142 TRANSACTIONS

SECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
THE NATURE OF SOCIAL tudes was rooted in the psychology of per-
PERCEPTION ception itself and to point out how much
the social psychologist concerned with the
By HADLEY CANTRIL* nature and function of attitudes could
When the term, social perception, was learn from the experimentalist’s rigidly
introduced into psychology a few years controlled studies of perception and judg-
ago, I, for one, eagerly awaited a clarifi- ment. Since an understanding of human
cation of its meaning and anticipated that experience itself can be largely translated
those using the term had some formula- by the psychologist as an understanding
tions that might help the social psychol- of perception, its nature and determinants,
ogist understand a few of the many mys- it is encouraging for any psychologist who
teries he faces. I assumed that we would takes it upon himself to explain the be-
be told in just what way social percep- havior of men in concrete social situations
tion was to be distinguished from our up- to see that research into the nature of per-
to-the-now understanding of the nature of ception is currently advancing on a number
perception itself. of different fronts.
So far, however, I know of no satisfac- It is by no means original to point out
tory attempt to clarify the precise meaning that perhaps the most basic and crucial
of the term that was coined, or to demon- problem facing the psychologist is that of
strate its special functional significance in the precise causal relationship between
concrete situations. The phrase has kept perception and man’s purposive behavior.
pestering me so much that I concluded my In one way or another, it is this central
subconscious must be groping for some- problem that has engaged the attention
thing important in its implications. At of nearly every investigator whom most of
the same time, however, I felt certain that, us would agree to regard as outstanding in
if the meaning of “social perception” were the short history of psychology. In spite
clarified, we would iind that it was bas- of this, I am sure we also feel that only a
ically the same as any other variety of per- beginning has been made. My discussion
ception and would follow the same under- of the nature of social perception is of-
lying psychological principles even though fered here as a reflection of my own cur-
there might well be some special character- rent groping for a more adequate and a
istic involved that could give us useful more valid set of higher-order abstractions
insights. which may, eventually, give us a better un-
I t has become increasingly obvious, dur- derstanding of the important causal re-
ing recent years, that the psychology of lationship between what is traditionally
perception involves a great deal more than referred to in psychology as “motivation”
analysis of laboratory experiments, no mat- and “perception.”
ter how important these experiments In the abovementioned volume, Sherif
themselves may prove to be.. The psychol- and I quite consciously left this problem
ogy of perception involves the whole field hanging somewhat in mid-air. And for
of attitudes and opinions, of judgments the past eighteen months, with what little1
and belief. In our Psychology of Ego- spare time a teacher is able to find these
Involvements, Sherif and I, for example, days, I have been trying to answer in my
tried to show how the psychology of atti- own mind some of the questions that arise
Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. This paper when one starts thinking about motivation
was presented at the meeting of the Section on Janu-
ary 19, 1948. and perception. I discovered that the
 T H E NEW YORK A C A D E M v OF SCIENCES 143

hardest job, and the job that has to be whose chief interest may be the time error
done before one can even begin, is to ask or size constancy. For principles of psy-
oneself the proper questions. chology, once we discover them, must-
As I began my investigation, I hap- if they are principles-be applicable to all
pened to learn almost by accident of the of man’s experience whether this takes
research on this very problem being done place in the laboratory, in the clinic, or in
by Adelbert Ames, Jr., of the Hanover In- everyday social life.
