Bio ppt2

10th GRADE
BIOLOGY COURSE
♫ HAVE A NICE YEAR ♫

10th GRADE BIOLOGY UNITS
§ UNIT I:REPRODUCTION
§ MITOSIS AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
§ MEIOSIS AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
§ UNIT II:GENETICS
§ PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE
§ UNIT III: ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY

§ ECOSYSTEMS
§ CURRENT PROBLEMS IN ENVIRONMENT
BIOLOGY
IS A LAND OF UNLIMITED
POSSIBILITIES
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k
d7bZ4HGCm4
Incredible Animation Demo Reel | 2011 |
Nucleus Medical Media
ASSESMENT CRITERIA
§ DURING THE
LECTURE
§ PARTICIPATION IN
THE CLASS
§ HAVE YOUR PEARSON
BOOK
§ LISTEN
§ TAKE NOTES
§ ASK GOOD
QUESTIONS
ASSESMENT CRITERIA
§ AFTER THE LECTURE
§ MAKE A REVISION (read the chapter from your book and
ask your teacher the mis understood parts to make it
clear!)
§ MASTERING BIOLOGY web site
§ do the HW ,listen to the tutorials
§ Learn to work alone
§ MEB 10 books( read the same unit and answer the

related questions to make yourself ready for the pop-up
quizes
ASSESMENT CRITERIA
§ 1st ORAL MARK AND 3rd ORAL MARK

§ PARTICIPATION
§ HOMEWORKS
§ MASTERING BIOLOGY HW
§ QUIZES,LAB WORK
§ 2nd ORAL MARK

§ PERFORMANCE HOMEWORK
CHAPTER 8
pg 170
Figure 8.0_3
CAN CANCER THERAPY BE PERSONALIZED?
§ Although uncontrolled cell division is
harmful,
normal cell division is necessary in all
forms of life.
CELL DIVISION
AND
REPRODUCTION
172
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

§ In a healthy body, cell division allows for
§ growth,
§ the replacement of damaged cells, and
§ development from an embryo into an adult.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

WHY CELLS DIVIDE?
LETS REMEMBER THE STRUCTURE OF AN ANIMAL
CELL
§ TRY TO CONCENTRATE ON THE FUNCTION OF

CELL MEMBRANE AND NUCLEUS
WHY CELL DIVISION?
§ 1-As the cells grow the ratio of nuclear volume to

cytoplasm decreases
§ How can we express this in means of math ?
§ WHO WANTS TO ANSWER?

WHY CELL DIVISION?
§ As the cells grow the ratio of nuclear volume to

cytoplasm decreases
§ How can we express this in means of math ?
§ 1/5 1/10 ……
§ NUCLEUS CAN HARDLY CONTROL CELL

METABOLISM
§ 2-As the cell grows the ratio of cell membrane
surface area to volume of cytoplasm decreases
§ This can be represented by what is called the
surface to volume ratio. S : V
§ Cell membrane SURFACE AREA
§ Cytoplasm VOLUME
§ WHICH ONE INCREASES MORE?

§ the surface area is à square unit r2 r2
r3
§ the volume is à cubic unit r3
§ As a cell gets larger, this ratio gets smaller
§ CELL MEMBRANE CAN HARDLY SUPPLY THE

NEEDED MATERIALS FOR THE CELL TO
SURVIVE.
Meb 10
WHAT CAN BE THE CONCLUSION?

AS A CELL GROWS … IT GETS HARDER
§ TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS
§ EXPELLING WASTE MATERIALS
§ DIFFUSION OF GASES LIKE OXYGEN J
§ CONTROL OF CELL METABOLISM
§ TO OVER COME ALL THESE PROBLEMS THE CELL DIVIDES
Cells arise only from preexisting cells
§ Cell division perpetuates life

– Cell division is the reproduction of cells
– DO YOU REMEMBER THE CELL THEORY ?
– Virchow’s principle states “Every cell from a cell

Cells arise only from preexisting cells
– Roles of cell division

– MITOSIS
– Reproduction of an entire single-celled organism
asexual reproduction
– Growth of a multicellular organism
– Growth from a fertilized egg into an adult

– Repair and replacement of cells in an adult
– MEIOSIS used in Sexual reproduction
– Sperm and egg production

8.1 Cell divison plays many important roles in
the lives of organisms
§ Living organisms reproduce by two methods
– Asexual reproduction
– Offspring are identical to the original cell or organism
– Involves inheritance of all genes from one parent
– Sexual reproduction
– Offspring are similar to parents, but show variations in
traits
– Involves inheritance of unique sets of genes from two
parents

8.2 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission
§ Binary fission means “dividing in half”

– Occurs in unicellular organisms like bacteria or
unicellular protists
– Prokaryotes reproduce asexually by binary fission.
– The division produces two daughter cells that are
identical to the original parent cell.

