PA RT

I
Fundamentals
 CHAPTER

1
An Overview of Magnetic
Resonance Imaging

OBJECTIVES
At the completion of this chapter, the student • Distinguish between spatial resolution and
should be able to do the following: contrast resolution.
• Define nuclear magnetic resonance and • Discuss the symbols M, B0, Bx, FID, and T.
magnetic resonance imaging. • State the Larmor equation and discuss its
• Identify the three imaging windows of the significance.
electromagnetic spectrum.

OUTLINE
Historical Trail Multiplanar Imaging An Overview of Magnetic
Felix Bloch Magnetic Resonance Resonance Imaging
Damadian and Lauterbur Spectroscopy Net Magnetization
Why Magnetic Resonance No Ionizing Precession
Imaging? Radiation The Larmor Equation
Contrast Resolution Magnetic Resonance Imaging Free Induction Decay
Spatial Resolution Hardware Fourier Transformation

KEY TERMS
Contrast resolution Nuclear magnetism Spatial resolution
Electromagnetic radiation Precession Zeugmatography
Magnetic moment

HISTORICAL TRAIL
electromagnetic spectrum called the visible light
If someone wanted to make an image of a patient region (Figure 1-1).
150 years ago, what could have been done? Electromagnetic radiation can be character-
Actually, not much. At that time, only photogra- ized by any one of three parameters: energy,
phy or hand-drawn images were available. Both wavelength, and phase. The frequency is some-
types of such images use the narrow band of the times used to describe the wave character of

2
 CHAPTER 1 An Overview of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 3

Energy Frequency Wavelength

(eV) (Hz) (m)
1010 1024 10−16
109 1023 10−15 Megavoltage therapy
108 1022 10−14 Gamma rays Supervoltage therapy
107 10−13 X- rays Diagnostic
1021 Contact therapy
1 MeV 106 1020 10−12
Grenz rays
X-ray 105 10−11
imaging 1019
104 1018 10−10
1 nm
1 keV 103 1017 10−9
102 1016 10−8 Ultraviolet (UV) Violet
101 10−7 Blue
Visual 1015 1 µm Visible light Green
imaging 1 eV 100 1014 10−6 Yellow
Infared (IR)
10−1 1013 10−5 Red
10−2 1012 10−4
10−3 1011 10−3
1 cm Microwaves
10−4 1010 10−2
10−5 109 10−1
1 GHz 1m
10−6 108 100
MR UHF
imaging 10−7 107 101
VHF
10−8 106 102 Shortwave
1 km Radiofrequency
10−9 1 MHz 105 103 (RF) Standard broadcast
10−10 104 Longwave
104
10−11 103 105
1 kHz
10−12 102 106

FIGURE 1-1 The electromagnetic spectrum showing values of energy, frequency, and wavelength for the imaging
windows of visible light, x-rays, and radio waves.

electromagnetic radiation but it is basically detected by a medium that is sensitive to that

equivalent to the wavelength since the wave- kind of radiation—a photographic emulsion or
length is just the speed divided by the frequency the retina. Therefore, a photograph is made with
and the speed of light is a constant, c (~3 × reflected electromagnetic radiation and a suitable
108 m/s). Although the only electromagnetic receptor.
radiation that we can sense directly is visible Nineteenth-century physicists studying visible
light, we know that the range of electromagnetic light detailed its wavelike properties according
radiation extends over many orders of magni- to how it interacted with matter (i.e., reflec-
tude and different types of radiation. tion, diffraction, and refraction). Consequently,
How does photography work? Visible light visible light has always been characterized by its
reflects off an object, and the reflected light is wavelength.
4 PART I Fundamentals