stitute. A brief discussion with Ames and I have gone out of my way somewhat to
a few hours with him to introduce me to pay tribute to the work of Mr. Ames be-
the demonstrations he has devised during cause my own discussions with him and the
the last few years quickly convinced me various research programs now under
that a more complete understanding of the way at Princeton involving his demonstra-
implications of his demonstrations could tions are inevitably reflected in the remarks
be of more immediate help to me in to follow. I find it difficult, almost im-
straightening out my thinking than any- possible, to know where to begin a dis-
thing else I might do. I was, and remain, cussion on the nature of social perception
convinced that Ames is several jumps or, for that matter, any other topic in
ahead of the field in his formulations; so psychology. I seem to start my course in
much so, in fact, that, as so often happens social psychology with a different topic
in the history of science, either the real every year, hoping that some day, through
significance of his work is not seen or, experience, I shall find out what really
when it is seen, it is regarded as something should come first for purposes of commun-
we knew all along-which I, for one, don’t ication and understanding. So many
believe we did. variables are interrelated. I shall, then,
Through the cooperation of the Han- have to touch briefly here on a number of
over Institute, a complete set of these variables involved if I am to communicate
demonstrations is now part of the Office to you what seems to me to be the proper
of Public Opinion Research in the De- understanding of the term, social per-
partment of Psychology at Princeton and ception.*
a few of the demonstrations, together with T h e Nature of Perception. Since “so-
a laboratory manual, are being currently cial perception” can be understood only
used with great success in the laboratory in so far as we understand the nature of
periods which are part of our introductory perception, it will be necessary 6rst of all
psychology course. to indicate what formulation of perception
Some experimentalists who have gone seems to make the best sense. If this for-
through. the demonstrations with me at mulation appears to be somewhat radical,
Princeton have wondered why a social psy- it may be because the approach is 100 per
chologist and someone who is occasion- cent functional, not limited to perception
ally labeled as a mass movement or pub- as a study of a series of quantitative rela-
lic opinion specialist, should be interested tionships. The demonstrations, together
in demonstrations which to them seem with other evidence from experimental
chiefly concerned with an explanation of and social psychology, seem to point to
how and why we get our experience of some such interpretation as the only one
depth perception. The answer is, of that will eventually give us some clarifica-
course, that a clear understanding of per- tion of the role of perception in purposive
ception itself (no matter what the specific behavior. Here I can only sketch in barest
perceptual problem may be) has just as * A more detailed elaboration and a more general
formulation of the present discussion will be found
much relevance for someone concerned in: Cantril. H. Understanding Man’s Social Behavior:
Preliminary Notes. O5ce of Poblic Opinion Research
with the nature and significance of atti- Princeton, N. J. 1947. Some of the present discunion’
tudes and opinions as it does for someone concerning the nature of perception and mid
ception is taken from that little book.
144 TRANSACTIONS

outline some of the characteristics of per- burger professors did, in a sense, show us
ception that must be taken into account in what perception was not, their approach
any valid and adequate interpretation. seemed to end in a blind alley, for no new
First of all, it seems clear that any per- positive understandings emerged as to
ception is an awareness that emerges as a what perception actually was.
result of a most complicated weighing From our present vantage point, the ob-
process an individual goes through as his servations of Helmholtz concerning the
mind takes into account a whole host of nature of perception take on special sig-
factors or cues. It must be emphasized at nificance. In the third volume of his
the very outset how tremendously complex Physiological Optics3 with its chapter 26
even the simplest perception is-for ex- entitled “Concerning the Perceptions in
ample, the perception of a star point. For General,” Helmholtz makes it quite clear
it can be demonstrated that, in perceiving that our perceptions are based not only on
a star point as such, a whole host of indi- past experience but are discriminative and
cations are weighed and integrated to give accurate largely in so far as “they are use-
us our final experience. Among these indi- ful in enabling us to recognize external
cations are those related to the environ- objects” (p. 6). Throughout this chap-
mental conditions just prior to and during ter, Helmholtz emphasizes what he re-
the visual experience of the point, together garded as a fact: that perceptions function
with all the past experiences we have had only in so far as they serve the organism in
with similar stimuli which have built up in the process of adjustment.
us a sort of st?tistical average used as a It appears that the significance of Helm-
frame of reference for our interpretation holtz’s contribution in this field was largely
of the concrete stimulus of the moment. lost sight of in the great scientific argu-
We must also remember that the inte- ments which immediately followed his
gration of all these factors is accomplished death and continued for years on the rel-
in a fraction of a second and is, more fre- ative merits of his empirical theory and
quently than not, entirely unconsc\1ous. As Hering’s nativistic theory. The force of
the stimuli from outside become more Helmholtz’s arguments can now be con-
complicated, running, for example, from a cretely experienced in the Ames demon-
star point to lines, to three-dimensional ob- strations.
jects, to objects in motion, to persons, or In addition to the fact that perception
to a newspaper headline describing an in- seems clearly to result from the weighing
ternational situation, the number of factors and integrating of a whole host of factors
which must be integrated runs into many and that the factors introduced into this
thousands. weighing process are those which have
At the turn of the century, Mayer and been learned largely unconsciously from
Orth apparently surprised many of their past experiences, it appears that a good
colleagues when they pointed out that a deal more emphasis must be given now
judgment results from mental processes to other characteristics of perception im-
that are unanschaulich. A few years later, plicitly recognized by Helmholtz but not
in 1903, Orth used the term Bewusstseins- explicitly elaborated by him. The first of
luge to help describe the condition or the these factors is what we may call ccpur-
set the mind assumes in coming out with pose,” a word about which I shall say a
a correct intuitive judgment, the actual bit more later on. For it seems obvious
details of which elude introspection. that the process of reaching a value-judg-
Ach’s term Bewusstheit described essen- ment, the unconscious weighing that man’s
tially the same “impalpable” aspects of brain is able to make of numerous cues
consciousness. These were bold and sig- during a fraction of a second, is by no
nificant statements. But while the Wiin- means a random and chaotic procedure.
