MOTOR CONTROL INTRODUCTION

Date Encoded: April 5, 2024 | Juan D

Definition:
• A single switch to a complex system with components such as relays, timers, switches and
other control devices.
• Portion of the electrical system which starts, stops, changes the speed, reverses, and
regulates motors that drive various pieces of equipment.
• Designed to limit the starting torque of the motor.
• Help protect equipment and personnel from damage that contribute to efficient and safe
operations and production.
• Encompasses all the methods used to control the performance of an electutal system.

ELEMENTS:
1. Magnetic Contactor 5. Pilot Lamps 9. Limit Switches
2. Thermal Relays and Fuses 6. Resistors 10. Reactors & Relays
3. Transformers 7. Capacitors 11. Disconnecting Switches
4. Manual Circuit Breakers 8. Cam Switches 12. Push Buttons

TYPES OF MOTOR CONTROL SYSTEM:

1. Manual
2. Semi-automatic
3. Automatic

FUNCTIONS OF MOTOR CONTROL:

1. Starting
2. Stopping
3. Jogging or Inching
4. Speed Control
5. Surge Protection

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 APPLICATIONS OF MOTOR CONTROL:
1. Automotive
2. Communication
3. Commercial Aviation
4. Data Centers
5. Industrial
6. Medical

STARTING – The simplest method is called ‘across the line’ starting that is accomplished by
connecting the motor directly to the power line.
Ramping – Requires the motor to start at a low speed and accelerate to full speed over some
period of time.

STOPPING – The simplest method is to disconnect the motor from the power line and permit
it to coast to a stop.

JOGGING – Employed to move a motor with short jabs of power. Generally done to move a
motor or load into some desired position.

Inching Vs Jogging – Jogging is by momentarily connecting the motor to full line voltage
whereas inching is by connecting to reduced voltage.

SPEED CONTROL – One of the most common ways is with variable frequency control for AC
motors or by controlling the voltage applied to the armature and fields of a DC motor. Other
methods include Direct-current Clutch.

SURGE PROTECTION – Another concern is the voltage spikes or surges produced by

collapsing magnetic fields when power to the coil of a relay is turned off. Probably the most
important function of a control system is to provide protection for the operation or persons
that may be in the vicinity of the machine.

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DEFINITION OF TERMS:
1. Feeder Overcurrent
2. Splitter
3. Motor Branch Circuit Disconnecting Means
4. Motor Branch Circuit Overcurrent Protection
5. Remote Control
6. Motor Starter
7. Motor Disconnecting Means
8. Motor Overheating Protection
9. Secondary Controller

FEEDER OVECURRENT:
- A Fuse or circuit breaker that protect the conductor.
SPLITTER:
- A Conductor used in connecting several motor branch circuit.
MOTOR BRANCH CIRCUIT DISCONNECTING MEANS:
- Is a device which may be operated that will isolate the electrical equipment
- The disconnecting means much better installed so that there will no hazard to
the trade person.
MOTOR BRANCH CIRCUIT OVERCURRENT PROTECTION:
- Is installed in the circuit to protect the conductor and may exist in the form of
fuses and circuit breakers.
REMOTE CONTROL:
- It controls the motor, there are composed of motor such as single pole switch,
push button switch etc. This is installed near or away from the motor.
MOTOR STARTER
- A Control box where motor overload protection, under voltage protection and
magnetic contactor are located.
MOTOR DISCONNECTING MEANS
- A device which may be operated that will isolate the motor, this mush be
installed do that there will no hazard to the trade person and this must be
supplemented by a switch or fuses.

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MOTOR OVERHEATING PROTECTION:
- An Overload protection that is installed in the circuit to protect the motor in
the form of overload relays, heaters, or elements.
SECONDARY CONTROLLER
- Use only for controlling wound rotor tye

M O T O R C O N T R O L C O M P O N E N T S:

MAGNETIC CONTACTOR:
- Electromagnetically operated switch that provides a safe and convenient
means of connecting and interrupting branch circuits.
- Contactors are used to interrupt heavy loads while relays are generally rated
at 15A or less.
Parts of Magnetic Contactor:
1. Auxiliary Contact – is either N.O or N.C
- Used for maintaining contacts
- Terminals provided in each set of contacts, usually N.O
2. Main Contacts – Used for connecting the load directly to the power lines upon closing
3. Magnetic Coil – a.k.a. Holding Coil
- For providing necessary magnetic force.
4. Armature - Moves towards the stationary magnetic core when the holding coil is
energized.
5. Stationary Iron Core – Produces the magnetic force
6. Reset Spring – Return the contacts.
7. Mechanical Link – A physical connection between different components.