Plasma
Prokaryotic membrane
chromosome
Cell wall
1 Duplication of chromosome
and separation of copies
2
Continued elongation of the
cell and movement of copies
3 Division into
two daughter cells
– Steps in the process
– A single circular chromosome duplicates,

and the copies begin to separate from
each other
– The cell elongates, and the chromosomal
copies separate further
– The plasma membrane grows inward at
the midpoint to divide the cells
Prokaryotic chromosomes
BINARY FISSION
asexual reproduction?
OR
sexual reproduction?
WHAT DO U SAY?
BINARY FISSION IS ACCEPTED AS
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
§ Because genetically identical offsprings are

inherited from a single parent.
THE EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE
AND MITOSIS
Kidney cell dividing

Figure 8.1f

§ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DwAFZb8juMQ
8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of
eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division
§ Eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of
chromatin
– Chromatin = DNA + proteins
– To prepare for division, the chromatin becomes
highly compact, and the chromosomes are visible
with a microscope
– Genome, a complete set of DNA, including also
mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.

– Early in the division process, chromosomes
duplicate
– Each chromosome appears as two sister
chromatids, containing identical DNA
molecules
– Sister chromatids are joined at the
centromere, a narrow region
Figure 8.3b Chromosomes Chromosomal DNA
molecules
Sister chromatids
Chromosome
duplication
Sister
chromatids
Centromere
TEM 38,065×
Separation
of sister
chromatids into
two chromo-
somes and
distribution
into two
daughter cells
Sister chromatids
Centromere
Chromosome
duplication
Sister
Centromere chromatids
Chromosome
distribution
to
daughter
cells
Chromatid is a Chromosomes Centromere is
single strand of are two where two
chromosome chromatides chromatids meet.
together, made of
condensed
chromatin.
§ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ENRL4xySGg
§ A mitotic spindle is required to divide the
chromosomes
– The mitotic spindle is composed of microtubules
– It is produced by centrosomes, structures in the
cytoplasm that
– Organize microtubule arrangement
– Contain a pair of centrioles in animal cells
– Spindle formation in mitosis

3C CONCEPT
§ CENTRIOLE
§ CENTROSOME
§ CENTROMERE
§ CAN YOU DISTINGUISH THEIR DIFFERENCE?

Let’s make sure that you understand
Please put these five terms in order from largest to

smallest.
*Gene
*Base pair
*Chromatid
*Genome
*Chromosome
GENOME à CHROMOSOME
à CHROMATIDE à GENE
àBASE PAIR
§ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lpAa4TWjHQ4
8.4The cell cycle includes growth and division
phases 175
§ The cell cycle is an ordered sequence of events
for cell division
§ It consists of two stages
– Interphase: duplication of cell contents
– G1—growth, increase in cytoplasm
– S—duplication of DNA
– G2—growth, preparation for division
– Mitotic phase: division

– Mitosis—division of the nucleus(karyokinesis)
– Cytokinesis—division of cytoplasm
Figure 8.4
S
G1 (DNA synthesis)
(first gap)
G2
(second gap)
Figure 8.UN01
S
G1 (DNA synthesis)
Genetically
identical M
daughter
cells
G2
Cytokinesis
(division of the
cytoplasm) Mitosis
(division of
the nucleus)
8.6 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic
changes
§ Interphase
Interphase is not a division phase, it is a

preparation for new cell division.
The cell synthesizes proteins, enzymes, ATP
etc.
Interphase has 3 subdivisions; G1, S, G2

Generally by interphase;
– In the cytoplasm
– Cytoplasmic contents double
– Two centrosomes form
– In the nucleus
– Chromosomes duplicate during the S phase
– Nucleoli, sites of ribosome assembly, are visible
G1 -High amount of protein synthesis and cell
grows
-The cell increases the number of organelles
and the volume of the cytoplasm.
S - DNA Replication occurs
G2 - Preparation of cell division continue
- Organelle replication happens
THE CELL CYCLE

INTERPHASE
changes
§ Mitosis progresses through a series of stages
– Prophase
– Prometaphase
– Metaphase
– Anaphase
– Telophase
§ Cytokinesis often overlaps telophase
§ MITOSIS ANIMATION
§ LETS DRAW THE PHASES OF MITOSIS
TOGETHER
Figure 8.5_1
MITOSIS
INTERPHASE
LM 250× Prophase Prometaphase
Fragments of
Mitotic spindle the nuclear
Centrosomes forming envelope
Chromatin Centrosome
Kinetochore
Nuclear Chromosome Centromere Spindle

Plasma microtubules
envelope membrane consisting of two
sister chromatids
changes
§ Prophase
– In the cytoplasm
– Microtubules begin to emerge from centrosomes, forming
the spindle
– In the nucleus
– Chromosomes coil and become compact
– Nucleoli disappear

PROPHASE
§ Prometaphase:
§ The nuclear envelope breaks into fragments and
disappears.
§ Microtubules attach to the kinetechore
§ Centrosomes move apart to the poles of the cell.

