he will associate security and protection with these familiar sounds. Once born, he needs a well functioning sense of hearing to learn and understand language. Security Good hearing facilitates spatial orientation and the perception of life-saving sounds (i.e. in traffic). How often does it happen that we hear an approaching car before we even see it? To judge how close the vehicle is and to determine its precise direction, we need two well functioning ears. Communicating with people Hearing gives us access to the world of spoken language and therefore to direct communication with other people. It is the key to our social relationships und activities, where hearing slight nuances is of utmost importance, because when communicating, it is not only the words themselves that count but also intonation, volume, etc. What if we could not perceive these subtle details when communicating? Pleasure and quality of life Various sounds like music, sounds of nature or voices of loved ones reach us on an emotional level. Our sense of hearing thus contributes to our quality of life.

Vision - the eye

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1. The eyes are specialized sense organ capable of receiving visual images, which are then carried to the brain. The eyeball is set in a protective cone-shaped cavity in the skull called the orbit or socket, which also enlarges as the eye grows. The average from front to back (axial length is approximately 24-25 millimeters, or about 1 inch, in adulthood. The orbit is surrounded by layers of soft, fatty tissue which protect the eye and enable it to turn easily. Three pairs of extraocular muscles regulate the motion of each eye: the medial & lateral rectus muscles, the superior & inferior rectus muscles, and the superior & inferior oblique muscles 2. The eye is composed of three layers: a. The outer layer consists of the sclera and cornea. b. The middle layer contains the choroid, ciliary body, and iris. c. The inner layer consists of the retina. 3. The sclera (white of the eye) consists of tough white connective tissue. The sclera helps maintain the shape of eye, and also provides a means of attachment for the muscles that move the eye. 4. In the front of the eye, the sclera forms a transparent layer called the cornea. 5. The cornea is the part of the eye through which light enters. 6. Just inside the cornea is a small chamber filled with fluid known as the aqueous humor. 7. At the back of this chamber, the pigmented choroid, which contains the blood vessels of the eye, becomes a disk-like structure called the iris. 8. The iris (a diaphragm) is the portion of the eye that gives your eye its color. The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye by altering the diameter of the pupil. 9. In the middle of the iris is a small opening called the pupil, through which light enters the eye.

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10. The pupil appears as a small black disk in the center of the eye. Tiny muscles in the iris regulate the size of the pupil, controlling the amount of light to enter the eye. 11. In dim light the pupil opens to increase the amount of light, in bright light the pupil closes to decrease the amount of light entering the eye. 12. Behind the iris is the lens. Light is focused by the lens, which changes shape when pulled by muscles around its edges. The lens is the only adjustable part of the refraction system. When looking at distant objects, the ciliary muscle is relaxed and the lens in elongated and thin. When looking at near objects, the ciliary muscle contracts to form a smaller circle. The elastic lens recoils and bulges in the middle, having a greater refractive power. 13. The cells that form the lens contain a special protein called crystalin. Crystalin is almost transparent and allows light to pass through. 14. Small muscles ( ciliary muscles), attached to the lens cause it to bend; this enables the eye to focus on close and distant objects. 15. Behind the lens is a large chamber called the vitreal chamber filled with a transparent jelly-like fluid called vitreous humor. 16. As light waves pass from the air into the eye, it moves sequentially through the cornea, aqueous humour, lens, and vitreous humour, and then it passes through the neural layer of the retina to special light sensitive receptor cells, or photoreceptors, at the back of the eye. 17. The photoreceptors convert light energy into impulses that are carried to the cns. 18. There are two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones. We have about 125 million rods and 7 million cones on a single retina. 19. Rods are extremely sensitive to all colors of light, but do not distinguish different colors. The visual pigment in rods is rhodopsin. Rhodopsin forms and accumulates in the dark, as vitamin A. It is oxidised to retinal form, and then combined with opsin to produce rhodopsin. When rhodopsin absorbs light, it triggers a series of steps in which retinal form changes to the all-trans form, and releases opsin. In rods, the chemical rhodopsin(sometimes called "visual purple", composed of opsin, a protein, linked to retinal, a conjugated molecule formed from vitamin A), undergoes a complex cyclic decomposition and reconstitution, 87

breaks down to form scotopsin and retinal (a Vitamin A derivative). The disintegration of

rhodopsin into retinal and scotopsin is progressive, with a series of short-lived intermediate compounds formed, (lumirhodopsin -- metarhodopsin II transducin -phosphodiesterase). This rather complicated cycle is the basis for absorption of light and its transduction into the generation an electrical impulse or a nervous signal.
Rhodopsin is then resynthesized in a slower reaction (trans-retinol, or vitamin A recombine with scotopsin to make rhodopsin). A deficiency of Vitamin A will decrease the sensitivity of rods, resulting in night blindness. 20. In cones, colour vision is accomplished in the same manner as black-and-white

imaging, and using the same mechanism. The difference lies in the protein moieties and the chemical reactions are brought about by different wavelengths of light. Cones are less
sensitive than rods, but they do respond differently to light of different colors, producing color vision. Like rods, the visual pigments of cones are a combination of retinal and opsins, which associate and dissociate as part of a light dependent cycle. There are three different types of cone: blue, green and red. Each has a distinct type of opsin, and each responds to a different optimal wavelength, at which the opsin and retinal dissociate. Overlap between their wavelength ranges, and stimulation of more than one cone type results in us perceiving intermediate colours such as yellow and purple. As in rods, light stimulated dissociation of retinal and opsin triggers the G protein mediated cascade of events that results in hyperpolarisation and light perception by the brain. 21. In dim light, when only rods are activated, you may see objects clearly, but not their colors. 22. As the amount of light increase, the cones are stimulated and the colors become clear. Impulses from the rods and cones are transmitted to ganglion neurons, which converge at the optic disc to become the optic nerve, passing posteriorly through the wall of the eyeball. 23. The impulses leave the eye by way of the optic nerve, and the optic nerves from both eyes converge at the optic chiasma, which is just in front of the pituitary gland. Here, the medial fibers of each optic nerve cross to the other side. Crossing permits each visual area to receive impulses from both eyes, important for binocular vision. The impulses are then carried to the part of brain known as the optic lobe or occipital lobe. Here the brain interprets the visual images and provides information about the external world. Visual areas are located in the occipital lobes of the cerebral cortex of the brain. Although each eye transmits a slightly different picture, the visual areas put them together or integrate them to make a single image. This is called binocular vision. Visual areas also right the image since it appears on the retina upside down. The image on film in a camera is also upside down, but this is not apparent because, when they are viewed, they appear right side up, an accomplishment of the brain.

Importance of Vision 88

Communication: Visibly encoded information provides for much easier pinpointing of source than either sound or chemical signals, although visible displays are also much more easily obscured by structures in the environment. Ease of locating the source of a signal. Biological coloration effectiveness: Identification of contrast range of intensity of colour. Movement perception: The eye is by far the most effective organ for sensing movement. Perceptual learning: The subject's initial attempts to touch the target will be misdirected, and there is a discrepancy between its location as seen and as felt. Time perception: will be indiscriminable and will appear to be uninterrupted light. Mating response: mating response (in reproductive behaviour: Visual clues) Space perception: (in space perception: Visual factors in space perception) 1 On a synthesizing process of learning to combine simpler elements into more complex, integrated wholes.

Eye changes Myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism If the incoming light from a far away object focuses before it gets to the back of the eye, that eyes refractive error is called myopia (nearsightedness). If incoming light from something far away has not focused by the time it reaches the back of the eye, that eyes refractive error is hyperopia (farsightedness). In the case of astigmatism, one or more surfaces of the cornea or lens (the eye structures which focus incoming light) are not spherical (shaped like the side of a basketball) but, instead, are cylindrical or toric (shaped more like the side of a football). As a result, there is no distinct point of focus inside the eye but, rather, a smeared or spread-out focus. Astigmatism is the most common refractive error. presbyopia (after 40 vision) After age 40, and most noticeably after age 45, the human eye is affected by presbyopia, which results in greater difficulty maintaining a clear focus at a near distance with an eye which sees clearly at a far away distance (the latter being with or without the aid of glasses or contact lenses or following a LASIK procedure). This is due to a lessening of flexibility of the crystalline lens, as well as to a weakening of the ciliary muscles which control lens focusing, both attributable to the aging process.

Smell
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The sense of smell is a chemical sense, the cells responsible for smell are specialized chemoreceptors called olfactory receptors. To distinguish most flavors, the brain needs information about both smell and taste. These sensations are communicated to the brain from the nose and mouth. Several areas of the brain integrate the information, enabling people to recognize and appreciate flavors. When you breathe through your nose, air enters both of your nostrils. Hairs, hanging from the walls of each opening, act as filters trapping dirt, dust, pollen -- all sorts of things -- even bugs! As the air moves further back inside your nose, the locale gets warmer and slimier. There's wet mucus everywhere! And if you look carefully, you discover the mucus is actually moving. Incredibly, small hair-like structures called cilia are sweeping or undulating back and forth, moving the mucus (and anything trapped in it) further and further back. At the same time, the air moving back is warmed by blood vessels just beneath the surface, filled with warm, pulsing blood. 90

As the air spirals around, bouncing off ridges and valleys, the passageway opens up to a big cavern -- your nasal cavity. Rivulets of mucus stream back and down into our throat. The odor chemicals that you inhaled, on the other hand, begin to float upward, not downward. A small area about the size of a postage stamp on the mucous membrane that lines the nose (the olfactory epithelium) contains millions upon millions of specialized nerve cells called smell receptors. These receptors have hairlike projections (cilia) that detect odors. Odor molecules sink through a thick, mustard-colored mucus until they reach the sensitive hair-like tops of the nerve cells and get trapped. Differently shaped nerve cells recognize different smells because each smell molecule fits into a nerve cell like a lock and key. This stimulate the cilia, triggering a nerve impulse in nearby nerve fibers. The fibers extend upward through the bone that forms the roof of the nasal cavity (cribriform plate) and connect to enlargements of nerve cells (olfactory bulbs) that form the cranial nerves of smell (olfactory nerves). The impulse travels through the olfactory bulbs, along the olfactory nerves, to the brain. The brain interprets the impulse as a distinct odor and the area of the brain where memories of odors are storedthe middle part of the temporal lobeis stimulated. Olfactory information travels not only to the limbic system -- primitive brain structures that govern emotions, behavior, and memory storage -- but also to the brain's cortex, or outer layer, where conscious thought occurs. In addition, it combines with taste information in the brain to create the sensation of flavor. The memories enable a person to distinguish and identify many different odors experienced over a lifetime.

Importance of smell
1. They are the interface between external and internal environment. 2. This physical intimacy between olfaction and the brain harks back to the dim evolutionary past when smell was absolutely crucial to survival--to finding food and mates. 3. Smell is important because it lets us fully enjoy scents and fragrances, and contributes greatly to our enjoyment of food and beverages. 4. But, even more important, smell can be a warning sign that something is wrong in our environment. Smell helps us to know when food is spoiled or if there is a gas leak.

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Taste

1. The tongue is an elongated muscular organ with the top surface covered with specialized little mushroom-shaped structures called papillae. These papillae contain tiny holes or pores that lead to taste buds. The bulk of the tongue consists of muscle bundles mixed with connective (strong/tough) and adipose (fat) tissue. It has many blood vessels and bleeds profusely when lacerated. The tongue is surrounded by the openings of the ducts of the salivary glands, which pour their secretions (saliva) into the oral cavity 2. The sense of taste is a chemical sense.The cells that are stimulated by the chemicals are called chemoreceptors. 3. The sense organ that detects taste is the taste buds. Not the tongue! 4. Most of the 10,000 taste buds are embedded between bumps called papillae on the tongue, but can also be found on the roof of the mouth, on the lips, and in the throat. 5. Humans can detect four main kinds of taste: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. Each taste bud shows a particular sensitivity to one of these tastes. Thousands of tiny taste buds cover most of the tongue's surface. Food placed in the mouth stimulates taste receptors in the taste buds. Taste receptors have cilia that detect tastes. Food molecules stimulate the cilia, triggering a nerve impulse in nearby nerve fibers, which are connected to the cranial nerves of taste (the facial and glossopharyngeal nerves). The cranial nerves carry taste information into the brain to a part of the brain stem called the nucleus of the solitary tract. From the nucleus of the solitary tract, taste information goes to the thalamus and then to the cerebral cortex. Like information for smell, taste information also goes to the limbic system (hypothalamus and amygdala). Taste buds can detect sweetness, saltiness, sourness, and bitterness. Combinations of the four basic tastes produce a wide spectrum of tastes.
6.

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7. Many of the sensation associated with taste are actually smell sensations; you depend on both senses to detect flavors in food. 8. That is why when you have a cold and your smell receptors are blocked, food seems to have little or no taste.

Sense of taste
1. Odor and food molecules activate membrane receptors in our noses and mouths alerting us
to pleasure, danger, food and drink in the environment. The complicated processes of smelling and tasting begin when molecules detach from substances and float into noses or are put into mouths. In both cases, the molecules must dissolve in watery mucous in order to bind to and stimulate special cells. These cells transmit messages to brain centers where we perceive odors or tastes, and where we remember people, places, or events associated with these olfactory (smell) and gustatory (taste) sensations.

2. Taste sensory cells are found in taste buds

Looking at your tongue in the mirror, you can see collections of little bumps clustered on the sides and tip. If you stick your tongue out very far, you see larger flattened pegs on the posterior area. These macroscopic structures are papillae, and all over their surfaces are the taste buds, which are in turn made up of several types of cells, including the taste sensory cells. Although an individual taste bud cannot be seen without a microscope, it looks something like a balloon with a small opening at the tongue surface: this is the taste pore. Into the pore come food and drink molecules, fitting into membrane receptors located on small finger-like protrusions called microvilli at the tops of taste sensory cells. The microvilli increase the surface area of the cell.

According to current research, humans can detect five basic taste qualities: salt, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami (the taste of monosodium glutamate and similar molecules). Investigations of the molecular workings of the first four show that salt and sour receptors are types of ion channels, which allow certain ions to enter the cell, a process that results directly in the generation of an electrical signal. Sweet and bitter receptors are not themselves ion channels, but instead, like olfactory receptors, accommodate parts of complex molecules in their molecular pockets. When a food or drink molecule binds to a sweet or a bitter receptor, an intracellular "second messenger" system (usually using cyclic AMP) is engaged. After several steps, concluding with the opening of an ion channel, the membrane of the taste receptor cell produces an electrical signal. (The second messenger system is a signaling mechanism used in many sensory nerve cells as well as in other cells in the body.)

3. Taste signals go to the limbic system and to the cerebral cortex

Where do taste messages go once they activate the receptor cells in the taste bud? The electrical message from a taste receptor goes directly to the terminal of a primary taste sensory neuron, which is in contact with the receptor cell right in the taste bud. The cell bodies of these neurons are in the brainstem (lower part of the brain, below the cerebrum and their axons form pathways in several cranial nerves. Once these nerve cells get electrical messages from the taste cells, they in 93

turn pass the messages on through relay neurons to two major centers: the limbic system and the cerebral cortex. The limbic system (which includes the hippocampus, hypothalamus and amygdala) is important in emotional states and in memory formation, so when taste messages arrive here, we experience pleasant, or aversive, or perhaps nostalgic feelings. In the frontal cerebral cortex, conscious identification of messages and other related thought processes take place. The messages from the limbic system and the frontal cortex may be at odds with each other. For example, if you are eating dinner at a friend's home and the first bite of a food item is bitter, you may feel an aversion to eating more. But if you know the food is merely from another culture and not harmful, you may make a conscious decision to continue eating and not offend your hosts. Thus, taste messages go to more primitive brain centers where they influence emotions and memories, and to "higher" centers where they influence conscious thought.

Central taste pathways

4. Patterns of nerve activity encode taste sensations
But how is taste encoded? How does the brain know that something is sweet? Here we will consider only taste sensations, and not the additional flavors that odors add to an eating experience. Researchers have detected some mapping of tastes is in higher areas such as the taste or gustatory nucleus in the brainstem, the thalamus and the cerebral cortex. The mapping appears to be geographical, as in the touch system-this means that messages from the tip of the tongue go to different areas in the brain than messages from the sides of the tongue. Further, some evidence indicates that cells receiving "sweet" messages in the brainstem may be grouped together, as are cells receiving salt, sour, and bitter messages. Researchers have also found that while each receptor responds best to one type of taste, say sweet, it can also respond weakly to another, perhaps bitter. This happens because taste cells have more than one type of membrane receptor, not because bitter compounds are squeezing into sweet receptor molecular slots. To complicate matters further, a given nerve axon forms branches in the tongue and sends terminals to several different taste cells. Thus, it will carry different messages to the brain, depending on which of its taste cell subjects are reporting to it at the time. These complicated connections make it likely that neurons in the brain detect a complex taste, such as sweet-sour, or bittersweet, by a pattern of activated sensory nerve axons rather than by an absolute counting of groups of pre-defined sensory and central neurons.

5. Sensory processing allows us to interpret flavors

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To summarize how we perceive and interpret flavors, let's follow some food into your mouth. It's a warm day you buy a flat of freshly picked strawberries to make jam, but you grab a few to sample. As you bite into the first one, the tart but sweet juice squishes out and floods your mouth; escaping molecules waft into your nose and assail your odor receptors. Many types of molecules are present, and each fits into a slot on a taste or odor membrane receptor that can accommodate only that class of molecular structures. As soon as the molecules stick to their receptors, both ion channels and second messenger systems go into gear, quickly causing each stimulated cell to produce an electrical signal. The signals flash through the axons of taste and olfactory sensory neurons and on to cells in the brain. The messages zip to several places by way of axons from secondary or relay neurons. Messages to the limbic system give you that "aahhh" feeling, others activate memories of previous strawberries, and steaming pots of bubbling jam. Still other pathways stimulate motor centers to cause salivation, chewing, and swallowing. The signals to your frontal cortex activate motor neurons that allow you to say, "Wow!" and you turn around to buy a second flat of berries. The experiences of perceiving and interpreting the strawberry flavor are the result of activating a pattern of neural components, and in turn, a pattern specific memories, feelings, and thoughts.

Taste disorders may be genetic, or may result from illness or injury

1. ageusia (the complete loss of taste), the inability to taste, or other disorders of taste, most are caused by illnesses or accidents. 2. hypogeusia-diminished taste sensitivity; 3. hypergeusia-heightened sense of taste; 4. dysgeusia-distortions in the sense of taste. Small growths in the nasal cavities (polyps), dental problems, hormonal disturbances, or sinus infections, as well as common colds, may cause chemosensory losses. Injury to the head may damage nerve centers or break axons. Patients who receive radiation therapy for cancers of the head or neck often develop changes in their senses of taste and smell. Importance of taste 1. Our sense of taste can warn us that something we put into our mouths may be spoiled or dangerous. 2. Eating is much more than just "food intake" for humans; it is an important part of our social lives and a source of pleasure.

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Sense Of touch
1. All regions of our bodies are sensitive to touch. The most touch-sensitive areas are the fingers, toes, and lips. What is touch? Touch is to use your skin to have physical contact with another object. Touch receptors are located in clusters around your skin. They look like onions or jelly material. When they are squeezed, the layers rub against each other causing an electrical nerve impulse. The most sensitive touch receptors are located at your face, back of your neck, chest, arm (upper), fingers, soles of your feet, and between your legs. What kind of sensory receptors are in your skin? This is a chart showing all of the sensory receptors in skin; the name, function, and location. Name Hair Follicle Ending Ruffini Endings Location Hairy Skin Areas Function responds to hair displacement responds to pressure on skin responds to pressure responds to vibration sensitive at 150-300 Hz range responds to vibration sensitive at 20-40 Hz range different types of free nerve endings respond to mechanical, thermal, or noxious stimulation responds to pressure of the skin

Dermis of hairy and glabrous skin Krause corpuscle Lips, tongue, genitals Pacinian Deep layers of demis in hairy corpuscle and glabrous skin Meissner Demis of glabrous skin corpuscle Free nerve endings Merkel Throughout your skin Epidermis of glabrous skin

2. Your largest sense organ is your skin. It serves a number of purposes, such as protecting our internal organs from infections, and is also the location of the tactile receptors in our body. In each of the layers of skin are different tactile receptors or nerve endings, which seem to respond best to particular types of stimuli. These receptors are generally divided into three categories: 1. Mechanoreceptors: respond to indentations of the skin (pressure, and tension). An example of this is when a finger presses against the back of the hand. There are two types of these mechanoreceptors: those that are rapidly adapting and those that are slowly adapting. 2. Thermoreceptors: respond to temperature (heat or cold) changes. Sensory receptors for hot or cold are scattered directly below the surface of the skin. 96

3. Nioceptors: respond to stimuli that damage the skin such as intense heat or the prick of a pin. Pain receptors are located throughout the skin. The sensation of pain can be experienced as either prickling pain (fast pain) or burning and aching pain (slow pain). Pain receptors are stimulated by mechanical, thermal, electrical, or chemical energy. Even though each of these receptors responds best to these stimuli, they also respond to some degree to all types of tactual stimuli. Tactile receptors are also located in the joints, tendons and muscles, and limbs. These help form part of the proprioceptive system. The proprioceptive system allows us to know about the stationary position of our body and also give us information about our movements. We know where our hand is and how to make it move out to reach and grasp an object because of our proprioceptive system. The visual system ties into the proprioceptive system, too, and tells us when our bodies are located in space. The sensations coming to us from outside our body and those coming from inside our body are experienced as two separate sensations that our brains are able to process so we can complete a wide variety of actions. When we manipulate a small object such as a pen with our hands behind our backs we know where our hands are in relation to one another, even if they do not touch. We experience the feel of the pen and can explore it, turn it, and transfer it without looking all because of the tactile sensations we experience within our bodies and from outside our bodies. Tactile information is sent to the brain from the receptors along two main neural pathways. One pathway, called the dorsal column medial lemniscal system (DCMLS), can be thought of as a discriminatory system. It carries information we obtain through active exploration and includes such information as pressure, vibration, and proprioception. The other system, called the anterolateral system (ALS), carries information that helps our body defend itself by relaying information about pain and temperature. The DCMLS ends in the somatosensory cortex within the parietal lobe of the brain located at the top, back part of your head. The ALS appears to be a more primitive system and ends in the reticular formation that is located just above the area of the brain stem.

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Although these systems are separate, they do have some overlap of function. For example, some pain information may be carried by the DCMLS, and some tactile discrimination information may be carried by the ALS. If damage is done to one of these systems the result may be that the other system becomes more dominant. The ALS system, which handles pain, is less vulnerable to damage than the DCMLS system. 4. Body hair also plays an important role in the ability to sense touch. Large numbers of mechanoreceptors are found in the skin at the base of hair follicles. The somatosensory system is a sensory system that detects experiences labelled as touch or pressure, temperature (warm or cold), pain (including itch and tickle), as well as proprioception, which is the sensations of muscle movement and joint position including posture, movement, visceral (internal) senses and facial expression. Visceral senses have to do with sensory information from within the body, such as stomach aches. Touch may be considered one of five human senses; however, when a person touches something or somebody this gives rise to various feelings: the perception of pressure (hence shape, softness, texture, vibration, etc.), relative temperature and sometimes pain. Thus the term "touch" is actually the combined term for several senses. In medicine, the colloquial term "touch" is usually replaced with somatic senses, to better reflect the variety of mechanisms involved. A somatosensory pathway typically has three long neurons: primary, secondary and tertiary (or first, second, and third).

The first neuron always has its body in the dorsal root ganglion of the spinal nerve (if sensation is in head or neck, it will be the trigeminal nerve ganglia or ganglia of other sensory nerves). The second neuron has its body either in the spinal cord or in the brainstem, and will cross (or decussate) to the opposite side and terminate in the thalamus. In the case of the somatosensory system, the pathways all terminate in the ventral posterior nucleus (VPN) of the thalamus. The third neuron has its body in the VPN of the thalamus and ends in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe. 98

The Functions of Touch The active use of touch to seek out and acquire information has been called haptic touch. The haptic system has been defined as a distinctive perceptual system, oriented towards discriminating and recognizing objects by handling them as opposed to looking at them. The various property features we acquire through the haptic system include: Vibration Surface texture Wetness/dryness Surface temperature Shape Slope Curved Hardness/softness Weight Elasticity Pliability

Many types of touch are active, but some types of touch are not active. For example, we can experience the breeze blowing on our faces and the warmth of the sun. We can feel vibrations from the car next to us that is playing rap music too loud. Touch can be interactive or non-interactive. Interactive touch includes such actions as hugging, kissing, or shaking hands. Non-interactive touch includes things like resting your hands in your lap, massaging a leg cramp, or bathing. Touch is as important as breathing Sensory deprivation makes people depressed and immune-compromised, and gives them emotional pain and physical damage.

The role of oxytocin: Researchers are pointing at a hormone called oxytocin; our bodies
release it when we're touched, and it interacts with dopamine, a brain chemical that makes us feel good. Oxytocin is one of those happy hormones that helps to lower blood pressure and stress levels, and can affect everything from how wounds heal to how much we trust other people. An emotional pathway: Skin, the body's largest organ, allows us to relate sensitively to the world in which we live and gain information on our surroundings. Touch can also communicate emotion such as anger, fear, love, gratitude, and sympathy. Healing massage: If you see massage as touch therapy, it might be able to boost the immune system and improve the body's natural defences against the disease. Massage therapy relaxes the muscles that support the joint, increases circulation, and promotes lymphatic drainage. 99

The benefits of massage Research suggests that touch therapy may be able to: Decrease diastolic blood pressure, anxiety, and cortisol (stress hormone) levels in adults with hypertension. Decrease the occurrence of headaches, sleep disturbances, and distress symptoms, and increase serotonin levels in adults who suffer from migraine headaches. Reduce anxiety and depression and increase the number of natural "killer cells" that attack tumors, in women with breast cancer. Reduce anxiety and stress hormone levels in adults with chronic fatigue syndrome and depressed mood.

Charismatic powers Another researcher has found that touch is an important component of what we call charisma. Initiating a handshake at a job interview or sales pitch can make you more appealing. You can use this power every day to enhance the lives of others. Make someone's day by doing something as natural as holding hands as you talk, lightly touching a shoulder, and giving - or receiving - a hug. To touch or not to touch Attitudes about touch and physical contact vary greatly among different cultures. In India, it's common to massage babies daily. The skill of Indian head massage is passed down from parent to child and practiced regularly across the generations. In Africa, carrying babies close to the body at virtually all times is the norm. In France and Italy, men kiss each other on the cheek as a greeting. In most Asian countries, there are no sexual implications when male friends hold hands or drape their arms around each others' shoulders. In Arab cultures, such gestures denote respect and affection.

However, in many countries, how and where you touch someone can be a minefield. Increased awareness of sexual abuse and harassment has made people more cautious about reaching out to each other.

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In the US, most school systems have imposed a "no touch" policy for teachers to ward off possible misunderstandings. Physicians rely more and more on high-tech tests and procedures rather than hands-on probing to diagnose illnesses, and workplaces often impose strict guidelines regarding physical contact to protect against molestation claims. People have grown wary of physical contact with one another, which can lead to a sense of isolation and loneliness. Although as babies we are constantly cuddled, as we age there is less and less physical contact with other people. "Older people are touch-deprived, in part because they are often alone, and in part because their aging skin may not invite touching in the same way that an infant's skin does,"

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The Endocrine system

Objectives:
1. Differentiate between endocrine and exocrine glands 2. Identify the relationship between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland in the release of hormones. 3. List the functions of the major endocrine glands and hormones. 4. Compare the structure of amino acid-based hormones with the structure of steroid hormones. 5. Compare how amino acidbased hormones act on their target cells with how steroid or thyroid hormones act on their target cells. 6. Relate how neuropeptides and prostaglandins act like hormones. 7. Explain the role of feedback mechanisms in maintaining homeostasis, 8. Compare how negative feedback and positive feedback mechanisms are used to regulate hormone levels. 9. Summarize how antigonistic hormones work as pairs to maintain homeostasis. The endocrine system consists of glands that transmit chemical messengers throughout the body. These chemical messengers, called hormones circulate in the bloodstream and affect many types of body cells.

