Wollo University KIOT Department of Civil Engineering

CHAPTER TWO
2. INTRODUCTION TO TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
2.1 Introduction
The availability of highway transportation has provided several advantages that
contribute to a high standard of living. However, several problems related to the highway
mode of transportation exist. These problems include highway-related crashes, parking
difficulties, congestion, and delay. To reduce the negative impact of highways, it is
necessary to adequately collect information that describes the extent of the problems and
identifies their locations. Such information is usually collected by organizing and
conducting traffic surveys and studies.

Traffic studies involve the collection of data under operational conditions and include
studies of speed, traffic volume, travel time and delay, parking, and crashes.

Types of traffic facilities

▪ Uninterrupted Traffic facility- includes freeways where there are no
intersections at grade, no STOP and Yield signs, etc; some rural highways; and
multilane highways.
▪ Interrupted Traffic facility- incorporate external interruptions such as traffic
signals, Un-signalized streets with STOP and YIELD signs, pedestrian walkways
and transit lanes.
2.2 Study Areas of Traffic Engineering

Traffic studies may be grouped into three main categories:

✓ Inventories,
✓ Administrative studies, and
✓ Dynamic studies.

1. Inventories: provide a list or graphic display of existing information, such as:

• street widths,
• parking spaces,

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• transit routes,
• traffic regulations.
2. Administrative studies use existing engineering records, available in government
agencies and departments.
include the results of surveys, which may involve:
• field measurements and/or
• aerial photography.
3. Dynamic traffic studies involve the collection of data under operational conditions.
• include studies of:
• speed,
• traffic volume,
• travel time and delay,
• parking, and
• crashes.
• NB: dynamic studies are carried out by the traffic engineer to evaluate current
conditions and develop solutions.

2.2.1 Spot Speed Studies

Spot speed is a point velocity at a given location. Spot speed studies are conducted to
estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicles in a stream of traffic at a particular location
on a highway. The speed of a vehicle is defined as the rate of movement of the vehicle; it
is usually expressed in miles per hour (mi/h) or kilometers per hour (km/h). A spot speed
study is carried out by recording the speeds of a sample of vehicles at a specified location.
Speed characteristics identified by such a study will be valid only for the traffic and
environmental conditions that exist at the time of the study. Speed characteristics
determined from a spot speed study may be used to:
▪ Establish parameters for traffic operation and control, such as speed zones, speed
limits (85th-percentile speed is commonly used as the speed limit on a road), and
passing restrictions.
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▪ Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic control devices, such as variable message signs
at work zones.
▪ Monitor the effect of speed enforcement programs, such as the use of drone radar
and the use of differential speed limits for passenger cars and trucks.
▪ Evaluate and/or determine the adequacy of highway geometric characteristics,
such as radii of horizontal curves and lengths of vertical curves.
▪ Evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety through the analysis of crash data
for different speed characteristics.
▪ Determine speed trends.
▪ Determine whether complaints about speeding are valid.

Locations for Spot Speed Studies

The following locations generally are used for the different applications listed:
i. Locations that represent different traffic conditions on a highway or highways are
used for basic data collection.
ii. Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight, level sections of rural highways are
sites for speed trend analyses.
iii. Any location may be used for the solution of a specific traffic engineering problem.
When spot speed studies are being conducted, it is important that unbiased data be
obtained. This requires that drivers be unaware that such a study is being conducted.

Time of Day and Duration of Spot Speed Studies

The time of day for conducting a speed study depends on the purpose of the study. In
general, when the purpose of the study is to establish posted speed limits, to observe
speed trends, or to collect basic data, it is recommended that the study be conducted when
traffic is free-flowing, usually during off-peak hours. However, when a speed study is
conducted in response to citizen complaints, it is useful if the time period selected for the
study reflects the nature of the complaints.

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The duration of the study should be such that the minimum number of vehicle speeds
required for statistical analysis is recorded. Typically, the duration is at least 1 hour and
the sample size is at least 30 vehicles.

Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies

The larger the sample size, the greater the probability that the estimated mean is not
significantly different from the true mean. It is therefore necessary to select a sample size
that will give an estimated mean within acceptable error limits.
These data are used to obtain speed characteristics. These characteristics are the average
speed, the median speed, the modal speed, the 85thpercentile speed, the pace, and the
standard deviation of the speed.
a) Average Speed which is the arithmetic mean of all observed vehicle speeds (which
is the sum of all spot speeds divided by the number of recorded speeds)
b) Median Speed which is the speed at the middle value in a series of spot speeds that
are arranged in ascending order. 50 percent of the speed values will be greater than
the median; 50 percent will be less than the median.
c) Modal Speed which is the speed value that occurs most frequently in a sample of
spot speeds.
d) The ith-percentile Spot Speed which is the spot speed value below which i
percent of the vehicles travel; for example, 85th-percentile spot speed is the speed
below which 85 percent of the vehicles travel and above which 15 percent of the
vehicles travel.
Sample Size
The Selection of sample size depends on desired confidence level and the minimum
sample size to satisfy the project requirements can be determined as:

(5.1)
Where:
N= number of sample size

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Z = number of standard deviations corresponding to the required

confidence = 1.96 for 95 percent confidence level (Table 2.1)
𝜎 = standard deviation (mi/h)
d = limit of acceptable error in the average speed estimate (mi/h)
Table 2.1: Constant Corresponding to Level of Confidence

Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies

The methods used for conducting spot speed studies can generally be divided into two
main categories: manual (e.g. speed gun) and automatic. The automatic conducting
methods include road detectors, radar-based traffic sensors, electronic-principle
detectors, etc

Road Detectors
These devices can be used to collect data on speeds at the same time as volume data are
being collected. The advantage of the detector meters is that human errors are
considerably reduced. The disadvantages are that (1) these devices tend to be rather
expensive and (2) when pneumatic tubes are used, they are rather conspicuous and may,
therefore, affect driver behavior, resulting in a distortion of the speed distribution.

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(a) b C

Fig. 2.1: (a) Radar speed gun (b) Pneumatic road tubes and (c) induction loops

Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data

The data collected in spot speed studies are usually taken only from a sample of vehicles
using the section of the highway on which the study is conducted, but these data are used
to determine the speed characteristics of the whole population of vehicles traveling on
the study site. It is therefore necessary to use statistical methods in analyzing these data.

2.2.2 Volume Studies

Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect data on the number of vehicles and/or
pedestrians that pass a point on a highway facility during a specified time period. This
time period varies from as little as 15 minutes to as much as a year depending on the
anticipated use of the data. Traffic volume studies are usually conducted when certain
volume characteristics are needed, some of which follow:
a) Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) is the average of 24-hour counts collected
every day of the year.
b) Average Daily Traffic (ADT) is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a
number of days greater than one but less than a year.
c) Peak Hour Volume (PHV) is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point
on a highway during a period of 60 consecutive minutes.
d) Vehicle Classification (VC): Records volume with respect to the types of vehicles.
e) Vehicle Miles (Kilometers) of Travel (VMT, VKT): A measure of travel along a
section of road. A product of roadway in miles to which the volume is applicable.

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Function of traffic volume studies

Study Application of the study

▪ Estimation of highway user revenues
▪ Computation of crash rates in terms of number of crashes per 100
million vehicle miles
AADT ▪ Establishment of traffic volume trends
▪ Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects
▪ Development of freeway and major arterial street systems
▪ Development of improvement and maintenance programs
▪ Planning of highway activities
ADT
▪ Measurement of current demand
▪ Evaluation of existing traffic flow
▪ Functional classification of highways
▪ Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway, for example,
number of lanes, intersection signalization, or channelization
PHV ▪ Capacity analysis
▪ Development of programs related to traffic operations, for
example, one-way street systems or traffic routing
▪ Development of parking regulations

Methods of Conducting Volume Counts

Traffic volume counts are conducted using two basic methods: manual and automatic.

Manual Method
Manual counting involves one or more persons recording observed vehicles using a
counter. With this type of counter, the short and complicated count such as both the
turning movements at the intersection and the types of vehicles can be recorded.

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Fig. 2.2: Manual traffic volume count method

Automatic Method

Figure 2.3: Induction loop (vehicle classification by length & chassis profile)

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Automatic counters can be classified into two general categories: those that require the
laying of detectors (surface or subsurface), and those that do not require the laying of
detectors. Automatic counters that require the laying of surface detectors (such as
pneumatic road tubes) or subsurface detectors (non invasive, such as magnetic or electric
contact devices) on the road, detect the passing vehicle and transmit the information to a
recorder, which is connected to the detector at the side of the road.

Types of Volume Counts

Different types of traffic counts are carried out, depending on the anticipated use of the
data to be collected. These different types are discussed in the following table.