Visible light extends from approximately 400 nm Commercial broadcasts such as AM radio,
(blue) to 700 nm (red). FM radio, and television (TV) are similarly iden-
tified. The AM RF band ranges from 540 to
1640 kHz, and the FM RF band ranges from 88
When Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen discovered to 108 MHz. TV broadcast ranges from 54 to
x-rays in 1895, there was suddenly another 806 MHz, which includes both VHF and UHF.
narrow region of the electromagnetic spectrum
from which medical images could be made. In Magnetic resonance images are made with RF in
1901 Roentgen received the first Nobel Prize in the range from approximately 10 to 300 MHz.
physics for his discovery. One reason Roentgen
received this award was that within 6 months, Use of the RF region of the electromagnetic
he had conducted a number of cleverly designed spectrum to produce an image is especially spec-
experiments and described x-rays much as they tacular. It is based on an analytical procedure
are known today. called nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and
Some of his experiments indicated that this was first called nuclear magnetic resonance
“x-light” interacted as a particle, not as a wave. imaging (NMRI). Some of the leaders in radiol-
As a result, x-ray emissions are identified accord- ogy were concerned about using the word nuclear
ing to their energy. Although we commonly refer around patients, since NMRI really didn’t involve
to kilovolt peak (kVp), it is more accurate to use any kind of ionizing radiation. As a result, that
kiloelectron volt (keV) to identify x-radiation. word was dropped early in the development of
this imaging process, and we are left with mag-
Diagnostic x-rays range from approximately netic resonance imaging (MRI).
20 keV to 150 keV. How is a magnetic resonance (MR) image
made? For a visible image, radiation is reflected
How is an x-ray image made? Electromag- from the body. For an x-ray image, radiation is
netic radiation (i.e., an x-ray beam) shines on transmitted through the body. For an MR image,
a patient. Some of the radiation is absorbed; the patient is stimulated so that electromagnetic
some of it is transmitted through the patient to radiation is emitted from the body. Through the
an image receptor. This results in a shadow gram- use of some clever methods, the emitted signal is
like image from the transmission of electromag- then detected, interpreted, and used to produce
netic radiation. an image (Figure 1-2).
During the latter part of the nineteenth century,
after Thomas Edison’s early work, engineers
Felix Bloch
and physicists worked to develop radio com­
munications. Electrons must oscillate in a con- Magnetic fields associated with atoms and nuclei
ductor to create a radio emission. This requires were first described in the 1930s. Otto Stern
the construction of an electronic circuit called and Isador Rabi each received a Nobel Prize in
an oscillator. The oscillator is the basis for physics for their work on atomic and nuclear
radioelectronics. magnetism. Rabi coined the term nuclear mag-
The electromagnetic radiation produced by netic resonance.
the oscillator is called a radiofrequency (RF) In 1946 Felix Bloch at Stanford and Edward
emission. Physicists identify this radiation accord- Purcell at Harvard independently described
ing to the frequency of oscillation. NMR in a solid. They shared the 1952 Nobel
Prize in physics for this work. Bloch continued
extensive studies with the NMR of water, thereby
RF radiation extends over a range from 3 kHz
laying the groundwork for later developments
to 3 GHz.
that led to MRI.
 CHAPTER 1 An Overview of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 5

magnetic moment. Nucleons that have charge

(e.g., protons) and that spin have even stronger
magnetic fields.
Experimental verification for the Bloch equa-
tions did not come until the early 1950s. By 1960
several companies were producing analytical
instruments called NMR spectrometers. During
the 1960s and 1970s, NMR spectroscopy (see
Chapter 8) became widely used in academic and
industrial chemistry research. Such use of NMR
enabled investigators to determine the molecular
configuration of a material from the analysis of
its NMR spectrum.
A

