GENERAL GEOLOGY SEGMENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT Evapotranspiration – simultaneous event of evaporation a.

Coarse-Grained Soils - Depends on the size of the

Engineering Geology – applied sciences; deals with the Environment – derived from the French word from the soil and moisture release from the plants. particle.
application of geology for a safe, stable land economical “environner”, means to encircle, around or surround. The Sublimation – solid phase to gas phase. b. Fine- Grained Soils - Greatly influenced by mineral
design and construction of a civil engineering project. physical and biotic habitat that surrounds us; 2. Condensation content, moisture content, etc.
Geology – science concerned with the earth and the rocks Four segments of the environment Aerosols – particulate matters such as dusts, soot, and
of which it is composed, the process by which they were 1. Biosphere – the realm of living organisms and their salts. Types of transported soils with regards to the agents
formed during geological time. interactions with environment, atmosphere, hydrosphere, Coalescence – the process of cloud formation. 1. Gravity deposits – soil deposits transported by the
and lithosphere; the sum of all the ecosystems established 3. Precipitation – the various water forms present in the effect of gravity. (ex. Landslide)
Scope of Geology in Civil Engineering on earth. atmosphere. 2. Alluvial deposits – soils carried and deposited by
1. It enables a civil engineer to understand the engineering 2. Lithosphere – the crust and the outer mantle of the solid 4. Run-off and Infiltration flowing water
implications of certain condition should relate to the area of earth; consists of minerals occurring in the earth’s crusts Run-off – precipitation that did not get absorbed by the 3. Glacier deposits – result from the action of glaciers
construction which is essentially geological in nature. and the soil. soil. 4. Wind deposits (aeolian deposits) – deposits that have
2. It enables a geologist to understand the nature of the 3. Hydrosphere – comprises all types of water resources Infiltration – process by which precipitation or water soaks wind as the transporting agent (ex. Dunes)
geological information that is absolutely essentially for a like oceans, lakes, seas, rivers, glaciers, etc. Ocean into subsurface soils and moves into rocks through cracks
safe design and construction of a civil engineering projects. represent 97% of the earth’s water and 2% of the water and pore spaces. Common transporting agents for particles: Gravity,
resources is locked in polar icecaps and glaciers. Only 1% Percolation – movement of water downward to replenish Running water, Glaciers, and Wind
Geology in Construction is available as fresh water. water tables and aquifers. Soil profile is a natural succession of zones or strata
1. Planning – topographic maps; gives details of relief 4. Atmosphere – forms a distinctive protective layer about Factors that affect the amount of run off: topography, below the ground surface and represents the alterations in
features, hydrologic maps; gives broad details about 100 km thick around the earth which is the blanket of gases nature of soil, amount of capitation. the original soil material which have been brought about by
distribution and geometry of the surface of water channel, that surrounds our planet and protect from the sun. Groundwater hydrology – the science of the occurrence, weathering processes.
geological maps; petrological characters and structural Weather exists because of atmosphere distribution and movement of water below the surface of
disposition of rock types. It makes the earth suitable for living things the earth. SOIL STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
2. Design – geological characters that have a direct or It protects the earth from radiation and meteoroids Groundwater – underground water that occurs in the Soil Structure refers to the arrangement of particles in
indirect bearing upon the designed of proposed projects saturated one of variable thickness and depth below the soils commonly called aggregates into porous compounds
are; The existence of hard rock beds; The mechanical Layers of Atmosphere earth’s surface. which are separated by pores and cracks. Soil structure will
properties (porosity, permeability, compressive strength, 1. Troposphere – lowermost zone rising from the surface Aquifers – made up of gravel, sand, sandstone, or also influence water movement
shear and traverse strength); Structural weakness (fault to a height of 11 km; lowest layer of the atmosphere and fractured rock, like limestone. Water can move through The behavior of the individual soil particle and their
joints, folds, cleavage and lineation); The position of closest to the surface of the earth; where all weather these materials because they have large connected interaction with another particle is influenced by the
ground water table; Seismic characteristics of the area. occurs; temp. goes from warm to cold as u increase in spaces that make them permeable. following forces:
3. Structure construction – the geological knowledge is altitude. 1. Weight of the particle due to gravitational force, Fg
important for an engineer; type of material for construction 2. Stratosphere – second layer starting from tropopause Sources of Groundwater: 2. Particle surface forces, due to surface electrical forces,
is derived from natural bed rocks, soils, banks, coastal and extending up to a height of 50 km; gases are layered Meteoric Water – from precipitation (rain, sleet or snow) Fs
belts and seismic zones. and do not mix very much; air is very thin; planes often fly Juvenile Water (young water) – water that have
here. separated from magma from a volcanic activity and heavily Soil Types
Geology in Water Resources Development 3. Mesosphere – Third thermal zone starting from contaminated. The major engineering categories of soil are gravel, sand,
Exploration and water development of resources have stratopause and continues up to a height of 80 km above; Connate Water – have isolated from the water cycle for silt, and clay.
