The Atmospheric Structure 1

The atmospheric structure .
-It is consists of four levels :-

1) troposphere:- characterized by decreasing in the temperature as the height
increases, it is from the surface of the earth to a height varies from 24,000 ft to
50,000ft.
• Tropopause:- it is the layer between the troposphere and the stratosphere
act as a lid to confine most water vapor. it is characterized by constant temperature
“jet aircraft prefer flying at this layer ,to avoid weather phenomena as well for fuel
mileage”.
2) Stratosphere:- characterized by increasing in the temperature as the height
increases. “Stratopause -constant temperature with altitude-”
3) Mesosphere:- characterized by decreasing in temperature as height increases
(coolest part of the atmosphere).
4) Thermosphere:-characterized by increasing in temperature as height increases.
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-Composition of the atmosphere:-
1. Nitrogen 78%
2. Oxygen 21%
3. Carbon dioxide and other gases 1%.
◦ The reason behind all weather is the unequal heating of the earth by the sun.
Unequal heating ——> unequal temperature ——> unequal pressure
◦ Standard pressure = 1013.25 hectopascals, millibars or 29.92 inches of Mercury
◦ The pressure systems which are classified to :-
1. High pressure
2. Low pressure
3. Ridge
4. Trough
5. Col
—————————————————————
⁃ High pressure:- is a center of high pressure surrounded by low pressure.
⁃ Low pressures:- is a center of low pressure surrounded by high pressure.
⁃ Ridge:- is an elongated area of high pressure.
⁃ Trough:- is an elongated area of low pressure.
⁃ Col:- neutral area between two high pressure or two low pressure, or an
intersection between ridge and trough.
● Sea breeze :-
As the water absorb and release heat slower than land So during the day the land is
warmer than water, that creates sea breeze wind blows cool air over water to warm
air over the land.
● Land breeze :-
The opposite occurs during the night, the wind blows from cool air over land to warm air
Over the water .
● Valley breeze :-
The top of the valley is warmer so wind blows upward the valley during day.
● Mountain breeze :-
The opposite occurs the wind blows downward (katabatic wind).
* ISA conditions:- International Standard Atmosphere at the sea level
Temperature: 15 c
Pressure: 29.92 inHg, Or 1013.25 hPa
Lapse rate: 1.98 ≈ 2 c per 1000 ft
Tropopause height: 36,000 ft
Tropopause temperature: -56.5 c
Density: 1225 g/m^3
*Lapse rate decreases in temperature as altitude increases
standard → 2 c per 1000 ft
DALR → 3 c per 1000 ft
SALR → 1.5 c - 1.8 c per 1000 ft
*Stability: it is the atmosphere resistance for the vertical motion.

- The warming from below decreases the stability
- The cooling from below increases stability
*To determine the base of clouds:-
(Temp. - dew point) / 2.5
Ex. (18 - 16) / 2.5 = 0.8 x (1000 ft) = 800 ft
Comparison between stable air
and unstable air :- Stable Air Unstable Air
Clouds Stratiform Cumuliform

Visibility Poor Good
Turbulence Little or No Moderate , severe
Precipitation Drizzle Rain
Icing Rime Clear
Others Temperature, inversions
*Temperature Inversion:- As the height increases, the temperature increases.
Clouds :-
Stratiform Cumuliform
Low Stratus Cumulus
0 → 6500 AGL
Middie Altostratus Altocumulus
6500 → 20000 AGL
High cirrostratus Cirroscumulus
2000 → 45000 AGL
● Clouds with vertical development:- The bases varies from 1,000 to 10,000 ft MSL,
and their top may exceed 60,000 ft MSL.
Ex. Towering cumulus (TCU ), Cumulonimbus ( CB )
Virga : its phenomena where the preciptaition evaporate under base of cloud and dosent
reach the ground .
Airmass:- Is a large body of air with uniform temperature and moisture content.
Fronts:- When the air mass goes out its source of region and become in contact with
anotherair mass with different temperature and moisture content the boundary between
the two air masses called front.
Types of fronts:-
Cold fronts: Separates between area of cold stable air and area of warm light air, the cold
airmoves along the surface and force the warm air to go upwards.
Warm front: When the warm air moves over the cooler air, they move slower than cold
front.It may extend over the cool air for several hundred miles.
Stationary front: When the two air-masses relatively balanced ,It influence the flying for
several days and the weather is mixture between that found in warm and cold fronts.
Occluded front :
Weather hazards
1.Thunderstorms. 2. Windshear.
3. Turbulence. 4.Icing. 5. Restriction to visibility.
1. Thunderstorms: one of the most weather hazards for aviation, and must be
avoided.
There are three factors must exist for the formation of thunderstorms
1. weather unstable .
2. High moisture content in the air.
3. Lifting actions:
• orographic lifting (obstacles)
• Convection ) ‫( التسخين‬
• fronts.
Single cell → 1h
Super → 2h
Multi →
The life cycle of thunderstorm is three stages
1- Cumulus stage :-
Up drafts → 3000 f.p.m → 15 min
2- Mature stage :-
This is the most dangerous stage, because the updrafts continue to get stronger
reaching 6,000 f.p.m and strong downdraft which reaches 2500 f.p.m
3- Dissipating stage:-
The entire Thunderstorm begins to weaken And the cell become the
predominant downdrafts it looks like anvil shape.
Thunderstorm hazards:-
- severe turbulence
- Wind shear
- Lightning, loss of vision, damage to electronic navigation and
communication equipment
- Hail
- Funnel clouds: violent spinning Column of air descend from the base
of the cloud,reaches 200 KTs or exceeding, if touches the earth called
tornadoes and if touchesthe water called waterspout .
You should avoid thunderstorms by 20 N.M