Cordon counts When vehicle accumulation pattern within an area is

needed

Screen line counts When changes in traffic flow from one area to another
need to be evaluated

Intersection counts When turning movements are needed

Pedestrian volume When pedestrian demand needs to be evaluated/ is to be

counts undertaken

Periodic volume counts When traffic volume characteristics are needed:

Continuous, control, and coverage counts
e.g AADT

Traffic Volume Characteristics

A continuous count of traffic at a section of a road will show that traffic volume varies
from hour to hour, from day to day, and from month to month. However, the regular
observation of traffic volumes over the years has identified certain characteristics
showing that although traffic volume at a section of a road varies from time to time, this

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variation is repetitive and rhythmic. These characteristics of traffic volumes are usually
taken into consideration when traffic counts are being planned so that volumes collected
at a particular time or place can be related to volumes collected at other times and places.
Knowledge of these characteristics also can be used to estimate the accuracy of traffic
counts.

For example, the monthly variation of traffic volume during January and February are
very low volumes due to winter weather and peak volume is observed during August due
to vacation.

2.2.3 Travel Time and Delay Studies

Definitions
Travel time is the time taken by a vehicle to traverse a given section of a highway.
Delay is the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond the control of the driver.

A travel time study determines the amount of time required to travel from one point to
another on a given route. In conducting such a study, information may also be collected
on the locations, durations, and causes of delays. When this is done, the study is known as
a travel time and delay study. Data obtained from travel time and delay studies give a
good indication of the level of service on the study section. These data also aid the traffic
engineer in identifying problem locations, which may require special attention in order
to improve the overall flow of traffic on the route.

Delay is often used to estimate economic losses --- more fuel consumption and low
productivity of operation. Delay is also a very important MOE (measure of effectiveness)
in traffic engineering.

Applications of Travel Time and Delay Data

The data obtained from travel time and delay studies may be used in any one of the
following traffic engineering tasks:
✓ Determination of the efficiency of a route with respect to its ability to carry
traffic
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✓ Identification of locations with relatively high delays and the causes for those
delays
✓ Performance of before-and-after studies to evaluate the effectiveness of traffic
operation improvements
✓ Determination of travel times on specific links for use in trip assignment models
✓ Compilation of travel time data that may be used in trend studies to evaluate
the changes in efficiency and level of service with time
✓ Performance of economic studies in the evaluation of traffic operation
alternatives that reduce travel time

Methods for Conducting Travel Time and Delay Studies

Several methods have been used to conduct travel time and delay studies. These methods
can be grouped into two general categories: (a) those using a test vehicle and (b) those
not requiring a test vehicle.

Methods Requiring a Test Vehicle

Floating-Car Technique: In this method, the test car is driven by an observer along the

test section so that the test car “floats” with the traffic. The driver of the test vehicle

attempts to pass as many vehicles as those that pass his test vehicle. The time taken to
traverse the study section is recorded. This is repeated, and the average time is recorded
as the travel time.
The minimum number of test runs can be determined using an equation similar to Eq. 5.1,
using values of the t distribution rather than the z values. The reason is that the sample
size for this type of study is usually less than 30, which makes the t distribution more
appropriate. The equation is

(5.2)

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Example
An engineer, wishing to determine the travel time and average speed along a section of
an urban highway as part of an annual trend analysis on traffic operations, conducted a
travel time study using the floating-car technique. How many test runs are required to
obtain a standard deviation of ±2.5 mi/h in the speeds? Assume a 5% significance level.
(ta = t1 – 0.025) (ta is 2.365, 2.306, 2.262, 2.228, 2.201, 2.179, 2.160, 2.145 for 7 up to 14
degree of freedom)

Average-Speed Technique: This technique involves driving the test car along the length
of the test section at a speed that, in the opinion of the driver, is the average speed of the
traffic stream. The time required to traverse the test section is noted.

It is easier method than floating car and the number of sample size (minimum number of
test run) can be determined similar to float cat method (equation 5.2).

In each of these methods, it is first necessary to clearly identify the test section. The way
the travel time is usually obtained is that the observer starts a stopwatch at the beginning
point of the test section and stops at the end. A second stopwatch also may be used to
determine the time that passes each time the vehicle is stopped. The sum of these times
for any test run will give the stopped-time delay for that run.