become very important activity for scientist, technology and coldest layer; temp. decrease as altitude increases; millions of years sealed in between pores of sedimentary The Unified Soil Classification System is now almost
engineers in all parts of world. protecting us from a meteor. rocks other porous sediments and rocks. universally accepted and has been adopted by the
Geology in Town and Regional Planning 4. Thermosphere – temp is very high, more than 2000 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
The regional town planner is responsible for adopting an Fahrenheit; where space begins; ISS orbits earth in this Zones of the Groundwater
integrated approach in all such cases of allocation of land layer; readily absorbs solar radiation; hottest but you won’t 1. Zone of Aeration – near the surface of the earth ranging
for developmental project. feel warm here because there aren’t enough gas molecules from 0 thickness on swamplands and be several hundred
Branches of Geology to transfer heat to you. feet thick on mountainous regions
1. Physical Geology – variously described as dynamic 5. Ionosphere – all molecules are electrically charged into Pellicular Water – the first moisture to infiltrate below the
geology, geomorphology, etc. This deals with different ions due to sun’s heat energy; useful in reflecting radio ground that wets the soil grains and adheres to them.
physical features of the earth; the different changes waves for communication; famous in producing Gravity Water – moisture that infiltrates below at over the
occurring on the earth; natural phenomena. shimmering lights in polar regions known as Aurora first films of water but does not fill the void completely.
2. Mineralogy – the study of minerals; minerals – basic Borealis (Northern Lights) and Aurora Australis Vadose Water – comprises both moisture in the zone of
units with different rocks and ores of the earth are made up (Southern Lights). aeration.
of; details of mode of formation, composition, occurrence, 2. Capillary Fringe – above the zone of saturation. The
types, association, properties, uses of minerals. SEISMIC GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS height to which the capillary fringe rises above the water
3. Petrology – deals with the study of rocks; deals with the Types of Natural Earthquakes table depends upon the size of the voids in the ground and
mode of formation, structure, texture, composition, 1. Tectonic – earthquakes produced by sudden movement the dryness and temperature of the atmosphere. Soil Structure can be described in terms of the following:
occurrence, and types of rocks. along faults and plate boundaries. 1. Grade – expresses the difference on cohesion within
4. Structural Geology – the rocks which form the earth’s 2. Volcanic – earthquakes produced by movement of aggregates and adhesion between aggregates.
crust undergo various deformations; The details of mode of magma beneath volcanoes. Four major grades of structure:
formation, causes, types, classification, importance of Particle Motion upon passage of different types of seismic • Structureless – no observable aggregation
these geological structures is the subject matter of waves. • Weak – poorly formed
structural geology. P – primary wave: displacement of media along direction • Moderate – formed from aggregates that are moderately
5. Stratigraphy – climate and economical changes of propagation (up-down) durable
including tectonic events in the geological past. Strata – a S – secondary wave: displacement of media • Strong – formed from aggregates that are durable
set of sedimentary rocks, graphy – description. perpendicular to direction of wave propagation (sideways) 2. Class – describes the average size of individual
6. Economic Geology - Minerals can be grouped as Surface Waves: Love waves and Rayleigh waves 3. Zone of Saturation – located below the zone of aggregate.
