Spot speed studies involve recording vehicle speeds at a specified location to understand speed characteristics of traffic under various conditions. There are several methods for conducting spot speed studies, including using pneumatic road tubes, radar sensors, and inductive loops embedded in roadways. Important values that describe speed characteristics include the average, median, modal, 85th percentile speeds, as well as the standard deviation. Determining an adequate sample size is important for statistical validity. Traffic volume studies collect data on the number of vehicles and pedestrians over time periods ranging from 15 minutes to a year to understand usage patterns. Important metrics include average annual daily traffic, average daily traffic, peak hour volume, and vehicle classification.
Spot speed studies involve recording vehicle speeds at a specified location to understand speed characteristics of traffic under various conditions. There are several methods for conducting spot speed studies, including using pneumatic road tubes, radar sensors, and inductive loops embedded in roadways. Important values that describe speed characteristics include the average, median, modal, 85th percentile speeds, as well as the standard deviation. Determining an adequate sample size is important for statistical validity. Traffic volume studies collect data on the number of vehicles and pedestrians over time periods ranging from 15 minutes to a year to understand usage patterns. Important metrics include average annual daily traffic, average daily traffic, peak hour volume, and vehicle classification.
Spot speed studies involve recording vehicle speeds at a specified location to understand speed characteristics of traffic under various conditions. There are several methods for conducting spot speed studies, including using pneumatic road tubes, radar sensors, and inductive loops embedded in roadways. Important values that describe speed characteristics include the average, median, modal, 85th percentile speeds, as well as the standard deviation. Determining an adequate sample size is important for statistical validity. Traffic volume studies collect data on the number of vehicles and pedestrians over time periods ranging from 15 minutes to a year to understand usage patterns. Important metrics include average annual daily traffic, average daily traffic, peak hour volume, and vehicle classification.
Spot speed studies involve recording vehicle speeds at a specified location to understand speed characteristics of traffic under various conditions. There are several methods for conducting spot speed studies, including using pneumatic road tubes, radar sensors, and inductive loops embedded in roadways. Important values that describe speed characteristics include the average, median, modal, 85th percentile speeds, as well as the standard deviation. Determining an adequate sample size is important for statistical validity. Traffic volume studies collect data on the number of vehicles and pedestrians over time periods ranging from 15 minutes to a year to understand usage patterns. Important metrics include average annual daily traffic, average daily traffic, peak hour volume, and vehicle classification.
Introduction • The availability of highway transportation has provided several advantages that contribute to a high standard of living. However, several problems related to the highway mode of transportation exist. These problems include highway-related crashes, parking difficulties, congestion, and delay. • To reduce the negative impact of highways, it is necessary to adequately collect information that describes the extent of the problems and identifies their locations. Such information is usually collected by organizing and conducting traffic surveys and studies. Traffic studies may be grouped into three main categories: • Inventories provide a list or graphic display of existing information, such as street widths, parking spaces, transit routes, traffic regulations, and so forth. (ex. available parking spaces and traffic regulations) • Administrative studies use existing engineering records, available in government agencies and departments. This information is used to prepare an inventory of the relevant data. Inventories may be recorded in files but are usually recorded in automated data processing (ADP) systems. Administrative studies include the results of surveys, which may involve field measurements and/or aerial photography.. • Dynamic traffic studies involve the collection of data under operational conditions and include studies of speed, traffic volume, travel time and delay, parking, and crashes. Since dynamic studies are carried out by the traffic engineer to evaluate current conditions and develop solutions. Spot Speed • Spot speed studies are conducted to estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicles in a stream of traffic at a particular location on a highway. The speed of a vehicle is defined as the rate of movement of the vehicle; it is usually expressed in miles per hour (mi/h) or kilometers per hour (km/h). • A spot speed study is carried out by recording the speeds of a sample of vehicles at a specified location. Speed characteristics identified by such a study will be valid only for the traffic and environmental conditions that exist at the time of the study. Spot Speed Speed