SPECTROSCOPY

Introduction of Spectrometric Analyses

The study how the chemical compound

interacts with different wavelenghts in a given
region of electromagnetic radiation is called
spectroscopy or spectrochemical analysis.

The collection of measurements signals

(absorbance) of the compound as a function of
electromagnetic radiation is called a spectrum.
 Energy Absorption

The mechanism of absorption energy is different in

the Ultraviolet, Infrared, and Nuclear magnetic
resonance regions. However, the fundamental
process is the absorption of certain amount of energy.

The energy required for the transition from a state of lower

energy to a state of higher energy is directly
related to the frequency of electromagnetic radiation
that causes the transition.
Spectral Distribution of Radiant Energy

 
Wave Number (cycles/cm)

X-Ray UV Visible IR Microwave

200nm 400nm 800nm

Wavelength (nm)
 Electromagnetic Radiation

V = Wave Number (cm ) -1

Wave Length
C = Velocity of Radiation (constant) = 3 x 1010 cm/sec.
= Frequency of Radiation (cycles/sec)
 
  V =
C


The energy of photon:
h (Planck's constant) = 6.62 x 10- (Ergsec)
27

C C
E = h = h  = C = 
 
 Spectral Properties, Application and Interactions of
Electromagnetic Radiation

Wave Wavelength Frequency

Energy Number V λ υ
Type Type Type
Radiation spectroscopy Quantum Transition
Kcal/mol eV cm-1 cm Hz

9.4 x 107 4.9 x 106 3.3 x 1010 3 x 10-11 1021 Gamma

Gamma ray
ray Nuclear
emission
X-ray Electronic
9.4 x 103 4.9 x 102 3.3 x 106 3 x 10-7 1017 X-ray
absorption, (inner shell)
emission
Ultra
9.4 x 101 4.9 x 100 3.3 x 104 3 x 10-5 1015 violet UV absorption Electronic
Visible (outer shell)

9.4 x 10-1 4.9 x 10-2 3.3 x 102 3 x 10-3 1013 Infrared IR absorption Molecular
vibration Molecular
rotation
Micro- Microwave
9.4 x 10-3 4.9 x 10-4 3.3 x 100 3 x 10-1 1011
wave absorption
Magnetically
Nuclear induced spin
Radio magnetic
9.4 x 10-7 4.9 x 10-8 3.3 x 10-4 3 x 103 107 states
resonance
 Dispersion of Polymagnetic Light with a Prism

Prism - Spray out the spectrum and choose the certain wavelength
( that you want by slit.

Infrared
monochromatic
Ray

Red
Orange
Yellow SLIT
Polychromatic PRISM
Green
Ray Blue
Violet

Ultraviolet

Polychromatic Ray Monochromatic Ray

 Beer – Lambert Law

Light
I0 I

Glass cell filled with

concentration of solution (C)

As the cell thickness increases, the transmitted intensity

of light of I decreases.
 
R- Transmittance
I
R= I0 - Original light intensity
I0
I- Transmitted light intensity
 
I
% Transmittance = 100 x
I0
1
Absorbance (A) = Log
T
I0
= Log = 2 - Log%T
I
I
Log is proportional to C (concentration of solution) and is
I0
also proportional to L (length of light path
through the solution).
A CL = ECL by definition and it is called the Beer
- Lambert Law.
A = ECL
 
A = ECL
E = Molar Extinction Coefficient ---- Extinction
Coefficient of a solution containing 1g molecule of
solute per 1 liter of solution
 Absorbance x Liter
E =
Moles x cm

UNITS
  A = ECL
A = No unit (numerical number only)

Liter
E =
Cm x Mole
L = Cm
C = Moles/Liter

Liter Mole
A = ECL = ( )x x Cm
Cm x Mole Liter
 Steps in Developing a Spectrometric Analytical Method

1. Run the sample for spectrum

2. Obtain a monochromatic
2.0
wavelength for the maximum

Absorbance
absorption wavelength.
3. Calculate the concentration of 0.0

your sample using Beer Lambert 200 250 300 350 400 450

Wavelength (nm)
Equation: A = ECL
Spectrometer Reading
 A
Slope of Standard Curve =
C

A at 280 nm
1.0
x

0.5
x

1 2 3 4 5
Concentration (mg/ml)

There is some A vs. C where graph is linear.

NEVER extrapolate beyond point known where
becomes non-linear.
 Spectrometric Analysis Using Standard Curve

1.2

A at 540 nm
0.8

0.4

1 2 3 4
Concentration (g/l) glucose

Avoid very high or low absorbencies when drawing a standard

curve. The best results are obtained with 0.1 < A < 1. Plot the
Absorbance vs. Concentration to get a straight line
 Sample Cells

UV Spectrophotometer
Quartz (crystalline silica)

 Visible Spectrophotometer
Glass

 
 Light Sources

 UV Spectrophotometer
1. Hydrogen Gas Lamp
2. Mercury Lamp
Visible Spectrophotometer
1. Tungsten Lamp
Chemical Structure & UV Absorption

Chromophoric Group ---- The groupings of the

molecules which contain the electronic system which
is giving rise to absorption in the ultra-violet region.
 Ultra Violet Spectrometry

The absorption of ultraviolet radiation by molecules is

dependent upon the electronic structure of the molecule.
So the ultraviolet spectrum is called electronic spectrum.
 Electronic Excitation

The absorption of light energy by organic compounds

in the visible and ultraviolet region involves the
promotion of electrons in , , and n-orbitals from the
ground state to higher energy states. This is also called
energy transition. These higher energy states are
molecular orbitals called antibonding.
 Antibonding
*