general rock forming minerals and economic minerals. (rotational) aeration, the soil pores are filled with water, and this is what Five classes of structure
Some of the economic minerals like talc, graphite, mica, we call as the groundwater; a stratum that contains a • Very fine or very thin
asbestos, gypsum etc.… Two ways of describing the strength of an earthquake substantial amount of groundwater called aquifer. • Fine or thin
1. Intensity – perceived strength of a earthquake; relative Water Table or Phreatic Surface – surface between the • Medium
Allied Branches of Geology effect to people and structures; higher near the epicenter two zones and has a hydrostatic pressure in the • Coarse or thick
1. Engineering Geology – application of geological 2. Magnitude – based on instrumentally derived groundwater equal to the atmospheric pressure. • Very coarse or very thick
knowledge in the field of civil engineering. information and correlates strength with the amount of total 3. Type of structure – describes the form or shape of
2. Mining Geology – interested in the mode and extent of energy released at the earthquake’s point of origin. Properties of Soils for Groundwater Contr1. Porosity – individual aggregates
occurrence of ores, their association, properties, etc; Seismic Geotechnical Hazards – caused by either under determines how much water the rock or soil can hold in Types of soil structure
details of mineral exploration, estimation are dealt with in the action of gravity and inertia loads, or by loss of bearing empty spaces within it. • Granular – found in A horizon
mining geology. capacity. • Blocky – found in B horizon
3. Geohydrology/Hydrogeology – deals with the Soil Liquefaction – a soil’s strength and stiffness are • Prismatic – found in B horizon
occurrence, movement and nature of groundwater in an reduced by earthquake shaking or other rapid loading. Void Ratio • Platy – found in A horizon, greatly found on forest soils
area. 2. Permeability – how easily and rapidly the water can flow • Columnar – found in B horizon, found in compacted soils
4. Geophysics – study of physical properties of the earth Largest Earthquake in the World: Valdivia, Chile (9.5 through and out of it. Described empirically by Darcy’s Law • Single-grained – found in sandy soil
or its parts. Aims at solving civil engineering problems by Magnitude) (Discharge = k(hydraulic gradient)). Soil Composition
interpreting subsurface geology of the area concerned. Largest Earthquake in the Philippines: Moro Gulf (7.9
5. Geochemistry – delas with the occurrence, distribution, magnitude) Methods of computing coefficient of permeability.
abundance, mobility etc., of different elements in the CONSTANT HEAD TEST for coarse
earth’s crust. Not important from the civil engineering POV. TECTONIC PLATE AND CONTINENTAL DRIFT grained soils.
The crust of the Earth is broken into many pieces called FALLING HEAD TEST for fine
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH AND ITS COMPOSITION plates. The plates "float" on the soft, semi rigid grained soils.
Equatorial Radius is 6370 km asthenosphere. Aquifer – a body of pervious (and permeable) rocks
Polar Radius is shorter by about 22 km Convection Currents - are caused by the very hot capable of yielding groundwater. They for impervious layer
Surface area of 510x106 square km material at the deepest part of the mantle rising, then called Aquicludes.
Internal Structure of the Earth cooling and sinking again. 1. Confined Aquifer – an aquifer confined between two
•The shell of the increasing density is found towards the Continental Drift Theory – early 1900s, a German impermeable surfaces (aquicludes)
center of the earth is 8 g/cc. explorer and scientist (Alfred Wegener) proposed this 2. Unconfined Aquifer – where the table is free to change.
•Has been broadly divided into; crust, mantle and core. theory. Believed that the continent floated on the oceanic
•The layers of the earth are separated by two sharp breaks crust. WEATHERING OF ROCKS
known as major discontinuities. Pangaea – a single super continent that Alfred Wegener Soil – originated from the Latin word “Solum”
The loose unconsolidated inorganic material on the earth’s NATIVE ELEMENTS
•The crust has an average thickness of about 15-20 km. proposed.
crust produced by the disintegration of rocks, overlying Categories: Metal, Semi-metal, and Nonmetal
•The mantle extends from below the crust to a depth of Evidence of continental drift
hard rock with or without organic matter. Native Metals: Iron - Most common elements on earth,
2900 km. • Continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle making up 5% of the earth’s crust. Widely used in
•The deepest whole in the earth is only about 12.262 km, • Fossils match across oceans
Soils are formed by weathering of rocks. construction for creating alloys, producing rods, screws,
this is quite negligible in comparison with radius of the earth •Rock types and mountain ranges match across oceans
Weathering – breaks down and alters rocks and minerals nails, and etc.
(Kola Superdeep Borehole) • Climate Evidence (Glacial Deposits)
at or near the earth’s surface ans is divided into Copper - Major uses for electrical purposes, mostly as
1. Crust – outermost solid layer of the earth where we can • Sea floor spreading wire. Extensively used in alloys such as brass, bronze, and
find all our landforms and life. physical/mechanical weathering and chemical weathering
Factors of Weathering: Atmospheric, Erosion and German silver. In civil engineering; pipes, cladding,
Under the ocean: 5-10 km Glacial Striations – scratches glaciers leave on rocks as
Transportation by wind, water, and glaciers, and flashing, and electrical cables.
Under the continent: 20-35 km they travel.
Chemical Action such as oxidation, hydration, Silver - Excellent conductor of electricity, often used in
Under the mountains: 60-70 km Mid-Ocean Ridge – the most extensive chain of mountains electrical contacts and connectors. Used in silver-based
Upper Layer (Continental Crust) on earth. Wraps around the glove for more than 65, 000 km carbonation, and etc.
Mechanical Weathering – process that break a rock or coating that can improve energy efficiency.