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Endocrine glands

Endocrine glands are located throughout the body and regulate many of its vital processes. A gland is an organ that consists of cells that secrete materials into other regions of the body. Endocrine organs make and release hormones into the bloodstream. Hormones are chemicals that then control the actions of other cells or organs in the body. Some examples are: Thyroid Gland makes Thyroid Hormone that regulates metabolism Parathyroid Gland - makes Parathyroid Hormone that controls bodys use of calcium Pancreas makes insulin and glucagon, hormones to help control the level of blood sugar Adrenal Gland makes hormones to regulate blood pressure and other body functions; some examples are adrenalin (epinephrine) and steroid hormones (cortisone) Ovaries (in females only) - make female hormones estrogen and progesterone Testes, or testicles (in males only) - make male hormone testosterone

The body contains two types of glands: a. Exocrine glands: secrete nonhormonal chemicals into ducts, which transport the chemicals to a specific location inside and outside the body. Sweat glands, mucous glands, salivary glands, and other digestive glands are examples of exocrine glands. b. Endocrine glands - are ductless glands that are located throughout the body. Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream through the fluid that surrounds their cells. The hypothalamus 1. The hypothalamus is the part of the brain and nervous system that regulates body temperature, breathing, hunger and thirst. Located beneath the thalamus in the brain, it regulates our body's internal environment. 2. The hypothalamus can also be considered the master switchboard for the endocrine system. The hypothalamus regulates the two lobes pituitary gland, by releasing - releasing or releasing-inhibiting hormones. 3. Releasing hormones and release-inhibiting hormones are produced in response to various stimuli that are processed by the nervous system. 4. There is at least one releasing hormone for each anterior pituitary hormone. 5. Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus produce hormones that either are stored in the pituitary gland or regulate the pituitary's activity. 6. The hypothalamus is continuously checking (monitoring) conditions inside your body. 7. If your internal environment (homeostasis) starts to get out of balance, the hypothalamus has several ways to set things right again e.g. by a. Sending out nerve signal to another part of the brain the medulla to speed up or slow down your heart rate. b. Sending commands in the form of hormones, thus acting like an endocrine gland. 103

The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are the primary regulators of the endocrine system.

The Pituitary gland - two lobes - posterior and anterior

1. The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea that sits in a small, bony cavity (pituitary fossa) covered by a dural fold (sellar diaphragm) at of the brain. It is a small gland about 1 cm in diameter is to the hypothalamus by a stalk-like structure. The pituitary fossa, in which the pituitary gland sits, is situated in the sphenoid bone in the middle cranial fossa at the base of the brain. 2. The pituitary has two portions called the anterior and the posterior pituitary.

the base connected

Anterior Pituitary gland

The anterior pituitary (hypophysis) is sometimes called the master gland because it controls the secretion of other endocrine glands. The anterior pituitary produces and secretes at least 7 different hormones, which have an affects on other endocrine glands: Adrenocorticotropic hormone (acth) which stimulates the adrenal cortex. Causes the adrenal cortex to produce and release cortisol and aldosterone. Gonadotropic hormones (follicle-stimulating hormone - fsh and luteinizing hormone lh) - which stimulate the gonads - the testes in males and the ovaries in females. Causes the gonads to secrete sex hormones and stimulates gamete (sperm and egg) production. Growth hormone (gh) (somatotropin) promotes cell division, protein synthesis, and bone and muscle growth. Prolactin (prl) it causes mammary gland in breast to develop and produce milk. It also plays a role in carbohydrate and fat metabolism. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone - stimulates the melanocytes of the skin, increasing their production of the dark pigment melanin. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (tsh) regulates the thyroid to produce and release thyroxin and triiodothyronine.

The posterior pituitary stores two hormones, vasopressin or adh and oxytocin, both which are produced by and released from the hypothalamus. a. Antidiuretic hormone - (adh) or vasopressin causes the kidneys to form more concentrated urine, conserving water. Thus, the kidneys produce urine with a high solute concentration. b. Oxytocin stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor, also causes the release of milk from the breast of a nursing mother. 104

The pineal gland

1. The pineal gland (also called the pineal body or epiphysis) is a small endocrine gland in the brain. It is located near the center of the brain, between the two hemispheres, tucked in a groove where the two rounded thalamic bodies The pineal gland is a reddish-gray body about the size of a pea (8 mm in humans), it is part of the epithalamus.

Structure and composition

The pineal body consists in humans of a lobular parenchyma of pinealocytes surrounded by connective tissue spaces. The glands' surface is covered by a pial capsule and consists mainly of pinealocytes.. 2. The pineal gland secretes the hormone melatonin. 3. Melatonin concentrations in the blood rises and falls on a daily (circadian) cycle increasing sharply at night and decrease dramatically during the day, with peak levels occurring in the wee hours of the morning.. 4. This cyclic release of melatonin indicates that it helps regulate sleep.

Thyroid gland
1. The thyroid is controlled by the hypothalamus and pituitary. The gland gets its name from the Greek word for "shield", after its shape, a double-lobed structure. Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) and hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) are the most common problems of the thyroid gland.

Anatomy
The thyroid is situated on the front side of the neck, just below the larynx, starting at the oblique line on the thyroid cartilage (just below the laryngeal prominence or Adam's apple), and extending to the 6th Tracheal ring (C-shaped cartilagenous ring of the trachea). It lies over the trachea and is covered by layers of pretracheal fascia (allowing it to move), muscle and skin. The thyroid is one of the larger endocrine glands - 10-20 grams in adults and butterfly-shaped. The wings correspond to the lobes on either side of the gland and the body to the isthmus of the thyroid. The isthmus links the two lobes to each other. The mass of the gland is composed of 105

irregular masses of follicular cell. It may enlarge substantially during pregnancy and when affected by a variety of diseases 2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (tsh) regulates the thyroid gland. 3. Produces thyroxin, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin a. Thyroxin and triiodothyronine stimulates and maintains metabolic activities, normal heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature. They also promote carbohydrate usage over fat usage for energy. The thyroid does this by producing thyroid hormones, principally thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These hormones regulate the rate of metabolism and affect the growth and rate of function of many other systems in the body. The thyroid also produces the hormone calcitonin, which plays a role in calcium homeostasis. b. Calcitonin (c cells) inhibits release of calcium from bones, or regulates the level of calcium in the blood. 4. In order to produce thyroxin and triiodothyronine, the thyroid gland requires iodine. Iodized salt. 5. Goiter the swelling of the thyroid gland is a result of iodine deficiency. 6. Decreased levels of thyroxin cause a decrease in the cellular respiration rate. Cells produce less energy and become less active. 7. Hyperthyroidism - too much thyroxin results in nervousness, elevated body temperature, increased heart and metabolic rates, increased blood pressure, and weight loss. Hyperthyroidism can be treated with medication or by surgical removal of part of the thyroid gland. 8. Hypothyroidism - not enough thyroxin results in lower metabolic rates (lethargy) and body temperature, lack of energy, and weight gain. In some cases, is associated with goiter, or enlargement of the thyroid gland. Hypothyroidism can be treated with supplementary thyroxin. 9. Hypothyroidism in infants affects normal development of the skeleton, muscular, and nervous systems and results in a condition called cretinism. 10. Cretinism is characterized by dwarfism and mental retardation.

Parathyroid glands
The parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands in the neck, usually located behind the thyroid gland, which produce parathyroid hormone. Most often there are four parathyroid glands but some people have six or even eight. There are attached to or embedded in the back surface of the thyroid gland, two in each lobe. They distinguish themselves from the thyroid gland histologically as they contain two types of cells 106

Name

Staining Quantity Size many few

Function

parathyroid chief cells darker oxyphil cells lighter

smaller manufacture PTH . larger function unknown.

Physiology
The sole function of the parathyroid glands is to regulate the calcium level in our bodies within a very narrow range so that the nervous and muscular systems can function properly. When the blood calcium levels drop below a certain point, calcium-sensing receptors in the parathyroid gland are activated to release hormone into the blood. Parathyroid hormone (PTH, also known as parathormone) is a small protein that takes part in the control of calcium and phosphorus homeostasis, as well as bone physiology. Pathyroid hormone (pth) regulates the calcium levels in the blood by increasing the reabsorption of calcium in the kidneys and by increasing the uptake of calcium from the digestive system. It also stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone and release calcium into the blood. Parathyroid hormone is important in promoting proper nerve and muscle function as well as maintaining bone structure. Loss of parathyroids causes a drop in the level of calcium in the blood, which may result in violent muscular spasms known as tetany.

The Thymus gland

The thymus is an organ located in the upper anterior portion of the chest cavity, beneath the sternum (breastbone) and between the lungs.It is of central importance in the maturation of T cells and is associated with the Lymphatic system. N.B: Check the Lymphatic system.

The Adrenal Glands

The adrenal glands are hormone-secreting organs perched above the kidneys. They are yellowish in color and are typically triangular in shape. The normal adrenal gland measures approximately 3-4 cm and weighs 5-7 g. Each gland consists of a thick outer layer (the cortex - about 85% of the gland), and a thinner inner layer (the medulla). The cortex is rich in lipids, giving it its yellow color, and has a firmer consistency than the reddish-brown medulla.

Adrenal cortex
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1. The outer portion makes up 80 percent of the mass of the gland. 2. The adrenal cortex responds to adrenocorticotropic hormone (acth), which is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. 3. Produces more than two dozen hormones called corticosteroids, which are steroid hormones and essential for normal body function. 4. Aldosterone regulates the reabsorption of sodium and the excretion of potassium by the kidneys. This affects water and salt balance in the body. 5. Cortisol affects carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism. It also helps people cope with stress. 6. Decrease activity of the adrenal cortex can result in addison's disease - weight loss, low blood pressure, and general weakness, death may occur because of heart failure. 7. People with addisons disease receive regular doses of adrenal cortical hormones. 8. Increase activity of the adrenal cortex can result in cushing syndrome - obesity, increase blood sugar levels, high blood pressure, and weakening of bones. 9. Treatment involves decreasing the secretion of hyperactive hormone, if possible.

Adrenal medulla
1. The inner portion, is a specialized part of the sympathetic nervous system. 2. Secrets two amino acid based hormones called neurohormones - adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). 3. Adrenaline is more powerful in its actions and makes up 80 percent of the total secretions. 4. "fight or flight" hormones - nerve impulses from the sympathetic nervous system results in the secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline. 5. Adrenaline increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood supply to skeleton muscles, increases the conversion of glycogen to glucose and stimulates the rate of metabolism. 6. Noradrenaline stimulates the heart muscle - increases rate and strength of heartbeat.

Pancreas
1. Located just behind the stomach and is an accessory organ of Digestion. N.B Check the Digestive system

Reproductive glands - gonads

1. Gonads - the ovaries in females and the testes in males - are gamete-producing organs that also produce a group of steroid sex hormones. N.B. Check the Reproductive System

Other Structures that produces some level of hormones

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Stomach and intestines produce o Cholecystokinin (CCK) o Gastrin o Secretin o Somatostatin Liver produces o Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) o Angiotensinogen o Thrombopoietin Kidney produces o Renin o Erythropoietin (EPO) o Calcitriol (the active form of vitamin D3) Skin produces o Vitamin D3 (calciferol) Adipose tissue o Leptin o Estrogens (mainly estrone) Corpus luteum o Progesterone o Estrogens (mainly estradiol) Placenta (when pregnant) o Progesterone o Estrogens (mainly estriol) o Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) o Human placental lactogen (HPL)

Hormones
Hormones: chemical signals 1. A hormone is a chemical signal, made in one place and delivered to another, that regulates the body's activities. Hormones are compounds that are secreted in small amounts into the bloodstream and that influence the activity of distant cells. 4. Various organs throughout the body are sources of hormones. 5. Organs that produce hormones are called endocrine glands and form the endocrine system . 6. Some other organs not considered glands produce hormones. The brain and kidney are two other organs that also produce hormones. 7. Endocrine glands secret hormones directly into the bloodstream - ductless glands. 109

8. The hormones travel to a specific tissue or organ called target cells. 9. At the target cells, hormones elicit a specific response. 10. Hormones are essential to maintaining homeostasis. 11. The endocrine system works hand - in - hand with the nervous system to: a. Maintain the body's internal steady state - homeostasis (nutrition, metabolism, excretion, water and salt balances). b. React to stimuli from outside the body. c. Regulate growth, development and reproduction. d. Produce, use and store energy 12. The endocrine and nervous systems are so closely linked that they are often are considered a single system the neuroendocrine system. 13. Both nerve impulses and hormones elicit a response but: a. Nerve impulses prompt a nearly instantaneous response to a change in the environment. b. Hormones on the other hand are released more slowly than nerve impulses, but their effects usually last longer. Effects of some hormones can last 10 to 20 minutes. Some hormones can last for several hours. How hormones work 1. A hormone does not seek out a particular organ; to the contrary, the organ is awaiting the arrival of the hormone. 2. Cells that can react to a hormone have specific receptor proteins on their plasma membrane or in their cytoplasm that combine with the hormone in a "lock-and-key" manner. The specific shape of the hormone must match the specific shape of the receptor protein. 3. Receptors are proteins that are located both inside the cytoplasm and on the surface of a target cell. 4. Therefore, certain cells respond to one hormone and not another, depending on their receptor proteins. 5. Hormones are chemical messengers that influence the metabolism of the recipient cell. 6. Fitting the hormone molecule into the receptor changes the receptor's shape, which causes the cell's activities to change.

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7. The main effect of a hormone on a cell is to change the activity or amounts of enzymes (speed up chemical reactions) present in that cell. Two types of hormones 1. Hormones are substances that fall into two general categories: a. Steroid hormones hormones the body synthesizes from cholesterol (a lipid). b. Amino acid-based hormones (peptide hormones) hormones made of amino acids.

2. Steroid hormones: a. Steroid hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex, the ovaries, and the testes. All other glands produce amino acid-based hormones or peptide hormones! b. Steroid hormones do not bind with the plasma membrane (a lipid bilayer) receptors of the target cells; they can enter the cell and the cell nucleus freely. c. Within the cytoplasm, a steroid hormone can bind with a receptor protein, then enter the cell nucleus and bind to dna, where it will trigger changes in the chromosomes. d. The hormone receptor unit attaches to the dna, this attachment activates certain genes in that cell, causing particular proteins, including new protein enzymes, to be produced. e. The male sex hormone testosterone and the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone are examples of steroid hormones. 3. Amino acid-based hormones (peptide hormones): a. Hormones made from amino acids. b. Because peptide hormones are polar molecules (posses both positive and negative end) they cannot pass (diffuse) through the plasma membrane of their target cells. c. Peptide hormones must send their message from outside the target cell; a two-messenger system is commonly required for the action of most of these hormones. d. Peptide hormones attaches to receptors on the plasma membrane, the first messenger, carrying the message from the endocrine gland to the cell surface, and pass the message to another molecule inside the cytoplasm the second messenger. e. In many cases, the hormone-receptor complex indirectly activates an enzyme that converts molecules of atp to cyclic amp (c-amp) inside the target cell.

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f. Cyclic amp acts as a second messenger by indirectly activating other enzymes and proteins in the target cell. Thus, c-amp initiates a chain of biochemical events that leads to functional changes within the target cell. g. A single hormone molecule binding to a receptor in the plasma membrane can result in the formation of many second messengers. Prostaglandins 1. Prostaglandins are a group of hormone-like lipids that also regulate cell activities. 2. Unlike hormones, prostaglandins are not produced by specific endocrine glands. 3. Prostaglandins are produced in small quantities by many cells throughout the body. Rather than being transported through the blood to distant regions of the body, prostaglandins act locally. 4. Their effects include relaxation of smooth muscles that line the air passageways and blood vessels, regulation of blood pressure, contraction of the intestinal walls and the uterus, and stimulation of the body's inflammatory response to infection.

Feedback mechanisms
The endocrine system uses feedback mechanisms to respond and adjust to changes that occur in and outside the body. In a feedback mechanism, the last step in a series of events controls the first step.

Homeostasis
1. Homeostasis is defined as a stable internal environment. 2. The endocrine system plays an important role in the maintenance of homeostasis because it affects the activities of cells; tissues, and organs throughout the body. 3. Antagonistic hormones are hormones that have an opposite effect on the body. 4. To maintain homeostasis, hormone secretions must be tightly regulated. 5. Most hormones are controlled by a feedback mechanism. 6. Most hormone systems use negative feedback, in which release of an initial hormone stimulates release or production of other hormones or substances that subsequently inhibits further release of the initial hormone. 7. In positive feedback, release of an initial hormone stimulates release

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Skeletal system
The adult human body consists of approximately 206 bones, which are organized into an internal framework called the skeleton. Because the human skeleton is an internal structure, biologists refer to it as an endoskeleton. The variation in size and shape among the bones that make up the skeleton reflects their different roles in the body.

Objectives:
1. Identify and label the major bones of the skeletal system. 2. Distinguish between the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. 3. Explain the function and structure of bones. 4. Summarize how bones develop and elongate. 5. List three types of joints, and give an example of each. 6. Describe a common disorder that affects the skeletal system.

The skeleton
1. The human skeleton is made of bones, some of them joined together, supported and supplemented by a structure of ligaments, tendons, muscles, and cartilage. In order to retain their shape and form, living things need some type of support. 2. In single-celled organisms, this support is provided by the cell membrane. 3. In multicellular animals, the support is provided by some form of a skeleton. 4. There are two types of animal skeletons: a. Exoskeleton - an outside skeleton, arthropods (spiders, crustaceans, insects, and crabs). b. Endoskeleton - an inside skeleton, vertebrates. 5. The skeleton of humans is composed of a special connective tissue (tissue that joins other tissues together) called bone. 6. Bones and their associated tissues - cartilage, tendons, and ligaments - make up the skeleton system. 7. The human skeleton system consists of 206 bones. 8. Or the skeleton system consists of bones and other structures that make up the joints of the skeleton. 9. The types of tissue present are bone tissue, cartilage, and fibrous connective tissue, which form the ligaments that connect bone to bone. 113

Functions of the skeleton system

1. The bones that make up the skeleton system serve four important functions: a. Provides a framework that supports the body; the muscles that are attached to the bones move the skeleton. b. Protects some internal organs from mechanical injury; the rib cage protects the heart and lungs or skull around the brain, for examples. c. Contains and protects the red bone marrow, hematopoiesis (blood-forming) tissues (red blood cells or erythrocytes). Some white blood cells (leukocytes) are also produced in bones. d. Provides a storage site of inorganic salts, such as calcium. Calcium may be removed from bone to maintain a normal blood calcium level, which is essentially for blood clotting and proper functioning of the muscles and nerves.

2. Bones also provide a system of levers (rigid rods that can be moved about a fixed point) on which a group of specialized tissues (muscles) act to produce motion.

Structure of bones
1. Bones are a solid network of moist, living cells (osteocytes), living tissue and fibers (collagen) that are supported by a matrix (deposits) of calcium salts. 2. The calcium salts give bones the strength and protective functions. 3. The function of osteocytes is to regulate the amount of calcium that is deposited in, or removed from, the bone matrix. 4. Each bone is surrounded by a tough membrane called the periosteum, a fibrous connective tissue membrane whose collagen fibers merge with those of the tendons and ligaments that are attached to the bone. 114

5. The periosteum, contains a network of blood vessels, which supply oxygen, nerves and nutrients to the bone. 6. The jointed surfaces of bones are covered with articular cartilage, which provides a smooth surface for movement. 7. Beneath the periosteum is a thick layer of compact bone, one of two types of bone tissues. 8. Compact bone is dense and similar in texture to ivory; it is far from being solid. A thick layer of compact bone enables the shaft of long bones (called the diaphysis) to endure the large amount of stress it receives upon impact with a solid object. 9. Compact bone is composed of cylinders or tubes of mineral crystals and protein fibers called lamellae. 10. In the center of each cylinder is a narrow channel called haversian canals that contain blood vessels and nerves. 11. Blood vessels run through interconnected haversian canals, creating a network that carries nourishment to the living bone tissue 12. The second type of bone tissue, spongy bone, it is the inside layer of compact bone. 13. Spongy bone is not soft and spongy, but actually quite strong. Near the ends of bones (epiphysis) where force is applied, spongy bone is organized into structures that resemble the supporting girders of a bridge. 14. The structure of spongy bone helps add strength to bone without adding mass. It is arranged along points of pressure or stress, making bones both light and strong. 15. Embedded in compact and spongy bone are cells known as osteocytes that can either deposit the calcium salts in bone or absorb them again. 16. Osteocytes are responsible for bone growth and changes in the shape of bones. 17. The cavities of bones contain a soft tissue called bone marrow. 18. There are two types of bone marrow found in most bones: a. Yellow bone marrow - found in most bones, but primarily fills the shafts of long bones and is made up of blood vessels, nerve cells, but consists mostly of fat cells (adipose tissue). It serves as an energy reserve. It can also be converted to red bone marrow and produce blood cells when severe blood loss occurs. 115

b. Red bone marrow - found in spongy bone, the ends of long bones, ribs, vertebrae, the sternum, and the pelvis - produces red blood cells and special white blood cells called lymphocytes, and other elements of blood (platelets).

Classification of bones:
Bones can be classified as one of four types based on their shape: 1. Long bones - the bones of the arms, legs, hands, and feet (but not the wrist or ankles). The shaft of the long bones is the diaphysis, and the ends are called epiphysis. The diaphysis is made up of compact bone and is hallowed, forming a canal within the shaft. This marrow canal contains yellow bone marrow, which is mostly adipose tissue. The epiphyses are made of spongy bone covered by a thin layer of compact bone. 2. Short bones - the bones of the wrist and ankles. 3. Flat bones - the ribs, shoulder blades, hipbones, and cranial bones. 4. Irregular bones - the vertebrae and facial bones. 5. Short, flat and irregular bones are all made of spongy bone covered with a thin layer of compact bone. Red bone marrow is found within the spongy bone.

Development of bones
1. Bone growth begins long before birth. The basic shape of a long bone, such as an arm bone is first formed as cartilage. 2. Cartilage is a tough but flexible connective tissue that unlike bone does not contain blood vessels. 3. Cartilage cells must rely on the diffusion of nutrients from tiny blood vessels (capillaries) in surrounding tissue. 4. The cells that make up cartilage are scattered in a network of fibers composed of an elastic protein called collagen. 5. Cartilage is dense and fiberous, can support weight, but is still extremely flexible. 6. Many bones in a newborn baby are composed almost entirely of cartilage. "soft spot" of a babies head! 116

7. Latter the cartilage cells will be replaced by cells that form the bones. The cartilage is replaced during ossification, or the process of bone formation. 8. Ossification begins to take place up to seven months before birth as mineral (calcium and phosphorus) deposits are laid down near the center of the bone (center of ossification) in each bone. 9. Bone tissue forms as osteocytes secret mineral deposits that replace the cartilage. Or a bone matrix gradually replaces the original cartilage. 10. The long bones develop and grow through out childhood at centers of ossification in their epiphysis (ends). 11. Growth occurs in the epiphyseal disc or plate (growth plates) at the junction of the diaphysis with each epiphysis (at each end of the bone). 12. An epiphyseal disc is still cartilage, and the bone grows in length as more cartilage is produced on the epiphysis side. 13. On the diaphysis side, osteoblast (cells that produce bone matrix, (a blast cell is a "producing" cell, and "osteo" means bone) to replace cartilage. 14. Between the ages of 16 and 25 years, all of the cartilage of the epiphyseal disc is replaced by bone. This is called closure of the epiphyseal disc, and the bone lengthening process stops. 15. In adults, cartilage is found in those parts of the body where flexibility is needed. 16. Such places include the tip of the nose, the external ear, the voice box (larynx), and the ends of bones where joints are formed. Cartilage is also found where the ribs are attached to the breastbone (sternum), thus allowing the rib cage to move during breathing. 17. Cartilage provides an important combination of strength and flexibility.

Intramembranous ossification
Intramembranous ossification is one of two types of bone formation and is the process responsible for the development of flat bones, especially those found in the skull and clavicles. Unlike endochondral ossification, cartilage is not involved or present in this process. The first step in the process is the formation of bone spicules which eventually fuse with each other and become trabeculae. The periosteum is formed and bone growth continues at the surface of trabeculae. Much like spicules, the increasing growth of trabeculae result in interconnection and this network is called woven bone. Eventually, woven bone is replaced by lamellar bone.

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Process Overview

Mesenchyme cell in the membrane become osteochondral progenitor cell osteochondral progenitor cell specialized to become osteoblast Osteoblast produce bone matrix and surrounded collagen fiber and become osteocyte As the result process trabeculae will develop Osteoblast will trap trabeculae to produce bone Trabeculae will join together to produce spongy cell Cells in the spongy cell will specialize to produce red bone marrow Cells surrounding the developing bone will produce periosteum Osteoblasts from the Periosteum on the bone matrix will produce compact bone

Endochondral ossification
Endochondral ossification is one of two types of bone formation (ossification) and is the process responsible for much of the bone growth in vertebrate skeletons, especially in long bones. As the name might suggest (endo - within, chondro - root for cartilage), endochondral ossification occurs by replacement of hyaline cartilage. The first site of ossification occurs in the primary center of ossification, which is in the middle of diaphysis (shaft). The following steps then occur:

Formation of periosteum:Once vascularized, the perichondrium becomes the periosteum. The periosteum contains a layer of undifferentiated cells which later become osteoblasts. Formation of bone collar: The osteoblast secretes osteoid against the shaft of the cartilage model. This serves as support for the new bone. Calcification of matrix: Chondrocytes in the primary center of ossification begin to grow (hypertrophy). They stop secreting collagen and other proteoglycans and begin secreting alkaline phosphatase, an enzyme essential for mineral deposition. Nutrients can no longer diffuse if the matrix becomes sufficiently calcified and the chondrocytes subsequently die. This creates cavities within the bone. Invasion of periosteal bud: A periosteal bud, which consists of blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves, invades the cavity left by the chondrocytes. The vascularization utlimately carries hemopoietic cells, osteoblasts and osteoclasts inside the cavity. The hemopoietic cells will later form the bone marrow. Formation of trabeculae: Osteoblasts use the calcified matrix as a scaffold and begin to secrete osteoid, which forms the bone trabecula. Osteoclasts break down spongy bone to form the medullary (bone marrow) cavity. Cartilage is retained in the epiphyseal plate, located between the diaphysis (the shaft) and the epiphysis (end) of the bone. These areas of cartilage are known as secondary centers of ossification. Cartilage cells undergo the same transformation as above. As growth progresses, the proliferation of cartilage cells in the epiphyseal plate slows and eventually stops. The continuous replacement of cartilage by bone results in the obliteration of the epiphyseal plate, termed the closure of the epiphysis. Only articular cartilage remains. Mineralisation of articular cartilage and its replacement by bone continues in the adult, though at a much reduced rate than in growing animals. 118

Skeletal organization
1. All the bones in the body make up the skeleton. There are 206 total bones in the human body. 2. The skeleton supports the body's weight, enables it to move, and protects many of its internal organs. 3. The human skeleton has two divisions: a. The axial skeleton - consist of the skull, vertebrate column, and the rib cage. b. The appendicular skeleton - consist of the bones of the arms and legs, shoulder, and the pelvic girdle.

Axial skeleton bones

1. The skull consists of 8 cranial bones and 13 facial bones. 22 total 2. The ears consists 6 bones, and floating in the throat 1 bone the hyoid. 7 total 3. The vertebral column (spinal column or backbone) consists of 7 cervical (neck) vertebrae, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, and 5 fused vertebrae into 1 sacrum, and 4 to 5 small fused vertebrae into 1 coccyx (your tail bone). 26 total 4. The rib cage (thoracic cage) consists of the 12 pairs of ribs- 24 bones and the sternum, or breastbone. 25 total

Appendicular skeleton bones

1. The pectoral girdle consists of 4 bones, and upper limbs consist of 60 bones. 60 total a. The hands and wrist consists of 54 separate bones. 2. The pelvic girdle consists of 2 bones and the lower limb consists of sixty bones. 60 total a. The feet and ankles consist of 54 separate bones.

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Diagrams of some of the major bones

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Joints: where two bones meet

1. A joint is the location at which two or more bones make contact. They are constructed to allow movement and provide mechanical support.