PROMETAPHASE
Figure 8.5_6
MITOSIS
Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis
Metaphase
plate
Cleavage
furrow
Nuclear
Mitotic Separated envelope
spindle chromosomes forming
changes
§ Metaphase
– Spindle is fully formed
– Chromosomes align at the cell equator (metaphase
plate ) from their centromere regions
– Chromosomes are the most condensed, coiled and
easiest to distinguish.

METAPHASE
changes
§ Anaphase
– Sister chromatids separate at the centromere and move to
the opposite poles
– The spindle fibers at the center elongate and make the cell
ready for cytokinesis.
– Microtubules in anaphase movie

ANAPHASE
changes
§ Telophase
– The cell continues to elongate
– The nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes at
each pole, establishing daughter nuclei
– Chromatin uncoils
– Nucleoli reappear
– The spindle disappears

TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS
8.6 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells
§ Cytokinesis
– Cytoplasm is divided into separate cells

8.6 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells
§ Cytokinesis differ in plant and animal cells

– Cleavage in animal cells
– A cleavage furrow forms from a contracting ring of
microfilaments, interacting with myosin
– The cleavage furrow deepens to separate the contents
into two cells
– Cytokinesis in plant cells
– A cell plate forms in the middle from vesicles containing
cell wall material
– The cell plate grows outward to reach the edges, dividing
the contents into two cells
– Each cell has a plasma membrane and cell wall

Cleavage
furrow
Cleavage furrow Contracting ring of

microfilaments
Daughter cells
Cleavage
furrow
Cleavage furrow Contracting ring of
microfilaments
Daughter cells
Wall of Cell plate Daughter
parent cell forming nucleus
Cell wall New cell wall
Vesicles containing Cell plate Daughter cells

cell wall material
Wall of Cell plate Daughter
parent cell forming nucleus
Cell wall New cell wall
Vesicles containing Cell plate Daughter cells

cell wall material
.
Animation: Cytokinesis
§ CYTOKINESIS ANIMATION
§ MITOSIS BIOFLIX
For a plant cell having 2n = 6
draw the stages of mitosis
8.7 The rate of cell division is affected by
environmental factors
§ Factors that control cell division
– Presence of essential nutrients
– Growth factors, proteins that stimulate division
– Presence of other cells causes density-dependent
inhibition
– Contact with a solid surface; most cells show
anchorage dependence

Culture of cells
Addition of
growth
factor
Cells anchor to
dish surface
and divide.(anchorage
dependence)
When cells have
formed a complete
single layer, they
stop dividing (density-
dependent inhibition).
If some cells are

scraped away, the
remaining cells divide
to fill the dish with a
single layer and then
stop (density-dependent
inhibition).
8.8 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control
system
§ Cell cycle control system
– A set of molecules, including growth factors, that
triggers and coordinates events of the cell cycle
§ Checkpoints
– Control points where signals regulate the cell cycle
– G1 checkpoint the cell checks for the avaliable nutrients and
growth factors if ok. allows entry into the S phase or causes the
cell to leave the cycle, entering a nondividing G0 phase
– G2 checkpoint (checks the DNA synthesis if the pairing is ok or

not)
– M (metaphase)checkpoint (checks the attachment of spindle
fibers to the centromeres.)

Figure 8.8a G1 checkpoint
G0
G1 Control
system
G2
M checkpoint
G2 checkpoint
§ Some cells, such as nerve and muscle cells do not
complete the cell cycle.
They go through the G0 Phase.
§ Control of the cell cycle
§WHAT IF THIS
PROCESS DOES NOT
GO RIGHT ?
§U
NC
CE ON
LL TR
DIV OL
L
ISI ED
ON
Cancer: Unregulated Cell Division
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IeUANxFVXKc
§ Cancer cells
§ start out as normal body cells,
§ undergo genetic mutations,
§ lose the ability to control the tempo of their own
division,
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.9CONNECTION: Growing out of control,
cancer cells produce malignant tumors
§ Cancer cells escape controls on the cell cycle
– Cancer cells divide rapidly, often in the absence of
growth factors
– They spread to other tissues through the circulatory
system
– Growth is not inhibited by other cells, and tumors
form
– Benign tumors remain at the original site
– Malignant tumors spread to other locations by

metastasis

8.10 CONNECTION: Growing out of control,
§ Cancer treatments
– Localized tumors can be treated with surgery or
radiation
– Chemotherapy is used for metastatic tumors

8.9 CONNECTION: Growing out of control,
§ Classification of cancer by origin
– Carcinomas arise in external or internal body
coverings
– Sarcomas arise in supportive and connective tissue
– Leukemias and lymphomas arise from blood-
forming tissues