•It consists of all types of rocks (Igneous, Sedimentary, and like the seam of a baseball.
mineral into smaller pieces without altering its composition. Platinum - Ranks 4-4.5 in Moh’s scale. Highly malleable
Metamorphic)
Abrasion – when rocks collide one another or scrap and ductile.
•The rocks are granitic and granodiotic composition. Plate Tectonic Theory Semi-metals: Arsenic – rare; found in veins in crystalline
•Predominantly continents and land surface. Along the mid-ocean ridge the seafloor is pulling apart and against each other.
Exfoliation - Outer layers of rocks peel off like an onion rocks; plays a role in special glass production and wood
•This layer is rich in Silica and Aluminum the two parts are moving in opposite directions, carrying
Frost Action - when liquid water goes into cracks and then preservation.
•This layer is commonly called the SIAL. along the continents and oceans that rest on top of them.
freezes causing the cracks to get wider Bismuth – rare mineral, occurring usually in connection
•The density of SIAL is 2.4 g/cc. These pieces of Earth’s top layer are called tectonic with ores of silver, cobalt, etc. applied in low-melting alloys,
Lower Layer (Oceanic Crust) plates. They are moving very slowly, but constantly. Organic Activity - Root Pry (Plant Activities), Burrowing
(Animal Activities), Mining/Construction (Human Activities) thermal expansion control, and fire sprinkler systems.
•Composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor. (Most plates are moving about as fast as your fingernails
Hydraulic Action – water rushes rapidly into cracks in the Antimony – electrical conductivity. Employed in
•The types of rock are basaliticin nature. are growing not very fast!) Currently Earth’s surface layers
rock face, thus trapping a layer of air at the bottom of the applications like batteries.
•Basically the ocean floor are divided into nine very large plates and several smaller Native Nonmetals: Graphite – resistant to corrosion and
•This layer is rich in Silica, Iron and Magnesium ones. crack, compressing it and weakening the rock.
Haloclasty - growth of salt crystals cause physical high temperatures. Used as lubricant in construction
•This layer is called the SIMA. • Pulling away from each other (Divergent)
weathering when saline solution seep into cracks and joints equipment.
•The continental crust float above the oceanic crust • Crashing head-on (Convergent), or
in the rocks and evaporate, leaving salt crystals behind. Diamond – excellent in thermal conductivity. Cutting tools
because it is less dense. • Sliding past, each other. (Transform) for concrete and other hard materials.
Mantle – the second part of the earth is the source region Divergent Boundaries - Boundary between two plates Chemical Weathering – decomposition of materials by a
series of chemical reactions that result in the rust on cars Sulfur – found near volcanic vents, associated with
of the earth internal energy and of forces responsible for that are moving apart or rifting that causes seafloor
or the corrosion or staining of building facades. gypsum and limestone. Sulfuric acid used in concrete
ocean floor spreading and continental drift and earthquake. spreading.
Hydrolysis – decomposition process in which water is one etching and cleaning.
Thickness of about 2865 km. Features of Divergent Boundaries
Upper Mantle (Molten Magma) – also called • Mid-ocean ridges, rift valleys, fissure volcanoes of the reacting agents.
Carbonation - decomposition of calcite (calcium SULFOSALTS
asthenosphere (weak) layer; where crust is drifting. Subduction Zone – more dense plate slides under the
carbonate) to calcium bicarbonate. Sulfosalts – complex sulfide minerals with the general
•The layer of both the crust and the upper part of the less dense plate.
Oxidation - When oxygen combines with iron in rocks, it formula: AmBnSp (A: metal, B: semi-metal, S: sulfur)
mantle is called the LITOSPHERE (Greek: lithos= stone). Subduction – the ocean floor sinks beneath a deep-ocean Use: as ore materials for the extraction of metals
Lower Mantle – responsible for all the earth seismic and trench and back into the mantle. changes into iron oxide (rust). Occurs when oxygen in air
assisted by water combines with minerals to form oxides. Types of sulfosalts:
volcanic activities due to its very spacious area for such Deep ocean trench – occurs at subduction zones.
Factors in Soil Formation: Climate and time, biota factor, Pyrargyrite: silver antimony sulfide mineral
natural catastrophes. Trench – more dense plate slides under the less dense
parent material, and topography Jamesonite: A lead iron antimony sulfide
Core – the central layer and extends up to the very center plates creating a subduction called trench. Enargite: copper arsenic sulfide
of the earth. Soil Deposition is a geological process in which
sediments, soils, and rocks are added or to form a landform Bournonite: lead copper antimony sulfide
S-Waves do not pass in this layer GROUNDWATER AND HYDROLOGIC CYCLE/WATER
or land mass Sulfides and sulfosalts have potential to generate acid
Pressure and temperatures are very high. CYCLE
mine drainage, posing environmental risks.