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Classification
Joints are mainly classified structurally and functionally. Structural classification is determined by how the bones connect to each other, while functional classification is determined by the degree of movement between the articulating bones. In practice, there is significant overlap 124

between the two types of classifications. In example, the highly mobile diarthroses are universally synovial joints (and in practice the two terms are used interchangeably) though the first term refers to the functional classification and the second to the structural classification. Terms ending in the suffix -sis are singlular and refer to just one joint, while -ses is the suffix for pluralization.

Structural classification
Structural classification names and divides joints according to how the bones are connected to each other. There are three structural classifications of joints: fibrous/immovable, cartilaginous and synovial: 1. Fibrous/Immovable: Fibrous/Immovable bones are connected by dense connective tissue, consisting mainly of collagen. The fibrous joints are further divided into three types: Sutures are found between bones of the skull. In fetal skulls the sutures are wide to allow slight movement during birth. They later become rigid (synarthrodial). Syndesmosis are found between long bones of the body, such as the radius and ulna in forearm and the fibula and tibia in leg. Unlike other fibrous joints, syndesmoses are moveable (amphiarthrodial), albeit not to such degree as synovial joints. Gomphosis is a joint between the root of a tooth and the sockets in the maxilla or mandible.

2. Cartilaginous: Cartilaginous bones are connected entirely by cartilage. Cartilaginous joints allow more movement between bones than a fibrous joint but less than the highly mobile synovial joint. An example would be the joint between the manubrium and the sternum. Cartilaginous joints also form the growth regions of immature long bones and the intervertebral discs of the spinal column. Primary cartilaginous joints - Known as "synchondroses". Bones are connected by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage, sometimes occurring between ossification centers. This cartilage may ossify with age. Examples in humans are the joint between the first rib and the manubrium of the sternum, and the "growth plates" between ossification centers in long bones. These joints usually allow no movement, or minimal movement in the case of the manubriosternal and first manubriocostal joints. Secondary cartilaginous joints - Known as "symphyses". Fibrocartilaginous joints, usually occurring in the midline. Examples in human anatomy would be the intervertebral discs, and the pubic symphysis. Articulating bones at a symphasis are covered with hyaline cartilage and have a thick, fairly compressable pad of fibrocartilage between them. 3. Synovial: Synovial joints (Freely movable joint) have a space between the articulating bones for synovial fluid. This classification contains joints that are the most mobile of the three, and includes the knee and shoulder. These are further classified into ball and socket joints, condyloid joints, saddle joints, hinge joints, pivot joints, and gliding joints. . Most of the joints of the body are freely movable joints.

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4. In freely movable joints, the ends of the bones are covered with a layer of cartilage that provides a smooth surface at the joint. 5. The joints are also surrounded by a fibrous joint capsule that helps hold the bones together and at the same time allows for movement. 6. The joint capsule consists of two layers: a. One of the layers of the joint capsule may thicken to form strips of tough connective tissue called ligaments. Ligaments are attached to the membranes that surround bones and hold bones together and in place. b. The outer layer of the joint capsule produces synovial fluid, which forms a thin lubricating film over the surface of a joint and protects the ends of bones from friction. This lubricating film enables the cartilage found on the ends of the bones to slip past each other more smoothly as the joint moves. 7. In some freely movable joints, small pockets of synovial fluid called bursae form. Bursa reduces the friction between the bones of a joint and also acts as a tiny shock absorber.

Functional classification
Joints can also be classified functionally, by the degree of mobility they allow, into synarthroses, amphiarthroses and diarthroses: 1. Synarthrosis (immovable/fixed): Synarthroses permit little or no mobility. Most synarthrosis joints are fibrous. They can be categorised by how the two bones are joined Synchondroses are joints where the two bones are connected by a piece of cartilage. Synostoses are where two bones that are initially separted eventually fuse together, essentially becoming one bone. In humans the plates of the together as a child approaches adulthood. Children fuse too early may suffer deformities and brain damage as the skull does not expand properly to accommodate the growing brain, a condition

together:

cranium fuse whose craniums known as craniostenosis.

2. Amphiarthrosis (slightly movable/semimovable): Amphiarthroses permit slight mobility. The two bone surfaces at the joint are both covered in hyaline cartilage and joined by strands of fibrocartilage. Most amphiarthrosis joints are cartilaginous.

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3. Diarthrosis (freely movable): Diarthroses permit a variety of movements (e.g. flexion, adduction, pronation). Only synovial joints are diarthrodial. 4. They can be divided into six classes:

1. Ball and Socket - such as the shoulder or the hip and femur. 2. Hinge - such as the elbow. 3. Pivot - such as the radius and ulna. 4. Condyloid (or ellipsoidal) - such as the wrist between radius and carpals, or knee 5. Saddle - such as the joint between carpal thumbs and metacarpals. 6. Gliding - such as between the carpals. 6. Fixed joints- such as between plates in the Cranium.

Synovial fluid Overview

The inner membrane of synovial joints is called the synovial membrane, which secretes synovial fluid into the joint cavity. This fluid forms a thin layer (approximately 50 micrometres) at the surface of cartilage, but also seeps into microcavities and irregularities in the articular cartilage surface, filling any empty space. The fluid within articular cartilage effectively serves as a synovial fluid reserve. During normal movements, the synovial fluid held within the cartilage is squeezed out mechanically (so-called weeping lubrication) to maintain a layer of fluid on the cartilage surface.

Composition
Normal synovial fluid contains 3-4 mg/ml hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid), a polymer of disaccharides composed of D-glucuronic acid and D-N-acetylglucosamine joined by alternating beta-1,4 and beta-1,3 glycosidic bonds. Hyaluronan is synhesized by the synovial membrane and secreted into the joint cavity to increase the viscosity and elasticity of articular cartilages and lubricate the surfaces between synovium and cartilage. Synovial fluid also contains lubricin secreted by synovial cells. It is chiefly responsible for socalled boundary-layer lubrication, which reduces friction between opposing surfaces of cartilage. There is also some evidence that it helps regulate synovial cell growth.

Classification: Synovial fluid can be classified into normal, noninflammatory, inflammatory,

septic, and hemorrhagic:Classification of synovial fluid in an adult knee joint Normal Volume (ml) <3.5 Viscosity Clarity High Clear Noninflammatory >3.5 High Clear 127 Inflammatory >3.5 Low Cloudy Septic >3.5 Mixed Opaque Hemorrhagic >3.5 Low Mixed

Color WBC/mm3 Polys (%) Gram stain

Colorless/straw <200 <25 Negative

Straw/yellow 200-2,000 <25 Negative

Yellow 2,000-75,000 >50 Negative

Mixed >100,000 >75 Often positive

Red Same as blood Same as blood Negative

Joints Cracking
When two parts forming a joint are pulled away from each other, the joint capsule increases in volume but the synovial fluid in the capsule no longer fills it all. Gases dissolved in the fluid quickly fill the empty space causing a sharp cracking sound. [7]. The general term for this is cavitation.

Range of Movement (ROM)

An understanding of how muscles and joints work will enable you to ensure that every stretch position you attempt is safe and will lead to an increase in your range of movement, and not to injury.

Planes and Axes

Joint actions are described in relation to the anatomical position. Movement is defined by referring to the three planes and the three axis. (see diagram below)

The Three Planes

Sagittal Plane - a vertical plane which passes from front to rear dividing the body into two symmetrical halves Frontal Plane - which passes from side to side at right angles to the sagittal plane Transverse Plane - any horizontal plane which is parallel to the diaphragm

The Three Axis

Frontal Axis - passes horizontally from side to side at right angles to the sagittal plane Sagittal Axis - passes from front to rear lying at right angles to the frontal plane Longitudinal Axis - passes from head to foot at right angles to the transverse plane 128

Joint Actions

Spinal Column
The vertebral column has the following normal ranges of movement: Flexion, Extension, Lateral Flexion and Rotation.

Shoulder Girdle
The shoulder girdle has the following normal ranges of movement: Elevation, Depression, Adduction and Abduction.

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Shoulder Joint
The shoulder joint has the following normal ranges of movement: Flexion, Extension, Adduction, Abduction and Medial Rotation.

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Elbow Joint
The elbow joint has the following normal ranges of movement: Flexion, Extension, Pronation and Supination.

Wrist Joint
The wrist joint has the following normal ranges of movement: Flexion, Extension, Adduction, Abduction and Circumduction.

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Hip Joint
The hip joint has the following normal ranges of movement: Flexion, Extension, Adduction, Abduction, Medial Rotation and Lateral Rotation.

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Knee Joint
The knee joint has the following normal ranges of movement: Flexion and Extension

Ankle Joint
The ankle joint has the following normal ranges of movement: Plantar Flexion, Dorsi Flexion, Inversion and Eversion.

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Muscular system
Muscles make up the bulk of the body and account for about one-third of its weight. Their ability to contract not only enables the body to move, but also provides the force that pushes substances, such as blood and food, through the body. Without the muscular system, none of the other organ systems would be able to function.

Objectives:
1. Identify and label the major muscles of the body. 2. Distinguish between the three types of muscle tissues. 3. Describe the structure of skeletal muscle fibers. 4. Explain how skeletal muscle contracts. 5. Describe how muscles move bones. 6. Explain the process in which a muscle becomes fatigued.

Introduction
1. The skeleton and its joints support, protect, and provide flexibility for the body, but the skeleton cannot move itself. 2. That job is performed by the muscle tissue that makes up the muscular system. 3. A muscle tissue is tissue that can contract in a coordinated fashion and includes muscles tissue, blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue. 4. Approximately 40 to 50 percent of the mass of the human body is composed of muscle tissue. 5. The muscular system is composed of a specialized contractile tissue of muscle fiber that is highly specialized to contract, or shortens, to produce movement when stimulated. 6. The word muscle is derived from the latin word "mus", meaning mouse. 7. Muscle tissue is found everywhere within the body, not only beneath the skin but deep within the body, surrounding many internal organs and blood vessels. 8. The size and location of muscle tissue helps determine the shape of our bodies and the way we move.

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Muscle structure 1. A muscle fiber is a single, multinucleated muscle cell. 2. A muscle is made up of hundreds or even thousands of muscle fibers, depending on the muscles size. 3. Although muscle fiber makes up most of the muscle tissue, a large amount of connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves are also present. 4. Connective tissue covers and supports each muscle fiber and reinforces the muscle as a whole. 5. The health of muscle depends on a sufficient nerve and blood supply. Each skeletal muscle has a nerve ending that controls its activity. 6. Active muscles use a lot of energy and require a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients, which are supplied by arteries. Muscles produce large amounts of metabolic waste that must be removed by veins. 7. Muscle fibers consist of bundles of threadlike structures called myofibrils. Each myofibril is covered by a delicate sheath of connective tissue called Endomysium. A collection of myofibrils called a faciculus, are then enclosed by another sheath of connective tissue known as the Perimysium. Collections of faciculi are then bound together to form muscles and are enclosed by a tough sheath of connective tissue known as the Epimysium. Epimysium is also called fascia and serves to divide one or more muscles or group of muscles from each other. 8. Each myofibril is made up of two types of protein filaments- thick ones and thin ones. 9. The thick filaments are made up of a protein called myosin. 10. The thin filaments are made of a protein called actin along with smaller amounts of two other proteins:
o o

troponin and tropomyosin.

10. Myosin and actin filaments are arranged to form overlapping patterns, which are responsible for the light and dark bands that can be seen in skeletal (striated appearance) muscle. 135

 The thick filaments produce the dark A band. The H zone is that portion of the A band where the thick and thin filaments do not overlap. The thin filaments extend in each direction from the Z line. Where the thin filaments do not overlap the thick filaments, they create the light I band. 12. Thin actin filaments are anchored at their midpoints to a structure called the z-line. 13. The region from one z-line to the next is called a sarcomere the functional unit of muscle contractions. Because a muscle fiber is not a single cell, its parts are often given special names such as

sarcolemma for plasma membrane sarcoplasmic reticulum for endoplasmic reticulum sarcosome for mitochondrion sarcoplasm for cytoplasm

Types of muscle tissues (three types)

1. There are three types of muscle tissue, or muscles: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. 2. Each type has a different structure and plays a different role in the body.

Skeletal muscle
1. Skeletal muscle is responsible for moving parts of the body, such as the limbs, trunk, and face. 2. Skeletal muscles are generally attached to bones and are at work every time we make a move. 3. Skeletal muscles are responsible for voluntary (conscious) movement. 4. A skeletal muscle is made of elongated cells called muscle fibers. Varying movements require contraction of variable numbers of muscles fibers in a muscle. 5. Skeletal muscle fibers are grouped into dense bundles called fascicles. A group of fascicles are bound together by connective tissue to form a muscle.

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6. When viewed under a microscope, skeletal muscles appear to have striations (bands or stripes). This gives skeleton muscle the name of voluntary or striated muscle. 7. Most skeletal muscles are consciously controlled by the central nervous system (cns). 8. Skeleton muscle cells are large and have more than one nucleus. They vary in length from 1mm to 30 to 60 cm. 9. Because they are so long and slender, they are often called muscle fibers rather than muscle cells. 10. Muscle fiber together with the connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves form a skeletal muscle.

Smooth muscles
1. Smooth muscles are usually not under voluntary control. 2. Smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped and have a single nucleus, are not striated and interlace to form sheets of smooth muscle tissue. 3. Smooth muscles are found in many internal organs, stomach, intestines, and in the walls of blood vessels. 4. Smooth muscle fibers are surrounded by connective tissue, but the connective tissue does not unite to form tendons as it does in skeletal muscles. 5. Most smooth muscle cells can contract without nervous stimulation. Because most of its movements cannot be consciously controlled, smooth muscle is referred to as involuntary muscle. 6. The contractions in smooth muscles move food through our digestive tract, control the way blood flows through the circulatory system, and increases the size of the pupils of our eyes in bright light.

Cardiac muscle
1. The only place in the body where cardiac muscle is found is in the heart. 2. Cardiac cells are striated, but they are not under voluntary control. 3. Cardiac muscle contract without direct stimulation by the nervous system. A bundle of specialized muscle cells in the upper part of the heart sends electrical signals through cardiac muscle tissue, causing the heart to rhythmically contract and pump blood through the body. Cardiac muscle has a much richer supply of mitochondria than skeletal muscle. This reflects its greater dependence on cellular respiration for ATP. Cardiac muscle has little glycogen and gets little benefit from glycolysis when the supply of oxygen is limited. 137

Thus anything that interrupts the flow of oxygenated blood to the heart leads quickly to damage even death of the affected part. This is what happens in heart attacks. 4. The cardiac muscle cell contains one nucleus located near the center and adjacent cells (syncytium) form branching fibers that allow nerve impulses to pass from cell to cell. Syncytium: A mass of protoplasm with many nuclei, but no clear cell boundaries. Functional Syncytium: Although the heart is composed of discrete cells, they are all closely connected. They act like a syncytium. Consequences: Excitation proceeds from cell to cell. Cannot excite just one cell, or a portion of the heart. Cannot adjust contraction based on the number of cells. When one portion of the heart is damaged, the whole heart can be affected. Mechanism of muscle contractions 1. The sarcomere is the functional unit of muscle contractions. 2. When muscle cells contract, the light and dark bands contained in muscle cells get closer together. 3. This happens because when a muscle contracts, myosin filaments and actin filaments interact to shorten the length of a sarcomere. 4. Calcium ions (Ca2+) link action potentials in a muscle fiber to contraction.

In resting muscle fibers, Ca2+ is stored in the endoplasmic (sarcoplasmic) reticulum. Spaced along the plasma membrane (sarcolemma) of the muscle fiber are in pocketings of the membrane that form tubules of the "T system". These tubules plunge repeatedly into the interior of the fiber. The tubules of the T system terminate near the calcium-filled sacs of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Each action potential created at the neuromuscular junction sweeps quickly along the sarcolemma and is carried into the T system. The arrival of the action potential at the ends of the T system triggers the release of Ca2+. The Ca2+ diffuses among the thick and thin filaments where it binds to troponin on the thin filaments. This turns on the interaction between actin and myosin and the sarcomere contracts. Because of the speed of the action potential (milliseconds), the action potential arrives virtually simultaneously at the ends of all the tubules of the T system, ensuring that all sarcomeres contract in unison. When the process is over, the calcium is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum using a Ca2+ ATPase

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9. This concept is the sliding filament theory. As a muscle contracts,

the Z lines come closer together the width of the I bands decreases the width of the H zones decreases, but there is no change in the width of the A band.

Conversely, as a muscle is stretched,

the width of the I bands and H zones increases, but there is still no change in the width of the A band.

10. Muscle contractions require energy, which is supplied by atp. This energy is used to detach the myosin heads from the actin filaments. 11. Because myosin heads must attach and detach a number of times during a single muscle contraction, muscle cells must have a continuous supply of atp. 12. Without atp the myosin heads would stay attached to the actin filaments, keeping muscles permanently contracted. 13. A muscle contraction, like a nerve impulse, is an all-or-none response- either fibers contract or they remain relaxed. 14. The force of a muscle contraction is determined by the number of muscle fibers that are stimulated. As more fibers are activated, the force of the contraction increases. 15. Some muscles, such as the muscles that hold the body in an upright position and maintain posture, are nearly always at least partially contracted.

Control of muscle contraction

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1. Muscles are useful only if they contract in a controlled fashion. 2. Motor neurons connect the cns to skeleton muscle cells (effectors); impulses (action potentials) from motor neurons control the contraction of skeleton muscle cells. 3. The point of contact between a motor neuron and a muscle cell is called the neuromuscular junction. 4. Vesicles, or pockets, in the axon terminals of the motor neuron release molecules of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. 5. These molecules diffuse across the synapse, producing and impulse in the cell membrane of the muscle cell. 6. The impulse causes the release of calcium ions within the cell. The calcium ions affect regulatory proteins that allow actin and myosin filaments to interact and form cross-bridges. 7. A muscle cell will remain in a state of contraction until the production of acetylcholine stops. 8. An enzyme called acetylcholinesterase, also produced at the neuromuscular junction, destroys acetylcholine, permits the reabsorption of calcium ions into the muscle cell, and terminates the contraction. 9. You can have a weak or strong contraction depending on what you are trying to accomplish. The brain (frontal lobes of the cerebrum) decides what and how many muscles cells need to contract. Blinking your eye would be a weak contraction, but lifting heavy weights, the brain would signal most muscle cells to contract. 10. Muscle sense is the brains ability to know where our muscles are and what they are doing. This permits us to perform everyday activities without having to concentrate on muscle position.

Muscular movement of bones

1. Skeleton muscles generate force and produce movement only by contracting or pulling on body parts. 2. Individual muscles can only pull; they cannot push. 3. Skeleton muscles are joined to bone by tough connective tissue called tendons. 4. Tendons attach muscle to bone; the origin is the more stationary bone, the insertion is the more movable bone. 5. Tendons are attached in such a way that they pull on the bones and make them work like levers. The movements of the muscles and joints enable the bones to act as levers. 6. The joint functions as a fulcrum (the fixed point around which the lever moves) and the muscles provide the force to move the lever. 7. Usually there several muscles surrounding each joint that pull in different directions. 140

8. Most skeletal muscles work in pairs. 9. When one muscle or set of muscles contracts, the other relaxes. 10. The muscles of the upper arm are a good example of this dual action: antagonistic muscles. Flexor: a muscle that bends a joint. Extensor: a muscle that straightens a joint. a. When the biceps muscle (on the front of the upper arm, flexor) contracts, it bends or flexes the elbow joint. b. When the triceps muscle (on the back of the upper arm, extensor) contracts, it opens, or extends, the elbow joint. c. A controlled movement requires contraction by both muscles. 11. Antagonistic muscles are opponents, muscles which have opposing or opposite functions. A muscle pulls when it contracts, but exerts no force when it relaxes and cannot push. When one muscle pulls a bone in one direction, another muscle is needed to pull the bone in the other direction. 12. Synergistic muscles are those with the same function, or those that work together to perform a particular function. They also stabilize a joint to make a more precise movement possible. 13. A normal characteristic of all skeleton muscles is that they remain in a state of partial contraction. 14. At any given time, some muscles are being stimulated while others are not. This causes a tightened, or firmed, muscle and is known as muscle tone. 15. Muscle tone is responsible for keeping the back and legs straight and the head upright even when you are relaxed. 16. Exercise is the key to maintaining good muscle tone within your body. 17. Muscles that are exercised regularly stay firm and increase in size by adding more materials to the inside of muscle fibers. 18. Muscle fatigue is a physiological inability of a muscle to contract. Muscle fatigue is a result of a relative depletion of atp. When atp is absent, a state of continuous contraction occurs. This causes severe muscle cramps. 19. Oxygen debt is a temporary lack of oxygen. When this occurs muscles will switch from the normal aerobic respiration to a form of anaerobic respiration called lactic acid fermentation. As the oxygen becomes depleted, the muscle cells begin to switch. Oxygen debt leads to the accumulation of metabolic waste (lactic acid) in the muscle fibers, resulting in muscle fatigue, pain, and even cramps. Eventually, the lactic acid diffuses into the blood and is transported to the liver. Principle of muscle contraction 1. All or none law: - states that a stimulus strong enough to elicit a response will produce maximum contraction of a motor unit. 2. Application of stimuli of increasing strength will excite nerve fibers of higher thresholds, thus activating muscle. Fibers of their motor unit to increase the force of contraction of a muscle. 3. Stimulating a muscle before it relaxes will increase the magnitude of the response. 4. Initial length of a muscle affects the force of contraction. 141

5. When a muscle shortens the contraction is called Isotonic. In Isometric contraction the muscle does not shortens. 6. Red muscles have small diameter rich capillary supply abundant myoglobin, multiple mitochondria and little glycogen fatigue less readlily and contractions more slowly. White muscle fibers have large diameter, glycogen and extensive sarcoplasmic reticulum

Major Muscles of the body

Muscles of the head and face They are:
frontalis: the forehead corrugator: the brow nasalis: the nose obicularis oculi: around the eye levator labii: raises the upper lip masseter: closes the jaw Obicularis oris: purses the lips risoris: draws the lips in a smile buccinator: pulls the lips wide and tight depressor labii: lowers the lower lips depressor anguli oris: lowers the bottom corner of the lips levator anguli oris (not shown): raises the upper corner of the lips pterigoid (not shown): pulls jaw back or shut mentalis: pulls chin down

Muscles of the neck

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Muscles of the abdomen (Anteriov view)

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Muscles of the abdomen (Lateral view)

Muscles of the hip

Muscles of the thigh

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Muscles of the lower leg

Common Muscular Injection Sites

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The Respiratory system

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You have read how the blood transports oxygen from the lungs to cells and carries carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs. It is the function of the respiratory system to transport gases to and from the circulatory system. The respiratory system involves both external and internal respiration. External respiration is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood. Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between the blood and the cells of the body. Cellular respiration or aerobic respiration involves the use of oxygen to break down glucose in the cell. We will examine the structures and mechanisms that carry oxygen to the cells for use in aerobic respiration and that eliminate the carbon dioxide that is produced by the same process.

Objectives:
1. Differentiate external respiration from internal respiration. 2. Trace the path of air from the atmosphere to the bloodstream. 3. Describe how gases are exchanged in the lungs and transported in the bloodstream. 4. Summarize the skeletal and muscular changes that occur during breathing. 5. Describe how the rate of breathing is controlled.

Respiration
1. The main job of the respiratory system is to get oxygen into the body and waste gases out of the body. It is the function of the respiratory system to transport gases to and from the circulatory system. 2. Respiration is a vital function of all living organisms. 3. Respiration occurs at two different levels: a. The level of the cell. In the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells, aerobic respiration requires oxygen to break down glucose, releases carbon dioxide, and produces large amounts of atp. This level of respiration is called internal respiration or cellular respiration. b. The level of the organism. An organism must get oxygen into its cells and carbon dioxide back out. This level of respiration is called external respiration because the exchange of gases takes place with the external environment. The exchange of gases, oxygen (o2) and carbon dioxide (co2) between air and blood. 4. External respiration involves the respiratory system. 147

5. A respiratory system is a group of organs working together to bring about the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide with the environment. 6. In multicellular organisms, each cell consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide. Large multicellular organism must have a respiratory system to ensure the effective exchange of gasses with the atmosphere quickly and efficiently to survive. This occurs every time an organism takes a breath. 7. The atmosphere of planet earth is approximately 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. The remaining 1% is made up of carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other trace gases. If the amount of oxygen falls much below 15 %, our respiratory system will be unable to provide enough oxygen to support cellular respiration.

The passage of air and the respiratory structures the human respiratory system
consist of the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, smaller conducting passageways (bronchi and bronchioles), and lungs. 2. The respiratory system may be divided into the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. 3. The upper respiratory tract consists of the parts outside the thoracic (chest) cavity: the air passages of the nose, nasal cavities, pharynx (windpipe), larynx (voice box), and upper trachea. The major passages and structures of the upper respiratory tract include the nose or nostrils, nasal cavity, mouth, throat (pharynx), and voice box (larynx). The respiratory system is lined with a mucous membrane that secretes mucus. The mucus traps smaller particles like pollen or smoke. Hairlike structures called cilia line the mucous membrane and move the particles trapped in the mucus out of the nose. Inhaled air is moistened, warmed, and cleansed by the tissue that lines the nasal cavity. 4. The lower respiratory tract consists of the parts found in the thoracic (chest) cavity: the lower trachea and the lungs themselves. 5. Air enters the respiratory system through the mouth or nose. 6. Air entering the nose passes into the nasal cavity. The nasal cavity (or nasal fossa) is a large air-filled space above and behind the nose in the middle of the face. The nasal cavity is enclosed by the nasal bone above and by the maxilla and ethmoid bone on the sides. The palate separates the nasal cavity from the mouth. To the front of the nasal cavity is the nose, while the back is continuous with the pharynx. The paranasal sinuses are connected to the nasal cavity through small orifices called ostia. The nasal cavity is divided in two by a vertical fin called the nasal septum. On the sides of the nasal cavity are three horizontal outgrowths called turbinates or conchae (singular "concha"). These turbinates disrupt the airflow, directing air toward the olfactory epithelium on the surface of the turbinates and the septum.

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Cilia and mucus along the inside wall of the nasal cavity trap and remove dust and germs from the air as it flows through the nasal cavity. The cilia move the mucus down the nasal cavity to the pharynx, where it can be swallowed. The nasal cavity is richly supplied with arteries, veins, and capillaries, which bring nutrients and water to its cells. The first filtering is done in the nose. The nose will do three things to the air we breathe in: a. Filter the air b. Warm the air c. Provide moisture (water vapor or humidity) to the air. The air reaching the lungs is warmed and moist. 7. When air enters the respiratory system through the mouth, much less filtering is done. It is generally better to take in air through the nose. 8. As air pushes back from the nasal cavity, it enters the pharynx. The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the neck and throat situated immediately posterior to the mouth and nasal cavity, and cranial, or superior, to the esophagus, larynx, and trachea. The human pharynx is conventionally divided into three sections:

Nasopharynx
The nasopharynx lies behind the nasal cavity. Postero-superiorly this extends from the level of the junction of the hard and soft palates to the base of skull The inferior wall consists of the superior surface of the soft palate.

Oropharynx
The oropharynx lies behind the oral cavity.

The anterior wall consists of the base of the tongue and the vallecula. The lateral wall is made up of the tonsil, tonsillar fossa, and tonsillar (faucial) pillars. The superior wall consists of the inferior surface of the soft palate and the uvula.