If you are flying between, the distance should be 40 N.M
2.Wind shear: is sudden drastic change in wind speed and/or
direction.
- Microburst: one of the most dangerous of wind shear . the

downdraft of it reaches 6,000 ft per minute. it is 3-5 miles wide, lasts
for 15 minutes
3.Turbulence :-
- Low level turbulence : is often defined as turbulence below 15,000

feet MSL, which includes mechanical, frontal, convective and wake
turbulence.
- Clear air turbulence (CAT) :- It is the turbulence above 15,000 ft,
however it can be found at any height with no visual warnings, it is
mostly associated by jet stream .
- Mountain wave turbulence:- It is the turbulence due to the
mountains interfering the normal wind flow, in order to mountain
wave to form the wind should be 20 KTs and if the wind exceeds 40
KTs expect strong turbulence.
And the intensity can be classified as

- light: slight change in attitude or altitude slight strain on seat belt.
- Moderate: change in attitude and altitude but the A/C remains
positive controlled at
all times , slight change in A/S, definite strain on seat belt.
- Severe: large changes in attitude and altitude, the A/C
momentarily out of control,
large changes in A/C, strong strain on seat belts.
- Extreme: A/C is practically out of control and may cause structural
damage
4. Icing:-
The effect of icing in the A/C
- Increases weight and decreases lift.
- Increases drag and decreases thrust.
- Change airfoil shape.
- Separation of the airflow from the airfoil.
Types of structural icing:-

- Rime ice: from small water droplets of the stratiform type of clouds,
usually occurs in temperature between -15 c to -20 c.
- Clear ice: from large water droplets of the cumuliform type of clouds, usually
occurs in temperature between zero to -10 c, the most dangerous type of ice.
- Mixed: mix of rime and clear
Intensity of icing is classified as:-

1. Light. 2. Moderate. 3. Severe.
5.Restriction to visibility:-
- such as fog, haze, dust, smoke, smog.
- Haze : is small particles of dust or/and salt it may reach 15,000 ft,
above the haze layer the visibility is good.
Smoke: usually occurs in the industrial areas.
- Dust: soil spread in the air need unstable air and strong wind to exist.
Smog: it is a combination between the smoke and fog.
Fog: it is a low cloud, it needs moisture content and the visibility to

less than one km.
Types of fog:- 1- Radiation fog 2- Advection fog 3- Steam fog
1- Radiation fog: The most common type in Egypt.
2- Advection fog : When warm humid air passes over cool surface
3- Steam fog: (sea smoke) when cold air passes over warm water.
Hydroplaning:-
It is a thin layer of standing water, snow on the runway that
separates between the tires and the ground which leads to
skidding the A/C and the brakes are not effective.
Dynamic - Rubber - Viscous are types of hydroplaning.
Reports and Forecasts:-
Reports : 1.METAR/SPECI. 2.PIREPS.
Forecasts: TAF.
METAR: Aviation routine weather, issued every one hour it is the actual
surface weather.
SPECI: Special aviation weather report unscheduled for one or more
elements changed.
TAF: terminal area forecast valid for 24 or 30 Hrs issued four times per day.
0-6-12-18
2.PIREPS: pilot Report .
1 – UA or UAA
2 – location
3 – Time
5 – Altitude
5 – Type of aircraft
3.Forecasts: TAF.
• From ( FM ) → Rapidly change

• Becoming ( BECMG ) → Gradually change
• Temporarily ( TEMPO ) → at least ½ the time change will occarg
) ‫( ليه بداية و نهاية‬
• Probability ( prob ) → ( prob 30% or 40 % )
Weather reports and forecast decoding .

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The atmospheric structure .

-It is consists of four levels :-

*Stability: it is the atmosphere resistance for the vertical motion.

Clouds Stratiform Cumuliform

You should avoid thunderstorms by 20 N.M

- Microburst: one of the most dangerous of wind shear . the

- Low level turbulence : is often defined as turbulence below 15,000

And the intensity can be classified as

Types of structural icing:-

Intensity of icing is classified as:-

Fog: it is a low cloud, it needs moisture content and the visibility to

• From ( FM ) → Rapidly change

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