AUXILIARY CONTACT:
- Can be operated by the contractor’s coil.
- Coil is energized = auxiliary is activated
- Can be N.O or N.C

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OVERLOAD RELAY:
- Designed to protect the motor from an overload condition
- Designed to open the circuit when the current becomes
- Is dependent on the properties of motor that is to be protected
Properties
- They must have some means if sensing motor current
- Some type of time delay
- Divided into two separate sections; current sensing and the contact

THERMAL OVERLOAD RELAY:

- Important part of a full voltage magnetic starter which provides protection to
the motor against running and stalled overloads.
- Heater is rated in ampere and is adjustable
- Each setting determines when the overload relay heaters will begin to heat up
and bend the bi-metallic strip (the bending of the bi-metallic strip
actuates/move a level to open a NC contact or to close a NO contact)
Parts of Overload Relay:
1. Overload Relay Heater – Determines the increase in current in the motor windings
and heat up the bi-metallic.
2. Bi-metallic Strip – When the overload is hot, the heat is transferred
- The metal expands at a different rate causing the strip to bend, mechanically
tripping the motor starter.
3. Overload Auxiliary Contact – Completes the control circuit and also used for
controlling alarm circuit
4. Mechanical Link – Is connected to the bi-metallic strip.
- Used to open NC and close NO overload auxiliary contacts simultaneously due
to the motor overloading.
6. Reset Knob – Returns the overload contacts to their original position
7. Current Adjusting Screw – Used to make very small and precise adjustments

MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER:

- Automatically switches off the electrical circuit during an abnormal condition
of the network means in overload condition as well as faulty condition.
- Used in low voltage electrical networks instead of a fuse.

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PILOT LAMPS:
- Reports the status of the control circuit system.
- Colors typically includes red, green, blue, white, and clear

CONTROL RELAY:
- Used to interface a pilot device and the circuit that the pilot device controls
- In effect, the control relay allows the pilot device to control a current that is
too large for the contacts of a pilot device.
TIMER:
- Relays that introduce a time delay in its operations and use also in sequence
control operation
- Contacts are available with on/off delay
- Contacts are available for timed to open or timed to close

PUSH BUTTON SWITCH:

Parts of Push Button Switch:
1. Operator – Is pessed, pulled, or rotated to activate the push button’s contacts come
in different colors, shapes and sizes.

Types of Push Button Switch:

1. Flush Type Push Button Switch – Have the actuator flush with the mounting ring and
are often used for start buttons that need to protected from accidental initiation.
2. Extended Head Push Button Switch – Have the actuator protruding about 1/4 inch
beyond the mounting ring.
3. Mushroom Head Push Button Switch – Have an actuator that extends over the edges
of the mounting ring and have the diameter larger than a standard push button.
4. Half-Shrouded Head Push Button Switch – A combination of Extended and Flush Type
Push Button Switch

SELECTOR SWITCH:
- Can control on or off of different currents circuit by rotating the handle

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DRUM SWITCH
- A rotary-action that is commonly used to manually control speed and to
change the direction of the motors.

FOOT PEDAL SWITCH:

- A rugged switch which is operated by foot pressure
- An example of use is in control of a machine tool, allowing the operator to
have both hands free to manipulate the workpiece.
LIMIT SWITCH:
- Is an electromechanical device operated by a physical force applied to it by an
object
Types of Limit Switch:
1. Roller
2. Rotary
3. Lever

JOYSTICK:
- Control in directions
- A stick that pivots an a base and report its angle/direction to the device.

BUZZER:
- Audio signal device which may be mechanical, electromechanical, or
piezoelectric.
- Creates an audible tone under the influence of n applied external voltage.
ENCLOSURE
- Power circuit components are typically have inside and control circuit
components are typically outside.
- A cabinet for equipment to mount switches, knobs, and displays to prevent
electrical shacks to equipment users and protect the contents form the
environment.