Lymph
vessels
Tumor
Blood
vessel
Glandular
tissue
A tumor grows from a Cancer cells invade Cancer cells spread

single cancer cell. neighboring tissue. through lymph and
blood vessels to
other parts of the body.
.
8.10 Scientific Thinking: The best cancer
treatment may vary by individual
§ Mortality rates from cancer vary by age of diagnosis,
race, and other factors.
§ Taking such data into account may improve
outcomes of cancer treatment.
Checkpoint question Why must human cancer
research often use an observational method when
controlled studies could yield more definitive
results?
Figure 8.10
Risk of death from Breast cancer death rates

breast cancer 20 years for subsets of DCIS patients
after DCIS diagnosis 8
20 year death
rate (%)
3.3% 6
Mortality rate 4
2
0
nic
ian
His ite
r
9
All
All
9
9
9
ck
<35
he
–3
–6
–4
–5
Wh
Bla
96.7%
pa
As
Ot
35
60
40
50
Survival rate
Age at diagnosis Ethnicity
8.10 Review: Mitosis provides for growth, cell
replacement, and asexual reproduction
§ Mitosis produces genetically identical cells for
– Growth
– Replacement
– Asexual reproduction

LAB STUDY I
MITOSIS IN ONION ROOT CELLS
Can u name distinguish
the phases of mitosis in the
micrograph given?
MITOSIS WORKSHEET
REPRODUCTION
ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION SPECIAL EVENTS
• SIMPLE CELL DIVISION • CONJUGATION

• BUDDING (SEXUAL)
• REGENERATION • PARTHENOGENESIS
• VEGETATIVE (ASEXUAL)
REPRODUCTION • HERMAPHRODISM
• SPORING (SEXUAL)
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Seen in unicellular and multicellular organisms

Involve mitotic division
Organisms produce member like themselves
No genetic difference in the offspring
SIMPLE CELL DIVISION
Seen in bacteria and protists like paramecium,

euglena, amoeba
Single cell divides into two
The genetic material replicates and division starts, it
may start in different regions, may be longitudinal or
lateral.
SIMPLE CELL DIVISION
can be in different axis
§ Transverse (lateral): divides the cell across the short
axis. Ex; paramecium
§ Longitudinal: long axis. Ex; euglena
§ Random :no defined axis. Ex; amoeba

AMOEBA Random
PARAMECIUM Transverse (lateral)

BUDDING
§Seen in yeast ,hydra, jelly fish, corals and in some

plants
§Cell nucleus divides by mitosis newly produced
nucleus forms a bud in the organism
§This bud then forms an organism like the previous
one
§The bud may split or remain attached to the
organism forming colonies
YEAST BUDDING
Green Hydra, Budding

REGENERATION
Ability of an organism to form lost body
parts seen in animals such as the hydra,
planaria, earthworm, and starfish
In case of reproduction a body part should
be completed to form the whole identical
organism Ex: Planaria and starfish can be cut
into several pieces, each of which will grow
into a complete organism
REGENERATION IN HYDRA
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
§ Vegetative reproduction is based on mitosis and

regeneration.
§Seen in higher plants
§New plant is produced from a non reproductive
part such as the root ,stem or the leaf
§ These parts can be seperated from the parent and
form a complete, independent identical individual.
§EXAMPLES OF VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
§ STOLONS: In strawberry and spider plant the horizontal
stems named the runners can produce new plants.
§The leaves may be involved in this process
the plantlets may develop on the sides of the
leaf
Bryophyllum leaf Bryophyllum plant
§ Rhizom: is a horizontal underground plant stem
that is capable of producing the shoot and root
systems of a new plant.
§ The plant uses the rhizome to store starch, protein
and other nutrients.
§ ex; ginger
§
§Bulbs: in tulips and onions are underground
stems that can be used in vegetative reproduction
§ Tubers: such as potatoes are enlarged, shortened
stems that are specialized for storing reserve food.
§In the process of layering a branch of the
plant is put in to soil and later this branch
develops in to a new plant ex:rose
FORMING SPORES
§A spore is a cell specialized to stand unavailable environmental
conditions because it is covered by a special cell wall covering
§Seen in fungi, fern, moss, and some single celled organisms
§Spores are produced by mitotic division and when spore finds
a suitable environment it germinates and forms the new
offspring
§Ex: Forming spores in fungi
MEIOSIS AND
CROSSING OVER

8.11 Chromosomes are matched in homologous
pairs
§ Somatic cells have pairs of homologous
chromosomes, receiving one member of each pair
from each parent
§ Homologous chromosomes are matched in
– Length
– Centromere position
– Gene locations
– A locus (plural, loci) is the position of a gene