 T H E NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 145

The weighing process, resulting in a per- I t should, perhaps, be pointed out that
ception, goes on for a purpose, whether when the role of expectancies is added to
that purpose is seeking food, adjusting the role of past experiences in determining
one’s footsteps to a curbing, picking up a perception, the “immediate present” be-
book, reading or underlining certain pas- comes much less significant than it is con-
sages in a book, joining some gang or sidered to be by gestalt psychologists.
group, or accepting or rejecting some Without ignoring the role of so-called
political ideology. “autochthonous” factors in some percep-
In addition to the variable of purpose, tual groupings, the point of view outlined
it seems clear that this unconscious weigh- here requires the introduction of other
ing of cues built up or learned from past factors in accounting for the why of what
experience is brought into operation gestalt psychologists term “relational de-
when Some stimulus is related by the or- termination” and in explaining why vari-
ganism to some purpose. I t is also obvious ous cues such as brightness, size or overlay
that purpose can only be achieved through function as they do to help give us our
action. sense of distance.
In brief, then, perception itself is part Perception, as such, simply cannot be
and parcel of purposive activity. It is an understood unless perception in any con-
emergent co-product of purposive activity crete situation is regarded as a process that
and can not really be understood except in occurs in a time continuum that connects
that context. We may define a perception, the past with the future. Unless the
then, as an implicit awareness of the prob- dimension of time, including the experi-
able consequences an action might have ence of the past and the expectancies of
for us with respect to carrying out some the future, are included as basic factors
purpose that might have value for us. in determining the emergent perceptions
From this definition of perception, it fol- we experience in everyday life, gestalt
lows that what we have in mind or what psychology seems to be put in the strange
we perceive “now” is almost invariably position of denying one of its own funda-
related to our expectancies for the future, mental premises, viz., that the whole is
whether this future is the probable conse- greater than the sum of its parts.
quences of our actions within the next frac- Action, purpose, and expectancy are,
tion of a second or the probable conse- then, all intimately tied to each other as
quences our actions of the “now” may factors involved in any perception. When
have for us twenty years hence. Expect- they’are tied together, it becomes a rel-
ancy is our present reaction to the future atively easy matter to account for the feel-
in terms of what will happen to us if we ing of surety or lack of surety that accom-
do (or don’t do) certain things now. panies perception. We experience a sense
Stated more precisely, expectancy is the of surety in our perceptions if they have
psychological co-product of emerging pur- in the past proved to be reliable guides to
pose when related to potential action in purposive actions. Actions that persist,
carrying out that purpose in concreteness. such as instinctive behavior, reflexes,
I t is within a context of expectancies that habits, or conscious and deliberate efforts,
we perceive, judge, feel, act, and have our do so because they have proved their adap-
being. Your own introspection will show tive value. On the other hand, we ex-
you that nearly all positive values of life perience a feeling of insecurity, an over-
are related to your expectancies. Without tone of anxiety when we are able to make
expectancies, you cease to function as a only a low prognosis of the probable con-
human in being, become static, and are no sequences df our future actions with
longer plugged in with the changing, respect to carrying out a purpose. Fur-
emerging concreteness around you. thermore, we experience a lack of surety
146 TRANSACTIONS

when conflicting cues are introduced in frameworks as guides to action in carry-

the weighing process. This can be very ing out the organism’s purposes has by
dramatically shown in the Ames demon- no means been sufficiently clarified.
strations and is experienced in everyday It is, of course, in this connection that
life when we encounter new environments the Rorschach tests, the experiments of
in which we have not yet learned, through Murray and his co-workers on appercep-
concrete action on our part, the signif- tion, the studies of Murphy and others on
icance of various cues. Thus, the city autism, and the more recent studies of
dweller will experience lack of surety when Bruner and his associates are significant.