Hypopharynx
The hypopharynx, also known as the laryngopharynx includes the pharyngo-oesophageal junction (postcricoid area), the piriform sinus, and the posterior pharyngeal wall. Like the oropharynx above it the hypopharynx serves as a passageway for food and air and is lined with a stratified squamous epithelium. It lies directly posterior to the upright epiglottis and extends to the larynx, where the respiratory and digestive pathways diverge. 149

At that point the laryngopharynx is continuous with the esophagus posteriorly. The esophagus conducts food and fluids to the stomach; air enters the larynx anteriorly. During swallowing, food has the "right of way", and air passage temporarily stops. 9. At the top of the trachea is the larynx. The larynx (plural larynges), colloquially known as the voicebox, is an organ in the neck of mammals involved in protection of the trachea and sound production. The larynx houses the vocal cords, and is situated just below where the tract of the pharynx splits into the trachea and the esophagus. Sound is generated in the larynx, and that is where pitch and volume are manipulated. The strength of expiration from the lungs also contributes to loudness, and is necessary for the vocal cords to produce speech. Fine manipulation of the larynx is used in a great way to generate a source sound with a particular fundamental frequency, or pitch. This source sound is altered as it travels through the vocal tract, configured differently based on the position of the tongue, lips, mouth, and pharynx. The process of altering a source sound as it passes through the filter of the vocal tract creates the many different vowel and consonant sounds of the world's languages. During swallowing, the larynx (at the epiglottis and at the glottis) closes to prevent swallowed material from entering the lungs; the larynx is also pulled upwards to assist this process. Stimulation of the larynx by ingested matter produces a strong cough reflex to protect the lungs. The vocal folds can be held close together (by adducting the arytenoid cartilages), so that they vibrate (see phonation). The muscles attached to the arytenoid cartilages control the degree of opening. Vocal fold length and tension can be controlled by rocking the thyroid cartilage forward and backward on the cricoid cartilage, and by manipulating the tension of the muscles within the vocal folds. This causes the pitch produced during phonation to rise or fall. 10. The trachea , or windpipe, is a tube that has a inner diameter of about 12mm and a length of about 10-12cm. It extends from the larynx to the carina which then branches off to form the primary (main) bronchi in mammals, allowing the passage of air to the lungs. It is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium cells with mucosae goblet cells which produce mucus. This lines the cells of the trachea to trap inhaled foreign partials which the cilia then waft upwards towards the larynx and then the pharynx where it can then be swallowed into the stomach. In humans there are about 15 20 incomplete C-shaped cartilaginous rings which reinforces the anterior and lateral sides of the trachea to protect and maintain the airway open. There is a piece of smooth muscle connecting the ends off the incomplete cartilaginous rings called the Trachealis muscle. This contracts reducing the size of the lumen of the trachea to increase the air flow rate during coughing. The esophagus lies posteriorly to the trachea. The cartilaginous rings are incomplete because it allows the trachea to collapse slighting to allow a bolus of food to pass down the esophagus. The epiglottis is the flap that closes the trachea during swallowing to prevent swallowed matter from entering the trachea. 11. A bronchus (plural bronchi, adjective bronchial) is a caliber of airway in the respiratory tract that conducts air into the lungs. No gas exchange takes place in this part of the lungs. The trachea (windpipe) divides into two main bronchi (also mainstem bronchi), the left and the right, at the level of the sternal angle. The right main bronchus is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left 150

main bronchus. The main bronchi subdivide into two and three secondary bronchi that each serve the left and right lungs, respectively. The lobar bronchi divide into tertiary bronchi. Each of the segmental bronchi supplies a bronchopulmonary segment. A bronchopulmonary segment is a division of a lung that is separated from the rest of the lung by a connective tissue septum. This property allows a bronchopulmonary segment to be surgically removed without affecting other segments. The segmental bronchi divide into many primary bronchioles which divide into terminal bronchioles, each of which then gives rise to several respiratory bronchioles, which go on to divide into 2 to 11 alveolar ducts. There are 5 or 6 alveolar sacs associated with each alveolar duct. The alveolus is the basic anatomical unit of gas exchange in the lung. There is hyaline cartilage present in the bronchi, present as irregular rings in the larger bronchi (and not as regular as in the trachea), and as small plates and islands in the smaller bronchi. Smooth muscle is present continuously around the bronchi. In the mediastinum, at the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra, the trachea divides into the right and left primary bronchi. The bronchi branch into smaller and smaller passageways until they terminate in tiny air sacs called alveoli. The cartilage and mucous membrane of the primary bronchi are similar to that in the trachea. As the branching continues through the bronchial tree, the amount of hyaline cartilage in the walls decreases until it is absent in the smallest bronchioles. As the cartilage decreases, the amount of smooth muscle increases. The mucous membrane also undergoes a transition from ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium to simple cuboidal epithelium to simple squamous epithelium. The alveolar ducts and alveoli consist primarily of simple squamous epithelium, which permits rapid diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Exchange of gases between the air in the lungs and the blood in the capillaries occurs across the walls of the alveolar ducts and alveoli. 12. The functional unit of the lungs is the alveoli; An alveolus (plural: alveoli, from Latin alveus, "little cavity"), is an anatomical structure that has the form of a hollow cavity. In the lung, the pulmonary alveoli are spherical outcroppings of the respiratory bronchioles and are the primary sites of gas exchange with the blood. Alveoli are peculiar to mammalian lungs; different structures are involved in gas exchange in other vertebrates The lungs contain about 300 million alveoli, representing a total surface area of 70-90 square metres, or about 40 times the surface area of your skin, each wrapped in a fine mesh of capillaries. The alveoli have radii of about 0.1 mm and wall thicknesses of about 0.2 m. The alveoli consist of an epithelial layer and extracellular matrix surrounded by capillaries. In some alveolar walls there are pores between alveoli.

There are three major alveolar cell types in the alveolar wall (pneumocytes): 151

Type I cells that form the structure of an alveolar wall Type II cells that secrete surfactant to lower the surface tension of water and allows the membrane to separate thereby increasing the capability to exchange gases. Type III cells that destroy foreign material, such as bacteria.

The alveoli have an innate tendency to collapse (atelectasis) because of their spherical shape, small size, and surface tension due to water vapor. Phospholipids, which are called surfactants, and pores help to equalize pressures and prevent collapse.

Lungs
The lung is the essential respiration organ in air-breathing vertebrates. Its principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to excrete carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. This exchange of gases is accomplished in the mosaic of specialized cells that form millions of tiny, exceptionally thin-walled air sacs called alveoli. The lungs also have non-respiratory functions. Human lungs are located in two cavities on either side of the heart, in a space known as the mediastinum. The lungs are surrounded by two membranes, the pleurae. The outer pleura are attached to the chest wall and are known as the parietal pleura; the inner one is attached to the lung and other visceral tissues and is known as the visceral pleura. In between the two is a thin space known as the pleural cavity or pleural space. It is filled with pleural fluid, a serous fluid produced by the pleura. The pleural fluid lubricates the pleural surfaces and allows the layers of pleura to slide against each other easily during respiration. It also provides the surface tension that keeps the lung surface in contact with the chest wall. Though similar in appearance, the two are not identical. Both are separated into lobes, with three lobes on the right and two on the left. The lobes are further divided into lobules, hexagonal divisions of the lungs that are the smallest subdivision visible to the naked eye. The connective tissue that divides lobules is often blackened in smokers and city dwellers. The medial border of the right lung is nearly vertical, while the left lung contains a cardiac notch. The cardiac notch is a concave impression molded to accommodate the shape of the heart. Lungs are to a certain extent 'overbuilt' and have a tremendous reserve volume as compared to the oxygen exchange requirements when at rest. As oxygen requirements increase due to exercise, a greater volume of the lungs is perfused, allowing the body to match its CO2/O2 exchange requirements.

Mechanism of breathing
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1. Breathing is the entrance and exit of air into and from the lungs. 2. Ventilation is the term for the movement of air to and from the alveoli. 3. Every single time you take a breath, or move air in and out of your lungs, two major actions take place. a. Inhalation - also called inspiration, air is pulled into the lungs. b. Exhalation - also called expiration, air is pushed out of the lungs. 4. These two actions deliver oxygen to the alveoli, and remove carbon dioxide. 5. The continuous cycles of inhalation and exhalation are known as breathing. Most of us breathe 10 to 15 times per minute. 6. The lungs are not directly attached to any muscle, so they cannot be expanded or contracted. 7. Inhalation and exhalation are actually produced by movements of the large flat muscle called the diaphragm and the intercostal (between the ribs) muscles. 8. The diaphragm is located along the bottom of the rib cage and separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. 9. Before inhalation the diaphragm is curved upward into the chest. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and moves down, causing the volume of the thoracic cavity to increase. 10. When the diaphragm moves down, the volume of the thoracic cavity increases and the air pressure inside it decreases. 11. The air outside is still at atmospheric pressure, to equalize the pressure inside and out, the air rushes through the trachea into the lungs - inhaled. 12. When the diaphragm relaxes, it returns to its curved position. This action causes the volume of air in the thoracic cavity to decrease. 13. As the volume decreases, the pressure in the thoracic cavity outside the lungs increases. This increases the air pressure and causes the lungs to decrease in size. 14. The air inside the lungs is pushed out or exhaled. 15. We generally breathe with the diaphragm and intercostal muscles (rest), under extreme conditions we can use other muscles in our thoracic cavity to breathe (activity). 16. Since our breathing is based on atmospheric pressure, the lungs can only work properly if the space around them is sealed.

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17. When the diaphragm contracts, the expanded volume in the thoracic cavity quickly fills as air rushes into the lungs. If there is a small hole in the thoracic cavity, the respiratory system will not work. 18. Air will rush into the cavity through the hole, upset the pressure relationship, and possibly cause the collapse of a lung.

Gas exchange and transport

1. Chemical analysis of the gases that is inhaled and exhaled: Gas inhaled -vs- exhaled o2 20.71% 14.6% co2 0.04% 4.0% h2o 1.25% 5.9% 2. Three important things happen to the air we inhale: a. Oxygen is removed b. Carbon dioxide is added c. Water vapor is added. 3. This occurs in the alveoli in the lungs; our lungs consist of nearly 300 million alveoli where gas exchange occurs (the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen). 4. Blood flowing from the heart enters capillaries surrounding each alveolus and spreads around the alveolus. This blood contains a large amount of co2 and very little o2. 5. The concentration of the gases in the blood and the alveolus are not equal (concentration gradient). This causes the diffusion of co2 from the blood to the alveolus and the diffusion of o2 from the alveolus into the blood. 6. The blood leaving the alveolus has nearly tripled the total amount of oxygen it originally carried. 7. Two special molecules help this process of gas exchange work effectively: a. Macromolecules - soaplike, consisting of phospholipid and protein, they coat the inner surface of the alveolus. b. Hemoglobin - an oxygen carrying molecule that is a component of blood. Hemoglobin is a red colored protein found in red blood cells. Each hemoglobin molecule has four sites to which o2 atoms can bind. Thus, one hemoglobin molecule can carry up to four molecules of oxygen. Most of the oxygen - 97 percent - moves into the red blood cells, where it combines with hemoglobin.

Regulation of breathing
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1. Breathing is an involuntary action under control of the medulla oblongata in the lower part of the brain. Sensory neurons in this region control motor neurons in the spinal cord. You can only hold your breath until you lose consciousness - then the brain takes control and normal breathing resumes. 2. Carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions (blood acidity) are the primary stimuli that cause us to breathe. Two special sets of sensory neurons constantly check the levels of gases in the blood. These special sensory receptors are sensitive to the levels of gases in the blood, especially the level of carbon dioxide. One set is located in the carotid arteries in the neck, which carry blood to the brain. The other set is located near the aorta, the large artery that carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body.

3. When carbon dioxide dissolves in the blood, it forms an acid known as carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is so unstable that it immediately breaks down into hydrogen ion (h+) and bicarbonate ions (hco3-). Most carbon dioxide travels in the blood as bicarbonate ions. When the blood reaches the lungs, the series of reactions is reversed. The bicarbonate ions combine with a proton to form carbonic acid, which in turn forms carbon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide diffuses out of the capillaries into the alveoli and is exhaled into the atmosphere. The hydrogen ions change the acidity (ph) of the blood, and it is this change in acidity the special sensory cells respond to. The lungs of an average person have a total air capacity of about 6.0 liters. Only about 0.6 liter is exchange during normal breathing. This is all the air we need at rest. During exercise, deep breathing forces out much more of the total lung capacity. As much as 4.5 liters of air can be inhaled or exhaled with effort. The maximum amount of air that can be moved into and out of the respiratory system is known as the vital capacity of the lungs. The vital capacity is always 1 to 1.5 liters less than the total capacity because the lungs cannot be completely deflated without serious damage. The extra capacity allows us to exercise for long periods of time. Rather than breathing 12 times a minute, as most of us do at rest, a runner may breathe as often as 50 times a minute. For rapid and deep breathing during vigorous exercise you use the muscles of the rib cage.

The Circulatory system,

Most of the cells in the human body are not in direct contact with the external environment. The circulatory system acts as a transport service for these cells. 155

The blood, heart, and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system.

Objectives:
1. Describe the structure and function of the human heart. 2. Trace the flow of blood through the heart and body. 3. Distinguish between arteries, veins, and capillaries in terms of their structure and function. 4. Distinguish between pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.

Introduction 1. Higher animals, including humans, usually have a closed circulatory system, meaning it is repeatedly cycled throughout the body. 2. Blood is the body's internal transportation system. 3. Pump by the heart, blood travels through a network of vessels, carrying materials such as oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to and waste products from each of the hundred trillion cells in the human body. 4. Blood, the heart, and blood vessels make up the cardiovascular system.

The heart
1. The central organ of the cardiovascular system is the heart.

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2. The heart is a hollow, muscular organ that contracts at regular intervals, forcing blood through the circulatory system. 3. The heart is cone-shaped, about the size of a fist, and is located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs directly behind the sternum (breastbone). The heart is tilted so that the apex (the pointed end) is oriented to the left. 4. Our heart has four chambers: A. The upper chambers of the heart are the right and left atria (atrium), receive blood coming into the heart. B. The lower chambers are the right and left ventricles, pump blood out of the heart. The left ventricle is the thickest chamber of the heart because it has to do most of the work to pump blood to all parts of the body. 5. Vertically dividing the right and left sides of the heart is a common wall called the septum. The septum prevents the mixing of oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood. 6. The walls of the heart are made up of three layers of tissue. a. The outer and inner layers are epithelial tissue. b. The middle layer (the walls of the four chambers of the heart) is cardiac muscle tissue called the myocardium. 7. Cardiac muscle tissue is not under conscious control of the nervous system. 8. Cardiac muscle tissue has a rich supply of blood, which ensures that it gets plenty of oxygen. 9. There is also a special connection between cells that allow impulses to travel from one cell to another. The cells that make up the cardiac muscle tissue are loaded with mitochondria, (powerhouse of the cell), guaranteeing the each cell has a constant supply of atp. 10. Our hearts contract or beat about once every second of every day of our lives. The heart beats more than 2.5 million times in an average life span. The only time the heart gets a rest is between beats.

How the heart works

1. The heart can be thought of as two pumps sitting side by side. The human heart, with a right atrium and right ventricle, as well as a left atrium and left ventricle, essentially has two separate hearts inside one. 2. The right side of the heart pumps blood from the body into the lungs, where oxygen poor blood (deoxygenated, usually shown in blue) gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. 157

3. The left side of the heart pumps oxygen rich blood (oxygenated, usually shown in red) from the lungs to the rest of the body except the lungs. 4. The heart is enclosed in a protective membrane sac called the pericardium. The pericardium surrounds the heart and secretes a fluid that reduces friction as the heart beats.

The right side of the heart (from body to lungs, deoxygentated blood -blue)
1. Oxygen-poor blood from the body enters the right side of the heart through two large blood vessels called vena cava. 2. The superior (upper) vena cava brings blood from the upper part of the body to the heart. 3. The inferior (lower) vena cava brings blood from the lower part of the body to he heart. 4. Both vena cava empty into the right atrium. When the heart relaxes (between beats), pressure in the circulatory system causes the atrium to fill with blood. 5. When the heart contracts, blood is squeezed from the right atrium into the right ventricle through flaps of tissue called a atrioventricular (av) valve, that prevents blood from flowing back into the right atrium. 6. The valve that separates the right atrium and ventricle is called the tricuspid valve. 7. The general purpose of all valves in the circulatory system is to prevent the backflow of blood. They also ensure that blood flows in only one direction. 8. The specific purpose of the tricuspid valve is to prevent backflow of blood from the right ventricle to the right atrium when the right ventricle contracts. 9. When the heart contracts a second time, blood in the right ventricle is sent through the a semilunar (sl) valve known as the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. These are the only arteries to carry oxygen-poor blood. At the base of the pulmonary arteries is a valve (pulmonary valve) that prevents blood from traveling back into the right ventricle.

The left side of the heart (from lungs to body, oxygenated blood-red)
1. Oxygen-rich blood leaves the lungs and returns to the heart by way of blood vessels called the pulmonary veins. These are the only veins to carry oxygen-rich blood.

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2. Returning blood enters the left atrium, it passes through flaps of tissue called a atrioventricular (av) valve to the left ventricle. 3. The valve that separates the left atrium and ventricle is called the mitral valve or bicuspid valve. 4. From the left ventricle, blood is pumped through a semilunar (sl) valve called the aortic valve into the aorta artery that carries it to every part of the body except the lungs. 5. At the base of the aorta is a valve (aortic valve) that prevents blood from flowing back into the left ventricle. The heartbeat (cardiac cycle) 1. The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in one heartbeat. In its simplest form, the cardiac cycle is the simultaneous contraction of the two atria, followed a fraction of a second latter by the simultaneous contraction of the two ventricles. 2. The heart consists of muscle cells that contract in waves. When the first group is stimulated, they in turn stimulate neighboring cells. Those cells stimulate more cells. This chain reaction continues until all cells contract. The wave of activity spreads in such a way that the atria and the ventricles contract in a steady rhythm. 3. A heartbeat has two phases: a. Phase 1 - systole is the term for contraction. Occurs when the ventricles contract, closing the av valves and opening the sl valves to pump blood into two major vessels leaving the heart. b. Phase 2 - diastole is the term for relaxation. Occurs when the ventricles relax, allowing the back pressure of the blood to closed sl valves and opening av valves. 4. The cardiac cycle also creates the heart sounds: each heartbeat produces two sounds, often called lubb-dup that can be heard with a stethoscope. 5. The first sound, the loudest and longest, is caused by the ventricular systole (contraction) closing the av valves. 6. The second sound is caused by the closure of the aortic and pulmonary valves (sl). 7. If any of the valves do not close properly, an extra sound called a heart murmur may be heard. 8. Although the heart is a single muscle, it does not contract in a single motion. The contraction spreads over the heart like a wave. 9. The wave begins in a small bundle of specialized heart muscle cells embedded in the right atrium called the sinoatrial node (sa). 10. The sa node is the natural pacemaker of the heart. It initiates each heartbeat and sets the pace for the heart rate. 159

11. The impulse spreads from the pacemaker through the cardiac muscle cells in the right and left atrium, causing both atria to contract almost simultaneously. 12. When the impulse initiated by the sa node reaches another special area of the heart known as the atrioventricular (av) node. The av node is located in the septum between the right and left ventricles. The av node relays the electrical impulse to the muscle cells that make up the ventricles. The ventricles contract almost simultaneously a fraction of a second after the atria, completing one full heartbeat. 13. These contractions cause the chambers to squeeze the blood, pushing it in the proper direction along its path. 14. The heart initiates its own stimulation from the sinoatrial node and atrioventricular node, and does not require stimulation from the nervous system. 15. The autonomic nervous system does influence heart rate. The sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate and the parasympathetic nervous system decreases it. 16. For most of us, at rest our heart beats between 60 and 80 beats per minute. During exercise that can increase to as many as 200 beats per minute.

The conduction system

The normal heart possesses a specialised electrical system, the cardiac conduction system that leads the electrical signal from the atria to the ventricles. The conducting system consists of modified myocardial cells. The heart normally has a self-firing unit, located in the right atrium, called the sinoatrial node or sinus node. The sinus node contains round cells (pacemaker cells), elongated intermediary cells and ordinary atrial cells. The electrical signal that automatically originates from the sinus node has the highest frequency, and the sinus node is thus the natural pacemaker of the heart. The electric signal from the sinus node activates the atrial walls to contraction, and then reaches the main conduction system at the level of the atrioventricular node (AV node). The AV node consists of the same cell types as the sinus node. The impulse is delayed in the AV node, before passing to the bundle of His and this delay is allows the atrial systole to squeeze extra blood into the ventricles just before the ventricular systole occurs. The distal portion of the AV node is known as the Bundle of His. The bundle of His is a collection of heart muscle cells specialized for electrical conduction that transmits the electrical impulses from the AV node (located between the atria and the ventricles) to the point of the apex of the fascicular branches. 160

From the bundle of His, the signal is transmitted down a rapid conduction pathway, composed of the right and left bundle branches, to stimulate the right and the left ventricle and cause them to contract. The right bundle branch proceeds down the right side of the ventricular septum, and the large left bundle branch perforates the septum and divides into an anterior and a posterior division. These bundle branches divide into a network of conducting Purkinje fibres just below the endocardial surface

Blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries)

1. The circulatory system is known as a closed system because the blood is contained within either the heart or blood vessels at all times. 2. The blood vessels that are part of the closed circulatory system of humans from a vast network to help keep the blood flowing in one direction. 3. After the blood leaves the heart, it is pumped through a network of blood vessels to different parts of the body. 4. The blood vessels that form this network and are part of the circulatory system are the arteries, capillaries, and veins. 5. With the exception of capillaries and tiny veins, blood vessels have walls made of three layers of tissue that provides for a combination of strength and elasticity: a. The inner layer is epithelial tissue. b. The middle layer is smooth muscle tissue. c. The outer layer is connective tissue.

Arteries and arterioles (small arteries)

1. Arteries carry blood from the heart to capillaries and the rest of the body. 2. The walls of arteries are generally thicker than those of veins.

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3. The smooth muscle cells and elastic fibers that make up the walls help make arteries tough and flexible. This enables arteries to withstand the high pressure of blood as it is pumped from the heart. The force that blood exerts on the walls of blood vessels is known as blood pressure. 4. Except for the pulmonary arteries, all arteries carry oxygen-rich blood. 5. The artery that carries oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle to all parts of the body, except the lungs, is the aorta. 6. The aorta with a diameter of 2.5 cm, is the largest artery in the body. 7. As the aorta travels away from the heart, it branches into smaller arteries so that all parts of the body are supplied. 8. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.

Capillaries
1. Arterioles branch into networks of very small blood vessels called capillaries. 2. It is in the thin-walled (one-cell in thickness) that the real work of the circulatory system is done. 3. The walls of the capillaries consist of only one layer of cells, making it easy for oxygen and nutrients to diffuse from the blood into the tissue. 4. Forces of diffusion drive co2 and waste products from the tissue into the capillaries. 5. Capillaries are extremely narrow; blood cells moving through them must pass in single file.

Veins
1. The flow of blood moves from capillaries into the veins. 2. Veins form a system that collects blood from every part of the body and carries it back to the heart. 3. The smallest veins are called venules. 4. Like arteries, veins are lined with smooth muscle. Vein walls are thinner and less elastic than arteries. Veins though are more flexible and are able to stretch out readily. 5. This flexibility reduces the resistance the flow of blood encounters on its way back to the heart. 6. Large veins contain valves that maintain the one direction flow of blood. This is important where blood must flow against the force of gravity. 162

7. The flow of blood in veins is help by contractions of skeleton muscles, especially those in the legs and arms. When muscles contract they squeeze against veins and help force blood toward the heart.

Patterns of circulation
1. Blood moves through the body in a continuous pathway, of which there are two major paths; the pulmonary and systemic circulation. 2. The pulmonary circulation carries blood between the heart and the lungs. This circulation begins at the right ventricle and ends at the left atrium. 3. Oxygen-poor blood is pumped out of the right ventricle of the heart into the lungs through the pulmonary arteries. These are the only arteries in the body to carry deoxygenated blood. 4. Blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins, the only veins to carry oxygen-rich blood. 5. The lungs are the only organs directly connected to both chambers of the heart. 6. The systemic circulation, starts at the left ventricle and ends at the atrium, carries blood to the rest of the body. 7. Oxygen-rich blood leaving the heart passes through the aorta and into a number of arteries that supply blood to every part of the body. 8. Systemic circulation supplies each major organ with blood, including the heart. 9. The heart receives its supply of blood from a pair of coronary arteries leading from the aorta. Blood enters into capillaries that lead to veins through which blood returns to the right atrium. 10. The systemic system can be divided into three subsystems: a. Coronary circulation - supplies blood to the heart. b. Renal circulation - supplies blood to the kidneys. Nearly one-forth of the blood that is pump into the aorta by the left ventricle flows to the kidneys. The kidneys filter waste from the blood. c. Hepatic portal circulation - nutrients are picked up by capillaries in the small intestines and are transported to the liver. Excess nutrients are stored in the live for future needs. The liver receives oxygenated blood from a large artery that branches of the aorta.

Blood pressure
1. Blood moves through our circulation system because it is under pressure. 2. This pressure is caused by the contraction of the heart and by muscles that surround blood vessels. 3. A measure of force that blood exerts against a vessel wall is called blood pressure. 4. Blood pressure is always highest in the two main arteries that leave the heart.

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5. Blood pressure is maintained by two ways: (1) the nervous system, which can speed up or slow down the heart rate; (2) the kidneys, which regulate blood pressure by the amount of fluid in our blood. 6. When our pressure is too high, kidneys remove water from blood, lowering the total amount of fluid in the circulatory system.

Blood
Blood is a liquid connective tissue that constitutes the transport medium of the circulatory system. The two main functions of blood are to transport nutrients and oxygen to the cells and carry carbon dioxide and waste materials away from the cells. Blood also transfers heat to the body surface and plays a role in defending the body against disease.

Objectives:
1. List the components of blood. 2. Distinguish between red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in terms of their structure and function. 4. Summarize the process of blood clotting. 5. Explain what determine the compatibility of blood types for transfusion. Introduction 1. The main function of the circulatory system is to transport material in a fluid medium throughout the body. 2. This fluid medium is called blood. Blood is a type of liquid connective tissue that has many functions. Blood is composed of a liquid medium and blood solids. The liquid makes up about 55 percent of the blood, and blood solids make up the remaining 45 percent. 3. Blood transport nutrients, dissolved gases (o2, co2), enzymes, hormones, and waste products. 4. Blood regulates body temperature, ph, and electrolytes. 5. Blood protects the body from invaders, and blood restricts the loss of fluid. 6. Our bodies contains 4 to 5 liters of blood.

Blood plasma
1. Approximately 55 percent of blood in made up of a fluid portion called plasma. 2. Plasma is the straw-colored liquid portion of blood and is 90 percent water and 10 percent dissolved fats, salts, sugars, and proteins called plasma proteins. 164

3. The plasma proteins are divided into three types: a. Albumins - help regulate osmotic pressure (maintain normal blood volume and blood pressure). This is the most abundant plasma protein. b. Globulins or antibodies - include antibodies that help fight off infection. Antibodies initiate the destruction of pathogens and provide us with immunity. c. Fibrinogen - responsible for the ability of blood to clot.

Blood cells or solids

The cellular portion of blood make up the other 45 percent and includes several types of highly specialized cells and cell fragments. They are red blood cells (rbc), white blood cells (wbc), and platelets.

Red blood cells (rbc) erythrocytes

1. Rbc are the most numerous of the blood cells. One microliter of blood contains approx. 5 million rbcs. 2. Rbc are biconcave, or shaped so that they are narrower in the center than along the edges. 3. Rbc are produced from cells in the bone marrow, they are gradually filled with hemoglobin which forces out the nucleus and other organelles. 4. Mature rbc do not have a cell nucleus and organelles. The mature rbc becomes little more than a membrane sac containing hemoglobin. 5. Hemoglobin is the iron-containing protein that gives rbc the ability to carry oxygen. Hemoglobin gives the rbc their color. 6. Rbc stay in circulation for about 120 days before they are destroyed by special wbc in the liver and spleen. Rbc in your body are dying and being replace at a rate of about 2 million per second.

White blood cells (wbc) leukocytes

1. Outnumbered by rbc almost 500 to 1. 2. Wbc are produced in the red bone marrow, the lymph nodes, and the spleen. They are larger than rbc, almost colorless, and do not contain hemoglobin. 3. Wbc have a nucleus and can live for many months or years. 4. The main function of wbc is to protect the body against invasion by foreign cells or substances. 5. Wbc called phagocytes can destroy bacteria and foreign cells by phagocytosis (engulfed and digested), some produce special proteins called antibodies, and some release special chemicals that help the body fight off disease and resist infection. 165

6. Doctors are able to detect the presence of infection by counting the number of wbc in the blood. When a person has an infection, the number of wbc can double.