Methods Not Requiring a Test Vehicle

License-Plate Observations: The license-plate method requires that observers be

positioned at the beginning and end of the test section. Each observer records the last
three or four digits of the license plate of each car that passes, together with the time at
which the car passes. The reduction of the data is accomplished in the office by matching

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the times of arrival at the beginning and end of the test section for each license plate
recorded. The difference between these times is the traveling time of each vehicle. The
average of these is the average traveling time on the test section. It has been suggested
that a sample size of 50 matched license plates will give reasonably accurate results.

Interviews: The interviewing method is carried out by obtaining information from

people who drive on the study site regarding their travel times, their experience of delays,
and so forth. This method facilitates the collection of a large amount of data in a relatively
short time. However, it requires the cooperation of the people contacted, since the result
depends entirely on the information given by them.

2.2.4 Parking Studies

Any vehicle traveling on a highway will at one time or another be parked for either a
relatively short time or a much longer time, depending on the reason for parking. The
provision of parking facilities is therefore an essential element of the highway mode of
transportation. The need for parking spaces is usually very great in areas where land uses
include business, residential, or commercial activities. The growing use of the automobile

as a personal feeder service to transit systems (“park-and-ride”) has also increased the

demand for parking spaces at transit stations. In areas of high density, where space is very
expensive, the space provided for automobiles usually has to be divided between that
allocated for their movement and that allocated for parking them.

Parking studies are used to determine the demand for and the supply of parking facilities
in an area, the projection of the demand, and the views of various interest groups on how
best to solve the problem.

Types of Parking Facilities

Parking facilities can be divided broadly into two main groups: public and private parking.

a) Public parking is again divided in to on-street and off-street parking.

On-Street Parking Facilities

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These are also known as curb facilities. Parking bays are provided alongside the curb on
one or both sides of the street. Unless kerb parking facility has been adequately designed
in advance while planning a new town, it might lead to a lot of in convenience and
congestion due to decreased road capacity as well as increased accidents.

These bays can be unrestricted parking facilities if the duration of parking is unlimited
and parking is free, or they can be restricted parking facilities if parking is limited to
specific times of the day for a maximum duration. Parking at restricted facilities may or
may not be free. Restricted facilities also may be provided for specific purposes, such as
to provide handicapped parking or as bus stops or loading bays.

Off-Street Parking Facilities

Off-street parking facilities are parking facilities that are provided at separate place away
from the kerb. The main advantage of these parking is that there is no due congestion and
delay on the road as in kerb parking. But the main drawback is some of the owner will
have to walk a greater distance after parking the vehicle.

These facilities may be privately or publicly owned; they include surface lots and garages.
Self-parking garages require that drivers park their own automobiles; attendant-parking
garages maintain personnel to park the automobiles.

b) Private parking includes home or apartment building garages, stalls and drive ways or
affiliate specific parking.
Methodology of Parking Studies

Parking studies include financial feasibility, functional design, structural design and
demand studies. A comprehensive parking study usually involves

a. Inventory of existing parking facilities,

b. Collection of data on parking accumulation, parking turnover and parking duration,
c. Identification of parking generators, and
d. Collection of information on parking demand. Information on related factors, such
as financial, legal, and administrative matters, also may be collected.
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a. Inventory of Existing Parking Facilities

An inventory of existing parking facilities is a detailed listing of the location and all other
relevant characteristics of each legal parking facility, private and public, in the study area.
The inventory includes both on- and off-street facilities. The relevant characteristics
usually listed include the following:

− Type and number of parking spaces at each parking facility

− Times of operation and limit on duration of parking, if any
− Type of ownership (private or public)
− Parking fees, if any, and method of collection
− Restrictions on use (open or closed to the public)
− Other restrictions, if any (such as loading and unloading zones, bus stops, or taxi
ranks)
− Probable degree of permanency (can the facility be regarded as permanent or is
it just a temporary facility?)
b. Collection of Parking Data

Parking accumulation is the number of parked vehicles in a study area at any specified
time. Accumulation data are obtained by checking the amount of parking during regular
intervals on different days of the week. The checks are usually carried out on an hourly
or 2-hour basis between 6:00 a.m. and 12 mid night. The selection of the times depends
on the operation times of land-use activities that act as parking generators.

Turnover and Duration:

Parking duration is the length of time a vehicle is parked at a parking bay. Parking
turnover is the rate of use of a parking space. It is obtained by dividing the parking
volume for a specified period by the number of parking spaces.