characteristics determined from a spot speed study may be used to: • Establish parameters for traffic operation and control, such as speed zones, speed limits (85th-percentile speed is commonly used as the speed limit on a road), and passing restrictions. • Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic control devices, such as variable message signs at work zones. • Monitor the effect of speed enforcement programs, such as the use of drone radar and the use of differential speed limits for passenger cars and trucks. • Evaluate and or determine the adequacy of highway geometric characteristics, such as radii of horizontal curves and lengths of vertical curves. • Evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety through the analysis of crash data for different speed characteristics. • Determine speed trends. • Determine whether complaints about speeding are valid. Spot Speed The following locations generally are used for the different applications listed: • 1. Locations that represent different traffic conditions on a highway or highways are used for basic data collection. • 2. Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight, level sections of rural highways are sites for speed trend analyses. • 3. Any location may be used for the solution of a specific traffic engineering problem. When spot speed studies are being conducted, it is important that unbiased data be obtained. This requires that drivers be unaware that such a study is being conducted. Equipment used therefore, should be concealed from the driver, and observers conducting the study should be inconspicuous. Since the speeds recorded eventually will be subjected to statistical analysis, it is important that a statistically adequate number of vehicle speeds be recorded. Spot Speed Time of Day and Duration of Spot Speed Studies • The time of day for conducting a speed study depends on the purpose of the study. In general, when the purpose of the study is to establish posted speed limits, to observe speed trends, or to collect basic data, it is recommended that the study be conducted when traffic is free-flowing, usually during off-peak hours. However, when a speed study is conducted in response to citizen complaints, it is useful if the time period selected for the study reflects the nature of the complaints. • The duration of the study should be such that the minimum number of vehicle speeds required for statistical analysis is recorded. Typically, the duration is at least 1 hour and the sample size is at least 30 vehicles. Spot Speed Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies: • Several automatic devices that can be used to obtain the instantaneous speeds of vehicles at a location on a highway are now available on the market. • These automatic devices can be grouped into three main categories: • (1) Road Detectors - Road detectors can be classified into two general categories: pneumatic road tubes and induction loops. These devices can be used to collect data on speeds at the same time as volume data are being collected 1. ROAD DETECTORS
An inductive loop is a rectangular wire loop buried under the
Pneumatic road tubes are laid across the lane in roadway surface. It usually serves as the detector of a which data are to be collected. When a moving resonant circuit. It operates on the principle that a vehicle passes over the tube, an air impulse is disturbance in the electrical field is created when a motor transmitted through the tube to the counter. vehicle passes across it. This causes a change in potential that is amplified, resulting in an impulse being sent to the counter 2. Radar-Based Traffic Sensors 3. Electronic-Principle Detectors Spot Speed Significant values that are needed to describe speed characteristics: • 1. AVERAGE SPEED - which is the arithmetic mean of all observed vehicle speeds (which is the sum of all spot speeds divided by the number of recorded speeds). It is given as Spot Speed • 2. Median Speed which is the speed at the middle value in a series of spot speeds that are arranged in ascending order. 50 percent of the speed values will be greater than the median; 50 percent will be less than the median. • 3. Modal Speed which is the speed value that occurs most frequently in a sample of spot speeds. • 4. The ith-percentile Spot Speed which is the spot speed value below which i percent of the vehicles travel; for example, 85th- percentile spot speed is the speed below which 85 percent of the vehicles travel and above which 15 percent of the vehicles travel. • 5. Pace which is the range of speed—usually taken at 10-mi/h intervals—that has the greatest number of observations. For example, if a set of speed data includes speeds between 30 and 60 mi/h, the speed intervals will be 30 to 40 mi/h, 40 to 50 mi/h, and 50 to 60 mi/h, assuming a range of 10 mi/h. The pace is 40 to 50 mi/h if this range of speed has the highest number of observations. Spot Speed • 6. Standard Deviation of Speeds which is a measure of the spread of the individual speeds. It is estimated as Spot Speed • Determining Spot Speed Sample Size Spot Speed VOLUME STUDIES • Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect data on the number of vehicles and/or pedestrians that pass a point on a highway facility during a specified time period. This time period varies from as little as 15 minutes to as much as a year depending on the anticipated use of the data. The data collected also may be put into subclasses which may include directional movement, occupancy rates, vehicle classification, and pedestrian age. VOLUME STUDIES • Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) is the average of 24-hour counts collected every day of the year. AADTs are used in several traffic and transportation analyses for: a. Estimation of highway user revenues b. Computation of crash rates in terms of number of crashes per 100 million vehicle miles c. Establishment of traffic volume trends d. Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects e. Development of freeway and major arterial street systems f. Development of improvement and maintenance programs VOLUME STUDIES • Average Daily Traffic (ADT) is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a number of days greater than one but less than a year. ADTs may be used for: a. Planning of highway activities b. Measurement of current demand c. Evaluation of existing traffic flow VOLUME STUDIES • Peak Hour Volume (PHV) is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway during a period of 60 consecutive minutes. PHVs are used for: a. Functional classification of highways b. Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway, for example, number of lanes, intersection signalization, or channelization c. Capacity analysis d. Development of programs related to traffic operations, for example, one-way street systems or traffic routing e. Development of parking regulations VOLUME STUDIES • Vehicle Classification (VC) records volume with respect to the type of vehicles, for example, passenger cars, two-axle trucks, or three-axle trucks. VC is used in: a. Design of geometric characteristics, with particular reference to turning-radii requirements, maximum grades, lane widths, and so forth b. Capacity analyses, with respect to passenger-car equivalents of trucks c. Adjustment of traffic counts obtained by machines d. Structural design of highway pavements, bridges, and so forth VOLUME STUDIES • Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT) is a measure of travel along a section of road. It is the product of the traffic volume (that is, average weekday volume or ADT) and the length of roadway in miles to which the volume is applicable. VMTs are used mainly as a base for allocating resources for maintenance and improvement of highways. VOLUME STUDIES Methods of Conducting Volume Counts: • Manual Method • Manual counting involves one or more persons recording observed vehicles using a counter. With this type of counter, both the turning movements at the intersection and the types of vehicles can be recorded.
Figure 4.7 shows the TDC-12 electronic manual counter which
may be used to conduct manual traffic volume counts at an intersection VOLUME STUDIES Methods of Conducting Volume Counts: Automatic Method • Automatic counters can be classified into two general categories: those that require the laying of detectors (surface or subsurface), and those that do not require the laying of detectors. Types of Volume Counts Cordon Counts • When information is required on vehicle accumulation within an area such as the central business district (CBD) of a city, particularly during a specific time, a cordon count is undertaken. The area for which the data are required is cordoned off by an imaginary closed loop; the area enclosed within this loop is defined as the cordon area. Types of Volume Counts Screen Line Counts • In screen line counts, the study area is divided into large sections by running imaginary lines, known as screen lines, across it. In some cases, natural and manmade barriers, such as rivers or railway tracks, are used as screen lines. Traffic counts are then taken at each point where a road crosses the screen line. Intersection Counts • Intersection counts are taken to determine vehicle classifications, through movements, and turning movements at intersections. These data are used mainly in determining phase lengths and cycle times for signalized intersections, in the design of channelization at intersections, and in the general design of improvements to intersections. Types of Volume Counts Pedestrian Volume Counts • Volume counts of pedestrians are made at locations such as subway stations, midblocks, and crosswalks. The counts are usually taken at these locations when the evaluation of existing or proposed pedestrian facilities is to be undertaken. Such facilities may include pedestrian overpasses or underpasses. Periodic Volume Counts • In order to obtain certain traffic volume data, such as AADT, it is necessary to obtain data continuously. However, it is not feasible to collect continuous data on all roads because of the cost involved. To make reasonable estimates of annual traffic volume characteristics on an area-wide basis, different types of periodic counts, with count durations ranging from 15 minutes to continuous, are conducted; the data from these different periodic counts are used to determine values that are then employed in the estimation of annual traffic characteristics. The periodic counts usually conducted are continuous, control, or coverage counts. Traffic Volume Data Presentation Traffic Flow Maps • These maps show traffic volumes on individual routes. The volume of traffic on each route is represented by the width of a band, which is drawn in