Platelets and blood clotting

1. Platelets are not cells; they are tiny fragments of other cells that were formed in the bone marrow. 2. Platelets are formed when small pieces of cytoplasm are pinched off the large cells in the red bone marrow called megakaryocytes, which are found in the bone marrow. Platelets lack a nucleus and their life span is about 7 to 11 days. 3. Platelets play an important role in blood clotting. 4. Platelets help the clotting process by clumping together and forming a plug at the site of a wound and then releasing proteins called clotting factors.

Clotting factor
I (Fibronogen) II ( Prothrombin) III (Tissue thromboplastin) IV (calcium ions) V (proaccelerin) VI VII (serum prothrombin conversion accelerator) VIII (Antihemophilic factor) IX (Plasma thromboplastin component/Christmas factor) X (Stuart-power factor) XI (Plasma thromboplastin antecedent) XII (Hagerman factor) XIII (Fibrin-stabilizing factor)

Source
Synthesized in the liver Synthesized in the liver, requires vitaminK Damaged tissue Diet and bone Synthesized in the liver, released by platelets Unassigned old name of Factor Va Synthesized in the liver, requires vitaminK Released by platelets and endothelial cells Synthesized in the liver, requires vitaminK Synthesized in the liver, requires vitaminK Synthesized in the liver Synthesized in the liver Synthesized in the liver, released by platelets

Mechanism/s
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Extrinsic and Intrinsic Extrinsic Extrinsic and Intrinsic Extrinsic and Intrinsic Extrinsic Intrinsic Intrinsic Extrinsic and Intrinsic Intrinsic Intrinsic Extrinsic and Intrinsic

5. Clotting factors start a series of chemical reactions that ends with a sticky meshwork of fibrin filaments that stop bleeding by producing a clot. 6. A genetic disorder of clotting factors is called hemophilia, suffers may bleed uncontrollably from even a small cut or scrape. 7. Clotting of blood in vessels can block the flow of blood, if this happens in the brain, brain cells may die, causing a stroke. 166

Blood clotting
Blood clotting can be initiated by the extrinsic mechanism, in which substances from damaged tissues are mixed with the blood, or by the intrinsic mechanism, in which the blood itself is traumatized. The clotting mechanism is based on an ordered series of proenzyme - enzyme conversions. Blood clotting is a process by which the blood coagulates to form solid masses, or clots. In minor injuries, small oval bodies called platelets, or thrombocytes, tend to collect and form plugs in blood vessel openings. To control bleeding from vessels larger than capillaries a clot must form at the point of injury. Coagulation is initiated almost instantly after an injury to the blood vessel damages the endothelium (lining of the vessel) which releases serotonin. This stimulates the smooth muscles blood vessels to contract or go into spasm (vasospasm). The coagulation of the blood is also initiated by the blood platelets which adhere to the rough edges of the damage blood vessel. The platelets produce a substance that combines with calcium ions (Calcium is also required at other points in the coagulation cascade), in the blood to form thromboplastin, which in turn converts the protein prothrombin (, a substance essential to the clotting mechanism, is produced by the liver in the presence of vitamin K.) into thrombin in a complex series of reactions, activated by a complex of molecules containing activated factor IX, factor VIII, factor X and vitamin K. Thrombin, a proteolytic enzyme, converts fibrinogen, a protein substance, into fibrin, an insoluble protein that forms an intricate network of minute threadlike structures called fibrils and causes the blood plasma to gel. The blood cells and plasma are enmeshed in the network of fibrils to form the clot. Fate of Blood Clots Blood clot retraction occur pulling torn vessel ends together. Serum is squeezed out. Plateletderived growth factor repairs wall. Plasminogen is absorbed by fibrin. Plasminogen activator converts plasminogen to plasmin which digests the clot.

Blood types
1. Blood type is determined by the type of antigen present on the surface of rbc. 2. An antigen is a protein or carbohydrate that acts as a signal, enabling the body to recognize foreign substances in the body. 3. Blood from humans is classified into four groups, based on the antigens on the surface of rbc. 167

4. Blood typing involves identifying the antigens in a sample. 5. Three of the most important human antigens are called a, b, and rh. 6. The a-b-o system is based on the a and b antigen. It is a means of classifying blood by the antigens located on the surface of rbc and the antibodies circulating in the plasma. 7. An individual's rbc may carry an a antigen, a b antigen, both a and b antigens, or no antigen at all. These antigen patterns are called blood types a, b, ab, o respectively. 8. Type ab is known as a universal receiver, meaning that they can receive any type blood. 9. Type o is known as a universal donor, meaning they can donate blood to anyone.

Rh system
1. An antigen that is sometimes on the surface of rbc is the rh factor, named after the rhesus monkey in which it was first discovered. 2. Eighty-five percent of the Population is rh-positive (rh+), meaning that rh antigens are present. 3. People who do not have rh antigens are called rh-negative (rh-). 4. If an rh- person receives a transfusion of blood that has rh+ antigens, rh- antibodies will react with the antigen and agglutination (clumping) will occur. Type O-negative blood does not have any antigens. It is called the "universal donor" type because it is compatible with any blood type. Type AB-positive blood is called the "universal recipient" type because a person who has it can receive blood of any type. 5. The rh factor is the reason there are blood test before marriage. The most serious problem with rh incompatibility occurs during pregnancy. 6. If the mother is rh- and the father is rh+, the child may inherit the dominant rh+ allele (gene) from the father. 7. If the babys rh+ blood gets into the mother during delivery, the mother will develop antibodies to the rh factor. 8. If a second rh+ child is conceived later, the mother's antibodies can cross the placenta and attack the blood of the fetus. 9. This condition is called erythroblastosis fetalis. 10. To prevent this condition, an rh- mother of an rh+ child can by given antibodies to destroy and rh+ cells that have entered her bloodstream from the fetus. 11. The antibodies, a substance called rhogram, must be administered to the mother within three days after the birth of her first rh+ child to remove from her bloodstream any rh+ antibodies. 168

12. By destroying any rh+ cells in her bloodstream, any danger to a second child is prevented because the mother will not make any antibodies against the blood cells of the rh+ fetus.

READ ACROSS TO RECEIVE BLOOD READ DOWN TO GIVE BLOOD

POSITIVE

NEGATIVE

AB + AB B+ A+ O+ BAO-

O* * * * * * * *

A* * *

B* * * *

O+ * * * *

A+ *

B+ * *

AB * *

AB + *

Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is a complex network of lymphoid organs, lymph nodes, lymph ducts, lymph tissues, lymph capillaries and lymph vessels that produce and transport lymph fluid from tissues to the circulatory system. The lymphatic system is a major component of the immune system.

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Lymphoid organs
The Lymphoid organs include thymus, spleen, and tonsils.

Thymus Anatomy
In human anatomy, the thymus is an organ located in the upper anterior portion of the chest cavity. It is of central importance in the maturation of T cells. The thymus is of a pinkish-gray color, soft, and lobulated on its surfaces. At birth it is about 5 cm in length, 4 cm in breadth, and about 6 mm in thickness. The organ enlarges during childhood, and atrophies at puberty. The thymus will, if examined when its growth is most active, be found to consist of two lateral lobes placed in close contact along the middle line, situated partly in the thorax, partly in the neck, and extending from the fourth costal cartilage upward, as high as the lower border of the thyroid gland. It is posterior of the sternum, and rests upon the pericardium inferiorly. In the neck, it lies on the front and sides of the trachea. The two lobes generally differ in size; they are occasionally united, so as to form a single mass, and sometimes separated by an intermediate lobe. Each lateral lobe is composed of numerous lobules held together by delicate areolar tissue; the entire gland being enclosed in an investing capsule of a similar but denser structure. The primary lobules vary in size from that of a pin's head to that of a small pea, and are made up of a number of small nodules or follicles. The follicles are irregular in shape and are more or less fused together, especially toward the interior of the gland. Each follicle is from 1 to 2 mm in diameter and consists of a medullary and a cortical portion, and these differ in many essential particulars from each other.

Cortex
The cortical portion is mainly composed of lymphoid cells, supported by a network of finely-branched epithelial reticular cells, which is continuous with a similar network in the medullary portion. This network forms an adventitia to the blood vessels. The cortex is the location of the earliest events in thymocyte development, where T cell receptor gene rearrangement and positive selection takes place.

Medulla
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In the medullary portion, the reticulum is coarser than in the cortex, the lymphoid cells are relatively fewer in number, and there are found peculiar nest-like bodies, the concentric corpuscles of Hassall. These concentric corpuscles are composed of a central mass, consisting of one or more granular cells, and of a capsule formed of epithelioid cells. They are the remains of the epithelial tubes, which grow out from the third branchial pouches of the embryo to form the thymus. Each follicle is surrounded by a vascular plexus, from which vessels pass into the interior, and radiate from the periphery toward the center, forming a second zone just within the margin of the medullary portion. In the center of the medullary portion there are very few vessels, and they are of minute size. The medulla is the location of the latter events and is specialised to allow thymocytes to undergo additional rounds of negative selection to remove auto-reactive T cells from the mature repertoire.

Function
In the two thymic lobes, lymphocyte precursors from the bone-marrow become thymocytes, and subsequently mature into T cells. Once mature, T cells emigrate from the thymus and constitute the peripheral T cell repertoire responsible for directing many facets of the adaptive immune system. Loss of the thymus at an early age through genetic mutation or surgical removal results in severe immunodeficiency and a high susceptibility to infection. The ability of T cells to recognize foreign antigens is mediated by the T cell receptor. The T cell receptor undergoes genetic rearrangement during thymocyte maturation, resulting in each T cell bearing a unique T cell receptor, specific to a limited set of peptide:MHC combinations. The random nature of the genetic rearrangement results in a requirement of central tolerance mechanisms to remove or inactive those T cells which bear a T cell receptor with the ability to recognise self-peptides. The peyer's patches vermiform appendix, and red bone marrow are accessory lymphoid tissues that comprise the lymphoid organs.

Spleen
The spleen is an organ of the abdomen, where it functions in the destruction of old red blood cells and holding a reservoir of blood. It is regarded as one of the centers of activity of the reticuloendothelial system (part of the immune system). Until recently, the purpose of the spleen was not known. It is increasingly recognized that its absence leads to a predisposition to certain infections.

Anatomy
The human spleen is located in the upper left part of the abdomen, behind the stomach and just below the diaphragm. In normal individuals this organ measures about 125 75 50 mm (5 3 2 inches) in size, with an average weight of 150 g.

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The spleen is the largest lymphatic organ consisting of masses of lymphoid tissue of granular appearance located around fine terminal branches of veins and arteries. These vessels are connected by modified capillaries called splenic sinuses. Approximately 10% of people have one or more accessory spleens. They may form near the hilum of the main spleen, the junction at which the splenic vessels enter and leave the organ. Cross sections of the spleen reveal a red soft surface which is divided into two types of pulp which correspond to the two most important functional roles of the spleen.

Area

red pulp

Composition Composed of small * "sinuses" (or "sinusoids") which are filled with blood * "splenic cords" of reticular fibers * "marginal zone" bordering on white pulp Composed of nodules, called Malpighian corpuscles. These are composed of: * "lymphoid follicles" (or follicles"), rich in B-lymphocytes * "periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths" (PALS), rich in T-lymphocytes

Function Mechanical filtration. Removes unwanted materials from the blood, including senescent red blood cells.

white pulp

Helps fight infections.

Other functions of the spleen are less prominent, especially in the healthy adult:

Production of opsonins, properdin, and tuftsin. Creation of red blood cells. While the bone marrow is the primary site of hematopoeisis in the adult, up until the fifth month of gestation, the spleen has important hematopoietic 172

functions. After birth, no significant hematopoietic function is left in the spleen except in some hematologic disorders: e.g. myelodysplastic syndrome, hemoglobinopathies.

Storage of red blood cells and other formed elements. This is only valid for certain mammals, such as dogs. The red blood cells can be released when needed. In humans, however, the spleen does not function as a deposit of red blood cells, but instead it stores platelets in case of an emergency. These animals also have large hearts in relation to their body size to accommodate the higher-viscosity blood that results. Some athletes have tried doping themselves with their own stored red blood cells to try to achieve the same effect, but the human heart is not equipped to handle the higher-viscosity blood

Tonsil
The tonsils are areas of lymphoid tissue on either side of the throat. An infection of the tonsils is called tonsillitis. Most commonly, the term "tonsils" refers to the palatine tonsils that can be seen in the back of the throat. As with other organs of the lymphatic system, the tonsils act as part of the immune system to help protect against infection. In particular, they are believed to be involved in helping fight off pharyngeal and upper respiratory tract infections. Tonsils in humans include, from superior to inferior: Name adenoids (also termed "pharyngeal tonsils") Epithelium ciliated pseudostratified (respiratory epithelium) Location

roof of pharynx

palatine tonsils

sides of pharynx between non-keratinized stratified squamous glossopalatine and pharyngopalatine arches non-keratinized stratified squamous behind terminal sulcus (tongue)

lingual tonsils

Together this set of lymphatic tissue is known as Waldeyer's tonsillar ring. Tonsils tend to reach their largest size near puberty, and they gradually undergo atrophy thereafter. However, they are largest relative to the diameter of the throat in young children, and tonsillectomy (surgical removal of tonsils) may be indicated if they are obstructing the airway or interfering with swallowing. 173

Lymph node
Lymph nodes are components of the lymphatic system. They are sometimes informally called lymph glands but, as they do not secrete substances, such terminology is not strictly correct.

Structure
The lymph node is surrounded by a fibrous capsule, and inside the lymph node the fibrous capsule extends to form trabeculae. Thin reticular fibers form a supporting meshwork inside the node. Lymph circulates to the lymph node via afferent lymphatic vessels and drains into the node just beneath the capsule in a space called the subcapsular sinus. The subcapsular sinus drains into trabecular sinuses and finally into medullary sinuses. The sinus space is criss-crossed by the pseudopods of macrophages which act to trap foreign particles and filter the lymph. The medullary sinuses converge at the hilum and lymph then leaves the lymph node via the efferent lymphatic vessel. Lymphocytes, both B cells and T cells, constantly circulate through the lymph nodes. They enter the lymph node via the bloodstream and cross the wall of blood vessels by the process of diapedesis. The concave side of the lymph node is called the hilum. The artery and vein attach at the hilum and allow blood to enter and leave the organ, respectively. The parenchyma of the lymph node is divided into an outer cortex and an inner medulla.

Cortex
In the cortex, the subcapsular sinus drains to cortical sinusoids. The outer cortex and inner cortex have very different properties: Location Outer cortex Name/description Nodular cortex 174 Predominant lymphocyte b cells

Deep cortex Juxtamedullary cortex or paracortex t cells The cortex is absent at the hilum. It is made out of the fluid from the blood called plasma Medulla There are two named structures in the medulla:

The medullary cords are cords of lymphatic tissue, and include plasma cells and t cells The medullary sinuses (or sinusoids) are vessel-like spaces separating the medullary cords. Lymph flows to the medullary sinuses from cortical sinuses, and into efferent lymphatic vessels. Medullary sinuses contain histiocytes (immobile macrophages) and reticular cells.

Shape and size Human lymph nodes are bean-shaped and range in size from a few millimeters to about 1-2 cm in their normal state. They may become enlarged due to a tumor or infection. White blood cells are located within honeycomb structures of the lymph nodes. Lymph nodes are enlarged when the body is infected due to enhanced production of some cells and division of activated t and b cells. In some cases they may feel enlarged due to past infections; although one may be healthy, one may still feel residually enlarged Function Lymph nodes act as filters, with an internal honeycomb of reticular connective tissue filled with lymphocytes that collect and destroy bacteria and viruses. When the body is fighting an infection, lymphocytes multiply rapidly and produce a characteristic swelling of the lymph nodes.

Distribution Regional lymph tissue

Humans have approximately 500-600 lymph nodes distributed throughout the body, with clusters found in the underarms, groin, neck, chest, and abdomen.

Lymph nodes of the human head and neck

cervical lymph nodes o Anterior cervical: these nodes, both superficial and deep, lie above and beneath the sternocleidomastoid muscles. They drain the internal structures of the throat as well as part of the posterior pharynx, tonsils, and thyroid gland. o Posterior cervical: these nodes extend in a line posterior to the sternocleidomastoids but in front of the trapezius, from the level of the mastoid portion of the temporal bone to the clavicle. They are frequently enlarged during upper respiratory infections. 175

Tonsillar: these nodes are located just below the angle of the mandible. They drain the tonsillar and posterior pharyngeal regions. Sub-mandibular: these nodes run along the underside of the jaw on either side. They drain the structures in the floor of the mouth. Sub-mental: these nodes are just below the chin. They drain the teeth and intra-oral cavity. Supraclavicular: these nodes are in the hollow above the clavicle, just lateral to where it joins the sternum. They drain a part of the thoracic cavity and abdomen. Virchow's node is a left supraclavicular lymph node which receives the lymph drainage from most of the body (especially the abdomen) via the thoracic duct and is thus an early site of metastasis for various malignancies.

Lymph nodes of the arm These drain the whole of the arm, and are divided into two groups, superficial and deep. The superficial nodes are supplied by lymphatics which are present throughout the arm, but are particularly rich on the palm and flexor aspects of the digits.

Superficial lymph glands of the arm: o Supratrochlear glands: situated above the medial epicondyle of the humerus, medial to the basilic vein. o Deltoideopectoral glands: situated between the pectoralis major and deltoid muscles inferior to the clavicle.

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Deep lymph glands of the arm: these comprise the axillary glands, which are 20-30 individual glands.

Lower limbs

inguinal lymph node

Lymph vessel
In anatomy, lymph vessels are thin walled, valved structures that carry lymph. As part of the lymphatic system, lymph vessels are complimentary with the vascular system. In contrast to the vascular system, which carries blood under pressure to the entire body, lymph is not under pressure and is propelled in a passive fashion, assisted by the aforementioned valves. Fluid that leaks from the vascular system is returned to general circulation via lymphatic vessels. Generally, lymph flows away from the tissues to lymph nodes and eventually to either the right lymphatic duct or the largest lymph vessel in the body, the thoracic duct. These vessels drain into the right and left subclavian veins respectively. Function Lymph vessels produce and transport lymph fluid from the tissues to the circulatory system. Without functioning lymph vessels, lymph cannot be effectively drained and edema typically results. The right lymphatic duct, about 1.25 cm. in length, courses along the medial border of the Scalenus anterior at the root of the neck and ends in the right subclavian vein, at its angle of junction with the right internal jugular vein. The right duct drains lymph fluid from the upper right section of the trunk, (right thoracic cavity, via the right bronchomediastinal trunk), the right arm (via the right subclavian vein), and right side of the head and neck (via the right jugular trunk). All other sections of the human body are drained by the thoracic duct. Its orifice is guarded by two semilunar valves, which prevent the passage of venous blood into the duct. 177

Thoracic duct In human anatomy, the thoracic duct is an important part of the lymphatic systemit is the largest lymphatic vessel in the body. It collects most of the lymph in the body (except that from the right arm and the right side of the chest, neck and head, which is collected by the right lymphatic duct) and drains into the systemic (blood) circulation at the left subclavian vein. Location and direction of flow In adults, the thoracic duct is typically 38-45cm in length and an average diameter of about 5mm. It usually starts from the level of the second lumbar vertebra and extends to the root of the neck. It originates in the abdomen from the confluence of the right and left lumbar trunk and the intestinal trunk, forming a significant pathway upward called the cisterna chyli. It extends vertically in the chest and curves posteriorly to the left carotid artery and left jugular vein at the t5 vertebral level to empty into the junction of the left subclavian vein and left jugular vein, below the clavicle, near the shoulders. Volume, mechanism, and direction of flow In adults, the thoracic duct transports up to 4 L of lymph per day. The lymph transport in the thoracic duct is mainly caused by the action of breathing, aided by the duct's smooth muscle and by internal valves which prevent the lymph from flowing back down again. There are also two valves at the junction of the duct with the left subclavian vein, to prevent the flow of venous blood into the duct Lymph capillaries or lymphatic capillaries are small thin-walled blood vessels which are located all over the body except in the central nervous system. The main purpose of these vessels is to drain excess tissue fluids from around the cell ready to be filtered and returned to the venous circulation. The lymphatic system has three interrelated functions: (1) Removal of excess fluids from body tissues, (2) Absorption of fatty acids and subsequent transport of fat, chyle, to the circulatory system and, (3) Production of immune cells (such as lymphocytes, monocytes, and antibody producing cells called plasma cells).

Lymph fluid
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Lymph is a clear or whitish liquid that is collected from all over the body and flows through the lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes (also called glands). It contains proteins and fats, some red blood cells, and many white blood cells, especially lymphocytes. Lymphocytes help the body fight infection. Lymph originates as blood plasma that leaks from the capillaries of the circulatory system, becoming interstitial fluid, and filling the space between individual cells of tissue. Plasma is forced out of the capillaries (called filtration) and forced back in (called absorption) due to interactions of hydrostatic pressure (favoring movement out of the capillaries) and oncotic pressure (favoring movement into the capillaries). While out of the capillaries, the fluid mixes with the interstitial fluid, the volume of fluid accumulates slowly. Most of the fluid is returned to the capillaries. The proportion of interstitial fluid that is returned to the circulatory system by osmosis is about 90% of the former plasma; with about 10% accumulating as overfill. The excess interstitial fluid is collected by the lymphatic system by diffusion into lymph capillaries, and is processed by lymph nodes prior to being returned to the circulatory system. Once within the lymphatic system the fluid is called lymph, and has almost the same composition as the original interstitial fluid. Lymphatic circulation The lymphatic system acts as a secondary circulatory system. Rhythmic contraction of the vessel walls may also help draw fluid into the lymphatic capillaries. Like veins, lymph vessels have oneway, semilunar valves and depend mainly on the movement of skeletal muscles to squeeze fluid through them. This fluid is then transported to progressively larger lymphatic vessels culminating in the right lymphatic duct (for lymph from the right upper body) and the thoracic duct (for the rest of the body); these ducts drain into the circulatory system at the right and left subclavian veins. Unlike the circulatory system, the lymphatic system is not closed and has no central pump; the lymph moves slowly and under low pressure due to peristalsis, the action of breathing, the operation of semilunar valves in the lymph veins, and the milking action of skeletal muscles. Function of the fatty acid transport system Lymph vessels, called lacteals, are present in the lining of the gastrointestinal tract. While most other nutrients absorbed by the small intestine are passed on to the portal venous system to drain, via the portal vein, into the liver for processing, fats are passed on to the lymphatic system, to be transported to the blood circulation via the thoracic duct. The enriched lymph originating in the lymphatics of the small intestine is called chyle (not chyme). The nutrients that are released to the circulatory system are processed by the liver, having passed through the systemic circulation.

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Digestive system
Before your body can use nutrients in the food you consume, the nutrients must be broken down physically and chemically. This process of breaking down food into molecules the body can use is called digestion.

Objectives:
1. List the major organs of the digestion system. 2. Distinguish between mechanical digestion and chemical digestion. 3. Relate the structure of each digestive organ to its function in mechanical digestion. 4. Identify the source and function of each major digestive enzyme. 5. Summarize the process of absorption in both the small and large intestine. The gastrointestinal tract 1. Digestion is the breakdown of food into simpler molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. 2. The digestion system is actually a long, hallow tube called the gastrointestinal tract or gi tract or digestive tract. It begins with the mouth and winds through the body to the anus,"in one end and out the other end." 180

3. The digestion system includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. 4. Several major organs, (exocrine glands), along the digestive tract aid digestion, including the salivary glands, the pancreas, and the liver, add their secretions to the digestion system, but are not part of the gi tract. 5. Three activities are involved in the digestive process: a. Mechanical digestion b. Chemical digestion c. Absorption. 6. The first task of the digestion system is to break down food into a fine pulp (mechanicaldigestion), to increase its surface area and expose more food molecules to the actions of digestive chemicals. 7. The process of mechanical digestion breaks food into tiny pieces without changing the chemical structure of the food. 8. The second task of the digestion system is to chemically act on food, breaking it down into smaller and smaller particles. The molecules must be small enough and chemically simple enough to be absorbed into the bloodstream. Examples: starches to simple sugars, proteins to amino acids. 9. The last task of the digestion system is to absorb the small molecules and pass them to the bloodstream and lymph vessels for distribution to the rest of the body. 10. Humans are omnivores who eat both plants and animals for energy and our digestion system is adapted to process both vegetable and animal materials. The mouth 1. Mechanical and chemical digestion both begin in the mouth. 2. Chewing is the first step in mechanical digestion. 3. During chewing, salivary glands produce saliva, a mixture of water, mucus, and a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase, which mixes with the chewed food. Enzymes in the saliva kill bacteria and begin the process of chemical digestion by breaking down starches to sugars. Saliva is produced by three sets of glands located near the mouth. 4. The mucus in the saliva softens and lubricates food and helps hold the food together. Th salivary amylase begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates by braking down some starch into disaccharide maltose. 5. Human teeth are well adapted for chewing many kinds of food. The 32 teeth of the normal adult have three basic shapes, each with a different function:

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a. Incisors - sharp front teeth used for biting into and tearing pieces of food. b. Canines - pointed teeth (vampire) next to incisors, used to tear or shred food. c. Premolars/Molars - teeth at the back of the mouth, have large flat surfaces that crush and grind food. 6. Every tooth has two main parts: the crown and the root. 7. Each tooth consists of four types of tissue: pulp, dentin, enamel and cementum. Connective tissue surrounds the root of the tooth. This tissue, called the periodontal ligament, holds the root in the bony socket in the jaw. 8. Pulp is the innermost tissue of the tooth. It is the only soft tissue of the tooth and resides in the center of tooth, especially towards the root end. It consists of connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves. The blood vessels nourish the tooth, and the nerves transmit sensations of pain, coldness, or heat to the brain. 9. Dentin is a hard, yellow substance that surrounds the pulp. It makes up most of a tooth and gives the tooth an inner ivory or creamy color. Dentin is harder than bone and consists mainly of mineral salts and water. It is formed by cells called odontoblasts. 10. Enamel overlies the dentin on the crown of the tooth. It forms the outermost covering of the crown. It is the hardest tissue in the body. It enables a tooth to withstand the pressure placed on it during chewing. Enamel consists of mineral salts and a small amount of water. It is usually a pearly-white color. 11. Cementum covers the dentin along the root of the tooth. In most cases, the cementum and enamel meet where the root ends and the crown begins. Cementum is as hard as bone, and it consists mainly of mineral salts and water. 12. The root is the portion of the tooth that lies below the gum and is embedded in the alveolus or socket. Some premolar and molar teeth have more than one root. Once teeth are fully erupted in the animal, they cease growing. 13. The periodontal ligament holds the tooth in its socket. 14. The tongue helps to keep the food between the chewing surfaces of the upper and lower teeth by manipulating it against the hard palate, the bony membrane-covered roof of the mouth. This structure is different from the soft palate, an area located just behind the hard palate. The tongue is made mainly of skeletal muscle. The tongue extends much further than is commonly perceived, past the posterior border of the mouth and into the oropharynx. 182

The dorsum (upper surface) of the tongue can be divided into two parts, an oral part (anterior twothirds of the tongue) that lies mostly in the mouth and a pharyngeal part (posterior third of the tongue), which faces backward to the oropharynx. The two parts are separated by a V-shaped groove, which marks the sulcus terminalis (or terminal sulcus). Since the tongue contains no bony supports for the muscles, the tongue is an example of a muscular hydrostat, similar in concept to an octopus arm. Instead of bony attachments, the extrinsic muscles of the tongue anchor the tongue firmly to surrounding bones and prevent the mythical possibility of 'swallowing' the tongue. The extrinsic muscles attach the tongue to the hyoid bone, mandible, soft palate, and the styloid processes of the temporal bone. These attaching extrinsic muscles are in contrast to the intrinsic muscles of the tongue which lie entirely within the tongue. The extrinsic muscles reposition the tongue, while the intrinsic muscles alter the shape of the tongue for talking and swallowing. Extrinsic muscles of the tongue by definition originate from structures outside the tongue and insert into the tongue. The four paired extrinsic muscles protrude, retract, depress, and elevate the tongue:

The Genioglossus muscle originates from the mandible; it protrudes the tongue as well as depressing its center. The Hyoglossus muscle originates from the hyoid bone; it depresses the tongue. The Styloglossus muscle originates from the styloid process; it elevates and retracts the tongue. The Palatoglossus muscle originates from the palatine aponeurosis; it depresses the soft palate, moves the palatoglossal fold towards the midline, and elevates the back of the tongue. The palatoglossus is the only muscle of the tongue not innervated by the hypoglossal nerve, instead it is innervated the pharyngeal branch of vagus nerve.