he takes his first hunting trip in the big When we say that all of these studies un-
woods, the landlubber will find it difficult equivocally demonstrate how our ex-
to estimate the size or distance of ships that periential world, our perceptions, are af-
pass his own in mid-ocean, a Southern fected in a major way by our purposes,
gentleman may not know exactly how he what do we mean? We can only mean
should behave in the presence of a deeply that, if we have learned from our past ex-
pigmented man who wears a high turban perience-which includes our own action
and speaks a strange language. Surety of in checking the reliability of our perceptions
perception is also obviously affected by -that stimuli have the possibility of vari-
surety of purpose, by the relative signif- ous kinds of significance (and there are
icance to the individual of alternative apparently precious few, if any, stimuli
goals. which do not have such a possibility) ,then
Surety of perception, for whatever rea- we will perceive the particular significance
sons it is established, is, of course, reflected in the stimulus which has been consistently
in the speed and consistency of judgment related to the achievement or the denial
and action. The effect of the surety of of our purposes. The perception of
judgment on reaction time was demon- this particular significance, if not checked
strated, for example, in an experimental or counteracted by other cues, will lead to
study made by the authol.2 in 1931 which the familiar “distortions” of the “objec-
showed “the positive correlation between tive” external stimulus.
an individual’s degree of acceptance of a This phenomenon is found in a wide
particular evaluative attitude and his variety of everyday life situations as well
speed of association time to words which as in laboratory experiments or in the
have reference to that attitude” (p. 92). psychiatric clinic. Our understanding of
The effect of the surety of judgments this and all other perceptual phenomena
on the consistency of behavior was will obviously be precise only in so far as
shown, for example, in Jack’s study of we can clarify what we mean by “pur-
preschool children where he found that poses.’’ I t is quite impossible to go into
systematic training in the use of play mate- any detailed discussion here of what I
rials and the psychological co-product of mean by the term. However, I must at
greater self-confidence would produce least point out that I refer not only to
consistently ascendant responses in chil- manl instinctual needs or physiological
dren formerly non-ascendant in the same tension systems or system, but also to
situationsP specific and learned status or ego-strivings.
I t is a well-known fact, established in The specific directions an individual’s
numerous studies in a variety of fields, that ego-strivings take as he tries to satisfy in-
the characteristic selectivity and discrim- stinctual needs or physiological tension
ination involved in any perception is de- systems, can be analyzed in terms of their
pendent on the referential framework built functional significance to the individual
up from concrete past experiences. But through a knowledge of his developmental
the functional role of these perceptual history. Here, the ethnologists, the sociol-
 T H E NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 147

ogists, with their excellent case studies, and In this connection, it gives a psychologist
the child psychologists immeasurably con- some comfort to read a statement by the
tribute to our understanding. Laboratory eminent biologist, C . Judson Herrick, that
experiments, such as those of Sherif which “the thing that is most distinctive about
demonstrated how the significance at- man is the pattern of his growth and the
tached to a stimulus could be affected by instrumentation of it by a rationally di-
experimentally induced group norms, sub- rected desire for improvernent.’’4 I t is
stantiate the interpretations we can arrive to be earnestly hoped that the revived in-
at from more everyday life analysis.” terest in the study of evolution, as reflected
Yet, without in the least minimizing in the new international journal Evolution,
the importance of finding out all we can with its distinguished editorial board, will
about man’s instinctual needs, his tension hasten the psychologist’s understanding of
system and the way in which men in dif- causality and increase his sensitivity to the
ferent societies or sub-groups acquire necessity of extending enormously the time
specific ego-strivings and specific directions range in which he usually considers causal-
for their behavior, I feel certain that these ity. A better understanding of man’s
tasks are relatively easy and that, even characteristic pattern of growth, rooted in
when accomplished more satisfactorilythan chromosome activities, will, no doubt, also
they are now, the psychologist will still reveal in more detail why, in addition to
be left without an adequate motivational characteristics peculiar to human beings as
scheme. The why of much of man’s most such, each particular human being (iden-
characteristic behavior, including his status tical twins excepted),has the unique qual-
and ego-strivings, will still be unexplained. ities reflected in his particular capacities
I am convinced, therefore, that psychol- and in his temperament.
ogists concerned with an understanding The individual, in acting to carry out his
of what purpose is must seek out all the pattern of growth, both as a human being
information they can from the most com- and as a particular human being, learns
petent biologists and geneticists concern- particular ways of acting which are com-
ing man’s unique pattern of growth with paratively standardized, statistical aver-
the emergent characterisics that have ap- ages used by others for interpretation. He
peared in the course of evolution. I feel learns the possibilities available and the
confident that, once man’s pattern of consequences of acting in different ways- .