Information on turnover and duration is usually obtained by collecting data on a sample

of parking spaces in a given block. This is done by recording the license plate of the vehicle

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parked on each parking space in the sample at the ends of fixed intervals during the study
period. The length of the fixed intervals depends on the maximum permissible duration.

c. Identification of Parking Generators

This phase involves identifying parking generators (for example, shopping centers or
transit terminals) and locating these on a map of the study area.

d. Parking Demand

Information on parking demand is obtained by interviewing drivers at the various

parking facilities listed during the inventory. An effort should be made to interview all
drivers using the parking facilities on a typical weekday between 8:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m.

Information sought should include (1) trip origin, (2) purpose of trip, and (3) driver’s

destination after parking. The interviewer must also note the location of the parking
facility, times of arrival and departure, and the vehicle type.

Parking Analysis

Parking analyses include surveys about:

a. Parking accumulation
b. Parking duration
c. Parking load- short term and long-term parking hourly load
The general procedure for parking analysis is to find the above 3 characteristics.

2.3 3E’S of Traffic Engineering

The three” E’s” of traffic management are

(1) education

(2) engineering, and

(3) enforcement.

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Education
The preferred mode of prevention is education, though high-risk drivers are the least
receptive to this traffic management strategy. Law enforcement agencies offer a variety
of public traffic safety programs taught by their officers through civic groups, schools, and
community organizations around the country.

One of the best-known programs is the high school driver education elective offered by
school districts. However, not all students participate in this excellent safety and
lifesaving experience. High school driver education programs are particularly relevant to
this high-risk student population. Police officers who participate in high school driver
education programs provide a meaningful and important contribution to a lifesaving
effort.

Engineering
This aspect aims to improve the existing transportation infrastructure and factor in safety
when designing new transportation infrastructure. Engineering measures include:

1. Identifying and developing solutions for known road safety problem areas.

2. Reviewing standards for road development and moving towards a safety conscious
road form, customized for local conditions.

3. Conducting road safety audits

Enforcement
It is the act of compelling observance of or compliance with a law, rule, or obligation.
Improvements in traffic law enforcement should be part of an integrated road safety
policy and have been shown to lead to rapid reductions in deaths and injuries when
applying best practice. Exceeding speed limits, drink or distracted driving and failure to
wear a seat belt are still the leading causes of death and serious injury all over the world
and need enforcement.

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2.4 Highway capacity

The fundamental diagram of traffic flow was used in Chapter 6 to illustrate the
relationship between flow and density. It was shown that traffic flows reasonably well
when the flow rate is less than at capacity, but excessive delay and congestion can occur
when the flow rate is at or near capacity. This phenomenon is a primary consideration in
the planning and design of highway facilities, because a main objective is to design or plan
facilities that will operate at flow rates below their optimum rates. This objective can be
achieved when a good estimate of the optimum flow of a facility can be made. Capacity
analysis therefore involves the quantitative evaluation of the capability of a road section
to carry traffic, and it uses a set of procedures to determine the maximum flow of traffic
that a given section of highway will carry under prevailing roadway traffic and control
conditions.

Definition

VOLUME, DEMAND AND CAPACITY

Traffic Intensity

Capacity Demand

Volume
Congestion

Time

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Volume – number of vehicles (persons) passing a point during a specified time period
which is usually one hour.

Capacity – maximum and repeatable volume of vehicles/travelers that can traverse a

point or short segment during a specified time period

Demand – number of vehicles (persons) that desire to travel past a point during a
specified period also usually one hour. It is a volume not influenced by highway capacity

NB. Theoretically, actual volume can never be observed at levels higher than the true
capacity of the section

Capacity = 4.000 vph

Demand = 3.800 vph
Volume = 3.800 vph

Capacity = 6.000 vph

Queue Demand = 7.400 vph
Volume = 6.000 vph

Capacity = 4.000 vph

Demand = 3.600 vph
Volume = 3.600 vph

Capacity of Two-Way Highway

Generally, HCM 2000 defines capacity as:

“The capacity of the facility is the maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles
reasonably can be expected to traverse a point or a uniform section of a lane or roadway
during a given time period under prevailing roadway, traffic, and control conditions”

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NB. HCM = Highway Capacity Manual – It is a standard for capacity analysis

The two-lane, two-way rural highway is the only type of highway link on which traffic in
one direction has a distinct operational impact on traffic in the other direction. Rural two-
lane highways serve two primary functions in the nation’s highway network:

✓ Mobility
✓ Accessibility

Mobility

Accessibility
9 12/7/2011

Many two-lane rural highways, however, serve low volumes, sometimes under 100
veh/day. The primary function of such highways is to provide for basic all-weather access
to remote or sparsely-developed areas. Because of the broad diversity of use on these
highways, HCM 2000 has created two distinct classes of rural two-lane, two-way
highways:

Class I: These are highways on which motorists expect to travel at relatively high speeds,
including major intercity routes, primary arterials, and daily commuter routes.