Damadian and Lauterbur

In the late 1960s engineer-physician Raymond
Damadian, while working with NMR spec-
troscopy, showed that malignant tissue has a
different NMR spectrum from normal tissue.
Furthermore, he showed that the parameters
associated with NMR (i.e., proton density, spin-
lattice relaxation time, and spin-spin relaxation
B time) differ between normal and malignant
tissue. Damadian produced a crude NMR image
of a rat tumor in 1974 and the first body image
in 1976. That image took almost 4 hours to
produce.
At this same time Paul Lauterbur, an NMR
C chemist at State University of New York in
Stony Brook, developed the first imaging method
FIGURE 1-2 How images are made using the three regions
of the electromagnetic spectrum. A, Reflected visible light. using NMR that is similar to what is used today.
B, Transmitted x-rays. C, Emitted radiofrequency. He called this method zeugmatography, which
was sort of Greek for saying that this imaging
method requires a whole bunch of magnetic
fields whizzing and buzzing around. Meanwhile
Bloch is to MRI what Roentgen is to x-ray in Nottingham, England, Peter Mansfield, a
imaging, and Bloch is known as the father of solid-state physicist, was engaged in similar
MRI. As a theoretical physicist, Bloch proposed research and eventually developed the echo-
some novel properties for the atomic nucleus, planar MRI method that is used for functional
including that the nucleus behaves like a small MR neuroimaging today. In 2003 Lauterbur and
magnet. He described this nuclear magnetism by Mansfield shared the Nobel Prize in physiology
what are now called the Bloch equations (see and medicine “for their discoveries concerning
Appendix A). magnetic resonance imaging.”
Bloch’s equations explain that a nucleus, In fact, a large number of scientists made sig-
because it spins on an imaginary axis, has an nificant contributions to the early development
associated magnetic field. This field is called a of MRI, among them James Hutchinson and
6 PART I Fundamentals

TA B L E 1 - 1 Approximate Spatial and Contrast Resolution Characteristics of Several

Medical Imaging Systems

Magnetic
Nuclear Computed Resonance
Medicine Ultrasound Radiography Tomography Imaging
Spatial resolution (mm) 5 2 0.05 0.25 0.25
Spatial resolution (lp/mm) 0.1 0.25 10 2 2
Contrast resolution (mm at 0.5% 20 10 10 4 1
difference)

William A. Edelstein at the University of Aber- Contrast resolution is the principal advantage
deen, David Hoult at Oxford University, Ian of MRI.
Young at EMI Laboratories, and Waldo Hinshaw
and E. Raymond Andrew, both at the University
Spatial Resolution
of Nottingham. These gentlemen have all received
numerous high scientific and engineering honors Spatial resolution refers to the ability to identify
for their contributions to the field. an object, usually a small, dense object like a
metal fragment or microcalcification, as separate
and distinct from another object. Table 1-1
WHY MAGNETIC shows representative values of spatial resolution
RESONANCE IMAGING? and contrast resolution for various medical
When a plain radiograph of the abdomen is imaging devices.
placed on a view box for interpretation, what In x-ray imaging, spatial resolution is princi-
can be seen? Not much. The image is gray and pally a function of the geometry of the system.
flat and shows little detail. A conventional tomo- Two important geometric considerations include
gram or an angiogram may be done to improve focal spot size and source-to-image receptor dis-
image contrast. tance (SID). In x-ray imaging, scatter radiation
limits the contrast resolution. X-ray beam colli-
mation and the use of radiographic grids reduce
Contrast Resolution scatter radiation and therefore improve contrast
If such an image is unsatisfactory, what else can resolution.
be done? A computed tomography (CT) image
can be requested. The principal advantage of CT CT has superior contrast resolution compared
imaging over radiographic imaging is superior to radiography because it uses a finely collimated
contrast resolution, the ability to image differ- x-ray beam, which results in reduced scatter
ences among low-contrast tissues. Contrast reso- radiation.
lution allows visualization of soft tissue with
similar characteristics, such as liver–spleen or In x-ray imaging, the x-ray attenuation
white matter–gray matter. coefficient (µ) determines the differential x-ray
The spatial resolution of a CT image is worse absorption in body tissues. In turn, the x-ray
than that of radiographic imaging because it is attenuation coefficient depends on the energy of
digital and limited by pixel size. Likewise, the the x-ray beam (E) and the atomic number (Z)
spatial resolution of MRI is worse than that of of the tissue being imaged.
radiography. However, the contrast resolution is The basis for the MR image is different.
even better with MRI than with CT. It is a function of several intrinsic NMR
 CHAPTER 1 An Overview of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 7