growth is understood in the distant future, punishment and reward, acceptance and
it will be found to be composed of a great rejection, etc. If the socially approved
deal more than instinctual needs or physio- possibilities help him carry out his pur-
logical tension systems. In addition to- poses, then these socially approved possi-
these, and in addition to man’s obviously bilities become his purposes. Those atti-
superior capacity for rational and abstract tudes which have been accepted as a
thinking, for concept formation, for the means of satisfying purposes define the in-
construction and use of artifacts, I have a dividual’s status, his loyalties, etc. If the
socially approved possibilities do not
feeling that the characteristic of man will
satisfy an individual’s purposes, he be-
be revealed as an urge for improvement,
comes maladjusted, or he seeks other
a desire to develop directionally.’ Only means of satisfying his purposes, possibly
when this emergent characteristic is taken deviant means such as gangs or member-
as part and parcel of man’s distinc- ship in an emerging revolutionary group.
tive pattern of growth can we satisfactorily Anyone who has been brought up in the
understand man’s purposive strivings. school of rationalism, who believes that
Our explanation must, of course, be en- reason is superior to perception as a guide
tirely naturalistic. to action, must have been wondering for
148 TRANSACTIONS

some time if, when, and how the role of ability to make value-judgments, not
rational thought and abstractions was to simply for their I.Q.‘s and their conscious
enter into this discussion of perception. rational thinking.
The picture would certainly be most in- I t would, however, be the grossest error
complete if we failed to indicate, although to conclude that reasoning or knowledge
necessarily briefly, how rational thinking, has nothing to do with perception. For
logic, or acquired intellectual knowledge the tools characteristic of man’s mentality,
affects perception. such as his ability to use concepts and ab-
The precise function of knowledge or stractions, although in themselves not suf-
reasoning may perhaps be better under- ficient guides for future actions, can, never-
stood if we review the up-to-the-now ideas theless, enormously help man carry out his
or abstractions most laymen have con- purposes. We need only look at the ab-
cerning the nature of perception. First of straction of time or the abstraction of tri-
all, we are apt to believe that our knowl- dimensionality to realize how much more
edge discloses to us what something is and efficiently modern man can run his com-
how we can act concerning it; that is, we plex life by using them to aid his orien-
believe that our actions are determined by tation. Although it appears that we re-
our knowledge. Second, we may tend to act in terms of our perceptions and not
believe that our perceptions disclose to us in terms of our knowledge or our conscious
what something is and how we can act logical thought processes to most of the
concerning it; that is, we tend to think that concrete situations we meet in everyday
seeing is believing. Third, we may tend to life, knowledge and reason are neverthe-
think that knowledge and perception are less powerful tools to help us get a clearer
identical and that we can make the same idea of the true nature of things. Knowl-
use of them. However, the psychologist edge seems to be particularly indispensable
knows and the Ames demonstrations dra- in providing man with the possibility of
matically show that our actions are de- understanding why his actions have failed
termined primarily by our perceptions and to accomplish his purposes. Knowledge,
not by our knowledge. A social psychol- reasoning, and logic enable man con-
ogist has ample evidence that information, sciously to bring more and more cues into
as such, often has very little effect in deter- the process of value-judgment, thus in-
mining the direction of opinion and action. creasing the reliability of his prognosis.
During the fraction of a second in which But it appears that the reliability of our
most perceptions occur, the number of perception as prognostic indicators for
factors that must be taken into account by purposeful action can only be tested finally
an individual are so numerous and so by concrete action that we undertake our-
varied that they cannot possibly be consid- selves. True understanding, as opposed to
ered on a “logical” or “rational” basis in knowledge, seems to be the result of action
consciousness. I have already referred to which we have carried out for a purpose
the weighing process an individual goes and which checks a perception. Under-
through by the term “value-judgment.” standing must never be confused with
This process is largely unconscious, often knowledge. Our knowledge helps to guide
described as “intuitive.” I t is easy to ob- our actions accurately only in so far as we
serve from one’s own introspection and can make functional use of it. I t is obvious
from observation of others, that no success- that no matter how much knowledge you
ful person bases his life on pure logic or may have of a subject-whether it is
reason-on stepping from one logical con- psychology, politics, or anatomy-or how
clusion to another. Those people dis- talented you may be, successful purposeful
tinguished for their success at any time or action requires experience and practice on
in any field are also distinguished for their your part. As we have indicated earlier,
 T H E NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 149

action gives us a sense of surety, a sense of some distant African tribe, a knowledge
surety achieved only after we have suc- we may have of its economic and social
cessfully met frustrating situations. Hence, structure may be for us a non-social per-
a person can have no real wisdom in ception as contrasted to our awareness of
a field where he has no concrete ex- a European country.