Four paired intrinsic muscles of the tongue originate and insert within the tongue, running along its length. These muscles alter the shape of the tongue by: lengthening and shortening it, curling and uncurling its apex and edges, and flattening and rounding its surface.

The superior longitudinal muscle runs along the superior surface of the tongue under the mucous membrane, and elevates, assists in retraction of, or deviates the tip of the tongue. It originates near the epiglottis, the hyoid bone, from the median fibrous septum. The inferior longitudinal muscle lines the sides of the tongue, and is joined to the styloglossus muscle. The verticalis muscle is located in the middle of the tongue, and joins the superior and inferior longitudinal muscles. The transversus muscle divides the tongue at the middle, and is attached to the mucous membranes that run along the sides.

Esophagus 1. Once the teeth and salivary glands have completed the initial processing, the food is ready to be swallowed. 183

2. Gathering the food together in a ball called a bolus; the tongue pushes it toward the back of the mouth and into the pharynx. 3. The pharynx is an area at the back of the throat that connects the nose and mouth to the digestion and respiratory tracts. 4. In the pharynx, the gi track and the respiratory system cross each other. 5. As the tongue moves food into the pharynx, it presses down on a small flap of cartilage called the epiglottis. When the epiglottis is depressed, it closes the entrance to the respiratory track and guides the food down the gi track. 6. Food (the bolus) moves from the pharynx into the esophagus, a 25 cm long muscular tube that connects the pharynx with the stomach. 7. Once the bolus enters the esophagus, muscles in the esophagus wall move food toward the stomach. The esophagus has two muscle layers: a circular layer that wraps around the esophagus and a longitudinal layer that runs the length of the tube. 8. Waves of muscular contractions called peristalsis (payr-ih-stol-sis) move food through the digestive track. 9. Contractions of the muscles move the bolus to a valve called the cardiac sphincter valve where the esophagus joins the stomach. The sphincter allows food to pass into the stomach but usually not letting it move back up into the esophagus. The stomach 1. The partially digested food is now in the stomach. 2. The stomach is a j-shaped muscular sac with thick expandable walls located in the upper left side of the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm. The stomach is about 12 inches (30.5 cm) long and is 6 inches (15.2 cm) wide at its widest point. The stomach's capacity is about 1 qt (0.94 liters) in an adult. The stomach is divided into four sections, each of which has different cells and functions. The sections are: Cardia Where the contents of the esophagus empty into the stomach. Fundus Formed by the upper curvature of the organ. Body or corpus The main, central region. Pylorus or antrum The lower section of the organ that facilitates emptying the contents into the small intes 3. The stomach is involved in both mechanical and chemical digestion. 184

4. The stomach walls are made of layers of muscles that contract in opposite direction. 1. mucosa: The first main layer. This consists of an epithelium, the lamina propria underneath, and a thin bit of smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosae. 2. submucosa: This layer lies under the mucosa and consists of fibrous connective tissue, separating the mucosa from the next layer. The Meissner's plexus is in this layer. 3. muscularis externa: The muscularis externa in the stomach differs from that of other GI organs in that it has three layers of smooth muscle instead of two.

inner oblique layer: This layer is responsible for creating the motion that churns and physically breaks down the food. It is the only layer of the three which is not seen in other parts of the digestive system. The antrum has thicker skin cells in its walls and performs more forceful contractions than the fundus. middle circular layer: At this layer, the pylorus is surrounded by a thick circular muscular wall which is normally tonically constricted forming a functional (if not anatomically discrete) pyloric sphincter, which controls the movement of chyme into the duodenum. This layer is concentric to the longitudinal axis of the stomach. outer longituditinal layer: Auerbach's plexus is found between this layer and the middle circular layer.

4. serosa: This layer is under the muscularis externa, consisting of layers of connective tissue continuous with the omenta. 5. Mechanical digestion occurs when the stomach walls contract strongly, mixing and churning the food. These contractions are responsible for the "growling" noises our stomach makes; they are the loudest when we have an empty stomach. 6. Chemical digestion in the stomach begins with the actions of hydrochloric acid and an enzyme called pepsin. Both substances are secreted by gastric glands in the stomach. These fluids that carry out chemical digestion in the stomach are known as gastric fluids. 7. Pepsin breaks down proteins into shorter chains of amino acids called peptides; pepsin works best in an acidic environment, which is provided by the hydrochloric acid. 8. Another fluid secreted by glands in the stomach is mucus. Mucus lubricates food so that it can travel through the digestive tract more easily. 9. Mucus also coats the walls of the stomach, protecting the muscle tissue from being broken down by other digestive fluids. 185

10. The inner lining of the stomach is a thick, wrinkled mucous membrane composed of epithelial cells. This membrane is dotted with small openings called gastric pits; they are the open ends of gastric glands that release secretions into the stomach. Some of these glands secret mucus, some secrete digestive enzymes, and still others secret hydrochloric acid. The mixture of these fluids forms the acidic digestive fluid. 11. Lives of stomach wall cells are short; they are replaced about every three days. 12. After about three hours (3-4 hours) of mechanical and chemical treatment in the stomach, food is reduced to a soft pulp called chyme (kym). 13. Chyme is a thick liquid made up of partially digested proteins, starches vitamins, minerals, and acids, and undigested sugars and fats. 14. At this point, the pyloric sphincter valve between the stomach and small intestine opens, allowing small amounts of chyme to pass into the small intestine. 15. By the time chyme has left the stomach, most proteins have been broken down into smaller polypeptides. Sugars and fats have not yet been chemically altered. Some starch molecules have been broken down into disaccharides. The small intestines 1. As chyme is pushed through the pyloric valve, it enters the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. 2. The small intestine performs three major functions on chyme that enters from the stomach. 3. The small intestines digest carbohydrates and fats, complete the digestion of proteins, and absorbs digested nutrients. 4. The small intestine is long (7m), but its diameter (2.5cm) is smaller than the large intestines. The small intestines consist of three parts: a. Duodenum - the first section (25 cm) b. Jejunum - the middle section (2.5 m) c. Ileum - make up the remaining portion. 5. Some of the digestive fluids and enzymes that digest food in the small intestine come from glands located in the small intestines. Structure of the microvilli 6. These glands produce enzymes that digest proteins and carbohydrates. Absorbption 186

1. Most nutreints are absorbed into the circulatory system through the cells that line the small intestine. 2. The internal surface of the intestine is lined with fingerlike projections called villi. The cells covering the villi, in turn have extensions on their cell membranes called microvilli. 3. Villi increase the surface area of the lining of the small intestine, making absorption more efficient. 4. Nutreints are absorbed through capillaries and tiny lymph vessels called lacteals in the villi. 5. Capillaries absorb the carbohydrates (monosaccharides) and proteins (amino acids) and are carried to the liver. 6. The liver neutralizes many toxic substances in the blood and removes excess glucose, converting it to glycogen for storage (fat). The filtered blood then carries the nutrients to all the parts of the body. 7. The tiny lymph vessels called lacteals absorb glycerol and fatty acids, which are carried through the lymph vessels and eventually to the bloodstream through lymphatic vessels near the heart. 8. Most of the nutreints used by the body are absorbed through the lining of the small intestines. Large intestine 1. After absorption in the small intestines is complete, undigested material leaves the small intestine through a valve and enters the large intestine or colon. 2. It is the final organ of digestion and consists of four major parts: ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon. 3. An organ called the appendix is located near the junction of the small and large intestine. The appendix is a finger-shaped pouch, which does not serve any known function. If the appendix becomes infected with bacteria, resulting in appendicitis, the appendix must be removed. 4. The large intestine, also called the colon, is about 6 cm wide and 1.5 m long. 5. The large intestine absorbs water from the material remaining in the digestive tract. 6. Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with the water. Vitamin k is also absorbed following bacterial action plant food. 7. When most of the water has been removed from the undigested material, a solid waste matter, called feces remains. Sometimes a disease or disorder prevents the large intestine from absorbing enough water - the result is diarrhea, or watery feces. Severe diarrhea can result in a loss of water, or dehydration that can be fatal. 8. Peristalsis propels the feces through the large intestine and into the rectum, the last few inches of the large intestine. Feces collected in the rectum are eliminated through the anus. 187

The rectum (from the Latin rectum intestinum, meaning straight intestine) is the final straight portion of the large intestine in some mammals, and the gut in others, terminating in the anus. The human rectum is about 12 cm long. At its commencement its caliber is similar to that of the sigmoid colon, but near its termination it is dilated, forming the rectal ampulla. The anal canal is the terminal part of the large intestine. It is situated between the rectum and anus, below the level of the pelvic diaphragm. It lies in the anal triangle of perineum in between the right and left ischiorectal fossae. In humans it is approximately 2.5 to 4 cm long, extending from the anorectal junction to the anus. It is directed downwards and backwards. It is surrounded by inner involuntary and outer voluntary sphincters which keep the lumen closed in the form of an anteroposterior slit. It is differentiated from the rectum by the transition of the internal surface from endodermal to skinlike ectodermal tissue. In anatomy, the anus (from Latin nus "ring, anus") is the external opening of the rectum. Closure is controlled by sphincter muscles. Feces are expelled from the body through the anus during the act of defecation, which is the primary function of the anus. Most animals from simple worms to elephants and humans have a tubular gut, with a mouth at one end and an anus at the other. The anus plays a role in sexuality, though attitudes towards anal sex vary and it is even illegal in some countries. The anus is also the site of potential infections and other conditions including cancer. The subject is often considered a taboo part of the body, and is known by a large number of usually vulgar slang terms

Accessory organs of digestion

The accessory organs of digestion include the salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. As stated earlier, during the digestive process, the accessory organs produce secretions that assist the organs of the alimentary canal. Salivary Glands The salivary glands are located in the mouth. There are three major pairs of salivary glands in the mouth. The largest pair of salivary glands, called the parotid glands, lies just behind the angle of the jaw, below and in front of the ears. Two smaller pairs, the sublingual glands and the submandibular glands, lie deep in the floor of the mouth. The basic secretory units of salivary glands are clusters of cells called an acini. Within each salivary glands are two types of secretory cells, serous cells and mucous cells. The serous cells produce a watery fluid that contains a digestive juice called amylase. Amylase splits starch and glycerol into complex sugars. The mucous cells secrete a thick, sticky liquid called mucus. Mucus binds food particles together and acts to lubricate during swallowing. The fluids produced by the serous and mucous cells combine to form saliva. Approximately 1 liter of saliva is secreted daily. 188

7. The pancreas, is a lobular, pinkish-grey organ that lies behind the stomach. Its head communicates with the duodenum and its tail extends to the spleen. The organ is approximately 15cm in length with a long, slender body connecting the head and tail segments. 8. The pancreas has both exocrine and endocrine functions. Endocrine refers to production of hormones which occurs in the Islets of Langerhans. The Islets produce insulin, glucagon and other substances and these are the areas damaged in diabetes mellitus. The exocrine (secretrory) portion makes up 80-85% of the pancreas and is the area relevant to the gastrointestinal tract. It is made up of numerous acini (small glands) that secrete contents into ducts which eventually lead to the duodenum. The pancreas secretes fluid rich in carbohydrates and inactive enzymes. Secretion is triggered by the hormones released by the duodenum in the presence of food. Pancreatic enzymes include carbohydrases, lipases, nucleases and proteolytic enzymes that can break down different components of food. These are secreted in an inactive form to prevent digestion of the pancreas itself. The enzymes become active once they reach the duodenum. 9. Pancreatic fluid also contains sodium bicarbonate, which neutralizes the hydrochloric acid in chyme (from and acid to a base), protecting the small intestine. 10. The liver is a large, reddish-brown organ situated in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen. It is surrounded by a strong capsule and divided into four lobes namely the right, left, caudate and quadrate lobes.

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Each lobe is made up of multisided units called lobules. Most livers have between 50,000 and 100,000 lobules. Each lobule consists of a central vein surrounded by tiny liver cells grouped in sheets or bundles. These cells perform the work of the liver. Cavities known as sinusoids separate the groups of cells within a lobule. The sinusoids give the liver a spongy texture and enable it to hold large amounts of blood. The liver has an unusual blood supply system. Like other organs, the liver receives blood containing oxygen from the heart. This blood enters the liver through the hepatic artery. The liver also receives blood filled with nutrients, or digested food particles, from the small intestine. This blood enters the liver through the portal vein. In the liver, the hepatic artery and the portal vein branch into a network of tiny blood vessels that empty into the sinusoids. The liver cells absorb nutrients and oxygen from the blood as it flows through the sinusoids. They also filter out wastes and poisons. At the same time, they secrete sugar, vitamins, minerals, and other substances into the blood. The sinusoids drain into the central veins, which join to form the hepatic vein. Blood leaves the liver through the hepatic vein. Each lobule also contains bile capillaries, tiny tubes that carry the bile secreted by the liver cells. The bile capillaries join to form bile ducts, which carry bile out of the liver. Soon after leaving the liver, the bile ducts join together, forming the hepatic duct. The liver manufactures bile continuously, even if the small intestine is not digesting food. Excess bile flows into the gall bladder, where it is stored for later use. Bile from the liver and gall bladder flows into the small intestine through the common bile duct.

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LIVER FUNCTION The liver is a major factory in our bodies. Although many of the specific processes involved within this organs multiple functions are not yet fully understood, it is commonly agreed that livers main aim is the maintenance of homeostasis ( a constant internal environment). It is estimated that the liver has more than 200 functions, but the most vital ones are as follows: Detoxification: The liver transforms the potentially dangerous metabolites, toxins and excess hormones into biologically harmless water-soluble compounds. As an example, urea, a waste product of protein breakdown, is produced by the liver, a process which removes poisonous ammonia from the body fluids. Metabolism: The hepatic cells assimilate carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. They convert glucose to its stored form, glycogen, which is reconverted into glucose as the body requires it for energy. The ability of the liver to maintain the proper level of glucose in the blood is called its glucose buffer function. Gluconeogenesis (production of glucose from sources other than carbohydrates) is also carried out by the liver. Excess carbohydrates and protein are also converted into fat by the liver. Digested proteins in the form of amino acids are broken down further in the liver by deamination. The liver is also capable of synthesizing certain amino acids (the so-called nonessential amino acids) from other amino acids in a process called transamination. Part of the amino acid molecule is converted into glycogen and other compounds. Synthesis of lipoproteins and cholesterol: The end products of fat digestion, fatty acids, are used to synthesize cholesterol and other substances needed by the body. Synthesis of plasma proteins: Some essential components of blood are manufactured by the liver, including about 95% of the plasma proteins and the blood-clotting substances (fibrinogen, prothrombin, and other coagulation factors). Albumin, synthesized in the liver, accounts for colloidal osmotic pressure in the plasma. Digestive Functions: The liver synthesizes and secretes bile acids, which are necessary for adequate digestion and absorption of fats, and secretes into the bile a bicarbonate-rich solution of inorganic ions, which helps neutralize acid in the duodenum. Biotransformation of pharmaceuticals and vitamins: The liver contributes to the activation of vitamin D. Drugs are transformed, making them useful to the body (conversion of prodrug to active drug). Storage: The liver stores essential nutrients (glycogen) and important vitamins and minerals, including vitamins A, D, K, and B12.

The liver also filters harmful substances from the blood. Phagocytic cells in the liver, Kupffer cells, remove large amounts of debris and bacteria. 11. Bile is stored in a small sac called the gallbladder.

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The gallbladder is a hollow, pear shaped organ that sits in a depression on the posterior surface of the liver's right lobe. It is a muscular membranous sac that stores and concentrates bile, a fluid that is received from the liver and is important in digestion. The gallbladder has a capacity of about 50 ml (1.7 fluid ounces). It consists of a fundus, body and neck. The different layers of the gallbladder are as follows:

The gallbladder has a simple columnar epithelial lining characterized by recesses called Aschoff's recesses, which are pouches inside the lining. Under the epithelium there is a layer of connective tissue (lamina propria). Beneath the connective tissue is a wall of smooth muscle (muscularis muscosa) that contracts in response to cholecystokinin, a peptide hormone secreted by the duodenum. There is essentially no submucosa separating the connective tissue from serosa and adventitia.

It empties via the cystic duct into the biliary duct system. The main functions of the gall bladder are storage and concentration of bile. Bile is a thick fluid that contains enzymes to help dissolve fat in the intestines. Bile is produced by the liver but stored in the gallbladder until it is needed. Bile is released from the gall bladder by contraction of its muscular walls in response to hormone signals from the duodenum in the presence of food. The entrance of food into the small intestines stimulates the release of bile to the small intestines through a duct. 12. Fats in the small intestine are broken down into smaller droplets by bile. 13. One of the main functions of bile is to dissolve cholesterol. Bile is a salt containing detergent and if the amount of salt in the bile is insufficient, sharp, painful crystals can form, known as gallstones.

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Digestion
Digestion is the process of metabolism whereby a biological entity processes a substance in order to chemically and mechanically convert the substance for the body to use. Digestion occurs at the multicellular, cellular, and sub-cellular levels, usually in animals. This process takes place in the digestive system, gastrointestinal tract, or alimentary canal. Digestion is usually divided into mechanical manipulation and chemical action. Mechanical digestion: mastication, the use of teeth to tear and crush food, and churning of the stomach of food. Chemical digestion is the addition of chemicals (acid, bile, enzymes, and water) to break down complex molecules into simple structures, Phases of human digestion Cephalic phase - This phase occurs before food enters the stomach and involves preparation of the body for eating and digestion. Sight and thought stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimulus is sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve. Gastric phase - This phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distention of the stomach and alkaline pH. Distention activates long and myentric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach to an alkaline level. This triggers G cells to release gastrin. Gastrin activated HCl secreting parietal cells. HCl release is triggered by 3 chemicals - acetylcholine, gastrin and histamine. Intestinal phase - This phase has 2 parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially-digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes. Oral cavity In humans, digestion begins in the oral cavity where food is chewed. Saliva is secreted in large amounts (1-1.5 liter/day) by three pairs of exocrine salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and submaxillary) in the oral cavity, and is mixed with the chewed food by the tongue. The saliva serves to clean the oral cavity and moisten the food, and contains digestive enzymes such as salivary amylase, which aids in the chemical breakdown of polysaccharides such as starch into disaccharides such as maltose. It also contains mucin, a glycoprotein which helps soften the food into a bolus. Swallowing transports the chewed food into the esophagus, passing through the oropharynx and hypopharynx. The mechanism for swallowing is coordinated by the swallowing center in the medulla oblongata and pons. The reflex is initiated by touch receptors in the pharynx as the bolus of food is pushed to the back of the mouth.

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In the esophagus, the chewed food is pushed down to the stomach at the cardiac orifice through peristaltic contraction. It takes only seconds for food to pass through the esophagus, and little digestion actually takes place. The food enters the stomach after passing through the cardiac orifice. In the stomach, food is further broken apart thoroughly mixed with a gastric acid and digestive enzymes that denature proteins. The parietal cells of the stomach also secrete a glycoprotein called intrinsic factor which enables the absorption of vitamin B-12. Other small molecules such as alcohol are absorbed in the stomach as well by passing through the membrane of the stomach and entering the circulatory system directly. After being processed in the stomach, food is passed to the small intestine via the pyloric sphincter. The majority of digestion and digestion occur here as chyme enters the duodenum. Here it is further mixed with three different liquids: 1. bile, which emulsifies fats to allow absorption, neutralizes the chyme, and is used to excrete waste products such as bilin and bile acids (which has other uses as well) 2. pancreatic juice made by the pancreas (pancreatic Amylase and Lipase) 3. intestinal enzymes of the alkaline mucosal membranes. The enzymes include: maltase, lactase and sucrase, to process sugars; trypsin and chymotrypsin are also added in the small intestine Carbohydrate digestion Carbohydrates are formed in growing plants and are found in grains, leafy vegetables, and other edible plant foods. The molecular structure of these plants is complex, or a polysaccharide; poly is a prefix meaning many. Carbohydrates are stored within the plant as complex starch containing a combination of carbon-hydrogen-oxygen in a fixed ratio of 1:2:1 respectively. Plants with a high sugar content and table sugar represent a less complex structure and are called disaccharides, or two sugar molecules bonded. Once digestion of either of these forms of carbohydrates is complete, the result is a single sugar structure, a monosaccharide. These monosaccharides can be absorbed into the blood and used by individual cells to produce the energy compound adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The digestive system starts the process of breaking down polysaccharides in the mouth through the introduction of amylase, a digestive enzyme in saliva, which aids in the chemical breakdown of polysaccharides such as starch into disaccharides such as maltose.

The food enters the stomach after passing through the cardiac orifice. The high acid content of the stomach inhibits the enzyme activity, so carbohydrate digestion is suspended in the stomach. Upon emptying into the small intestines, the pancreas secretes bicarbonate to neutralize the acid from the stomach, and the mucus secreted in the tissue lining the intestines is alkaline which promotes digestive enzyme activity.

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Pancreatic juice made by the pancreas is secreted and It contains a variety of enzymes including pancreatic amylase which acts on starch, glycogen and cellulose, as well as most other carbohydrates. These compounds are broken into disaccharides. Amylase works with other enzymes to complete the breakdown of carbohydrate into a monosaccharide which is absorbed into the surrounding capillaries of the villi. The jejunum and ileum secretes a juice called succus entericus which contains the following enzymes that degrade disaccharides into monosaccharides:

Sucrase, which breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose Maltase, which breaks down maltose into glucose. Lactase, which breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose

Nutrients in the blood are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal circuit, or loop, where final carbohydrate digestion is accomplished in the liver. The liver accomplishes carbohydrate digestion in response to the hormones insulin and glucagon. As blood glucose levels increase following digestion of a meal, the pancreas secretes insulin causing the liver to transform glucose to glycogen, which is stored in the liver, adipose tissue, and in muscle cells, preventing hyperglycemia. A few hours following a meal, blood glucose will drop due to muscle activity, and the pancreas will now secrete glucagon which causes glycogen to be converted into glucose to prevent hypoglycemia. N:B: Trisaccharides are sugars containing three hexoses. Raffinose, found in molasses contains the three hexose's; glucose, fructose and galactose, while maltotriose, an intermediate product of starch digestion contains three glucose units. These compounds can be only partially digested by humans.

Fat digestion The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones which stimulate the release of lipase from the pancreas and bile from the gallbladder. The bile emulsifies the fatty acids so they may be easily absorbed. Intestinal lipase, which breaks down fatty acids The lipase (activated by acid) breaks down the fat into monoglycerides and fatty acids. Short- and medium-length fatty acids are absorbed directly into the blood via intestine capillaries and travel through the portal vein just as other absorbed nutrients do. However, long-chain fatty acids are too large to be directly released into the tiny intestine capillaries. Instead they are absorbed into the fatty walls of the intestine villi and then reassembled again into triglycerides. The triglycerides are then coated with cholesterol and protein (protein coat) into a compound called a chylomicron. Within the villi, the chylomicron enters a lymphatic capillary called a lacteal, which merges into larger lymphatic vessels. It is transported via the lymphatic system and the thoracic duct up to a location near the heart (where the arteries and veins are larger). The thoracic duct empties the chylomicrons into the bloodstream via the left subclavian vein. At this point the chylomicrons can transport the triglycerides to where they are needed. 195

Protein Digestion In The Stomach This digestive process begins in the stomach, where hydrochloric acid, secreted in the stomach's gastric acid, converts inactive pepsinogen into active pepsin, which attacks the protein molecules separating them and starts breaking them down into amino acids. Protein-digesting enzymes are referred to as proteinases or proteases. Protein generally takes the form of very complex molecules arranged in chains of amino acids. So the bonds binding these complex molecules together must first be broken down. Then the gastric enzyme pepsin - the only protease able to digest collagen (the fibrous protein found in animal connective tissue) - starts to digest the proteins into peptones and peptides. (Tripeptides and Dipeptides) Protein Digestion In The Small Intestine Digestion of proteins continues in the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine. As in fat digestion, the pancreas helps the process by secreting the pancreatic protease enzymes trypsin, chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase. Like pepsin, trypsin breaks down proteins (peptones and peptides) into single amino acid molecules, through a process called hydrolysis. Intestinal juices also called succus entericus also aids in protein digestion. Enterokinase converts chymotrypsin to trypsin, while peptidase(Tripeptidase and Dipeptidase) breaks down peptones and peptides, (Tripeptides and Dipeptides) into amino acids. After breakdown, the amino acids are small enough to pass through the intestinal lining into tiny veins (capillaries) in the villi (the finger-like projections on the wall of the small intestine). Once in the bloodstream, the amino acids are distributed by both red blood cells and by the liquid blood plasma to tissues throughout the body where they are used in the creation and repair of cell structures. Such is the demand for protein; the body maintains a constant balance of amino acids in the blood. Surplus Protein Calories In Diet If protein requirements are exceeded by protein intake, the surplus amino acids may be converted to glucose for energy use, or converted to fatty acids and stored as adipose tissue. Insufficient Protein In Diet If we eat insufficient protein (not very likely for most people), the body may break down stored protein in the muscles and transport the amino acids to the more vital organs, as required. Alternatively, if our energy intake falls dangerously low, protein amino acids will be taken from the muscles and sent to the liver to be converted into glucose. Digestive hormones There are at least four hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system: Gastrin - is in the stomach and stimulates the gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid. Secretion of gastrin is stimulated by food arriving in stomach. The secretion is inhibited by low pH . Secretin - is in the duodenum and signals the secretion of sodium bicarbonate in the pancreas and it stimulates the bile secretion in the liver. This hormone responds to the acidity of the chyme. 196

Cholecystokinin (CCK) - is in the duodenum and stimulates the release of digestive enzymes in the pancreas and stimulates the emptying of bile in the gall bladder. This hormone is secreted in response to fat in chyme. Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) - is in the duodenum and decreases the stomach churning in turn slowing the emptying in the stomach. Also functions is to induce insulin secretion

Physiology of Swallowing
Swallowing, known scientifically as deglutition, is the reflex in the human body that makes something pass from the mouth, to the pharynx, into the esophagus, with the shutting of the epiglottis. If this fails and the object goes through the trachea, then choking or pulmonary aspiration can occur. The mechanism for swallowing is co-ordinated by the swallowing centre in the medulla oblongata and pons. The reflex is initiated by touch receptors in the pharynx as a bolus of food is pushed to the back of the mouth by the tongue. Swallowing is a complex mechanism using both skeletal muscle (tongue) and smooth muscles of the pharynx and esophagus. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) coordinates this process in the pharyngeal and esophgeal phases. Phases Normal swallowing consists of four phases: oral preparatory, oral, pharyngeal, and esophageal (not all sources consider oral preparatory a distinct phase). 1. Oral preparatory phase In this phase, the food is processed by mastication, combined with the movement of the tongue form a bolus to an appropriate size to pass through the pharynx and esophagus. 2. Oral (or "buccal") phase When the bolus is ready to enter the oral stage, it is first moved to the back of the tongue. Next, the anterior tongue lifts to the hard palate and retracts in a posterior direction to force the bolus to the oropharynx. Then, the posterior tongue is lifted by the mylohyoid muscles, which also elevates the soft palate and seals the nasopharynx to prevent nasal aspiration. This phase is voluntary and involves important cranial nerves: V (trigeminal), VII (facial), and XII (hypoglossal). 3. Pharyngeal phase In this phase, the bolus is advanced from the pharynx to the esophagus through peristalsis. The soft palate is elevated to the posterior nasopharyngeal wall, through the action of the levator veli palatini. The palatopharyngeal folds on each side of the pharynx are brought close together through the superior constrictor muscles, so that only a small bolus can pass. Then the larynx and hyoid are elevated and pulled forward to the epiglottis to relax the cricopharyngeus muscle. This passively 197

shuts off its entrance and the vocal cords are pulled close together, narrowing the passageway between them. This phase is passively controlled reflexively and involves cranial nerves V, X (vagus), XI (accessory), and XII. The respiratory centre of the medulla is directly inhibited by the swallowing centre for the very brief time that it takes to swallow. This is known as deglutition apnoea. 4. Esophageal phase The upper oesophageal sphincter relaxes to let food past, after which various striated constrictor muscles of the pharynx as well as peristalsis and relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter sequentially push the bolus of food through the esophagus into the stomach.