proportion to the traffic volume it represents, providing a graphic representation of the different volumes that facilitates easy visualization of the relative volumes of traffic on different routes. Traffic Volume Data Presentation Intersection Summary Sheets • These sheets are graphic representations of the volume and directions of all traffic movements through the intersection. These volumes can be either ADTs or PHVs, depending on the use of the data. Traffic Volume Data Presentation Time-Based Distribution Charts • These charts show the hourly, daily, monthly, or annual variations in traffic volume in an area or on a particular highway. Each volume is usually given as a percentage of the average volume Traffic Volume Data Presentation Summary Tables • These tables give a summary of traffic volume data such as PHV, Vehicle Classification (VC), and ADT in tabular form Sample Size Determination of Number of Count Stations • The minimum sample size depends on the precision level desired. The commonly used precision level for volume counts is 95–5. Adjustment of Periodic Counts Expansion Factors from Continuous Count Stations - Hourly, daily, and monthly expansion factors can be determined using data obtained at continuous count stations. Adjustment of Periodic Counts TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES • A travel time study determines the amount of time required to travel from one point to another on a given route. In conducting such a study, information may also be collected on the locations, durations, and causes of delays. When this is done, the study is known as a travel time and delay study. • Data obtained from travel time and delay studies give a good indication of the level of service on the study section. These data also aid the traffic engineer in identifying problem locations, which may require special attention in order to improve the overall flow of traffic on the route TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES The data obtained from travel time and delay studies may be used in any one of the following traffic engineering tasks: • Determination of the efficiency of a route with respect to its ability to carry traffic • Identification of locations with relatively high delays and the causes for those delays • Performance of before-and-after studies to evaluate the effectiveness of traffic operation improvements • Determination of relative efficiency of a route by developing sufficiency ratings or congestion indices • Determination of travel times on specific links for use in trip assignment models • Compilation of travel time data that may be used in trend studies to evaluate the changes in efficiency and level of service with time • Performance of economic studies in the evaluation of traffic operation alternatives that reduce travel time TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES Definition of Terms Related to Time and Delay Studies • Travel time is the time taken by a vehicle to traverse a given section of a highway. • Running time is the time a vehicle is actually in motion while traversing a given section of a highway. • Delay is the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond the control of the driver. • Operational delay is that part of the delay caused by the impedance of other traffic. • Fixed delay is that part of the delay caused by control devices such as traffic signals. This delay occurs regardless of the traffic volume or the impedance that may exist. • Travel-time delay is the difference between the actual travel time and the travel time that will be obtained by assuming that a vehicle traverses the study section at an average speed equal to that for an uncongested traffic flow on the section being studied. TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES Methods for Conducting Travel Time and Delay Studies • Several methods have been used to conduct travel time and delay studies. These methods can be grouped into two general categories: • (1) those using a test vehicle ▪ Floating-car ▪ Average-speed ▪ Moving vehicle technique • (2) those not requiring a test vehicle ▪ Licensed-Plate Observation ▪ Interviews ▪ ITS Advanced Technologies TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES Methods for Conducting Travel Time and Delay Studies • Several methods have been used to conduct travel time and delay studies. These methods can be grouped into two general categories: • (1) those using a test vehicle ▪ Floating-car ▪ Average-speed ▪ Moving vehicle technique • (2) those not requiring a test vehicle ▪ Licensed-Plate Observation ▪ Interviews ▪ ITS Advanced Technologies TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES Moving – Vehicle Technique In this technique, the observer makes a round trip on a test section like the one shown in figure, where it is assumed that the road runs east to west. The observer starts collecting the relevant data at section X-X, drives the car eastward to section Y-Y, then turns the vehicle around and drives westward to section X-X again. TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES Moving – Vehicle Technique The following data are collected as the test vehicle makes the round trip: • The time it takes to travel east from X-X to Y-Y (Te), in minutes • The time it takes to travel west from Y-Y to X-X (Tw), in minutes • The number of vehicles traveling west in the