Functional theories of translation from Germany in the 1970s and 1980s shifted the

focus from strict linguistic typologies to a broader consideration of culture and

communication. Here's an overview of the main theories and concepts, explained in
simpler terms:

Katharina Reiss and Text Types

Katharina Reiss emphasized that translation should seek equivalence at the level of
the entire text rather than just words or sentences. She based her ideas on the three
functions of language identified by Karl Bühler:

1. Informative Function: Communicates facts and information.

2. Expressive Function: Conveys the author's feelings or artistic expression.
3. Operative Function: Persuades or prompts the reader to take action.

Reiss linked these functions to different text types and suggested appropriate
translation methods for each:

 Informative Texts: Focus on content and facts. Examples include

encyclopedias and reports. Translation should be clear and straightforward.
 Expressive Texts: Focus on the artistic form and style. Examples include
literature and poetry. Translation should preserve the author's style and
artistic expression.
 Operative Texts: Aim to persuade or influence the reader. Examples include
advertisements and political speeches. Translation should create a similar
impact on the target audience.

She also mentioned audio-medial texts (e.g., films and advertisements with visuals
and music), which combine the above functions with multimedia elements.

Mary Snell-Hornby’s Integrated Approach

Mary Snell-Hornby proposed an integrated approach, which combines different

aspects of text types and translation strategies into a cohesive method. This
approach considers the complexities and overlaps between different text types and
genres.

Justa Holz-Mänttäri’s Theory of Translatorial Action

Justa Holz-Mänttäri viewed translation as a communicative process involving

multiple players, such as the translator, the original author, and the target audience.
This theory focuses on the actions and interactions necessary to produce an effective
translation.
Hans Vermeer’s Skopos Theory

Hans Vermeer introduced the skopos theory, which states that the purpose (or
skopos) of the target text (TT) determines the translation strategy. In other words, the
intended function and audience of the translation dictate how it should be
translated.

Christiane Nord’s Translation-Oriented Text Analysis

Christiane Nord developed a detailed model for analyzing texts with the aim of
translation. Her approach builds on the functionalist tradition and provides a
systematic way to understand and translate texts according to their functions and
contexts.

Recent Developments

Recent trends in translation studies include the exploration of multimodality (how

texts combine words, images, and other media) and digital text genres (how digital
communication affects translation).

Key Texts

For further reading, some key texts include:

 Christiane Nord (2005): "Text Analysis in Translation" - A guide to text

analysis for translation purposes.
 Christiane Nord (1997): "Translating as a Purposeful Activity" - Explains
functionalist approaches to translation.
 Katharina Reiss (1971/2000): "Translation Criticism: Potential and
Limitations" - Discusses the assessment of translations.
 Katharina Reiss and Hans Vermeer (1984/2013): "Towards a General Theory
of Translational Action" - Explains skopos theory.
 Mary Snell-Hornby (1988/1995): "Translation Studies: An Integrated
Approach" - Combines various aspects of translation studies.

Summary

In the 1970s and 1980s, German translation theories moved towards understanding
translation as a communicative and cultural process. Key figures like Reiss, Snell-
Hornby, Holz-Mänttäri, Vermeer, and Nord contributed to this shift, each offering
unique insights and models that continue to influence translation studies today.
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5.1.1 Discussion of the Text Type Model

Reiss's Contribution:

 Significance: Reiss's work shifted translation theory from focusing on

individual words to considering the overall function of the translation.
 Function Focus: She highlighted that a translation’s purpose can differ from
the original text’s purpose, challenging the traditional idea that translations
should always aim for equivalent effects.

Criticisms of the Text Type Model:

 Limited Functions: Critics question why Reiss identifies only three language
functions (informative, expressive, and operative).
 Nord's Addition: Christiane Nord added a fourth function, the "phatic"
function, which involves language used to establish or maintain
communication, like greetings.
 Translation Methods: There are doubts about how Reiss's suggested
translation methods apply to specific texts, such as financial texts full of
metaphors (e.g., "profits soar").

Exploration Example:

 Financial Metaphors: Translators face challenges with metaphors in financial

texts (e.g., "bullish markets") because direct translations may not capture the
same meaning or effect in the target language.

Reversibility of Translation Methods:

 Informative to Expressive: Translating a text with metaphors into plain

language may work one way, but reversing the process (making plain text
metaphorical) may be more complex.
 Text Type Overlap: Texts often have overlapping functions. For example, an
annual business report might be informative and expressive, while a
biography or advertisement could serve multiple functions.

Overall Critique:

 Function Overlap: Reiss's model struggles with texts that have multiple
functions and uses, making clear divisions difficult.
 Influence of Other Factors: The chosen translation method also depends on
the translator's role, purpose, and sociocultural factors, not just the text type.
5.1.2 Mary Snell-Hornby's 'Integrated Approach'

Introduction:

 Integrated Approach: Mary Snell-Hornby’s approach combines various

linguistic and literary concepts to create a comprehensive translation model
based on text types.