Physiology of Defecation
When stool descends from the sigmoid colon into the rectum, pressure is put on the rectal wall and the rectal valves. Stretch receptors in the rectal wall are activated, and impulses are sent to the defecation center in the sacral spinal cord (S2-4). These actions result in the simultaneous awareness of an urge to defecate, reflex relaxation of the internal anal sphincter (rectosphincteric reflex) and contraction of the external anal sphincter. With sufficient fecal bolus, the initial contraction of the external sphincter is followed by total relaxation of the external and internal sphincters, leading to defecation. If it is inconvenient to defecate, continence can be achieved through voluntary contraction of the external anal sphincter and the puborectalis muscle, which helps constrict the anal canal. When the call to defecate is voluntarily suppressed, the rectum accommodates the retained stool by adaptive compliance and eliminates the reflex relaxation of the internal sphincter and the urge to defecate. Some of the stool in the rectum is returned to the descending colon by retroperistalsis. When it becomes convenient to defecate, the external sphincter is consciously relaxed, and intraabdominal pressure can be increased voluntarily by performing the Valsalva maneuver, which forces the stool along. During the process of defecation, the pelvic diaphragm is elevated, lifting the sphincter up over the fecal mass and allowing the stool to be expelled.

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The Urinary system

Objectives:
1. Identify the major parts of the kidney. 2. Relate the structure of a nephron to its function. 3. Explain how the process of filtration, reabsorption, and tubular secretion help maintain homeostasis. 4. Summarize the path in which urine is eliminated from the body. 5. List the functions of each of the major excretory organs. The urinary system is the organ system that produces, stores, and eliminates urine. In humans it includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, and the urethra. The urinary system removes waste products of cellular activity. The urinary system not only excretes waste but also helps maintain homeostasis by returning the content of water and other substances in the blood. The kidneys 1. The kidneys are essentially regulatory organs which maintain the volume and composition of body fluid by filtration of the blood and selective reabsorption or secretion of filtered solutes. the kidneys are retroperitoneal organs (ie located behind the peritoneum) situated on the posterior wall of the abdomen on each side of the vertebral column, at about the level of the twelfth rib. The left kidney is lightly higher in the abdomen than the right, due to the presence of the liver pushing the right kidney down. Kidney structure 1. The kidneys are bean-shaped organs, reddish brown in colour and measure about 10cm in length, 5cm wide
and 2.5cm thick.

2. The kidney has three regions; the inner part called the renal medulla; the outer part called the renal cortex and the renal pelvis, On sectioning, the kidney has has three regions, a pale outer region- the cortex- and a darker inner region- the medulla and the renal pelvis. The medulla is divided into 8-18 conical regions, called the renal pyramids; the base of each pyramid starts at the corticomedullary border, and the apex ends in the renal papilla which merges to form the renal pelvis and then on to form the ureter. In 199

humans, the renal pelvis, a funnel shaped structure in the center of the kidney, is divided into two or three spaces -the major calyces- which in turn divide into further minor calyces. The walls of the calyces, pelvis and ureters are lined with smooth muscle that can contract to force urine towards the bladder by peristalisis. The cortex and the medulla are made up of nephrons; these are the basic functional units of the kidney, and each kidney contains about 1.3 million of them.

3. Each nephron is a small independent filtering unit. Nephrons filters water and solutes from blood. Most of the filtrate is reclaimed from them. The rest, form an amber colored liquid called urine enters tubelike collecting ducts. These lead to the kidneys central cavity and the entrance to a ureter. The process of blood purification involves two separate processes-filtration and reabsorption. Filtration 1. Materials from blood are forced out of the glomerulus and into the bowman's capsule during a process called filtration When blood enters a nephron, it flows into a network of 50 capillaries known as a glomerulus. Glomerular filtration is dependent on: i) Glomerular blood pressure: average pressure in glomerular capillaries, tends to push fluid out of the glomerulus into Bowmans capsule. Approx 60 mmHg. ii) Bowmans Capsule pressure: resists movement of fluid out of glomerulus into Bowmans capsule. Approx 18 mmHg iii) Glomerular colloid osmotic pressure: tends to increase as plasma protein free plasma is fitered into the capsule. Resists movement of fluid into capsule. Approx 32 mmHg 2. The glomerulus is encased in the upper end of the nephron by a cup-shaped structure called bowman's capsule. The Bowman's capsule(other names: capsula glomeruli, glomerular capsule) is a cup like sac at the beginning of the tubular component of a nephron in the mammalian kidney. A glomerulus is enclosed in the sac. Fluids from blood in the glomerulus are collected in the Bowman's capsule (i.e., glomerular filtrate) and further processed along the nephron to form urine. This process is known as ultrafiltration. 3. The blood is under pressure and the walls of the capillaries and bowman's capsule are permeable, much of the fluid from the blood filters into bowman's

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capsule and the material filtered from the blood flows through the renal tubule, a long tube with permeable walls. The materials that are filtered from the blood are known as filtrate. The filtrate contains water, urea, glucose, salts, amino acids, and vitamins. Plasma proteins, cells and platelets are too large to pass through the membrane; they remain in the blood 4. The renal tube consists of three parts: the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of henle, and the distal convoluted tubule.

The proximal convoluted tubule. Controlled absorption of glucose, sodium, and other solutes goes on in this region. The loop of Henle. This region is responsible for concentration and dilution of urine by utilising a counter-current multiplying mechanism- basically, it is water-impermeable but can pump sodium out, which in turn affects the osmolarity of the surrounding tissues and will affect the subsequent movement of water in or out of the water-permeable collecting duct. The distal convoluted tubule. This region is responsible, along with the collecting duct that it joins, for absorbing water back into the body- simple maths will tell you that the kidney doesn't produce 125ml of urine every minute. 99% of the water is normally reabsorbed, leaving highly concentrated urine to flow into the collecting duct and then into the renal pelvis.

Reabsorption 1. Approx. 180 liters of filtrate pass from the blood into the collecting tubules each day. Not all of this is excreted. 2. Most of the materials removed from the blood at bowman's capsule makes its way back into the blood by a process known as reabsorption. 3. Approximately 99 percent of the water that is filtered into the bowman's capsule is reabsorbed into the blood. 4. Reabsorption proceeds along the nephron's tubular parts. 5. Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal tubule. In this region, about 75 percent of the water in the filtrate returns to the capillaries by osmosis. 6. Glucose and minerals are returned to the blood by active transport. 7. Some additional reabsorption occurs in the distal convoluted tubule. 8. When the filtrate reaches the distal convoluted tubule, some substances pass from the blood into the filtrate through a process called secretion. These substances include wastes and toxic materials. The ph of the blood is adjusted by hydrogen ions that are secreted from the blood into the filtrate. Secretion is the process by which substances move into the distal and collecting tubules from blood in the capillaries around these tubules. In this respect, secretion is reabsorption in reverse. Whereas reabsorption moves substances out of the tubules and into the blood, secretion moves 201

substances out of the blood and into the tubules where they mix with the water and other wastes and are converted into urine. These substances are secreted through either an active transport mechanism or as a result of diffusion across the membrane. Substances secreted are hydrogen ions (H+), potassium ions (K+), ammonia (NH3), and certain drugs. Kidney tubule secretion plays a crucial role in maintaining the body's acid-base balance, another example of an important body function that the kidney participates in. 9. The material that remains in the distal convoluted tubule is called urine, and consists of excess salts, water, and urea. 10. The urine becomes concentrated in a section of the nephron called the loop of henle, this area helps to conserve water and minimize the volume of urine. 11. Urine from the collecting ducts flows through the renal pelvis and into a narrow tube called a ureter. A ureter leads from each kidney to the urinary bladder. 12. At least 500 ml (17 oz) of urine must be eliminated every day because this amount of fluid is needed to remove potential toxic materials from the body to maintain homeostasis. 13. A normal adult eliminates from 1.5 l (1.6 qt) to 2.3 l (2.4 qt) of urine a day, depending on the amount of water taken in and the amount of water lost through respiration and perspiration. 14. Purified blood is returned to the circulatory system through the renal vein. Control of kidney function 1. The main proposes of our kidneys is to maintain the chemical composition of our blood. 2. The kidneys are the master chemist of the blood supply. 3. Two important things controlled by the kidneys are; concentration of water in blood; and the level of salt in our blood. 4. If we drink too much liquid, and the kidneys will decrease the rate of reabsorption, excess water is sent to the urinary bladder to be excreted. 5. If we eat salty foods and the kidneys will respond by returning less salt to the blood by reabsorption. The excess is excreted in our urine. 6. The kidneys ensure that the composition of our blood remains constant. Functionally the kidney performs a number of tasks. In its role in the urinary system it concentrates urine, plays a crucial role in regulating electrolytes, and maintains acid-base homeostasis. The kidney excretes and re-absorbs electrolytes (e.g. sodium, potassium and calcium) under the influence of local and systemic hormones. pH balance is regulated by the excretion of bound acids and ammonium ions. In addition, they remove urea, a nitrogenous waste product from the metabolism of proteins from amino acids. The end point is a hyperosmolar solution carrying waste for storage in the bladder prior to urination. 202

Ureters The ureters are tubes that are 25-30cm long and lined with smooth muscle. These tubes help carry urine to the bladder. The muscular tissue helps force urine downwards. They enter the bladder at an angle, so urine doesn't flow up the wrong way. Bladder The urinary bladder is a hollow muscular organ shaped like a balloon. It is located in the anterior pelvis. It is made up of a triangle shaped base, in which there are three openings: two for the ureters (tubes from the kidneys) and one for the urethra (tube carrying urine out of the body). The bladder consists of smooth muscles and the main muscle of the bladder is called the detrusor muscle that, when contracted, increases pressure on the bladder and creates urinary flow. Muscle fibres around the opening of the urethra forms a ring-like muscle (Sphincter), which controls the passage of urine. The epithelial tissue associated with the bladder is called transitional epithelium. It allows the bladder to stretch to accommodate urine without rupturing the tissue.

The bladder stores urine; it swells into a round shape when it is full and gets smaller when empty. In the absence of bladder disease, it can hold up to 500 mL (17 fl. oz.) of urine comfortably for two to five hours. Normally the bladder is sterile.

Structure of Bladder: The bladder itself consists of 4 layers:- (1) Serous - this outer layer being a partial layer derived from the peritoneum, (2) Muscular - the detrusor muscle of the urinary bladder wall, which consists of 3 layers incl. both 203

longitudinal and circularly arranged muscle fibres, (3) Sub-mucous - a thin layer of areolar tissue loosely connecting the muscular layer with the mucous layer, and (4) Mucous - the innermost layer of the wall of the urinary bladder loosely attached to the (strong and substantial) muscular layer. The mucosa falls into many folds known as rugae when the bladder is empty or near empty. The features observable on the inside of the bladder are the ureter orifices, the trigone, and the internal orifice of the urethra. The trigone is a smooth triangular region between the openings of the two ureters and the urethra and never presents any rugae even when the bladder is empty - because this area is more tightly bound to its outer layer of bladder tissue. Exit from Bladder: When urine is released from the bladder is flows out via the neck of the bladder (in the trigone region). The internal urethral sphincter is a sphincter (circular) muscle located at the neck of the bladder and formed from a thickening of the detrusor muscle. It closes the urethra when the bladder has emptied.

Urethra The endpoint of the urinary system is the urethra. It is a tube which runs from the bladder neck to open into an external hole. The urethra emerges from the end of the penis in males and between the clitoris and vagina in females. The female urethra is about 4-6cm long and 6mm wide. The male urethra is about 18-20 cm long, running from the bladder to the tip of the penis. As the female urethra is shorter than the male urethra, it is more likely to get infections from organisms from the vagina, such as bacteria. The urethra in humans is colonised by commensal bacteria below the external urethral sphincter. The male urethra At about 8-9 inches (200 mm) long, the adult male urethra is longer than the adult female urethra (of approx. 1.5 inches 35 mm). It has three portions (the prostatic urethra, the membranous urethra, and the spongy urethra - see below) and extends from the neck of the bladder (shown in the diagram above) to the meatus urinarius at the end of the male penis/urethra.

The general shape of the urethra (the tube itself) varies along it's length: The prostatic section of the male urethra is somewhat arched. Except during passage of urine or semen through the urethra, it is a transverse slit along it's length, the upper and lower surfaces of the transverse slit being in contact when fluid is not passing along the urethra. However, at exit from the body at the meatus urinarius (external orifice of urethra) the slit is vertical. 204

The three regions/sections of the male urethra are: 1. Prostatic Urethra

The prostatic urethra begins at the neck of the bladder and includes all of the section that passes through the prostrate gland. It is the widest and most dilatable part of the male urethral canal.

2. Membranous Urethra
The membranous urethra is the shortest and narrowest part of the male urethra. This section measures approx. 0.5 - 0.75 inches (12 - 19 mm) in length and is the section of the urethra that passes through the male urogenital diaphragm. The external urethral sphincter (muscle) is located in the urogenital diaphragm (as for the female urethra). This muscle is referred to as the "compressor urethrae muscle" in some older textbooks. The passage of urine along the urethra through the urogenital diaphragm is controlled by the external urethral sphincter, which is a circular muscle under voluntary control (that is, it is innervated by the somatic nervous system, SNS). See the page about micturation for more about control of these structures by the nervous system.

3. Spongy Urethra
The spongy urethra is the longest of the three sections. It is approx. 6 inches (150 mm) in length and is contained in the corpus spongiosum that extends from the end of the membranous portion, passes through the penis, and terminates at the external orifice of the urethra - which is the point at which the urine leaves the body.

Structure of the Male Urethra The structure of the urethra (tube) itself is a continuous mucous membrane supported by submucous tissue connecting it to the other structures through which it passes.
The mucous coat is continuous with the mucous membrane of the bladder, ureters and kidney. In the membranous and spongy sections (2. and 3. above), the mucous membrane is arranged in longitudinal folds when the tube is empty. The submucous tissue consists of a vascular (i.e. containing many blood vessels) erectile layer surrounded by a layer of smooth (involuntary) muscle fibres. These muscle fibres are arranged in a circular configuration that separates the mucous membrane and submucous tissue from the surrounding structure - which is the tissue of the corpus spongiosum (labeled simply "penis" in the diagram above).

Unlike the female urethra, the male urethra has a reproductive function in addition to it's urinary function - it conveys semen out of the body at ejaculation. For further information about this function red the section about the male reproductive system. The female urethra At only about 1.5 inches (35 mm) long, the female adult urethra is shorter than the adult male urethra (approx. or 8 inches, or 200mm). The female urethra is located immediately behind (posterior to) the pubic symphysis and is embedded into the front wall of the vagina. The urethra itself is a narrow membranous canal that consists of three layers: 1. Muscular layer - continuous with the muscular layer of the bladder, this extends the full length of
the urethra.

2. Thin layer of spongy erectile tissue - including plexus of veins and bundles of smooth muscle
fibres. Located immediately below the mucous layer.

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3. Mucous layer - internally continuous with the bladder and lined with laminated epithelium that is
transitional near to the bladder.

After passing through the urogenital diaphragm (as shown in the diagram), the female urethra ends at the external orifice of urethra - which is the point at which the urine leaves the body. This is located between the clitoris and the vaginal opening. The passage of urine along the urethra through the urogenital diaphragm is controlled by the external urethral sphincter, which is a circular muscle under voluntary control (that is, it is innervated by the somatic nervous system, SNS). See the page about micturation for more about control of these structures by the nervous system. The female urethra is a much simpler structure than the male urethra because it carries only urine (whereas the male urethra also serves as a duct for the ejaculation of semen - as part of its reproductive function).

Physiology of micturition The micturition reflex is activated when the urinary bladder wall is stretched; it results in urination. This reflex occurs in the spinal cord, specifically in the sacral region that is modified by the higher centers in the brain: the pons and cerebrum. The presence of urine in the bladder stimulates the stretch receptors, which produces action potential.

Mechanism of urination
The action potentials are carried by sensory neurons to the sacral segments of the spinal cord through the pelvic nerves and the parasympathetic fibers carry the action potentials to the urinary bladder in the pelvic nerves. This causes the wall of the bladder to contract. In addition, decreased somatic motor action potentials cause the external urinary sphincter, which consists of skeletal muscle, to relax. When the external urinary sphincter is relaxed urine will flow from the urinary bladder when the pressure there is great enough to force urine to flow through the urethra. The micturition reflex normally produces a series of contractions of the urinary bladder. Action potentials carried by sensory neurons from stretch receptors in the urinary bladder wall also ascend the spinal cord to a micturition center in the pons and to the cerebrum. Descending potentials are sent from these areas of the brain to the sacral region of the spinal cord, where they modify the activity of the micturition reflex in the spinal cord. The micturition reflex, integrated in the spinal cord, predominates in infants. The ability to voluntarily inhibit micturition develops at the age of 2-3 years, and subsequently, the influence of the pons and cerebrum on the spinal micturition reflex predominates. The micturition reflex integrated in the spinal cord is automatic, but it is either stimulated or inhibited by descending action potentials. Higher brain centers prevent micturition by sending action potentials from the cerebrum and pons through spinal pathways to 206

inhibit the spinal micturition reflex. Consequently, parasympathetic stimulation of the urinary bladder is inhibited and somatic motor neurons that keep the external urinary sphincter contracted are stimulated. The pressure in the urinary bladder increases rapidly once its volume exceeds approximately 400500 ml, and there is an increase in the frequency of action potentials carried by sensory neurons. The increased frequency of action potentials conducted by the ascending spinal pathways to the pons and cerebrum results in an increased desire to urinate. Voluntary initiation of micturition involves an increase in action potentials sent from the cerebrum to facilitate the micturition reflex and to voluntarily relax the external urinary sphincter. During micturition, the perineal muscles and external urethral sphincter are relaxed; the detrusor muscle contracts; and urine passes out through the urethra. . Urine remaining in the urethra of the male is expelled by several contractions of the bulbospongiosus muscle. In addition to facilitating the micturition reflex, there is an increased voluntary contraction of abdominal muscles, which causes an increase in abdominal pressure. This enhances the micturition reflex by increasing the pressure applied to the urinary bladder wall.

Urination techniques
Due to the differences in where the urethra ends, men and women use different techniques for urination.

Male urination
Due to the flexible and protruding nature of the penis, it is easy to control the direction of the urine stream. This makes it easy to urinate standing up, and most men urinate this way. The foreskin, if left in place during urination, may block the direct path of the outgoing stream by causing turbulence, resulting in a slower, but thicker stream of urine that may also dribble. Men who choose to retract their foreskin, or who have been circumcised, may have a more focused stream of urine that travels at the same speed it exits the urethra. It is also possible for men to urinate sitting down. This is normally done when defecation has to take place as well. Some men also prefer to urinate this way.

Female urination
In women, the urethra opens straight into the vulva. Because of this, the urine does not exit at a distance from her body and is, therefore, hard to control. Because of surface tension in the urine, the easiest method is to just rely on gravity to take over once the urine has exited her body. This can easily be achieved if the woman is sitting down, although some women choose to squat or hover. Those alternative choices are sometimes made due to the perceived or actual unsanitary conditions at the location where the woman is urinating. When sitting, it helps if the woman leans forward and keeps her legs together, as this helps direct her stream downwards. When not urinating into a toilet, squatting is the easiest way for a woman to direct her urine stream. Some women use one or both hands to focus the direction of the urine stream, which is more easily achieved while in the squatting position.

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It is also possible for many women to urinate standing up by spreading their legs and pushing hard to avoid urine running down their legs. This technique for urinating while standing can be common when women often wear a sarong, skirt, or other such open bottomed garments, and either wear no underwear, or remove it. It is considered normal for women to urinate like this in many parts of Africa, whereas in contrast, it is not completely accepted in countries such as India.

Reproductive system
The reproductive system is a system of organs within an organism which work together for the purpose of reproduction. Human reproduction employs internal fertilization, and depends on the 208

integrated action of hormones, the nervous system, and the reproductive system. Gonads are sex organs that produce gametes. Male gonads are the testes, which produce sperm and male sex hormones. Female gonads are the ovaries, which produce eggs (ova) and female sex hormones. The major function of the reproductive system is to ensure survival of the species. Sexual development 1. For the first six weeks after fertilization, human male and female embryos are identical in appearance.

2. During the seventh week of development, major changes occur: a. The testes, which are the primary reproductive organs of a male, begin to produce steroid hormones (sex) known as androgens. The tissue of the embryo responds to these hormones by developing into the male reproductive organs. b. The ovaries, or the primary reproductive organs of a female embryo, produce steroid hormones (sex) known as estrogens. The tissue of the embryo responds to these hormones by developing into the female reproductive organs. 3. The male and female reproductive organs develop from exactly the same tissues in the embryo. 4. After birth the testes and the ovaries continue to produce small amounts of sex hormones. These sex hormones continue to influence the development of the reproductive organs. 5. Neither testes or ovaries are capable of producing active reproductive cells (gametes) until puberty. 6. Puberty is a period of rapid growth and sexual maturation during which the reproductive system becomes fully functional. 209

7. At the completion of puberty, the male and female gonads, or reproductive organs, are fully developed. 8. Reproductive system, unlike other systems we have studied, is not essential to the survival of an individual. 9. Organisms can survive and lead healthy lives without reproducing. 10 What the reproductive system is important to is the survival of the species. Reproduction is absolutely essential to the continuation of the speciessome of us must reproduce!

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Reproduction male
1. Males begin to produce sperm during puberty, the adolescent stage of development when changes in the body make reproduction possible. 2. At this time, the concentration of the hormone testosterone is high enough to stimulate sperm production. Testosterone is the main androgen (male sex hormone) produced by the testes. 210

1.

External Organs Scrotum: the scrotum is an outpouching of the abdominal wall consisting of loose skin and superficial fascia that hangs from the root of the penis. Externally, it has a median ridge called a raphe which separates the pouch into two lateral portions while internally, it has a vertical scrotal septum that divides it into two sacs, each containing a single testis. the septum consists of superficial fascia and smooth muscle tissue called the dartos muscle which is also found in the subcutaneous tissue of the scrotum, it causes wrinkling of the skin of the scrotum

Penis: The penis is the male organ of copulation, one of the external structures of the male reproductive system. The average adult penis size is about 6.2 inches or (157mm). The average girth of an erect penis is 12.3 cm (4.84 in).The average length of the flaccid penis is about 9 cm (3.5 in) with most measurements falling between 5 cm (2 in) and 12.5 cm (5 in). The penis has three parts: the root, which attaches to the wall of the abdomen; the body, or shaft; and the glans penis, which is the cone-shaped end (head). The opening of the urethra, the tube that transports semen and urine, is at the tip of the glans penis. The body of the penis is cylindrical in shape and consists of three internal chambers or columns of erectile tissue, two dorsal (corpora cavernosa penis), one ventral (corpus cavernosa urethrae, or corpus spongiosum). These chambers are made up of special, sponge-like erectile tissue. This tissue contains thousands of large caverns that fill with blood when the man is sexually aroused. As the penis fills with blood, it becomes rigid and erect, which allows for penetration during sexual intercourse. The skin of the penis is loose and elastic to accommodate changes in penis size during an erection. Congenital abnormalities of penis: hypospadias and episadias. Clinical consideration of penis: circumcision and phimosis. 2. Internal Organs of the Male Reproductive Tract Male gonads: testes

(1) The testes (primary male reproductive organs) develop within the abdominal cavity and just before birth the testes descend through a canal into an external sac called the scrotum. The testes are enclosed by the parietal peritoneum is named tunica vaginalis while the visceral peritoneum is named tunica albuginea. Both of these tunics consist of fibrous connective tissue with a thin surface of mesothelium. It is a dense membrane, of a bluish-white color, composed of bundles of white fibrous tissue which interlace in every direction. The testes (two egg-shaped structures) remain in the scrotum, outside the body, where the temperature is about 3 degrees c cooler than the body internal temperature (27 degrees c). 211

Sperm development in the testes requires the lower temperature. Structure and location: The testes consist of about 250 wedge shaped lobes of clusters of hundreds of tiny tubules called seminiferous (sehm-uh-nihf-er-uhs) tubules, which means "seed bearing". Each testis weighs about 25 grams. They contain reproductive cells Spermatogonia and supportive (sertoli) cells inside the tubules, as well as interstitial cells between the tubules containing clusters of endocrine Leydig cells which secrete testosterone. Specific Sertoli cell functions include nutritional support, phagocytosis of residual bodies (shed cytoplasm) from spermatids, and secretion. Sperm form through meiosis in the specialized lining of this extensive network of tubules. 1. Congenital defect: cryptorchism. 3. Series of ducts (1) Epididymis: a coiled tube lying on posterior aspect of testis. (2) Ductus deferens: continuous with epididymis and joins ducts of seminal vesicle to form ejaculatory duct. (3) Ejaculatory duct: open into urethra. (4) Urethra: transmit urine and semen. 4. Accessory glands adding secretions to semen (1) Seminal vesicles: membranous pouches lying posterior to the bladder: secrets thick, nutrient-containing fluid. (2) Prostate glands: surrounds first part of urethra; secrets a thin, milky, alkaline fluid. (3) Bulbourethral glands: located below prostate; discharge lubricating mucous secretion prior to ejaculation. 5. As the pituitary gland begins to release fsh and lh, these hormones stimulate the testes to make the principal male sex hormone testosterone. 6. Cells that respond to testosterone are found all over the body. 7. Testosterone produces a number of secondary sex characteristics that appear in males at puberty voice deepens, beard grows, and body hair. 8. Fsh and testosterone stimulate the development of sperm. When large numbers of sperm have been produced in the testes, the development process of puberty is completed - the reproductive system is now functional. Sperm development 1. Sperm are derived from special cells within the testes that go through the process of meiosis to form haploid nuclei found in mature sperm. The chromosome number drops from 46 to 23, four sperm cells result from each cell that begins meiosis. 2. A mature sperm consists of three regions: a. Head - which contains the nucleus (the 23 chromosomes) and enzymes that help the sperm penetrate the protective layers that surround an egg cell. 212

b. Mid piece - packed with energy releasing mitochondria (energy source). The mitochondria supply the energy that is required for sperm to reach an egg. c. Tail consists of a single, powerful flagellum that propels the sperm. 3. Developed sperm travel from the seminiferous tubules into the epididymis. Within each epididymis, a sperm matures and gains the ability to swim as its flagellum completes development. 4. Although most sperm remain stored in each epididymis, some leave the epididymis and pass into through the vas deferens, a duct that extends from the epididymis. 5. Each vas deferens enters the abdominal cavity, where it loops around the urinary bladder and merges with the urethra. In a male, both urine and sperm exit the body through the urethra. 6. In the urethra, sperm mix with fluids that are secreted by three exocrine glands- the seminal vesicles, bulbourethral glands, and the prostate gland- to produce seminal fluid -which protects and nourishes the sperm. 7. The combination of sperm and seminal fluid is known as semen. 8. Semen has a high concentration of fructose to be used by sperm as an energy source. 9. To increase sperm survival, semen also contains alkaline fluids that help to neutralize the acidic environment of the female's vagina. 10. To help sperm move through the female reproductive system, semen also contains prostaglandins that stimulate contractions of smooth muscles that line the female reproductive track. 11. Between 100 and 200 million sperm are present in 1 milliliter of semen or about 5 million sperm per drop! 12. The vas deferens merges with the urethra, the tube that leads to the outside of the body through the penis. 13. The penis is the male reproductive organ that makes it possible for sperm to be delivered to the body of the female. 14. When the male is sexually excited, the autonomic nervous system prepares the male organs to deliver sperm (erect). 15. Sperm are ejected from the penis by contractions of smooth muscles lining the vas deferens. This process is called ejaculation. 16. Because ejaculation is regulated by the autonomic nervous system, it is not completely voluntary.