characteristics of the tissue being imaged. The technique selection and positioning. Patient posi-
three most important tissue characteristics are tioning in radiography is important to ensure
proton density (PD), spin-lattice relaxation time that the structure being imaged is parallel and
(T1), and spin-spin relaxation time (T2). Second- close to the image receptor. MR images are
ary characteristics include flow, magnetic suscep- directly available as projections in any plane,
tibility, paramagnetism, and chemical shift. when the patient is properly positioned at the
There are two principal parameters to select magnet isocenter and with intended anatomy at
in the production of a radiographic image: kilo- the sensitive region of the RF coil.
volt peak (kVp) and milliampere-second (mAs).
By carefully selecting kVp and mAs, radiographer
Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
can optimize the contrast resolution of an image
without compromising the spatial resolution. Another advantage to MRI is the possibility
There are many parameters to select in the of doing in vivo magnetic resonance spectros-
production of an MR image. The time sequence copy (MRS). It is possible to make an MR
of energizing RF emissions (RF pulses) and gradi- image, see a suspicious lesion, put the cursor on
ent magnetic fields determines the contrast reso- that lesion, and encompass it within a region
lution. The principal pulse sequences are partial of interest (ROI). The radiologist then could
saturation, inversion recovery, spin echo, gradi- retrieve the NMR spectrum from that lesion for
ent echo, and echo planar. Each sequence has a analysis.
large selection of timing patterns for the RF Interpretation of the NMR spectrum could
pulses and gradient magnetic fields to optimize then tell whether the tissue is normal or abnor-
contrast resolution for visualization of various mal. If the tissue appears abnormal, the NMR
anatomical and disease states. spectrum could reveal the molecular nature of
the abnormality. Unfortunately, the chemicals
that we would like to study with MRS are at
Multiplanar Imaging concentrations thousands to tens of thousands
An additional advantage to MRI is the ability to of times less than the concentration of water
obtain direct transverse, sagittal, coronal, and in tissue. So MRS is performed only in very
oblique plane images. Conventional radiographs special cases where it is worth taking the extra
show superimposed anatomy regardless of the time.
plane of the image. In CT imaging, sagittal and
coronal images are reconstructed either from a Sensitivity describes how well an imaging system
set of contiguous images or directly from the can detect subtle differences in anatomy. Speci-
volumetric data of spiral CT. With MRI, a large ficity refers to the ability to precisely identify the
data set is acquired during a single imaging nature of such differences.
sequence from which any anatomical plane can
be reconstructed. MRI has excellent sensitivity. MR spectros-
Viewing images obtained from various ana- copy could provide increased specificity if there
tomical planes requires a different kind of knowl- were a way to get enough signal.
edge on the part of physicians and technologists.
Except for CT images, most x-ray images are
No Ionizing Radiation
parallel to the long axis of the body. The MRI
interpreter may view anatomical planes that have Another advantage of MRI over x-ray imaging is
not been imaged before. The required interpre- that MRI does not require ionizing radiation.
tive skills come with experience. This lack of ionizing radiation has been effec-
When students enroll in a radiologic tech­ tively used to promote the safety of MRI to the
nology program, the curriculum focuses on medical community and public.
8 PART I Fundamentals