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B A S I C C O N T R O L C I R C U I T S:

MOTOR STARTER
- The starting mechanism that energize the circuit to an induction motor is called
the “starter” and must supply the motor with sufficient current to provide
adequate starting torque under case line voltage and load conditions when
the motor is energized.
Torque: Power, force (directly proportional to the horsepower)

NEEDS OF MOTOR STARTER:

- If a rated stator voltage is applied to the motor at the time of starting, then
the motor will draw heavy starting current
- This will lead to excess IzR losses in the winding which will overheat the motor
- Due to a heavy current drawn from the AC supply voltage will reduce the heavy
starting current may damage the motor winsing.
- In order to avoid these problems, we can use some kind of starter to start
induction motor safely.
Note:

- Motor Rewind = ↓ efficiency

- All motors have a heavy starting current

1. ACROSS THE LINE: DIRECT ON-LINE STARTER (DOL)

- Connects the motor windings/terminals directly to the circuit voltage “across
the line” for “a sum voltage start”
- 100% of the Voltage
DOL
- Simplest method and cheapest
- Capable of drawing full-in rush current and developing maximum starting
torque to accelerate

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TWO TYPES OF ACROSS THE LINE STARTER
1. Manual Motor Starter
- Horsepower rased switch w/one set of contacts
- Lower cost, some motor protection but less motor capability
- Smaller motor only
- Up to 10hp
- The motor restarts when power is reapplied
- Does not allow the use of remote control or auxiliary control equipment like a
magnetic motor starter
- Safety’s ay 50%
2. Magnetic Motor Starter
- Contractor along with additional motor overload protection components
- Used in large motor
- Main Element: Magnetic Contactor
- Energizing the coil causes the contacts (A) to close allowing large currents to
be initiated and interrupted by a smaller voltage control signal
- Control voltage need not to be the same as the motor supply
- Closing the start button contact energizes the contractor’s coil. An auxiliary
contact on the contactor is wired to seal in the coil circuit.
Dol Characteristics:
1. Available starting current: 100%
2. Peak starting current: 6-8 Full load Current
3. Peak starting torque: 100%

DOL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:
- Most economical and cheapest
- Simple to establish, operates and maintain
- Simple control circuitry
- Easy to understand & troubleshoot
- Provides 100% of the torque when starting
- Only one set of cable is required from starter to motor
- Motor is connected in Delta at motor terminals

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Disadvantages:
- Doesn’t reduce the starting current
- Very high starting current
- Mechanically harsh: thermal stress can reduce the motor’s life
- Voltage Dip – A short, temporary drop in the voltage magnitude in the
distribution networks, faults in the connected equipment on high inrush and
switching currents in the customers installation

VFD or VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE

- Is the counterpoint to the Magnetic Contactor

Dol is suitable for:

- Small wafer pumps, compressors, fans, and conveyor belts
- Motor rating up to 5.5kw
Dol is not suitable for:
- The peak starting current would result in a serious voltage drop in the system
- Motor rating up above 5.5kw

2. REDUCED VOLTAGE OR CURRENT STARTER

- Purpose: restrict or limit starting current
- When the motor is started on the full line voltage, the starting current can be
SIX TIMES the nameplate current rating of the motor
- The abnormally high starting current could cause disturbance on the
distribution lines. The power supply authority requires that the starting current
can be maintained at a tolerable level
- If the resistors/autotransformer are used to reduce the starting voltage to the
stator windings of a squirrel-cage, then the starting method is referred to as
“reduced voltage starting”
- If rotors are inserted in the rotor circuit of a wound rotor motor during starting
the starting method is “reduced current starting”
- The stator winding of a squirrel-cage motor are partly connected for starting
(part winding) or connected in one configuration for starting and another
running (wye-delta).

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Things to note of:
LOTO or LOCK OUT, TAG OUT
Stop is in series, start is in parallel

SAFETY MEASURES:
- Before proceeding to work, disconnect the equipment form its electrical supply
system.
- Check the schematic to ascertain whether the machine is interlocked with
another piece of equipment.
- Lock out tag each disconnecting means, using locks that can only be unlocked
by the installer.
- Do not execute until all testing has been completed
- Do not depend on the pilot lamp
- Do not provide extra keys for your personal lockout device
- Do not assume that the circuit is dead and safe to work on

JOGGING, INCHING + BREAKING SYSTEM

JOGGING:
- Repeated starting and stopping of a motor in short bursts to perform a
particular movement such as moving one crane to another.
- Short Jabs,
- Full Power
- For adjustments
- Can cause overheating
- Should not be done more than five times In a minute
INCHING:
- Similar to jogging because it is short threats of motion at a reduced power
- Motor mode to run at a reduced votlag
- Has additional costs

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BREAKING:
- Motors are generally in slow in a stop when disconnected from the power line,
but there may be instance when that is not an option or not convenient.