Horizontal Reading:

 Clines: The diagram should be read from left to right without strict
boundaries, showing a continuum of text types.
 Stratificational Model: It also proceeds from general to specialized (A to F).

Levels in the Model:

 Level A: Combines literary, general language, and special language

translations into one continuum.
 Level B: Lists basic text types, like Bible translations, poetry, and newspapers.
 Level C: Includes non-linguistic disciplines essential to translation, such as
sociocultural knowledge and subject-specific studies.
 Level D: Covers the translation process, focusing on understanding the ST
(source text) function, TT (target text) focus, and communicative function of
the TT.
 Level E: Relevant areas of linguistics for translation.
 Level F: Phonological aspects like alliteration and rhythm, especially important
in stage translation and film dubbing.

Critique of Snell-Hornby's Model:

 Inconsistencies: Some categorizations are questionable:

 Newspaper Texts: These can range from general language to highly
specialized.
 Film Translation: Should it be considered literary translation given its
unique constraints?
 Advertising: It may share more with creative language than with
general language.
 Cultural History: Relevant to both medical and literary translations.
 Special Subject Studies: Necessary for understanding and translating
both literary and specialized texts.
  Speakability: Not exclusive to literary texts; also relevant for news
interviews and speeches.

Concluding Thoughts:

 No Rigid Divisions: Snell-Hornby’s approach removes rigid boundaries

between text types, promoting a more inclusive view of translation studies.
 Comprehensive Yet Challenging: While the approach integrates various
aspects of language, it may not always yield practical results for translation
analysis or training.
 Specialized Training: Different types of translation (commercial vs. literary)
may require different training, even though insights from each can be
beneficial.

Web Localization and Digital Genres

Since the 1990s, technological advancements in multilingual communication have

emphasized domain specialization and the emergence of new multimodal genres
and text types (like emails, webpages, blogs, tweets, and social media posts). These
often require immediate translation, which is frequently handled by automatic
translation functions. Jiménez-Crespo (2013) categorizes these text types into 'supra-
genres' based on their purpose (such as informational, advertising, instrumental,
communication-interaction, and entertainment). Web genres (like personal
homepages and corporate websites) and their subgenres (personal, professional,
etc.) are naturally hybrid and combine in different ways. A multilingual version of a
text is created through localization, which involves not just translating the language
but also adapting the content so it functions appropriately in the target context or
'locale.'

Translatorial Action

The translatorial action model, proposed by Justa Holz-Mänttäri, draws on concepts

from communication and action theory. This model aims to provide guidelines
applicable to a wide range of professional translation situations. Translation is viewed
as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction, involving intercultural
transfer. Holz-Mänttäri describes translation as "message-transmitter compounds,"
meaning it’s not just about translating words or sentences but about facilitating
functionally oriented communication across cultural barriers.

Interlingual translation involves a series of roles and players:

 Initiator: The entity (company or individual) needing the translation.

 Commissioner: The person or agency contacting the translator.
  ST (Source Text) Producer: The individuals who write the source text.
 TT (Target Text) Producer: The translators and translation agencies or
departments.
 TT User: The person using the translated text (e.g., a teacher using a
translated textbook).
 TT Receiver: The final recipient of the translation (e.g., students using the
textbook).

Each participant has specific primary and secondary goals. Translators often need
additional subject-area knowledge from the ST writer or through research. The focus
is on producing a TT that is functionally communicative for the receiver, meaning the
TT’s form and genre should suit the TT culture, not just copy the ST profile. The
translator ensures the intercultural transfer occurs satisfactorily by analyzing the ST
for its construction and function profile, considering both content (factual
information and communicative strategy) and form (terminology and cohesive
elements).

Skopos Theory

Skopos, the Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose,' was introduced into translation theory
in the 1970s by Hans J. Vermeer. It focuses on the purpose of the translation and the
translating action. According to skopos theory, a translation must be "functionally
adequate" or fit for its intended purpose. The major principles include:

1. The translational action is determined by its skopos.

2. The TT is an offer of information in the target culture and language
concerning an offer of information in the source culture and language.
3. The TT does not need to be a reversible offer of information.
4. The TT must be internally coherent.
5. The TT must be coherent with the ST.

These rules are hierarchical, with the skopos rule being the most important. The TT
must make sense to its target audience, given their context and needs. The fidelity
rule ensures there is a coherent relationship between the ST and TT but does not
specify what this coherence should look like. This flexibility means the same text can
be translated differently depending on the TT's purpose and the translator's
commission.