MRI does not require ionizing radiation. part to be imaged is at that position. An MRI
operating console has controls for selecting the
timing parameters, the field of view, and slice
thickness rather than kilovolt peak, milliampere,
MRI uses RF electromagnetic radiation and and exposure time.
magnetic fields, which do not cause ionization,
and therefore do not have the associated poten-
AN OVERVIEW OF MAGNETIC
tially harmful effects of ionizing radiation. Some
RESONANCE IMAGING
bioeffects of RF and magnetic fields are known
to exist, but the MRI systems are carefully The hydrogen nuclei in the patient, often just
designed to ensure that the levels reached are not referred to as protons, behave like tiny bar
high enough to cause harm and none of the bio- magnets. Hydrogen makes up 80% of all atoms
logical effects associated with MRI have been found in the human body, making hydrogen
linked to the induction of malignant disease. extremely useful for MRI. Because hydrogen is a
single-charged spinning nucleon, the hydrogen
nucleus exhibits magnetism due to its angular
MAGNETIC RESONANCE momentum and magnetic moment. Before the
IMAGING HARDWARE patient is put into the B0 magnetic field, the mag-
Just as a radiographic imaging system can be netic moments of the patient’s nuclei are ran-
identified by its main components (i.e., x-ray domly oriented (Figure 1-3).
tube, high-voltage generator, and operating The small arrows in Figure 1-3 represent these
console) so can an MRI system be identified by individual proton magnetic moments, which are
its main components (i.e., magnet, computer, and also referred to as magnetic dipoles. Under
operating console). normal circumstances, these magnetic dipoles
The magnet is typically a large cylindrical (each has a north and south magnetic pole) are
device that accommodates the patient during randomly distributed in space. Consequently, if
imaging. Unlike a CT gantry, the MRI magnet the net magnetic field of a patient were measured,
does not have moving parts. The only things it would be zero because all of the individual
that move are electrons in a conductor. The magnetic dipole moments cancel.
patient aperture is usually approximately 60 cm
in diameter. RF coils surround the patient in this
Net Magnetization
aperture. Gradient coils, shim coils, and, in the
case of an electromagnet, primary coils all sur- When the patient is placed in the presence of a
round the RF coils to produce the required mag- strong external magnetic field, some of the indi-
netic fields. vidual nuclear magnetic moments align with the
The computer required for MRI is similar to external magnetic field (Figure 1-4). The Carte-
that used for CT: very fast and with high capac- sian coordinate axis, X, Y, and Z, is always ren-
ity. During an MRI examination, more data are dered with the Z-axis as the vertical axis as
collected, and the computations required are
longer and more difficult than those for CT.
The MRI operating console is also similar to
that used for CT in that it has the same controls
for postprocessing and annotation of an image.
A CT system uses mechanical incrementation for
patient localization and so does an MRI system. FIGURE 1-3 Under normal conditions, nuclear magnetic
The patient undergoing MRI is moved to the dipoles in the body are randomly distributed, which results
isocenter of the magnet to ensure that the body in zero net magnetization.
 CHAPTER 1 An Overview of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 9

Y
X B0
Z M

Z M

FIGURE 1-4 When a strong external magnetic field (B0) is applied, the patient becomes polarized and has net magne-
tization (M).

shown. Vector diagrams that show this coordi-

nate system will be used to develop the physics
of MRI.
Precession
A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and
direction.
Gravity
The Z-axis in Figure 1-4 is drawn along
the long axis of the patient. By convention in
MRI, the Z-axis coincides with the axis of the
static magnetic field (B0). In superconducting MR
imaging systems, the static magnetic field (B0) is
usually horizontal, making the Z-axis horizontal,
too. In a permanent magnet imaging system, the
Z-axis is usually vertical, as in the vector dia- FIGURE 1-5 When spinning in outer space, a gyroscope
grams that follow. just spins. On the Earth, however, it precesses as it spins.
The strength of the B0 magnetic field is
expressed in units called tesla (T). A frequent
MRI question is, “How many gray equal 1
Precession
tesla?” The answer is none. A relationship does
not exist between ionizing radiation and mag- In addition to polarization, another phenomenon
netic field strength. Nothing about MRI can be occurs when a patient is placed in a static mag-
measured in gray because MRI does not use ion- netic field. This phenomenon can be understood
izing radiation. by considering the gyroscope. A gyroscope has
With a patient positioned in a static magnetic an annulus of heavy metal attached by spokes to
field, proton dipoles align with the (B0) magnetic an axis (Figure 1-5). If the gyroscope is taken
field (see Figure 1-4). This statement is an over- into space and spins, it only spins. However, if
simplification and is not entirely true. Only the gyroscope spins on Earth in the presence of
one of approximately every million dipoles a gravitational field, not only will the gyroscope
becomes so aligned. However, once aligned, the spin, but it will also wobble. Physicists call this
patient is polarized and has a net magnetization. wobbling motion precession.
The patient now has a north and a south mag- Precession is the interaction between the spin-
netic pole. ning mass of the gyroscope and the mass of the
10 PART I Fundamentals

FIGURE 1-6 The International Space Station. (Courtesy National Aeronautics and Space Administration.)