MECHANICAL BREAK:
Available in two types: DRUM & DISK
- Drum use brake shoes to apply pressure against a drum. A metallic cylinder
(the drum), is attached to the motor shaft. Brake shoes are placed around the
drum. A spring is used to adjust the amount of pressure the brake shoes exert
against the drum to control the amount of breaking that takes place when the
motor is operating, a solenoid is energized to release the pressure of the
brake shoes when the motor is stopped. The brakes encage immediately.
- Work by comvertin the kinetic energy of the load into thermal energy
- Advantage: can hold a suspended load
- Often used in cranes
- Disk brakes work in a very similar manner; difference is brake pads are used
to exert force against a spinning disc instead of a cylindrical drum

DYNAMIC BREAKING:
- Can slow both DC + AC motors
- A.k.a “magnetiic breaking” because it employs the use of magnetic fields to
slow the rotation of the motor
- Advantage: No mechanical brake shoes to wear out
- Disadvantage: Cannot hold a suspended load

FOR DC MOTORS:
- A direct current machine can be used as either a motor or generator
- (As a motor, electrical → mechanical)

Principle: Change the motor into a generator

- Very effective but breaking effect becomes weaker as the armature slows down

- Countertorque is proportional to the magnetic field strength of the pole pieced

and armature. Flux density of the pole pieces, constant = shunt field current

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 - Armature magnetic field proportional to armature current

- Armature current is proportional to the amount of induced voltage and the

resistance of the connected load.

Three Factors:
1. Strength of magnetic field
2. Length of Conductor
3. Speed of the cutting action

FOR AC MOTORS:
- By connecting direct current to the stator winding, which means the stator
magnetic field stay consistently polarized instead of switching polarity when
the current changes direction. As the rotor of the motor turns in the stationary
magnetic field around the rotor bars, the constant polarity rotor magnetic field
is drawn towards the stator field causing the rotor to slow down. The strength
of the breaking force depends on the magnetic field of the stator and rotor
and you can control this by adjusting the amount of direct current sent to the
stator.

PLUGGING:
- A system of braking in which the motor connections are reversed so that the
motor develops a counter torque that acts as retarding force.
- Can be used with direct current motors but id often used with three-phase
squirrel-cage mtoros
- Plugging is accomplished with three-phase motors by disconnecting the motor
from the power line & momentarily reversing the direction of rotation.

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CIRCUIT LAYOUT CONNECTIONS & SYMBOLS

SWITCHES:
- Three are four basic symbols:
- 1. Normally Open (NO)
- 2. Normally Closed (NC)
- 3. Normally Open Held Closed (NOHC)
- 4. Normally Closed Head Open (NCHO)

LIMIT SWITCHES
- Drawn with a wedge attached to the four basic switches

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FOUR VARIABLES
1. Flow Switch
2. Pressure Switch
3. Float Switch
4. Temperature Switch

PUSH BUTTON SWITCH:

- Contain both movable and stationary contacts
Movable – Doest not touch the stationary contacts, there’s an open circuit and current cannot
flow
Stationary – Connected to terminal screws

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PUSH-PULL BUTTON SWITCH:
- Contain both normally open and closed contacts much like a double+acting
push button switch but is different
- Intended to provide both the start and stop function in one push button
switch.

Some push-pull button switch contain two normally open contacts instead of one normally
open and normally closed.

TIMED CONTACT:
- There are two types: On Delay & Off Delay

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MAGNETIC CONTACTOR: CIRCUIT BREAKER:

COILS:

- Generally used to represent the coil of a relay, contactor or a starter

- Often used to represent a solenoid coil.

- Iron Coil Inductor

- Air Core Inductor

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DIAGRAMS: Wiring and Schematic

WIRING DIAGRAM:
- Deals with the physical location
- Shows a picture of the components with connecting wires
- Used in installing new circuitd
- Shows the required number of conductors between points in a circuit but it is
difficult to trace the circuit

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:
- Mainly for designing or troubleshooting
- Components are rearranged to simplify tracing of the circuit

CIRCUITS: Power and Control

POWER CIRCUIT:
- Contains all the components that carry the full voltage and current to operate
the motor
- Disconnects, fuses, breakers, and overload relays
- Conductors are sized according to the current drawn by the motor and form
the power of the circuit

CONTROL CIRCUIT:
- Deals with the components with lower voltage

WHAT IS A PROXIMITY SENSOR ?