perience. When the disciples asked Christ In other words, the functional activity
why he spoke in parables, his answer was that gives rise to what we may label a
“Because they seeing see not; and hearing “social” perception appears to us to have
they hear not, neither do they understand.” an important characteristic or “attribute”
Social Perception. After this exceed- not part of a “non-social” perception.
ingly long introduction, we may finally be .The “content” of perceptions we may call
in a better position to consider the topic “social” is likely to be of vastly more sig-
of social perception. I should like to nificance and importance to us than the
repeat what was pointed out earlier, content of most non-social perceptions,
namely, that because a distinction is made i.e., color, size, etc. If this formulation of
between perception and social perception, the problem had been made in Kulpe’s
there is no implication whatever of any in- time, I suspect we would be somewhat
herent differences between the two. I use further along in our understanding of so-
the word, distinction, in the dictionary cial behavior and might have been spared
sense of the term as “giving special recog- the artificial division that has so often sep-
nition to” certain factors that seem to me arated “experimental” from “social” psy-
to enter into social perception. But there chology and has been reflected from time
is no “going beyond” any psychological to time in a mutual lack of appreciation of
principles that do not apply to the simplest the problems and research that constitute
visual perception. the other fellow’s area.
The characteristic factor in a perception This distinction between perception and
we may label “social” is that the func- social perception is the only one that seems
tional activity giving rise to the stimulus to me now to make sense. And it does
has a potentiality of affecting our purposes seem worth while to make a distinction
and being affected by us. This poten- because the implications arising from the
tiality is, of course, our own awareness. added factor of a two-way relationship in
And this means that we may impute pur- a social perception are important for our
poses to stimuli which may have no understanding of man’s social behavior.
demonstrable basis, as is the case in an- What we may label a “social” perception
imistic thinking. A hornet, a man, a generally has much greater complexity
political ideology, may be stimuli for than a non-social one because of the new
“social perceptions” since they may do factor, vk., the potential purposes of some-
something to us or for us and we may do thing else, that must be taken into account
something to them or for them. On the in the weighing process.
other hand, lightning may be considered I t should be noted that a social percep-
a “non-social perception” for it can do tion, as used here, has nothing to do with
something to us while we can do nothing the inherent (atomic) nature of the source
to it. A pencil can be regarded as a “non- of the stimulus which may be a person,
social perception” because we can do a cow, a symbol, etc. Nevertheless, for
something to it while it cannot itself do most of us, what we can label our “social”
anything to us. If we are not aware of perceptions involves other people whose
the potential cross-effects of our purposes purposes have a potential influence on our
and the purposes of other organisms, we purposes. Hence, these perceptions are
have no “social perception” in this sense. especially characterized by affective or
For example, our intellectual awareness of emotional overtones.
150 TRANSACTIONS

Any perception where the source of the tionary theory is a case in point. And as
stimulus consists of other individuals is new group loyalties are acquired or as
likely to be a “social perception” as used loyalties change, the pattern of what we
here because of the potentiality which the are distinguishing as social perceptions also
purposes or actions of those other people changes. For example, the adolescent boy
have for affecting the carrying-out of our who becomes a member of a neighborhood
purposes, and the possibility of our pur- gang, will then see certain other boys or
poses affecting the carrying-out of theirs. certain adults as threats or aids to his own
Other people may be judged in terms of newly acquired purposes ; American bomb-
such purposes as: Is he a rival for my girl? er pilots during World War I1 were re-
Will he take my job away? Will he help ported to have lost much of their anti-
me get ahead? Will association with him Negro prejudices after participating in
raise my status or lower it?--etc. These bombing missions during which they were
are specific purposes, all of which derive ably protected by Negro fighter escorts.
from, are rooted in, man’s characteristic This means that one reason for the
pattern of growth. They are cultural or necessity of understanding between human
situational derivatives or expressions of this beings is that only through the mutual dis-
pattern of growth with its distinctive closure of purposes can we increase the
human psychological characteristics. But reliability of the prognosis of our percep-
whatever the envirbnment you have cre- tions for successful individual action in
ated from the particular stimuli afforded carrying out our own individual purposes.