Christiane Nord adds the concept of "loyalty," which refers to the translator's
responsibility to both the source and target sides. This loyalty limits the range of
justifiable target-text functions for a particular source text, requiring negotiation
between the translator and the client.
Despite criticisms, skopos theory’s advantage lies in its flexibility. It allows for
different translations of the same text based on the TT’s purpose and the
commission. For instance, an ambiguous French will would be translated literally for a
lawyer but differently if part of a novel, depending on the TT's functional needs.

In summary, these theories emphasize the importance of the translation's purpose

and its functional adequacy, guiding translators to create texts that fulfill their
intended roles in the target culture while considering the source text's context and
content.

Discussion of Skopos Theory

Skopos theory is a functionalist approach to translation that prioritizes the purpose

(skopos) of the translation over strict adherence to the source text (ST). Despite its
influence and utility, it has faced several criticisms, which are addressed by theorists
such as Vermeer, Nord, and Schäffner.

1. Scope Limitation to Non-Literary Texts: Critics argue that skopos theory is

more applicable to non-literary texts, which have clear, utilitarian purposes,
rather than to literary texts, which are often seen as purpose-free or
stylistically complex. Vermeer counters this by stating that goals and purposes
can be attributed to any action, including literary translation. For instance, a
poet might aim to publish and monetize their work, indicating a clear purpose
even in seemingly purpose-free literary texts.

2. Differences from Reiss's Text Type Approach: Another criticism is that

Reiss's text type approach and Vermeer’s skopos theory deal with different
phenomena and should not be conflated. The core issue here is how much the
type of source text (ST) influences the translation method and the link
between ST type and translation skopos. Vermeer emphasizes that the
translation strategy should be determined by the intended function of the
target text (TT), irrespective of the ST type.

3. Use of Jargon: The terminology used in skopos theory, such as "Translatum,"

is seen by some as unnecessary jargon that complicates translation theory.
However, Nord, who translated Vermeer's work into English, focuses on
"translational action," making the theory more accessible and emphasizing its
practical application.

4. Insufficient Attention to Linguistic Features: A significant critique is that

skopos theory does not adequately address the linguistic characteristics of the
ST or the micro-level reproduction in the TT. Critics argue that fulfilling the
skopos might not ensure stylistic or semantic fidelity at the segment level.
 Christiane Nord addresses this criticism through her model of translation-
oriented text analysis, which integrates a detailed examination of both
extratextual and intratextual factors to ensure a comprehensive approach to
translation.

Exploration of Skopos Theory and Audience Design

Skopos theory emphasizes tailoring the TT to meet its purpose and audience needs.
Determining these uses and needs involves understanding the audience design.
Mason (2000) explores different receiver types and how they are addressed,
highlighting the importance of audience-oriented translation strategies.

Translation-Oriented Text Analysis by Christiane Nord

Christiane Nord's model builds on skopos theory but incorporates a more detailed
functional analysis of texts. She distinguishes between:

1. Documentary Translation: This approach treats the TT as a document of the

source culture, making the ST author and cultural context visible to the TT
audience. Examples include literary translations and word-for-word
translations.

2. Instrumental Translation: This treats the TT as an independent text in the

target culture, designed to function as if it were originally written in the TT
language. Examples include user manuals and technical documentation.

Nord's model involves analyzing both extratextual factors (e.g., text functions,
audience, time, place, medium, motive) and intratextual features (e.g., subject matter,
content, presuppositions, text composition, non-verbal elements, lexis, sentence
structure, suprasegmental features ). This comprehensive analysis helps translators
prioritize and adapt elements to ensure the TT meets its functional requirements.

Case Study

Nord's model is applied to a real-life translation commission: the translation of the

Usborne Cookery School’s "Cooking for Beginners" into several European
languages. Key points from the analysis include:

 Intended Text Functions: The book's informative function (teaching children

to cook) and appellative function (encouraging interest in cooking) are
preserved in translation.
 Addressees: Both ST and TT are aimed at children aged 10+ and their parents,
but cultural and experiential differences require careful adaptation.
  Non-Verbal Elements: The illustrations remain unchanged, necessitating
concise and accurate TT captions.
 Register of Lexis: Simplified and interpersonal language in the ST is mirrored
in the TT to maintain accessibility for children.
 Presuppositions: Cultural differences in ingredients, utensils, and dish
familiarity are addressed by adapting recipes and instructions to fit the TT
audience’s context.

Discussion of the Case Study

The text analysis reveals the cultural and experiential differences between ST and TT
audiences, necessitating functional adjustments beyond literal translation. Nord’s
model allows for identifying and addressing these differences, ensuring the
translation remains effective and relevant for the target audience.

Summary

Functionalist and communicative translation theories emphasize translation as an

intercultural communication act, where the purpose and function of the TT take
precedence over linguistic equivalence. Skopos theory, part of this functionalist
paradigm, focuses on the intended use and audience of the TT, while Nord’s model
incorporates detailed text analysis to address the linguistic and cultural nuances of
both ST and TT, providing a comprehensive framework for translation practice.