Homologous Chromosome
§ A pair of chromosomes one coming from the father
with the sperm cell ,the other one coming from
mother with the egg cell.They all carry the same
gene sequences but may carry different or same
traits.
Homologous pair of
chromosomes
Centromere
Sister chromatids One duplicated

chromosome
Different versions of a gene may be found at the same
locus on maternal and paternal chromosomes
Alternative forms of a gene are called Alleles.
8.11 Chromosomes are matched in homologous
pairs
§ The human sex chromosomes(GONOSOMES)
X and Y differ in size and genetic composition
§ Pairs of autosomes have the same size and
genetic composition
§ 44 + 2
§ 44 +XX
§ 44+ XY

8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes
§ Meiosis is a process that converts diploid nuclei to

haploid nuclei
– Diploid cells (2n) have two homologous sets of
chromosomes, body cells (somatic cells)
– Haploid cells (n) have one set of chromosomes,
gametes
– Meiosis occurs in the sex organs, producing
gametes—sperm and eggs
§ Fertilization is the union of sperm and egg

– The zygote has a diploid chromosome number, one
set from each parent
Figure 8.12a Haploid gametes (n = 23) Key
Haploid stage (n)
n Diploid stage (2n)
Egg cell
n
Sperm cell
Meiosis Fertilization
Ovary Testis
2n
Diploid
zygote
Mitosis and (2n = 46)
Multicellular development
diploid adults
(2n = 46)
Figure 8.12b
INTERPHASE MEIOSIS I MEIOSIS II
Sister
Four haploid cells

chromatids
Haploid 3
1 2 cells with Sister
duplicated chromatids
Chromosomes Homologous chromo- separate
duplicate chromosomes somes
A pair of A pair of separate
homologous duplicated
chromosomes homologous
in a diploid chromosomes
parent cell
.
8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from
diploid to haploid
§ Meiosis, like mitosis, is preceded by chromosome
duplication, but in meiosis, the cell divides twice to
form four daughter cells.
§ The first division, meiosis I, starts with the pairing of
homologous chromosomes.
§ In crossing over, homologous chromosomes exchange
corresponding segments.
diploid to haploid
§ Meiosis I separates the members of each homologous

pair and produces two daughter cells, each with one set
of chromosomes.
§ Meiosis II is essentially the same as mitosis:
§ In each of the cells, the sister chromatids of each chromosome
separate.
§ The result is a total of four haploid cells.
diploid to haploid
Checkpoint question
A cell has the haploid number of chromosomes, but
each chromosome has two chromatids. The
chromosomes are arranged singly at the center of
the spindle. What is the meiotic stage?
§ LETS DRAW THE PHASES OF MEIOSIS
TOGETHER
8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number
from diploid to haploid
§ Events in the nucleus during meiosis I
– Prophase I
– Involve 3 sets of events
– 1-Formation of homologous chromosomes
– 2-Synapsis
– 3-Crossing over

Crossing-over during Prophase 1
Tetrad: pairs of homologous chromosomes, includes 4 chromatids

Sometimes the term bivalent is used instead of tetrad.
TEM 5,060×
Sister
Chiasma chromatids
Nonsister
chromatids Tetrad
.
Animation: Crossing Over
– 1-Formation of homologous chromosome
– Homologous chromosomes come together as
pairs
– 2-Synapsis
– The non sister chromatids touch each other
– 3-Crossing over
– Non sister chromatids exchange genetic
material by crossing over
§ Crossing-over is the major source of variation

between individiuals.
OTHER EVENTS IN PROPHASE
– Each pair, with four chromatids, is called a
tetrad
– Nuclear membrane degenerate
– Spindle fibers start to form

– Metaphase I
– Homologous chromosomes (Tetrads) align opposed at the cell
equator (metaphase plate)
– Spindle microtubules attach to the kinetechores at the
centromeres.

§ The orientation of tetrads is random, independent of
the other 22 tetrads.
§ This random alignment leads to new

combinations of traits (genetical variation)
– Anaphase I
– Homologous pairs separate and move toward
opposite poles of the cell (migration of
chromosomes )
– Telophase I
– Duplicated chromosomes (with two sister chromatids)
have reached the poles
– A nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes in some
species
– Each nucleus has the haploid number of chromosomes

§ Meiosis II follows meiosis I without chromosome
duplication.
§ Meiosis II is the same as Mitosis.
§ Each of the two haploid products enters meiosis II

§ Events in the nucleus during meiosis II
– Prophase II
– Metaphase II
– Sister chromatids align at the cell equator
– Anaphase II
– Sister chromatids separate and chromosomes move
toward opposite poles

– Telophase II
– Chromosomes have reached the poles of the cell
– A nuclear envelope forms around each set of
chromosomes
– With cytokinesis, four haploid cells are produced