Earth that is manifest through the gravitational B0

field. By spinning, the gyroscope creates angular
momentum, which interacts with the angular
momentum of the spinning Earth and causes the
precessional motion.
Early space station designs were gyroscope-
like saucers, spinning to produce an artificial
gravity. Currently, hand and foot clips provide
moorings for inhabitants of the International
Space Station (Figure 1-6).
FIGURE 1-7 In the presence of an external magnetic field
(B0), a spinning proton precesses.
The gyroscope precesses in the presence of
gravity; the proton precesses in the presence
of B0.
The Larmor Equation
Similarly, if a spinning magnetic field, such as
the magnetic moment of the proton (Figure 1-7), The following is the fundamental equation for
is in the presence of a static magnetic field, it will MRI, the Larmor equation. This equation identi-
not only spin but will also precess. fies the frequency of precession.
 CHAPTER 1 An Overview of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 11

Larmor Frequency TABLE 1-2 Nuclei of Medical Interest

fo = g Bo and Their Gyromagnetic
where fo is the frequency of precession (or reso- Ratios
nant freqeuncy) and γ is the gyromagnetic ratio.
Nucleus Gyromagnetic Ratio (MHz/T)
1
H 42.6
The Larmor equation relates B0, the strength 19
F 40.1
of the static magnetic field, to the precessional 31
P 17.2
frequency (f) through the gyromagnetic ratio (γ), 23
Na 11.3
which has a precise value characteristic of each 13
C 10.7
nuclear species. Sometimes you will see the gyro- 2
H 6.5
magnetic ratio expressed as γ, but this version is
17
O 5.8
39
to be used only with angular frequencies scaled K 2.0
as radians/seconds.

g =g
2p
The symbol MZ represents net magnetization
is the correct version of the gyromagnetic ratio that lies along the Z-axis.
to use with frequencies scaled in Hz. The MRI experiment begins with the emission
Gyromagnetic ratio is to MRI what the disin- of a pulse of RF energy at the Larmor frequency
tegration constant is to radioactive decay. Each from an inductor, called an RF coil, into the
radionuclide has its own characteristic disinte- patient (see Figure 1-8). For hydrogen imaging
gration constant; each nuclear species has its with a magnetic field of 1 T, the RF coil is tuned
own characteristic gyromagnetic ratio. to 42 MHz.
The units of the gyromagnetic ratio, scaled as If one plucks a string of a guitar and a harp
described above, are megahertz per tesla. For is standing nearby, one of the strings on the harp
example, hydrogen has a gyromagnetic ratio of will begin to vibrate (Figure 1-9); the other
approximately 42 MHz/T. If B0 is 1 T, then the strings will remain still. The harp string vibrates
precessional frequency is 42 MHz. Likewise, at because that string has the same fundamental
1.5 T the precessional frequency is 63 MHz. The resonance as the plucked guitar string. The “R”
precessional frequency is also called the Larmor in MRI stands for resonance. The RF pulse trans-
frequency. mitted into the body must be at the resonant
Table 1-2 shows the principal nuclei of bio- frequency of the precessing hydrogen nuclei for
logical interest in MRI. Medical applications of energy to be transferred and imaging to occur.
MRI concentrate on hydrogen because of its rela- Most objects in nature have a fundamental
tive abundance and high gyromagnetic ratio. resonance. Energy transfer is always most effi-
Compared with other nuclei in the body, hydro- cient at resonance. For example, at a large hotel
gen is the best for producing an MR signal. in Kansas City several years ago, people were
dancing on a suspended bridgelike walkway.
They hit a resonance that was fundamental to
Free Induction Decay the walkway. The walkway collapsed, killing
When a patient is placed in the B0 magnetic field, several people. For this reason, marching mili-
the patient becomes polarized (see Figure 1-4). tary personnel are instructed to break cadence
The proton magnetic dipoles have aligned with when crossing a bridge. A third example is the
B0, and the alignment is symbolized with one collapse of the Tacoma Narrows suspension
large arrow, MZ (Figure 1-8). This arrow repre- bridge when it was subjected to harmonic buf-
sents a vector quantity called net magnetization. feting winds (Figure 1-10).
12 PART I Fundamentals