* Antibonding
 *

n *
n *
*
Energy

n Nonbonding
Bonding


Bonding

 Electronic Molecular Energy Levels

The higher energy transitions ( *) occur a

shorter wavelength and the low energy transitions
(*, n *) occur at longer wavelength.
 Chromophoric Structure
Group Structure nm
Carbonyl >C=O 280
Azo -N = N- 262
Nitro -N=O 270
Thioketone -C =S 330
Nitrite -NO2 230
Conjugated Diene -C=C-C=C- 233
Conjugated Triene -C=C-C=C-C=C- 268
Conjugated Tetraene -C=C-C=C-C=C-C=C- 315
Benzene 261
UV Spectrometer Application

Protein
Amino Acids (aromatic)
Pantothenic Acid
Glucose Determination
Enzyme Activity (Hexokinase)
Visible Spectrometer Application

Niacin
Pyridoxine
Vitamin B12
Metal Determination (Fe)
Fat-quality Determination (TBA)
Enzyme Activity (glucose oxidase)
Vibrasi IR
Vibrasi IR
Vibrasi IR
 Tipe-tipe Vibrasi

Rocking Asym streching Sym streching

Scissorring Twisting Wagging

 Atomic Spectroscopy

Principles of Atomic Spectroscopy

• High energy radiation is provided by:

(a) flame in flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (FAA)
(b) electrothermal furnace in flameless graphite furnace
atomic absorption spectroscopy (GFAA)
(c) plasma in inductively coupled plasma-optical emission
spectroscopy (ICP-OES)
 Atomic Spectroscopy

2 major types of atomic spectroscopy:

• Absorption – light of a wavelength characteristic of the element of

interest radiates through the atom vapor. The atoms absorb some of
the light. The amount absorbed is measured.

• Emission – sample is heated to excitation/ionization of the sample

atoms. Excited and ionized atoms decay to a lower energy state
through emission. Intensity of the light emitted is measured.
 Atomic Spectroscopy

Flame and Flameless Atomic Absorption

Processes Occurring in Flame and Flameless Furnace

• Solution is introduced into a high-temperature flame or
furnace, molecules containing the elemental atoms become
gaseous atoms through a series of reactions

• Flame and flameless furnaces are two common radiation

sources used in atomic spectroscopy
 Atomic Absorption and Atomic
Fluorescence Spectrometry
Flame Atomization: In a flame atomizer, a solution of
the sample is nebulized by a flow of gaseous oxidant,
mixed with a gaseous fuel, and carried into a flame
where atomization occurs. The following processes then
occur in the flame.
• Desolvation (produce a solid molecular aerosol)
• Dissociation (leads to an atomic gas)
• Ionization (to give cations and electrons)
• Excitation (giving atomic, ionic, and molecular
emission)
 Atomic Spectroscopy
Flame and Flameless Atomic Absorption

Processes Occurring in Flame and Flameless Furnace

• If M is used to denote the vapor form of any atom (metals),

M + hν → M* (for FAAS)

M * → M + hν (for FAES)

• Note: Formation of metal oxide/hydroxide (5) and ionization of gaseous atom (6)
are common interferences that must be minimized
 Calibration Curve
A calibration curve is used to determine the
unknown concentration of an element in a solution.
The instrument is calibrated using several solutions
of known concentrations. The absorbance of each
known solution is measured and then a calibration
curve of concentration vs absorbance is plotted.

The sample solution is fed into the instrument, and

the absorbance of the element in this solution is
measured .The unknown concentration of the
element is then calculated from the calibration curve
 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
• It is possible to measure the concentration of an
absorbing species in a sample by applying the
Beer-Lambert Law:

 I  Abs  cb
Abs   log 
Io 

 = extinction coefficient 39
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
• But what if  is unknown?
• Concentration measurements can be made from a
working curve after calibrating the instrument
with standards of known concentration.

40
 AAS - Calibration Curve

• The instrument is calibrated before use by testing the

absorbance with solutions of known concentration.

• Consider that you wanted to test the sodium content

of bottled water.

• The following data was collected using solutions of

sodium chloride of known concentration

Concentration (ppm) 2 4 6 8
Absorbance 0.18 0.38 0.52 0.76
41
 Calibration Curve for Sodium

A
b 1.0

s
o 0.8

r 0.6
b
a 0.4

n
c 0.2

e
2 4 6 8

Concentration (ppm) 42
 Use of Calibration curve to determine sodium
concentration {sample absorbance = 0.65}

A
b 1.0

s
o 0.8

r 0.6
b
a 0.4

n Concentration
c 0.2
Na+ = 7.3ppm
e
2 4 6 8

Concentration (ppm) 43
The water analysis was performed by AAS determination of Fe at 248.3
nm. The absorbance of the water, after 5 fold dilution was 0.646. A
standard solution prepared by dissolving 0.1483g of iron wire in
acid, diluting to 250 mL. After a further x100 dilution the solution had an
absorbance of 0.813. Calculate the ppm in the water sample.
On a proper investigation of iron standards were prepared by taking
various volumes of a 0.0593 mg Fe per mL and diluting up to 100 mL.
The absorbance of the solutions were as follows:

Volume of Fe taken (mL) Absorbance

0.00 0.000
1.00 0.113
3.00 0.334
5.00 0.530
7.00 0.672
10.00 0.813
What is the true value of the Fe content in the municipals water.
SPECTROSCOPY