Figure 8.13_1
MEIOSIS I: Homologous chromosomes separate

INTERPHASE:
Chromosomes duplicate Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I
Spindle microtubules Sister chromatids

attached to a remain attached
Sites of crossing over kinetochore
Centrosomes
Spindle
Tetrad
Nuclear Chromatin Sister Centromere Metaphase
envelope chromatids Fragments (with a plate Homologous
of the nuclear
kinetochore) chromosomes
envelope
separate
Figure 8.13_2
MEIOSIS I: Homologous
INTERPHASE: chromosomes separate
Chromosomes duplicate
Prophase I
Centrosomes Sites of crossing over

Spindle
Tetrad
Nuclear Chromatin Sister Fragments
envelope chromatids of the nuclear
envelope
Figure 8.13_3
MEIOSIS I: Homologous chromosomes separate
Metaphase I Anaphase I
Spindle microtubules Sister chromatids

attached to a remain attached
kinetochore
Centromere Metaphase
(with a plate Homologous
kinetochore) chromosomes separate
Figure 8.13_4
MEIOSIS II: Sister chromatids separate

Telophase II
Telophase I and Cytokinesis Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II
and Cytokinesis
Cleavage
furrow Sister chromatids Haploid
separate daughter
cells form
Figure 8.13_5
Telophase I and Cytokinesis
Cleavage
furrow
Figure 8.13_6
MEIOSIS II: Sister chromatids separate
Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II

and Cytokinesis
Sister chromatids Haploid daughter

separate cells form
Figure 8.13_7
LM 670×
Two lily cells
undergo meiosis II
8.14 VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: Mitosis and
meiosis have important similarities and differences
§ Both mitosis and meiosis begin with diploid parent
cells that have chromosomes duplicated during the
previous interphase.
§ Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid somatic
daughter cells.
§ Meiosis produces four genetically unique haploid
gametes.
Figure 8.14_1
MITOSIS MEIOSIS I
Parent cell
2n = 4
Figure 8.14_2
MITOSIS MEIOSIS I
Parent cell
2n = 4
Chromosome duplication Prophase I
Prophase
(Occurs once, during S phase
Duplicated of preceding interphase) Homologous chromosomes
chromosome come together in pairs
remains
separate Site of crossing over between
homologous (nonsister) chromatids
Figure 8.14_3
MITOSIS MEIOSIS I
Parent cell
2n = 4
Prophase
remains
Metaphase Metaphase I
Chromosomes Pairs of
line up at the homologous
metaphase chromosomes
plate line up at the
metaphase plate
Figure 8.14_4
MITOSIS MEIOSIS I
Parent cell
2n = 4
Prophase
remains
metaphase plate
Anaphase Anaphase I
Telophase Telophase I
Homologous
chromosomes
separate, sister
Sister chromatids
n=2
chromatids remain attached
2n = 4 separate 2n = 4
during MEIOSIS II
anaphase
Figure 8.14_5
MITOSIS MEIOSIS I
Parent cell
2n = 4
Prophase
remains
metaphase plate
Anaphase Anaphase I
Telophase Telophase I
Homologous
chromosomes
separate, sister
Sister chromatids
n=2
chromatids remain attached
2n = 4 separate 2n = 4
during MEIOSIS II
anaphase Sister chromatids
separate during
anaphase II
n=2 n=2 n=2 n=2

Figure 8.14_6
MITOSIS MEIOSIS I
MEIOSIS II
Result: Two genetically identical diploid cells Result: Four genetically unique haploid cells
Used for: Growth, tissue repair, asexual reproduction Used for: Sexual reproduction
8.15 Mitosis and meiosis have important
similarities and differences
§ Which characteristics are similar for mitosis

and meiosis?

§ Which characteristics are similar for mitosis

and meiosis?
§ Replication of DNA during interphase

§ Which characteristics are unique to meiosis?
§ Which characteristics are unique to meiosis?
– Two divisions
– Pairing of homologous chromosomes
– Synapsis
– Exchange of genetic material by crossing over
§ What is the outcome of each process?

§ What is the outcome of each process?

– Mitosis: two genetically identical cells, with the same
chromosome number as the original cell
– Meiosis: four genetically different cells(GAMETES),
with half the chromosome number of the original cell

MEB 10
§ X: İnterfazın G1 evresindeki DNA miktarının yarısı
§ 2X: İnterfazın G1 evresindeki DNA miktarı
§ 4X: İnterfazın S evresinde DNA’ nın iki katına
çıkması
§ P ͢. PROFAZ
§ M ͢ METAFAZ
§ A ͢ ANAFAZ
§ T ͢ TELOFAZ
§ İnterfazda DNA eşlenir ve iki katına çıkar.
§ Mayoz I’de homolog kromozomlar ayrılır.
§ Sitokinez I ile DNA miktarı eşlenmeden önceki
değerine ulaşır.
§ Mayoz II’de kardeş kromatitler ayrılır.