you in your developmental processes, your Or, conversely stated, we will be unsuc-
perceptions as a hunch for purposeful cessful in carrying out our purposes to the
action are given in terms of the possible extent that we are unaware of the pur-
or probable bearing of concrete stimuli on poses of others with whom we are asso-
you, such as the person in front of you, on ciated. Thus, we can cooperate with
the carrying-out of your purposes. others only to the extent that our actions in
Since man’s specific purposes are largely carrying out our purposes help them carry
derived from the group loyalties and the out their purposes. This has apparently
social norms he acquires, as pointed out been recognized by nearly all the prophets.
earlier, what are “social perceptions” for Hence, on the level of action, nearly all
some people are not “social perceptions” prophets have insisted that we do unto
for others. For example, those who be- others as we would have others do unto us.
lieved in animism, perceived objects and An effective process for understanding
forces of nature as thmgs with purposes of another’s purpose apparently exists in the
their own which could affect human pur- mutual recognition of the emergent value-
poses. Anthropologists and sociologists qualities that are consciously experienced
have accumulated ample evidence of the when two or more persons participate in
different ways people see things in dif- joint action furthering a mutually recog-
ferent cultural groups. And just as light- nized common purpose. A possible ex-
ning was something Benjamin Franklin planation of the nature of the mutual in-
perceived in a different way than did terpenetration that operates under such
others of his day, so certain things now conditions may be the mutual disclosure of
believed by some people to be directed to the mutual similarity of the highly inte-
the furtherance or frustration of their per- grated subconscious processes. These are
sonal motives (e.g., “acts of God”) may revealed by the correspondence and sim-
lose their personal reference as man’s un- ilarity of emergent value-qualities. These
derstanding of nature and of human na- emergent value-qualities are, as was men-
ture increases. The change in many of our tioned before, largely products of subcon-
perceptions since the advent of evolu- scious processes.
 T H E NEW Y O R K ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 151

Our capacity to meet and to adjust to others. As we take into consideration not
other people’s purposes is dependent on only the potentialities of this interaction,
our ability to understand these purposes of but also the potentialities of the interaction
others. We can understand others’ pur- of the purposes of other specific individuals
poses in proportion as we refuse to assign or groups on still other specific individuals
abstract motives to people and in propor- or groups, and the potential simultaneous
tion as we deal with them in concrete, reciprocal effects of our actions on various
emerging situations. For this alone can individuals or groups, the complexities and
give us more reliable prognoses as we.act relative uncertainties often involved in
on our perception of their purposes in con- some social perceptions can be seen to in-
crete situations that test and modify our crease rapidly.
perception accordingly. Because most of man’s purposes must
This implies that our understanding of be worked out in a social context, it
ourselves, as we acquire it from the activ- is in the area we have labeled “social per-
ity we label “introspection,” is dependent, ception” that expectancies become par-
to a large extent, on our conscious under- ticularly important-the expectancies we
standing of the purposes of others who have concerning our friends, our co-work-
are affecting or who might affect our own ers, our competitors, the probability of a
perceptions, behavior, and purposes. If depression, the potential reward from
we have acquired certain status by reason superiors, etc.
of birth, then whole groups of people may From the point of view of the discussion
be abstracted out as threats to us-such as here, an “ego-involved attitude’’ is an at-
Negroes for some Southern whites, labor titude catalyzed by a stimulus that can
for the industrialist, and the industrialist either help or hinder us in carrying out our
for labor. Such people or groups become purposes. Loyalties are ego-involved atti-
abstractions. We do not distinguish be- tudes that give us a high prognosis that
tween their members, nor does it even the purposes of others will help us carry
occur to us that we and they share com- out our purposes. A loyalty is a co-
mon purposes as human beings. product of past experience where percep-
Man’s unique ability to carry on abstract tions have been tested by action with others
thinking, to use concepts and reasoning, and have given us a high prognosis that
furnish him, as we have pointed out further action with others will help us
earlier, with the possibility of bringing carry out our purposes, and the awareness
more and more factors into the process that in carrying out our purposes we will
of value-judgment itself. I t would seem be helping others carry out their purposes.
that it is especially in the area of compli- Thus we have a high loyalty, generally, to
cated social perceptions that man has a wife, a friend, certain groups we are
maximum opportunity to use his unique members of, certain reference groups com-
capacity to bring into the weighing process posed of persons whose purposes we believe
an awareness of the purposes of others who are more or less similar to our purposes.
may be affected by his actions. Further- These loyalties are a person’s “my” and
more, social perception, especially, is not “our’’ feelings. We have no loyalty to a
limited by time and space, involving as it person, group, or symbol that does not
so often does poeple not immediately satisfy our purposes or give us the possi-
present. bility of emerging value-experience.