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17. 300 - 400 million sperm are released in the reproductive tract of a female during a single ejaculation; the chances of a single sperm fertilizing and ovum (egg or female gamete), if one is available, are quit good. 18. Most sperm are killed by the acidic environment of the female reproductive track. Only a few sperm reach the site of fertilization. 19. Sperm make up only 10 percent of semen, 90 percent is the fluid secreted by the three glands.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

(1) External organs: Vulva Mon pubis: adipose tissue over symphysis pubis. Labia majora: rounded folds of adipose tissue extending down wards from mons pubis to encircle vestibule: homologous to scrotum. Labia minora: two smaller folds medial to labia majora. Vestibule: cleft between the labia minora within which the vagina and urethral orifices are situated. The ducts of the Para urethral (Skenes) glands open at the sides of the urethral orifice; the duct opening of the greater tibular (Bartholins) gland are lateral to the vaginal orifice. Clitoris/; a small projection of erectile tissue at the apex of the vestibule; homologous to penis. Hymen: mucous membrane separating vagina from vestibule; can be present or absent in virginity. (2) Internal Organs Vagina tubular canal: The human vagina is an elastic muscular canal that extends from the cervix to the vulva. Although there is wide anatomical variation the average vagina is 6 to 7 inches (15 to 18 cm) in length. The vagina connects the superficial vulva to the cervix of the deep uterus. It is located between the urinary bladder and the rectum. The inner most aspect of the vagina exhibits a recess called the fornix that surrounds the vaginal attachment to the cervix. It has three layers namely: 214

 A mucosa with rugae. The mucosa stores glycogen which subsequently decomposes into organic acids that create an acidic environment; the acidity retards microbial growth, but is also harmful to sperm cells A muscularis composed of smooth muscle tissue that can stretch considerably to accommodate the penis during sexual intercourse and permit birth of a child. An outer adventitia which anchors the vagina to neighboring organs. The vaginal orifice may be encircled by a thin fold of vascularized mucous membrane called the hymen (an imperforate hymen completely covers the orifice); the hymen is easily torn and destroyed by the first sexual intercourse
Function: the vagina has several major roles:

a. it is a passageway for menstrual flow b. it is a passageway for childbirth c. it receives semen from the penis during sexual intercourse Vaginal lubrication Vaginal lubrication is the naturally produced lubricating fluid that reduces friction during sexual intercourse. It is typically produced with women's sexual arousal, but also can be produced when there is no arousal. While plasma seepage from vaginal walls due to vascular engorgement is considered to be the chief lubrication source, the Bartholin's glands, located slightly below and to the left and right of the introitus (opening of the vagina), also secrete mucus to augment vaginalwall secretions. Composition The lubrication fluid contains water, pyridine, squalene, urea, acetic acid, lactic acid, complex alcohols and glycols, ketones, and aldehydes. The fluid is typically clear and more resembling of male pre-ejaculate than male ejaculate. It can vary in consistency, texture, taste, color, and odor, depending on sexual arousal, the phase of the menstrual cycle, the presence of an infection, certain drugs (legal or illegal), genetic factors, and diet. Vaginal fluid is slightly acidic and can become more acidic with certain sexually transmitted diseases. The normal pH of vaginal fluid is between 3.8 and 4.5, whereas male semen is typically between 7.2 and 8.0 (a neutral substance has a pH of 7.0). Changes in vaginal lubrication Certain medications, including some over-the-counter antihistamines, as well as life events such as pregnancy, lactation, menopause, aging or diseases such as diabetes, will inhibit lubrication. Medicines with anticholinergic or sympathomimetic effects will dry out the mucosal or "wet" tissues of the vagina. Such medicines include many common drugs for allergic, cardiovascular, psychiatric, and other medical conditions. Oral contraceptives may also increase or decrease vaginal lubrication. Uterus 215

(1) Location: above bladder and in front of rectum. A uterus that is not pregnant measures about 7 cm long and 5 cm wide, with a 1 inch diameter. It weighs from 30 to 40 gm (2) Supporting ligaments. The ligaments of the uterus are eight in number (a) Cardinal ligaments: principal support of uterus.The cardinal ligament (or lateral cervical ligament, or transverse cervical ligament) is at the base of the broad ligament of the uterus.It is attached to the side of the cervix uteri and to the vault and lateral fornix of the vagina, (b) Broad ligaments: to both sides of pelvic cavity. (c) Round ligaments: The round ligaments originate from the sides of the uterus, travel away from it toward the pelvic sidewalls where they travel through the inguinal rings and then spread to insert on the vaginal sidewalls and inner thighs hold uterus in forward; tilted position. (d) Uterosacral ligaments: help support and maintain position of uterus. (3) Consists of three parts; Cervix, corpus, and fundus. The cervix (from Latin "neck") is the lower, narrow portion of the uterus where it joins with the top end of the vagina. It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall. Approximately half its length is visible with appropriate medical equipment; the remainder lies above the vagina beyond view. It is occasionally called "cervix uteri", or "neck of the uterus". Ectocervix The portion projecting into the vagina is referred to as the portio vaginalis or ectocervix. On average, the ectocervix is 3 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. It has a convex, elliptical surface and is divided into anterior and posterior lips. External os The ectocervix's opening is called the external os. The size and shape the external os and the ectocervix varies widely with age, hormonal state, and whether the woman has had a vaginal birth. In women who have not had a vaginal birth the external os appears as a small, circular opening. In women who 216 of

have had a vaginal birth, the ectocervix appears bulkier and the external os appears wider, more slit-like and gaping. Endocervical canal The passageway between the external os and the uterine cavity is referred to as the endocervical canal. It varies widely in length and width, along with the cervix overall. Flattened anterior to posterior, the endocervical canal measures 7 to 8 mm at its widest in reproductive-aged women.

Internal os The endocervical canal terminates at the internal os which is the opening of the cervix inside the uterine cavity. This is a narrowing in the interior of the uterine cavity, the internal orifice of the uterus. On the surface, is a slight constriction, known as the isthmus. Histology The epithelium of the cervix is nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium at the ectocervix, and simple columnar epithelium at the cervix proper. At certain times of life, the columnar epithelium is replaced by metaplastic squamous epithelium, and is then known as the transformation zone. Cervical mucus Mucus plug After menstruation ends, the external os is blocked by a thick acidic mucus that prevents infection. The mucus thins and its pH increases (closer to neutral) several days prior to ovulation, allowing spermatozoa to pass through the cervix to the fallopian tubes where they wait for an ovum to be released. Shortly after ovulation occurs, the cervical mucus reverts to a thicker form with lower pH. During pregnancy the cervix is completely blocked by a special antibacterial mucosal plug which prevents infection, somewhat similar to its state during the infertile portion of the menstrual cycle. The mucus plug comes out as the cervix dilates in labor or shortly before. Cervical position After menstruation and directly under the influence of estrogen, the cervix undergoes a series of changes in position and texture.

During most of the menstrual cycle, the cervix remains firm, like the tip of the nose, and is positioned low and closed. However, as a woman approaches ovulation, the cervix becomes soft and mushy, and rises and opens in response to the high levels of estrogen present at ovulation. This change, 217

accompanied by the production of fertile-quality cervical mucus, supports the survival and movement of sperm. Functionality During menstruation the cervix stretches open slightly to allow the endometrium to be shed. This stretching is believed to be part of the cramping pain that many women experience. Evidence for this is given by the fact that some women's cramps subside or disappear after their first vaginal birth because the cervical opening has widened. During childbirth, contractions of the uterus will dilate the cervix up to 10 cm in diameter to allow the fetus to pass through. During orgasm, the cervix convulses and the external os dilates in such a way as to draw any semen in the vagina into the uterus, increasing the likelihood of conception. The body or corpus, (corpus uteri) is the part of the uterus above the isthmus, comprising about two thirds of the non-pregnant organ. The Cavity of the Body in the uterus is a mere slit, flattened antero-posteriorly. It is triangular in shape, the base being formed by the internal surface of the fundus between the orifices of the uterine tubes, the apex by the internal orifice of the uterus through which the cavity of the body communicates with the canal of the cervix. The fundus (fundus uteri) is the superior, rounded region above the entrance of the fallopian tubes it is convex in all directions, and covered by peritoneum continuous with that on the vesical and intestinal surfaces. On it rest some coils of small intestine, and occasionally the distended sigmoid colon. Wall of the uterus; divided into three layers (a) Outer serous layer of peritoneum. (b) Middle muscular layer, myometrium, divided into three ill-defined, intertwining layers, the middle of which contains many large blood vessels. (c) Inner mucous layer, endometrium, subject to regulation by ovarian hormones and is involved in menstruation and implantation: superficial layer sloughs during menstruation. Uterine tubes: pair of flexible, muscular tubes. There are two Fallopian tubes, attached to either side of the cornual end of the uterus, extended from upper angle of uterus on either side toward sides of pelvis, and each terminating at or near one ovary forming a structure called the fimbria. In humans, the Fallopian tubes are about 714 cm long. Attachment: suspended by peritoneal folds, the mesosalpinx. Structure: three layers, mucous, smoother muscle, and serous mucous layer is lined with ciliated epithelium.

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There are four regions of the fallopian tube from the ovary to the uterus:

Infundibulum - The third part of the uterine tube is the the infundibulum, contains fimbria open into abdominal cavity. It terminates with the ostium of Fallopian tube, surrounded by fimbriae, one of which, the ovarian fimbria is attached to the ovary. Ampulla - The ampulla is the second portion of the uterine tube. It is an intermediate dilated portion, which curves over the ovary. It is the most common site of human fertilization Isthmus - The first part of the uterine tube is the isthmus tubae uterinae. It is the medial third, and it is constricted. Intramural oviduct - inside wall of uterus

The ovarian fimbria is longer and more deeply grooved than the others and is closely applied to the tubal pole of the ovary. Passing medially, the infundibulum opens into the thin-walled ampulla forming more than half the length of the tube and 1 or 2 cm in outer diameter; it is succeeded by the isthmus, a round and cord-like structure constituting the medial one-third of the tube and 0.5-1 cm in outer diameter. The interstitial or conual portion of the tube continues from the isthmus through the uterine wall to empty into the uterine cavity. This segment of the tube is about 1 cm in length and 1 mm in inner diameter. Function: to convey ovum to uterus by muscular contraction and ciliary action. Fertilization takes place in uterine tubes.

Ovaries

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Ovaries: primary reproductive organs of female (1) Location: The ovaries are located in the lower abdominal cavity; in upper part of pelvic cavity on each side of uterus. The size of each ovary is about 1.5 inches long.The ovaries usually produce only one egg or ovum per month. Each ovary consists of the following components: a. germinal epithelium which covers the surface of the ovary b. tunica albuginea, a capsule of dense connective tissue located under the germinal epithelium c. ovarian cortex which consists of dense connective tissue and contains ovarian follicles d. ovarian medulla which consists of loose connective tissue and contains blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves e. ovarian follicles, consisting of oocytes in various stages of development and their surrounding epithelial cells; the latter are called follicular cells when they form a single layer, and are called granulosa cells when they form several layers f. mature (Graafian) follicle, a large fluid-filled follicle which will rupture and expel a secondary oocyte in a process called ovulation 220

g. corpus luteum, a remnant of the mature (Graafian) follicle that has ruptured; it secretes several hormones until it degenerates into a mass of fibrous tissue called a corpus albicans (2) Attachment: each suspected forms broad ligaments by peritoneal folds, mesovarium: anchored to uterus by ovarian ligaments.

Reproduction female
1. Like the testes, the primary reproductive organs of the female are the ovaries. The female gonads-ovaries-are endocrine glands that produce gametes. The female reproductive system prepares the female gametes-eggs-for possible fertilization. It also contains structures that enable fertilization to occur and that house and nourish a developing baby.. 2. In addition to producing eggs, the female reproductive system has another important job to perform - each time an egg is released, the body must be prepared to nourish a developing embryo. 3. Puberty in females starts with changes in the hypothalamus that causes the release of fsh and lh from the pituitary gland. 4. Fsh (follicle stimulating hormone) stimulates cells within the ovaries to produce the hormone estrogen. 5. Estrogen causes the reproductive system to complete its development, and also produce secondary sex characteristics - enlargement of breast and reproductive organs, widening of the hips, and growth of body hair.

Formation of eggs (ova, called the ovarian cycle) 1. Each ovary contains about 400,000 primary follicles, which are clusters of cells surrounding a single ovum (egg). 2. During her lifetime fewer than 500 ova (eggs) will actually be released, averaging one egg about every 28 days. 3. The function of a follicle is to prepare a single ovum for release into the part of reproductive system where it can be fertilized. Ova mature within their follicles. The maturing eggs become large, highly complex cells, growing nearly 75,000 times larger than sperm. 4. When a follicle has completely matured, the ovum (egg) is released. This process is called ovulation. 5. If two eggs mature, fraternal, or non identical twins may result. 6. Ovulation begins at puberty and usually continues until a female is in her late forties, when menopause occurs. 221

7. After menopause, follicle development no longer occurs and a female is no longer capable of bearing children. (the biological clock stop) 8. Without follicles, the ovaries cannot secrete enough estrogen and progesterone to continue the menstrual cycle, and menstruation ceases. 9. The follicle literally ruptures, and the ovum is swept from the ovary into one of the two fallopian tubes. The fallopian tubes provide a way for an egg to travel from the ovary to the uterus. 10. The ovum is moved through the fluid filled fallopian tubes by cilia attached to the cells that line the walls of the tube. 11. It is during its journey through the fallopian tube that an egg can be fertilized. An egg must be fertilized within 48 hours of its release - after that, the egg begins to break down. Unfertilized eggs dissolve in the uterus. 12. After a few days, the ovum passes from the fallopian tube into the uterus. 13. The lining of the uterus is specially designed to receive a fertilized ovum. 14. The lower entrance to the uterus is called the cervix. A sphincter muscle in the cervix controls the opening to the uterus. 15. Leading from the cervix to the outside of the body is a muscular tube called the vagina or birth canal. 16. The external structures of the female reproductive system are collectively called the vulva. The vulva includes the labia, folds of skin and mucous membranes that cover and protect the opening to the female reproductive system. The menstrual cycle 1. In females, the interaction of the reproductive system and the endocrine system takes the form of a complex series of periodic events called the menstrual cycle. The cycle takes an average of about 28 days. 2. Each month, the uterus prepares to receive and nourish an embryo. 3. The menstrual cycle is the series of changes that occur in the uterus each month. 4. The menstrual cycle has four stages: the follicular phase, ovulation, the luteal phase and menstruation. 5. These stages are regulated by the hormones of the endocrine system. 6. During the first stage-the follicular phase, of the menstrual cycle, the egg matures, and the lining of the uterus grows thicker, many tiny blood vessels grow into the thickened lining, in preparation for receiving a fertilized egg. 7. The development of an egg in this stage of the cycle takes about 14 days. 222

8. The second stage, ovulation, the shortest phase in the cycle (3-4 days), is the release of an egg from a ruptured follicle. Following ovulation, an egg is swept into a fallopian tube, where it travels toward the uterus awaiting fertilization. The egg has enough stored nutrients to survive about 48 hours. 9. The third stage, luteal phase, last about 14 days, the cells of the ruptured follicle grow larger and fill the cavity, forming a new structure called a corpus luteum. The corpus luteum begins to secrete large amounts of progesterone and estrogen. The increase levels cause the pituitary gland to stop secreting lh and fsh. 10. Progesterone causes the lining of the uterus to become even thicker. 11. The lining is prepared to receive the embryo four or five days after the egg is released from the ovary. 12. An embryo that settles into the lining of the uterus, the corpus luteum continues to release hormones that cause the uterus to maintain its thickened lining. 13. Most of the time, no embryo arrives, and the corpus luteum begins to produce less and less estrogen and progesterone. 14. The decrease in levels of estrogen and progesterone causes the blood vessels in the uterine lining to begin closing and then break. 15. The cells of the uterine lining do not receive adequate blood supply and come loose from the inside of the uterus. 16. The mixture of blood and the cells that made up the lining of the uterus is called menstrual fluid. 17. The passage of this fluid through the vagina and out of the body is called menstruation or the menstrual period the last stage. It usually lasts from three to seven days. At the end of the period, a new cycle begins- the follicular phase. 18. The average menstrual cycle is 28 days long. 19. Almost all women start their menstrual period 14 days after ovulation occurs.

Breast Composition
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Structure The breast is a mass of glandular, fatty, and fibrous tissues positioned over the pectoral muscles on either side of the chest wall and attached to the chest wall by fibrous strands called Coopers ligaments. Breast tissue extends from below the collarbone to the level of the sixth or seventh rib, and from the breastbone to the underarm (axilla). The breasts cover a large part of the chest wall. In front, the breast tissue may extend from the clavicle (collarbone) to the middle of the sternum (breastbone). On the side, breast tissue may continue into the axilla (armpit) and reach as far as the latissimus dorsi (muscle extending from the lower back to the humerus bone of the upper arm). The breast is composed of: Milk glands (lobules or alveoli) lined with milk-secreting cuboidal cells and surrounded by myoepithelial cells, that produce milk from the nutrients and water they take from the bloodstream. ) These alveoli join up to form groups known as lobules. The myoepithelial cells can contract under the stimulation of oxytocin thereby excreting the milk from glands through the lactiferous ducts toward the nipple, where it collects in sinuses of the ducts. As the infant begins to suck, the hormonally (oxytocin) mediated "let down reflex" ensues and the mother's milk is secreted into not sucked from the gland by the baby's mouth. Each breast contains 15 to 20 lobes arranged in a circular fashion. The fat (subcutaneous adipose tissue) that covers the lobes gives the breast its size and shape. Each lobe is comprised of many lobules, at the end of which are tiny bulb like glands, or sacs, where milk is produced in response to hormonal signals. The space in between the lobes is filled with connective and fatty tissue. Fat also surrounds the whole system of milk ducts and glands. Usually the breasts of young women are mainly glandular tissue and that is why their breasts are firmer. The softer the breasts are, the more fat they contain. Note that the breast does not have any muscles (except for tiny ones in the nipples), so no amount of exercise will change their appearance. The breast is supported by semi-elastic bands of tissue called Cooper's ligaments. Cooper's ligaments (also known as the suspensory ligaments of Cooper and the fibrocollegenous septa) are connective tissue in the breast that helps maintain structural integrity. The ligaments are firmly attached to the dermis of the skin and anchor the breast to the subcutaneous tissue. These ligaments (along with the skin) stretch over time when the gravity pulls the breast down, and that 224

is why the breast will start drooping or sagging. The breast size and shape in different women varies a lot. Some women have more glandular tissue in their breasts, some have less. Some have more fatty tissue than others. Some have more connective tissue so their breasts are firmer, and yet some women are totally flat-chested. The size and shape also varies over time in the same woman because of the changes during menstrual cycle, pregnancy, after weaning, and during menopause. Most of the size differences between women are due to the amount of fatty tissue in the breast. But practically all breasts can make milk and help nurture the baby.The rare exception to this is the so-called hypoplastic or underdeveloped breast that does not have much glandular tissue (or milk-making glands). Women with these tubular under- developed breasts may have low milk supply, but many of them can with the proper measures develop full supply and breastfeed succesfully. MOST women's breasts are not totally symmetrical usually, one breast is slightly larger or smaller, higher or lower, or shaped differently than the other. connective (fibrous) tissue surrounds the lobules and ducts. The nipple has several tiny openings in it through which the milk flows during lactation. The nipple can be flat, round, or cylindrical in shape. Nipples can sometimes be flat, with a 'line' through them, or inverted, where the nipple is indented inward. Some women's nipples are constantly erect whereas some have nipples that only become erect when stimulated by cold or touch. It is common to have some hair on the breast. Lactiferous ducts that transport milk from the milk glands (lobules) to the nipple . They are also referred to as galactophores, galactophorous ducts, mammary ducts, mamillary ducts and milk ducts. The system of milk glands and ducts resembles several bunches of grapes: the glands are the grapes, the ducts are the stems. Like grapes come in bunches, the milk glands and ducts also are organized into several clusters that are called lobes. Toward the nipple, each duct widens to form a sac (ampulla). During lactation, the bulbs on the ends of the lobules produce milk. Once milk is produced, it is transferred through the ducts to the nipple. The darker part surrounding the nipple is called the areola. Areolas usually grow in size and get darker during pregnancy - as if making it easier for the baby to spot the place of nourishment. The areolae of most sexually-mature women may range up to 100 mm (4 in) or more in diameter, with average sizes around 30 mm (1.2 in). The areola of women who are lactating or who have particularly large breasts may be even larger. The little 'bumps' on the areola are called Montgomery glands (sebaceous glands), and they produce oil that lubricates the nipple/areola complex. The areola can be a very narrow ring, or may cover half of a small breast. The color varies from pink to brown to black, its color comes from an abundance of two polymers. These are; eumelanin, the brown pigment, and pheomelanin, the red pigment. The genetically directed amount of these pigments determines the color of the areola.

Lymphatic System Most lymphatic vessels in the breast drain into a network of lymph nodes located around the breast's edges, in the underarm, and near the collarbone. 225

These lymph nodes are embedded within fat, which complicates their removal. Axillary (underarm) lymph nodes are often the first site of breast cancer metastasis. Blood Vessels The internal mammary, axillary (underarm), and intercostal (between the ribs) arteries supply the breasts with blood; and the internal mammary, axillary, and intercostal veins carry blood away from the breasts. The axillary (underarm) vein has an irregular anatomy, which complicates surgery under the arm. The surface veins of the breast encircle the nipple and carry blood to the internal mammary, axillary, and intercostal (between the ribs) veins, and to the lungs. The intercostal veins join a complex network of vertebral veins in and around the spine, providing a path for breast cancer cells to spread to bone tissue. Nerves The skin of the upper breast is supplied with nerves (innervated) that branch from a network of nerves in the neck. Spinal nerves that pass between the ribs innervate the skin over the lower portion of the breast. The long thoracic nerve innervates the muscle that helps move the upper arm. Surgeons must be careful not to sever or injure this nerve when operating near underarm lymph nodes that the nerve crosses. Muscles Several mastectomy procedures involve removing the fascia (fibrous tissue) overlying the chest muscles or removing the muscles themselves. Chest muscles located under the breasts include the following:
Major and minor pectorals attach to the collarbone; breastbone; bone in the upper arm (humerus); shoulder joint; third, fourth, and fifth ribs and the muscles between those ribs (intercostal muscles) Serratus magnus attaches to the first eight or nine ribs and rib muscles, and connects with the shoulder blades in the back Rectus abdominus extends from the pubic bone and attaches to the cartilage of the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs

The function of breasts is to produce milk for the baby. Initial Breast Development Human breast tissue begins to develop in the sixth week of fetal life. Breast tissue initially develops along the lines of the armpits and extends to the groin (this is called the milk ridge). By the ninth week of fetal life, it regresses (goes back) to the chest area, leaving two breast buds on the upper half of the chest. In females, columns of cells grow inward from each breast bud, becoming separate sweat glands with ducts leading to the nipple. Both male and female infants have very small breasts and actually experience some nipple discharge during the first few days after birth. Female breasts do not begin growing until pubertythe period in life when the body undergoes a variety of changes to prepare for reproduction. Puberty usually begins for women around age 10 or 11. After pubic hair begins to grow, the breasts will begin responding to hormonal changes in the body. Specifically, the production of two hormones, estrogen and progesterone, signal the development of the glandular breast tissue. This initial growth of the breast may be somewhat 226

painful for some girls. During this time, fat and fibrous breast tissue becomes more elastic. The breast ducts begin to grow and this growth continues until menstruation begins (typically one to two years after breast development has begun). Menstruation prepares the breasts and ovaries for potential pregnancy. Before puberty the breast is flat except for the nipple that sticks out from the chest Early puberty the areola becomes a prominent bud; breasts begin to fill out Late puberty glandular tissue and fat increase in the breast, and areola becomes flat

Breast Size, Appearance, and Changes Over Time The size and shape of womens breasts varies considerably. Some women have a large amount of breast tissue, and therefore, have large breasts. Other women have a smaller amount of tissue with little breast fat. Factors that may influence a womans breast size include:

Volume of breast tissue Family history Age Weight loss or gain History of pregnancies and lactation Thickness and elasticity of the breast skin Degree of hormonal influences on the breast (particularly estrogen and progesterone) Menopause

A womans breasts are rarely balanced (symmetrical). Usually, one breast is slightly larger or smaller, higher or lower, or shaped differently than the other. The size and characteristics of the nipple also vary greater from one woman to another. In some women, the nipples are constantly erect. In others, they will only become erect when stimulated by cold or touch. Some women also have inverted (turned in) nipples. Inverted nipples are not a cause for concern unless the condition is a new change. Since there are hair follicles around the nipple, hair on the breast is not uncommon. The nipple can be flat, round, or cylindrical in shape. The color of the nipple is determined by the thinness and pigmentation of its skin. The nipple and areola (pigmented region surrounding the nipple) contain specialized muscle fibers that respond to stimulation to make the nipple erect. The areola also houses the Montgomerys gland that may appear as tiny, raised bumps on the surface of the areola. The Montgomerys gland helps lubricate the areola. When the nipple is stimulated, the muscle fibers will contract, the areola will pucker, and the nipples become hard. Breast shape and appearance undergo a number of changes as a woman ages. In young women, the breast skin stretches and expands as the breasts grow, creating a rounded appearance. Young women tend to have denser breasts (more glandular tissue) than older women. 227

During each menstrual cycle, breast tissue tends to swell from changes in the bodys levels of estrogen and progesterone. The milk glands and ducts enlarge, and in turn, the breasts retain water. During menstruation, breasts may temporarily feel swollen, painful, tender, or lumpy. Physicians recommend that women practice monthly breast self-exams the week following menstruation when the breasts are least tender. Fibrocystic breast condition is a common benign (non-cancerous) breast condition related to the menstrual cycle. Some women with fibrocystic breasts experience cysts (accumulated packets of fluid), lumpiness, areas of thickening, tenderness, or breast pain. Symptoms of fibrocystic change will usually subside after menopause but may be prolonged if a woman uses hormone replacement therapy. Breast Changes During Pregnancy Women should continue monthly breast self-exams during pregnancy. It is especially important that a clinical breast exam be performed by the physician or nurse during the first doctors appointment of the pregnancy, before the breasts go through significant physiologic changes. Clinical breast exams should then continue on a monthly basis during pregnancy. Screening mammograms in asymptomatic women (women who have no symptoms of breast cancer) are not performed during pregnancy or lactation and may be performed at a later time. During pregnancy, a variety of breast changes occur. Typically, breasts become tender and the nipples become sore a few weeks after conception. The breasts also increase in size very quickly. It is not uncommon for a womans breasts to increase by one or two cup sizes during and after pregnancy. The most rapid period of breast growth is during the first eight weeks of pregnancy. The Montgomerys gland surrounding the areola (pigmented region surrounding the nipple) becomes darker and more prominent, and the areola itself darkens. The nipples also become larger and more erect as they prepare for milk production. The blood vessels within the breast enlarge as surges of estrogen stimulate the growth of the ducts and surges of progesterone cause the glandular tissue to expand. Breast Changes After Menopause When a woman reaches menopause (typically in her late 40s or early 50s), her body stops producing estrogen and progesterone. The loss of these hormones causes a variety of symptoms in many women including hot flashes, night sweats, mood changes, vaginal dryness and difficulty sleeping. During this time, the breasts also undergo change. For some women, the breasts become more tender and lumpy, sometimes forming cysts (accumulated packets of fluid). The breasts glandular tissue, which has been kept firm so that the glands could produce milk, shrinks after menopause and is replaced with fatty tissue. The breasts also tend to increase in size and sag because the fibrous (connective) tissue loses its strength. Sagging or drooping of breasts is a natural, inevitable process that happens to all women at some point - except those with fairly small breasts. The most notable sagging happens with the process called breast involution, but breasts can start drooping a little at any age, because they do NOT have muscles in them. They have ligaments and connective tissue. When the gravity pulls the breasts down, those ligaments and the skin can stretch, and so the breast then droops. This depends on the elasticity of your skin and of your ligaments, as determined by your genes and diet, and also on normal aging processes. Obviously large breasts will sag easier since the gravity is pulling them down more. 228