Proximity sensors are basically metal detectors. They are used to detect the presence or
absence of metal without physically touching it. This prevents wear on the unit and gives the
detector the ability to sense red hot metals. Most proximity detectors are designed to detect
ferrous metals only, but there are some units that detect all metals.

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 “Proximity Sensor” includes all sensors that perform non-contact detection in
comparison to sensors, such as limit switches, that detect objects by physically contacting
them. Proximity Sensors convert information on the movement or presence of an object into
an electrical signal. There are three types of detection systems that do this conversion:

a) Systems that use the eddy currents that are generated in metallic
sensing objects by electromagnetic induction

b) Systems that detect changes in electrical capacity when approaching

the sensing object, and

c) Systems that use magnets and reed switches.

Characteristics of Proximity Sensors

1. Proximity Sensors detect an object without touching it, and they therefore do not
cause abrasion or damage to the object. Devices such as limit switches detect an
object by contacting it, but Proximity Sensors are able to detect the presence of the
object electrically, without having to touch it.

2. No contacts are used for output, so the Sensor has a longer service life (excluding
sensors that use magnets). Proximity Sensors use semiconductor outputs, so there
are no contacts to affect the service life.

3. Unlike optical detection methods, Proximity Sensors are suitable for use in locations
where water or oil is used. Detection takes place with almost no effect from dirt, oil,
or water on the object being detected. Models with fluororesin cases are also
available for excellent chemical resistance.

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 4. Proximity Sensors provide high-speed response, compared with switches that require
physical contact.

5. Proximity Sensors can be used in a wide temperature range.

6. Proximity Sensors can be used in temperatures ranging from −40 to 200°C.

7. Proximity Sensors are not affected by colors.

8. Proximity Sensors detect the physical changes of an object, so they are almost
completely unaffected by the object’s surface color.

9. Unlike switches, which rely on physical contact, Proximity Sensors are affected by
ambient temperatures, surrounding objects, and other Sensors.

10. Both Inductive and Capacitive Proximity Sensors are affected by interaction
with other Sensors. Because of this, care must be taken when installing them to
prevent mutual interference. Care must also be taken to prevent the effects of
surrounding metallic objects on Inductive Proximity Sensors, and to prevent the
effects of all surrounding objects on Capacitive Proximity Sensors.

11. There are Two-wire Sensors.

The power line and signal line are combined. If only the power line is wired, internal elements
may be damaged. Always insert a load.

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TYPES OF PROXIMITY SENSORS

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Optical Proximity Sensor

INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SENSOR

An Inductive proximity sensor is an electronic proximity sensor , which detect metallic

object without touching them. Their operating principle is based on a coil and high frequency
oscillator that creates a field in the close surrounding of the Sensing surface . The operating
distance of the sensor depends on the coil’s size as well as the target’s shape, size and
material.

The main components of the inductive Proximity Sensor are coil, oscillator,
detector and the output circuit. The operating distance of the sensor depends on the
actuator’s shape and size and is strictly linked to the nature of the material. The coil
generates the high frequency magnetic field in front of the face. When the metallic target
comes in this magnetic field it absorbs some of the energy.

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22
 Whenever a metal object enters this magnetic Field, the moving flux lines
induce small Eddy currents on the object’s surface.

Eddy current

Eddy current are electric currents induced within conductors by a changing Magnetic
field in the conductor. These circulating eddies of current have Inductance and

Thus induce magnetic fields.

ADVANTAGES

They are very accurate compared to other technologies.

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 Have high switching rate.

Can work in harsh environmental conditions.

DISADVANTAGES

It can detect only metallic target.

Operating range may be limited.

APPLICATION

Common applications of inductive sensors include metal detectors, car washes, and a host
of automated industrial process . Because the sensor does not require physical contact it is
particularly useful for applications where access presents challenges or where dirt is
prevalent . The sensing range is rarely greater than 6 cm, however, and it has no ¬¬¬¬¬¬-
directionality.

CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SENSOR

Capacitive proximity sensors can directly sense a variety of things like motion,
chemical composition , electric field and indirectly, sense many other variables, which can
be converted into motion or dielectric constant such as pressure, acceleration, fluid level and
fluid composition. They are build with conductive sensing electrodes in a dielectric, with
excitation voltages on the order of five volts and a detection circuits which turn to
capacitance variation into a voltage, frequency or pulse width variation. The range of
application of capacitive sensors is extraordinary

Capacitive Proximity Sensors Working Principle

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Capacitive Sensor are used for non contact detection of metallic object and
non metallic object(liquid, plastic, wooden material etc.) Capacitive Proximity Sensors use
the variation of capacitance between the sensor and object being detected. When the objects
is at preset distance from the sensitive side of sensor, an electronic circuit inside the sensor
begins to oscillate. The rise or fall of such oscillation is identified by at threshold circuit that
changes the output of the sensor. As the object comes close to the plate of the capacitor
the capacitance increases and as the object moves away the capacitance decreases.

The Main Components of the capacitive proximity sensor are plate, oscillator, threshold
detector and the output circuit. The plate inside the sensor acts as one plate of the capacitor
and the target acts as another plate and the air acts as the dielectric between the plates.
The capacitive sensor can detect any targets whose dielectric constant Is more than air.

Advantages of Capacitive Proximity Sensors

It can detect both metallic and non

Metallic targets.

Good stability

High Speed

Capacitive sensors are good in terms of power usage Low cost

Disadvantages of Capacitive Proximity Sensors

They are affected by temperature and humidity

Difficulties in designing

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 not as accurate compare to inductive sensors.

APPLICATIONS

Capacitive touch sensors are used in many devices such as laptop track pads, digital
audio players, mobile phones, mobile devices and others.

More and more design engineers are selecting capacitive sensors for the versatility,
reliability and robustness and cost reduction over mechanical switches.

ULTRASONIC PROXIMITY SENSORS

Another type of proximity detector that does not depend on the presence of metal
for operation is the ultrasonic detector. Ultrasonic detectors operate by emitting a pulse of
high frequency sound and then detecting the echo when it bounces off an object (Figure
16–8). These detectors can be used to determine the distance to the object by measuring
the time interval between the emission of the pulse and the return of the echo. Many
ultrasonic sensors have an analog output of voltage or current, the value of which is
determined by the distance to the object. This feature permits them to be used in
applications where it is necessary to sense the position of an object (Figure 16–9).

Ultrasonic Sensor are some type used in place of optical sensors . Instead of using an light
beam , a high frequency sound wave is used.

This sound wave is above normal hearing frequencies and are called Ultrasonic
Frequencies around 40 KHz are common.

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 The Ultrasonic Sensor can measure distances in centimeters and inches. It provides
good readings in sensing large-sized objects with hard surfaces.

Figure 16–8 Ultrasonic proximity detectors operate by emitting high frequency sound
waves.

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 Figure 16–9 Ultrasonic proximity sensors used as
position sensors.

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Ultrasonic Sensor Working

The ultrasonic sensor sends out sound and receives it back using the receiver.
Together, the ultrasonic sensor’s sender and receiver look like a pair of eyes, but it is not a
sight sensor. Instead, those “eyes” are really more like a speaker and a microphone (a sound
sensor).

ADVANTAGES

Ultrasonic proximity sensors are not affected by atmospheric dust, snow, rain..etc

Can work in adverse conditions

Sensing distance is more compared to inductive or capacitive proximity sensors

DISADVANTAGES

Ultrasonic sensors Has More Difficulties Reading Reflections From Soft, Curved, Thin
Or

Small Objects.

APPLICATIONS

Used to measure liquids levels.

Used to measure the obstacle distance

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 This system used in automotive parking sensor and obstacle warning systems.

Used in terrain monitoring robots.

This systems could be deployed in tanks, dams or other water bodies.

OPTICAL PROXIMITY SENSOR

Optical sensors are basically used as sensing element in order to process the
electronics signal which can be either analog or digital. Optical sensors possess the
capability of measuring the varying wavelength of light. Global optical sensors market is
witnessing the exponential growth since recent decade due to increase in the demand of
optical sensors across different sector. The continuous advancement in technology is the
driving factor for rise in the development of internet of things (IOT). This factor is majorly
fueling the growth of global optical sensors market. In addition, adoption of automation
across several sectors such as manufacturing, aerospace defense oil gas and automotive
among others is driving the growth of global optical sensors market. Furthermore, optical
sensors possess the property of compactness, lightweight and flexibility owing too which it
has wide range of application. This extensive variety of application is anticipated to further
increase in the demand of optical sensors which in turn drive the growth of global market.