The relative unsureness of our expec- Hence, in peace-time, in most countries,
tancies in social life is apparently due people have less loyalty to “their country”
chiefly to the characteristics of social per- than during war-time, since there is no
ception-the potentialities of interaction clear-cut common purpose to be carried
between our purposes and the purposes of out by action.
 152 TRANSACTIONS

Conflict and frustration can and do tends theeonsideration of what makes for
occur when the learned value ( i e . , statis- effective action to such an extent that it
tical average acquired from past experi- is by no means identical with the prag-
ence or the abstraction handed down in matism of James. “Effectiveness” of the
the past) involved in an attitude is found type considered here is based on the emer-
to conflict with the carrying-out of a pur- gence of value-quality which takes into ac-
pose by action-such as practising Chris- count the community of human purposes.
tianity in a cut-throat competitive business, This completely rules out the effectiveness
practising tolerance and preserving status of a ruthless exploiter of human or natural
at the same time, etc. And conflict also resources.
results when learned values which conflict The “morality” or “ethical” nature-the
with each other cannot be integrated into correctness or rightness-of any action,
single purposeful action, i.e., Christian vir- then, is to be judged in terms of the de-
tues us. unquestionable obedience to a gree to which it includes and integrates the
commander or boss. purposes and provides for the potential de-
In other words, what we experience as velopment of those purposes of all other
“personal conflicts’’ are co-products of con- people concerned in the action or possibly
flicting attitudes, of different or contradic- affected by it. In this way, the “effec-
tory prognoses made when Merent atti- tiveness” of an action and its inclusion of
tudes are used as a base. Surety in social a common denominator of relevant pur-
perception results when there is lack of poses become inseparable. Also, from this
conflict in weighing these loyalties. There point of view, the “rightness” or “moral-
is no conflict of attitudes so long as there ity¶’ of action becomes inseparable from
is a common purpose between individuals. its effectiveness. This is essentially the
Since an individual is constantly making a Christian ethic which emphasizes charity,
choice, weighing loyalties in order to act, i.e., a consideration of the purposes of
if he finds a choice impossible, he may others. But this does not imply blind tol-
somehow try to prevent the conflict from erance. I t will also be recalled that Christ
arising by putting it beyond recall, remov- said “I came not to send peace, but a
ing it from consciousness, etc. Here, prob- sword.”
lems of psychiatry can be tackled. Emerging personal goals must be in
From the point of view developed here, harmony with emerging social goals while
it would seem that there can be a scientific still emerging on the concrete individual
basis for judging the “goodness,” or the level. What I am saying, simply, is that
“rightness,” or the “correctness” of any “what is right” means what is right for
social perception. A perception can be man’s nature. Man alone has the intel-
called “accurate” or “right” if, through lectual capacity to understand this and to
‘
action, it has proved highly effective in use his intellect as an aid in making value-
carrying out a purpose, in checking a prog- judgments. And man alone has uncov-
nosis. It is imperative, however, to re- ered the evidence that ceaseless change
member that because of the reciprocal in-
fluence.of the purposes of one individual and emergence is the rule of nature and
(or group) on the purposes of another in- that evolution is essentially a one-way
dividual (or group), actions will prove street, essentially irreversible.’ It is, there-
effective in the long run only when the fore, up to man to use-his unique ability
purposes common to individuals or indi- consciously to plan his affairs, his produc-
viduals as members of groups are included tion, his distribution-his society-so that
jn perception. individual and common purposes will be
Although this is a pragmatic approach, served and individual and common emer-
it should be clear that this formulation ex- gences assured.
 T H E NEW Y O R K A C A D E M Y OF SCIENCES 153

This is not merely a moralistic note on 2. Cantril, H. 1932. General and Specific
which to end. I t is a conclusion which Attitudes. Psych. Monog. 192.
seems to me to be based on the evidence 3. Helmholtz, H. F. L. v. 1925. Treatise on
Physiological Optics. 111 (XXVI), ed.
science has provided and which follows J. P. C. Southall. Optical Society of
logically from an understanding of the America.
nature of social perception. 4. Herrick, C. J. 1947. Personal communi-
cation.
5. Jack, L. M. 1934. An Experimental Study
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