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Class II: These are highways on which motorists do not necessarily expect to travel at high
speeds, including access routes, scenic and recreational routes that are not primary
arterials, and routes through rugged terrain.

The capacity of a two-lane highway under base conditions is now established as 3200
pc/h in both directions, with a maximum of 1700 pc/h in one direction. The base
conditions for which this capacity is defined include:

➢ 3.6 m (or greater) lanes

➢ 1.8 m (or greater) usable shoulders
➢ Level terrain
➢ No heavy vehicles
➢ No traffic interruptions
➢ 50/50 directional split of traffic

As with all capacity values, these standards reflect "reasonable expectancy" (i.e., most
two-lane highway segments operating under base conditions should be able to achieve
such capacities most of the time). Isolated observations of higher volumes do not negate
the standard.

Level of Service of Highway

Level of Service (LOS) expresses the performance of a highway at traffic volumes less than

capacity. The “level of service” (LOS) of a highway, which is a qualitative measure of flow

and ranging from A (highest) to F (lowest), characterizes both operational conditions

within a traffic stream and highway users’ perception. Level-of-service criteria are

applied to travel during the peak 15 minutes of travel and on highway segments of
significant length.

Level of service for two-lane rural highways is defined in terms of two measures of
effectiveness:

Average travel speed (ATS)

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Percent time spent following (PTSF)

Average travel speed is the average speed of all vehicles traversing the defined analysis
segment for the specified time period, which are usually the peak 15-minutes of a peak
hour. When analysis of both directions is used, the average travel speed includes vehicles
in both directions. When analysis of single direction is used, the average travel speed
includes those vehicles in the analysis direction only.

Percent time spent following, similar to "percent time delay," is the aggregate percentage
of time that all drivers spend in queues, unable to pass, with the speed restricted by the
queue leader. A surrogate measure for PTSF is the percentage of vehicles following others
at headways of 3.0 s or less.

NB. For Class I highways, the LOS is determined by the measure yielding the poorest
result.

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Figure: (a) Flow versus Average Travel Speed and (b) Percent Time Spent Following for
Two-Lane Highways

Level of service A describes the highest quality of traffic service occurs when motorists
are able to drive at their desired speed. Passing demand is well below passing capacity,
and almost no platoons of three or more vehicles are observed. A maximum flow rate of
490 pc/h, total in both directions, may be achieved under base conditions.

Level of service B characterizes the region of traffic flow wherein speeds of 80 km/h or
slightly higher are expected on level terrain on Class I highways. Passing demand needed
to maintain desired speeds becomes significant and approximately equals the passing

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capacity at the lower boundary of level of service B. Service flow rates of 780pc/h, total
in both directions, can be achieved under base conditions.

Level of service C describes further increases in flow resulting in noticeable increases in

platoon formation, platoon size, and frequency of passing impediment. While traffic flow
is stable, it is becoming susceptible to congestion due to turning traffic and slow-moving
vehicles. A service flow rate of up to 1190 pc/h, total in both directions, can be
accommodated under base conditions.

Level of service D describes unstable traffic flow. The two opposing traffic streams
essentially begin to operate separately at higher volume levels, as passing becomes
extremely difficult. Passing demand is very high, while passing capacity approaches zero.
Maximum service flow rates of 1830 pc/h, total in both directions, can be maintained
under base condition.

Level of service E represents traffic flow conditions at which the highest volume (that is
with capacity of the highway, generally 3200 pc/h, and total in both directions) can be
attained.

Passing is virtually impossible under level of service E conditions, and platooning

becomes intense when slower vehicles or other interruptions are encountered. Operating
conditions at capacity are unstable and difficult to predict.

Level of service F represents heavily congested flow with traffic demand exceeding
capacity. Volumes are lower than capacity and speeds are highly variable.

Lecture Note on Highway Engineering I 2012 E.C 24