opposite lane while the test car is traveling east (Ne) The number of vehicles that overtake the test car while it is traveling west from Y-Y to X-X, that is, traveling in the westbound direction (Ow) • The number of vehicles that the test car passes while it is traveling west from Y-Y to X-X, that is, traveling in the westbound direction (Pw) TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES • The data in Table 4.9 were obtained in a travel time study on a section of highway using the moving- vehicle technique. Determine the travel time and volume in each direction at this section of the highway. Parking Studies • Any vehicle traveling on a highway will at one time or another be parked for either a relatively short time or a much longer time, depending on the reason for parking. The provision of parking facilities is therefore an essential element of the highway mode of transportation. The need for parking spaces is usually very great in areas where land uses include business, residential, or commercial activities. • In areas of high density, where space is very expensive, the space provided for automobiles usually has to be divided between that allocated for their movement and that allocated for parking them. • Providing adequate parking space to meet the demand for parking in the CBD may necessitate the provision of parking bays along curbs which reduces the capacity of the streets and may affect the level of service. • Parking studies are therefore used to determine the demand for and the supply of parking facilities in an area, the projection of the demand, and the views of various interest groups on how best to solve the problem. Parking Studies Types of Parking Facilities • On-Street Parking Facilities These are also known as curb facilities. Parking bays are provided alongside the curb on one or both sides of the street. These bays can be unrestricted parking facilities if the duration of parking is unlimited and parking is free, or they can be restricted parking facilities if parking is limited to specific times of the day for a maximum duration. Parking at restricted facilities may or may not be free. Restricted facilities also may be provided for specific purposes, such as to provide handicapped parking or as bus stops or loading bays. • Off-Street Parking Facilities These facilities may be privately or publicly owned; they include surface lots and garages. Self-parking garages require that drivers park their own automobiles; attendant-parking garages maintain personnel to park the automobiles. Parking Studies Definitions of Parking Terms • A space-hour is a unit of parking that defines the use of a single parking space for a period of 1 hour. • Parking volume is the total number of vehicles that park in a study area during a specific length of time, usually a day. • Parking accumulation is the number of parked vehicles in a study area at any specified time. These data can be plotted as a curve of parking accumulation against time, which shows the variation of the parking accumulation during the day. Parking Studies Definitions of Parking Terms • The parking load is the area under the accumulation curve between two specific times. It is usually given as the number of space-hours used during the specified period of time. • Parking duration is the length of time a vehicle is parked at a parking bay. When the parking duration is given as an average, it gives an indication of how frequently a parking space becomes available. • Parking turnover is the rate of use of a parking space. It is obtained by dividing the parking volume for a specified period by the number of parking spaces Parking Studies Methodology of Parking Studies A comprehensive parking study usually involves (1) inventory of existing parking facilities, (2) collection of data on parking accumulation, parking turnover and parking duration, (3) identification of parking generators, and (4) collection of information on parking demand. Parking Studies Analysis of Parking Data Analysis of parking data includes summarizing, coding, and interpreting the data so that the relevant information required for decision making can be obtained. The relevant information includes the following: • Number and duration for vehicles legally parked • Number and duration for vehicles illegally parked • Space-hours of demand for parking • Supply of parking facilities Parking Studies
• Efficiency factors for curb parking, during
highest demand, vary from 78 percent to 96 percent; for surface lots and garages, from 75 percent to 92 percent. Average values of f are 90 percent for curb parking, 80 percent for garages, and 85 percent for surface lots. Parking Studies Problem: Space Requirements for a Parking Garage • The owner of a parking garage located in a CBD has observed that 20% of those wishing to park are turned back every day during the open hours of 8 a.m. to 6 p.m. because of lack of parking spaces. An analysis of data collected at the garage indicates that 60% of those who park are commuters, with an average parking duration of 9 hr, and the remaining are shoppers, whose average parking duration is 2 hr. If 20% of those who cannot park are commuters and the rest are shoppers, and a total of 200 vehicles currently park daily in the garage, determine the number of additional spaces required to meet the excess demand. Assume parking efficiency is 0.90. •