§ Sitokinez II ile DNA miktarı yarıya düşer.
§ Oluşan yeni hücreler, ana hücrenin yarısı kadar
DNA’ya sahiptir (Grafik 1.3).
MEB 10
§ X: İnterfazın G1 evresindeki kromozom sayısının
yarısı
§ 2X: İnterfazın G1 evresindeki kromozom sayısı
§ P ͢. PROFAZ
§ M ͢ METAFAZ
§ A ͢ ANAFAZ
§ T ͢ TELOFAZ
§ Mayoz I’de homolog kromozomlar ayrıldığından
§ Sitokinez I’de kromozom sayısı yarıya düşer.
§ Anafaz II’de farklı kutba gitmek üzere ayrılan her bir

kardeş kromatit, kromozom kabul edildiğinden
kromozom sayısı geçici olarak iki katına çıkar.
§ Sitokinez II’de hücre tamamen ayrıldığından
kromozom sayısı tekrar yarıya iner.
§ Sitokinez II tamamlandığında oluşan hücrelerin
kromozom sayısı, başlangıçtaki hücrenin yarısıdır
(Grafik 1.4).
8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in
meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied
offspring
§ Each chromosome of a homologous pair differs at

many points from the other member of the pair.
§ Random arrangements of chromosome pairs at

metaphase I of meiosis lead to many different
combinations of chromosomes in eggs and sperm.
§ Random fertilization of eggs by sperm greatly
increases this variation.
.
8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in
meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied
offspring
Checkpoint question
The Australian kangaroo has a diploid number of 16.
How many chromosomal combinations are possible
for gametes formed by meiosis?
Figure 8.15_1
Possibility A Possibility B
Two equally probable

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I
Figure 8.15_2

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I
Metaphase II
Figure 8.15_3

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I
Metaphase II
Gametes
Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 Combination 4

Animation: Genetic Variation
§ Describe the two main ways in meiosis leading
genetic variation.
§ Describe the two main ways in meiosis leading
genetic variation.
§ 1- Crossing over àProphase 1
§ 2- Independent oriantation of homologous
chromosomes à Metaphase 1
CAN U NAME THE PHASES THAT U SEE?
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Parent cell Site of MEIOSIS I
(before chromosome duplication) crossing over
Prophase Prophase I
Tetrad formed
Duplicated by synapsis of
Chromosome Chromosome
chromosome homologous
duplication duplication
(two sister chromosomes
chromatids) 2n = 4
Chromosomes Tetrads
Metaphase align at the Metaphase I
align at the
metaphase plate metaphase plate
Anaphase Anaphase I
Telophase Sister chromatids
Homologous Telophase I
separate during
anaphase chromosomes
separate
(anaphase I); Haploid
sister chroma- n=2
tids remain Daughter
together cells of
meiosis I
No interphase
2n 2n No DNA replication MEIOSIS II
Daughter cells chromatids
of mitosis separate
(anaphase II)
n n n n
GAMETES of meiosis II
MEIOSIS MOVIE
CAN U DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENCES
OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS?
COMPARISON OF MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS worksheet
§ DNA _MITOSIS_MEIOSIS Chp 8 REVIEW HW
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is the process in which new
organisms are created, by combining the genetic
information from two individuals of different sexes.
Involve meiotic division
Involve formation of gametes and fertilization
Offspring with new genetic combination is produced
The genetic information is carried on chromosomes within
the nucleus of specialized sex cells called gametes.
In males, these gametes are called sperm and in females
the gametes are called eggs.
• During sexual reproduction the two gametes join
together in a fusion process known
as fertilization, to create a zygote, which is the
precursor to an embryo offspring, taking half of
its DNA from each of its parents.
• In humans, a zygote contains 46 chromosomes:

23 from its mother and 23 from its father. The
combination of these chromosomes produces
an offspring that is similar to both its mother and
father but is not identical to either.
Figure 8.12a Haploid gametes (n = 23) Key
Haploid stage (n)
n Diploid stage (2n)
Egg cell
n
Sperm cell
Meiosis Fertilization
Ovary Testis
2n
Diploid
zygote
Mitosis and (2n = 46)
Multicellular development
diploid adults
(2n = 46)
CONJUGATION
§Two members of same species exchange genetic

material by forming a cytoplasmic bridge
§Seen in bacteria& paramecium
Bacterial conjugation
(involve only genetic recombination,
new individual is not formed )
§ transmit plasmids
(pieces of DNA)
make them
resistant to
antibiotics)
PARTHENOGENESIS
§Un fertilized egg develop in to an adult

§Seen in honey bees & ants
§HONEYBEES MOVIE
Queen(2n)
Male bee(n) meiosis
mitosis egg(n)
sperm(n) Parthenogenesis
(mitosis)
fertilization
2n(female) Male(drone)
if fed with if fed with

honey milk pollen grains
Queen (2n) Worker(2n)