The Proximity of the object is detected by the action of the travelling light move.
These sensors use light sensitive elements to detect Objects and are made up of an
transmitter (Light Source) and a receiver The object within the range of the sensor can
detect the presence.

OPTICAL SENSOR MEASURANDS

TEMPERATURE CHEMICAL 5

SPECIES

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PRESSURE FORCE

FLOW RADIATION

LIQUID LEVEL pH

DISPLACEMENT HUMIDITY

VIBRATION STRAIN

ROTATION VELOCITY

MAGNETIC

FIELDS

ELECTRIC

FIELDS

ACCELERATION ACOUSTIC

FIELDS

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APPLICATIONS

MILITARY AND LAW ENFORCEMENT

THIS SENSOR ENABLES LOW LIGHT IMAGING AT TV FRAME RATES AND ABOVE WITHOUT
THE LIMITATIONS OF VACUM TUBE BASED SYSTEMS.

BIOMETRICS

YOUR FACE, FINGERS AND EYES IN A WHOLE

• IMAGE CAPTURE

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 • IMAGE PROCESSING

• FEATURE EXTRACTION

• FEATURE COMPARISON

PRESSURE SENSOR

A pressure sensor measures the pressure, typically of gases or liquids. It generates a signal
related to the pressure imposed. Typically, such a signal is electrical, but it might also include
additional means, such as optic signals, visual signals and/or auditory signals. Pressure
sensors can be used in systems to measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow, speed,
water level, and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively called pressure transducers,
pressure transmitters, pressure senders, pressure indicators among other names.

Pressure sensors are designed to produce an output voltage or current that is dependent
on the amount of pressure being sensed. Piezoresistive sensors are very popular because of
their small size, reliability, and accuracy (Figure 8–8). These sensors are available in ranges
from 0 to 1 psi and 0 to 30 psi. The sensing element is a silicon diaphragm integrated with
an integrated circuit chip. The chip contains four implanted piezoresistors connected to form
a bridge circuit (Figure 8–9).

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 Figure 8–8 Piezoresistive pressure sensor.

When pressure is applied to the diaphragm, the resistance of piezoresistors changes

proportionally to the applied pressure, which changes the balance of the bridge. The voltage
across V0 changes in proportion to the applied pressure (V0 = V4 – V2 [when referenced
to V3]). Typical millivolt outputs and pressures are shown below:

1 psi, 44 mV

5 psi, 115 mV

15 psi, 225 mV

30 psi, 315 mV

Another type of piezoresistive sensor is shown in Figure 8–10. This particular sensor
can be used to sense absolute, gage, or differential pressure. Units are available that can be

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used to sense vacuum. Sensors of this type can be obtained to sense pressure ranges of 0
to 1, 0 to 2, 0 to 5, 0 to 15, 0 to 30, and 0 to 15 (vacuum). The sensor contains an internal
operational amplifier and can provide an output voltage proportional to the pressure. Typical
supply voltage for this unit is 8 volts DC. The regulated voltage output for this unit is 1 to
6 volts. Assume for example that the sensor is intended to sense a pressure range of 0 to
5 psi. At 0 psi, the sensor would produce an output voltage of 1 volt. At 15 psi, the sensor
would produce an output voltage of 6 volts.

Other sensors can be obtained that produce a current output of 4 to 20 milliamperes,

instead of a regulated voltage output (Figure 8–11). One type of pressure to current sensor,
which can be used to sense pressures as high as 250 psi, is shown in Figure 8–12.

Figure 8–11 Pressure to current sensor for low pressures.

APPLICATIONS

Measuring safe levels in liquid tank

bottle and equipment leak detection

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 air blades

compressed air pressure monitoring

industrial flow monitoring

filter pressure monitoring

gas detection

pneumatic controls

duct air flow

suction check in pick and place applications such as the printed circuit boards and
semiconductor process equipment.

FLOW METERS (FLOW SENSORS)

Flow meter is an instrument that is used to gauge the flow of gases or fluid through
a pipe. Flow measurement applications differ extensively with respect to the conditional
benchmarks, situational limitations, and engineering requirements.