Y X
B0

MZ

FIGURE 1-8 Net magnetization along the Z-axis RF coil

is represented by MZ and the large arrow.

When RF is pulsed into the patient, the protons

individually flip and give up their energy to the
patient while continuing to precess. Then, as a
group, the net magnetization grows to its normal
state in the positive Z direction. The normal
state is called the equilibrium magnetization state
because the protons are at equilibrium in the B0
magnetic field. As the individual protons return
to equilibrium, the net magnetization precesses
around the Z-axis and slowly returns (relaxes)
back toward equilibrium (Figure 1-13).
To a disinterested observer, such as the RF
FIGURE 1-9 Plucking one guitar string causes only one receiving coil shown in Figure 1-13, such preces-
string of a nearby harp, which has the same fundamental sion is not obvious. Only a magnetic field that
resonance, to vibrate. first approaches and then recedes harmonically
is observed.
With any moving magnetic field, an electric
current can be induced in a properly designed
With net magnetization in the Z direction, not coil. The induced current represents a radio
only are the proton magnetic dipoles aligned, but signal emitted by the net magnetization created
each individual proton is precessing at the Larmor by the nuclei in the patient. This signal is called
frequency (Figure 1-11). When the RF signal is a free induction decay (FID). The RF coil sur-
pulsed at resonance into the patient, the energy rounding the patient receives an oscillating signal
state of many protons is changed. The net mag- that decreases with time (Figure 1-14). The signal
netization, due to all of the protons, is said to decreases with time as the proton spins begin to
“flip” toward the negative Z direction, while lose phase coherence or dephase.
still precessing about the Z-axis (Figure 1-12). The time constant that describes this process
This precession is always perpendicular to Z, is known as a relaxation time, specifically T2,
in the XY plane, and if initially all of the spins which is also called the transverse relaxation
are aligned along the same direction in the XY time. It is similar to the decay constant that
plane, we have created a condition called phase describes radioactive decay. Two such relaxation
coherence of the spins. This is the condition in times exist in MRI. The other is the T1 relaxation
which the most MR signal can be generated and time that describes the rate of the magnetization
received. increasing back to equilibrium. T1 and T2 can
 CHAPTER 1 An Overview of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 13

FIGURE 1-10 The Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge collapsed in buffeting gale force winds that set up a resonant
oscillation. (Courtesy Civil Engineering Department, Rice University, Houston.)

Y
X
B0

FIGURE 1-11 Placing a patient in a magnetic

field (B0) polarizes the patient and causes each
proton dipole to precess randomly.
14 PART I Fundamentals