How do males remain unfertilized?
The queen unites with the male only once all through
her life
Stores the sperms in a sac connected to reproductive
canal
If she wants a queen and workers she opens the
sac and sperms fertilize the egg
If not eggs remain unfertilized and males form by
PARTHENOGENESIS
HERMAPHRODISM
§A single individual produces both sperm and egg

§Can not fertilize it self because the sperm and egg
mature at different time intervals
§Ex: Earthworms
§Exception: Taenia & Flat worms the maturation time

is the same and can fertilize it self
§ Two earthworms copulating.
Reproductive system of
earthworms
The sperm transferred are stored in sacs named
seminal receptacles
Some organisms are able to do
both sexual and asexual
reproduc5on.
This is particularly true for fungi
and plants
Although sexual reproduction

requires two parents, they do not
always have to be two separate
individuals.
some organisms are
hermaphroditic, meaning they
contain both male and female
gametes.
CAN U DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENCES
OF SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION?
©
2
You should now be able to
0
1
8 1. Compare the parent-offspring relationship in
P asexual and sexual reproduction.
e
a 2. Explain why cell division is essential for prokaryotic
r and eukaryotic life.
s
o 3. Explain how daughter prokaryotic chromosomes
n are separated from each other during binary
E fission.
d
u 4. Compare the structure of prokaryotic and
c eukaryotic chromosomes.
a
t 5. Describe the stages of the cell cycle.
©
2
0
1
8 6. List the phases of mitosis and describe the events
P characteristic of each phase.
e
a 7. Compare cytokinesis in animal and plant cells.
r
s 8. Explain how anchorage, cell density, and chemical
o growth factors control cell division.
n
E9. Explain how cancerous cells are different from
d healthy cells.
u
c 10. Describe the functions of mitosis.
a
t 11. Explain how chromosomes are paired.
©
2
0
1
8 13. Explain why sexual reproduction requires meiosis.
P
e
14. List the phases of meiosis I and meiosis II and
a describe the events characteristic of each phase.
r
s 15. Compare mitosis and meiosis, noting similarities
o and differences.
n
E16. Explain how genetic variation is produced in
d sexually reproducing organisms.
u
c 17. Explain how and why karyotyping is performed.
a
t 18. Describe the causes and symptoms of Down
syndrome.
©
2
0
1
8 19. Describe the consequences of abnormal numbers
P of sex chromosomes.
e
a 20. Define nondisjunction, explain how it can occur,
r and describe what can result.
s
o 21. Explain how new species form from errors in cell
n division.
E
d 22. Describe the main types of chromosomal changes.
u Explain why cancer is not usually inherited.
c
a
t

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10th GRADE

♫ HAVE A NICE YEAR ♫

§ UNIT III: ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY

§ MEB 10 books( read the same unit and answer the

§ 1st ORAL MARK AND 3rd ORAL MARK

§ 2nd ORAL MARK

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

§ TRY TO CONCENTRATE ON THE FUNCTION OF

§ 1-As the cells grow the ratio of nuclear volume to

§ WHO WANTS TO ANSWER?

§ As the cells grow the ratio of nuclear volume to

§ NUCLEUS CAN HARDLY CONTROL CELL

§ WHICH ONE INCREASES MORE?

§ CELL MEMBRANE CAN HARDLY SUPPLY THE

WHAT CAN BE THE CONCLUSION?

§ Cell division perpetuates life

– DO YOU REMEMBER THE CELL THEORY ?

– Virchow’s principle states “Every cell from a cell

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

– Roles of cell division

– Growth from a fertilized egg into an adult

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

§ Binary fission means “dividing in half”

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

– A single circular chromosome duplicates,

§ Because genetically identical offsprings are

Kidney cell dividing

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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

– Spindle formation in mitosis

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§ CAN YOU DISTINGUISH THEIR DIFFERENCE?

Please put these five terms in order from largest to

– Mitotic phase: division

Interphase is not a division phase, it is a

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

S - DNA Replication occurs

G2 - Preparation of cell division continue

- Organelle replication happens

THE CELL CYCLE

§ Cytokinesis often overlaps telophase

Nuclear Chromosome Centromere Spindle

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

§ Centrosomes move apart to the poles of the cell.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

– Microtubules in anaphase movie

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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

§ Cytokinesis differ in plant and animal cells

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Cleavage furrow Contracting ring of

Cell wall New cell wall

Vesicles containing Cell plate Daughter cells

Vesicles containing Cell plate Daughter cells

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

If some cells are

– G2 checkpoint (checks the DNA synthesis if the pairing is ok or

Seen in unicellular and multicellular organisms

Seen in bacteria and protists like paramecium,