Flow meter has other names such as fluid meter, fluid sensor, flow sensor and flow
gauge. They have a wide range of applications across different industries based On its basic
function, which is to offer precise monitoring and measurement for flow of fluids Or gases.

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TYPES OF FLOW METERS

• Differential pressure flow meters

• Coriolis Flow meter

• Vortex Flow meter

• Ultrasonic Flow meter

• Electromagnetic Flow meter

• Thermal Flow meter

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW METERS

It works on the principle of partially obstructing the flow in a pipe. This creates a
difference in the static pressure between the upstream and downstream side of the device.

The difference between static pressure (referred to as differential pressure) is

measured and used to determine the flowrate.

Some of the most common types of differential flow meters are:

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 orifice flow meter

venturi flow meter

nozzle flow meter

pilot tube flow meter

Orifice Flow Meters

Orifice plates are the most common type of Δp meter and are basically a machined metal
plate with a hole, as shown below. The plate has a sharp upstream edge and usually a
bevelled edge downstream of the flow.

The components of a typical orifice flow meter installation are:

• Orifice plate and holder

• Differential pressure transmitter

• Flow indicator or recorder

Advantages and Disadvantages of Orifice Flow Meters

Advantages:

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•Lower cost and easy to install

•Smaller physical size

•Flexibility to change throat to pipe diameter

Ratio to measure a larger range of flow rates

Disadvantage:

•High pressure loss

•Large power consumption in the form of

Irrecoverable pressure loss

•Susceptible to erosion or damage

Venturi Tubes

Venturi tube consists of a section of pipe with a conical entrance, a short straight
throat, and a conical outlet. The velocity increases and the pressure drops at the throat. The

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differential pressure is measured between the inlet (upstream of the conical entrance) and
the throat.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Venturi Flow Meters

Advantages

• Moderately low pressure loss ( about 10% of ΔP )

• No moving parts

• Less susceptible to damage/wear

• Suitable for wet gas flow

Disadvantages

• Large physical size

• Greater cost to manufacture

• Greater susceptible to “tapping errors” in high Reynolds number gas flows owing the high
velocity fluid passing the pressure tapping at the throat.

Flow Nozzles

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Flow nozzles have a curved entry and a cylindrical throat, but no divergent outlet section.
Therefore, the discharge coefficient is similar to Venturi tube, but the overall pressure loss
is similar to that of orifice plate.

Pilot Tubes

a.) It sense two pressures simultaneously, impact and static. The impact
unit consists of a tube with one end bent at right angles toward the
flow direction.

b.) These sensing tubes sense various velocity pressures across the pipe,
which are then averaged within the tube assembly to give a
representative flowrate of the whole cross section.

Coriolis Meter

Coriolis meters operate on the principle that, if a particle inside a rotating body moves in a
direction

Toward or away from the center of rotation, the particle generates inertial forces that act
on the body.

Coriolis Meter Advantages

• Measure mass flow rate directly

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• Suitable for applications where temperature and

Pressures fluctuate • No obstructions in the fluid path

• Low cost of ownership

Coriolis Meter Limitations

• May not be suitable for viscous fluids as the pressure

Drop increases with fluid viscosity

VORTEX FLOW METER

The vortex flow meter is used for measuring the flow velocity of gases and liquids in pipelines
flowing full. MEASURING PRINCIPLE Based on the development of a Karman vortex shedding
street in the wake of a body built into the pipeline.

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Common Applications

• Custody transfer of natural gas metering

• Steam measurement

• Flow of liquid suspensions

• General water applications

• Liquid chemicals & pharmaceuticals

Advantages

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• Vortex meters can be used for liquids, gases and steam

• Low wear (relative to turbine flow meters)

• Relatively low cost of installation and maintenance

• Low sensitivity to variations in process conditions

• Stable long term accuracy and repeatability

• Applicable to a wide range of process temperatures

• Available for a wide variety of pipe sizes

• Can also measure temperature, density or media levels are commonly

Available

Disadvantages

• Low to medium pressure drop due to the obstruction in the flow path

• Not suitable for very low flow rates

ULTRASONIC FLOW METER

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A type of flow meter that measures the velocity of a fluid with ultrasound to calculate volume
flow.

MEASURING PRINCIPLE

The flow meter can measure the average velocity along the path of an emitted beam
of ultrasound, by averaging the difference in measured transit time between the pulses of

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