Relaxation time
Y
X RF
signal
intensity
Time
Z

RF transmit
FIGURE 1-14 The free induction decay is a decreasing
harmonic oscillation of the Larmor frequency.
FIGURE 1-12 Net magnetization changes along the Z
direction and the protons precess in phase when a proper
radiofrequency (RF) pulse is transmitted into the patient.
intensity versus frequency. Each of the peaks in
the NMR spectrum represents one characteristic
of the tissue under investigation.
RF receive coil How is an image obtained from an NMR
spectrum? The following is a simplistic explana-
Y RF signal
X tion. Figure 1-16 presents a transverse cross-
section through the trunk of the body. The
patient lies in a uniform B0, and two pixels are
highlighted. If both pixels contain the same
Z
tissue, the peak in the NMR spectrum represents
both pixels. One can tell by looking at the
spectrum what is in both pixels but cannot deter-
RF transmit coil mine how much of the signal comes from each
location.
FIGURE 1-13 Precessing net magnetization induces a If in addition to the uniform (B0) magnetic
radiofrequency (RF) signal in a receiving coil. That RF signal field, a gradient magnetic field (Bx) is superim-
is called a free induction decay.
posed across the patient that varies in field
strength, spatial localization is possible (Figure
1-17). The magnetic field will then change with
generally be considered to be independent of one the x-position, Btotal = B0 + BX ⋅ x.
another and represent two different processes The position where x = 0 is called the isocenter
occurring at the same time but often at different of the magnet, and here the gradient will be zero.
rates. However, as the position is moved away from
isocenter, the magnetic field will be increased or
diminished by an amount equal to +BX ⋅ x. As a
Fourier Transformation result, even though they represent the same
The FID is a plot of MR signal intensity as a tissue, the tissue in the pixel at the lower mag-
function of time (see Figure 1-14). If a mathemat- netic field strength has a lower Larmor frequency
ical operation called a Fourier transformation than the one located at the higher magnetic field.
(FT) is performed on the FID, the result appears The FID in this situation is considerably more
as an NMR spectrum (Figure 1-15). complex. After FT, this spectrum has two peaks
Whereas the FID is a graph of signal intensity instead of one. These two peaks carry spatial
versus time, the NMR spectrum is a graph of information. One represents the pixel at the
signal intensity versus inverse time (s−1), or hertz lower magnetic field; the other represents the
(Hz). Therefore the NMR spectrum is signal pixel at the higher magnetic field.
 CHAPTER 1 An Overview of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 15

Signal
RF intensity
signal
intensity
FT

Time(s) Frequency (s−1)

FIGURE 1-15 When a Fourier transformation (FT) is performed on the free induction decay, a nuclear magnetic reso-
nance spectrum results.

FIGURE 1-16 If the same tissue were in the two highlighted pixels, both pixels would be represented by the same peak
in the nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum.

FIGURE 1-17 In the presence of a gradient magnetic field, BX, the nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum provides
information on pixel location.
16 PART I Fundamentals

application of gradient magnetic fields superim-

posed on the B0; however, the reconstruction
of an image occurs through a process called
two-dimensional Fourier transformation (2DFT)
or three-dimensional Fourier transformation
(3DFT). This is a special application of higher
mathematics that will be developed conceptually
later.

CHALLENGE QUESTIONS
1. What three windows in the electromagnetic
spectrum are available for the production of
medical images?
FIGURE 1-18 Projections can be obtained by rotating 2. What type of energy is involved in making
the gradient magnetic field around a patient. An MR images, and how would you describe
image can be reconstructed from these projections by
that energy?
backprojection.
3. What are the three fundamental properties
of an electromagnetic wave?
4. What is contrast resolution?
A uniform magnetic field is required for 5. What is spatial resolution, and why is it
NMR spectroscopy; gradient magnetic fields are important in medical imaging?
required for MRI. 6. Why does MRI exhibit superior contrast
resolution?
Multiple projections can be obtained in MRI 7. The terms sensitivity and specificity are fre-
by electronically rotating the gradient magnetic quently used to describe imaging modalities.
fields around the patient to produce a set of How do they differ?
projections (Figure 1-18). The projections are 8. State the Larmor equation and identify each
Fourier transformed and then back projection parameter.
reconstruction can be used to produce an image 9. The description of the physical basis for MR
as in CT. Paul Lauterbur’s early MR images were imaging relies heavily on vector diagrams.
created in this manner. What is a vector diagram?
MR images are reconstructed differently now. 10. Why does a toy top wobble when spun, and
The spatial information still comes from the what is that wobble called?