S-Waves do not pass in this layer Hydrologic/Water Cycle – the complete journey that Analytical Techniques to detect sulfosalt minerals
Mostly made up of Nickel and Iron water makes in its life, from one place to the other, and one Soils Produced by weathering and deposition
1. Residual Soils – soils that remain where they were 1. X-ray Diffraction – identify specific crystal structures
also called NIFE layer or the Barysphere. state to the other.
formed, simply overlying the rock from which they came and phases of sulfosalt.
Outer Core – molten rocks; made up of nickel and iron Four Major Processes of Hydrologic Cycle
from 2. Scanning Electron Microscopy – visualize the
Inner Core – crystalline or solid; magnetic field; made up 1. Evaporation, Transpiration, and Evapotranspiration morphology and chemical composition of sulfosalts.
of iron Evaporation – liquid phase to gas phase 2. Transported Soils – soils formed when rock weathers
at one site and the particles are moved to one location 3. X-ray Fluorescence – provide rapid semi-quantitative
•The boundary between the outer and inner core is called Transpiration – release of moisture from the leaves of
Residual Soil Deposits - Deposited at the place of analysis of major and minor elements in sulfosalt minerals.
the LEHMANN Discontinuity. plans to the atmosphere.
decomposition or weathering.
Industrial Use of Sulfosalts
Pyrite (FeS2) – primarily use in the steelmaking industry as Arsenates: Weathering- the breaking down, disintegration and
source of iron and sulfur. Scorodite: Ability to immobilize arsenic in contaminated USES OF GRANITE changing of rocks as a result of their exposure to the
Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) – major source of copper and is environments. -Granite from Finland used for tiles environment.
used extensively in the production of copper metal and Vanadates: -Mount Rushmore Transport- the products are transported away as the
alloys. Vanadinite: it can be used for automobile, jet engine parts, -Granite Building Stone weathering process progresses.
HALIDES and tools. -Granite as Countertops Deposition- sediments of a certain
Halogen is derived from two Greek words, “hals” – salt, size enter an environment with insufficient energy to
and “gen” – to produce. Hardness- the resistance of a mineral to scratching. SYENITE convey them, they are deposited.
Family of Halides: Halite, Sylvite, Cerargyrite, Cryolite, Tenacity - a mineral’s toughness or resistance to breaking • Syenite originally came from the ancient name “Syrene” Preservation- sediments are buried successively with other
Fluorite, Atacamite, and Carnallite. or being deformed. which means Aswan. sediments to create sedimentary rocks.
Impact structural integrity and stability. Cleavage – allows it to break smoothly along specific • It is a coarse-grained rock consisting ferromagnesian Lithification- process of cementing these rock pieces
Affects material properties like density, mechanical internal planes (called cleavage planes) when the mineral mineral and alkali feldspar. together
cohesion, and corrosive effects. is struck sharply with a hammer. • Syenetic rocks are generally found in association with Classifying Sedimentary Rocks
Fracture - the property of a mineral breaking in a more or other plutonic rocks. The environment affects the type of sediment thus,
TUNGSTATES, MOLYBDATES, AND URANATES less random pattern with no smooth planar surfaces. • They produce relatively modest intrusive bodies or are different environment produces different sedimentary
Tungstate – a compound that contains an oxyanion of Parting - the splitting of a gemstone along twinning or components of bigger intrusions. rocks.
tungsten or is a mixed oxide containing tungsten. pressure planes. • This rock considered similar to granite; however the Type of Sedimentary Rock
Belong to a group of polyatomic ions called Macroscopic Visual Properties difference is the amount of quartz present in 1. Clastic Sedimentary Rock
Polyoxometalates (POMs), contains oxygen and possibly Luster - a physical property that describes how a mineral's both rocks. 2. Chemical Sedimentary Rock
hydrogen along with only one other metal. surface and structure interact with light 3. Organic Sedimentary Rock
Molybdates – containing an oxyanion with molybdenum in Color - Compositions of Syenitic Rocks
its highest oxidation state. Streak - the color of the powder produced when it is • Alkali Feldspar 1. CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Uranates – a ternary oxide containing uranium. Structure dragged across an un-weathered surface. • Quartz -Also called detrital sedimentary rocks.
is infinite lattice structures with uranium atoms linked by Luminescence - the creation of light by chemical or • Plagioclase feldspar -Formed from cemented sediment grains which
bridging oxygen atoms. physical processes that does not involve heat. • Feldspathoids come from broken fragments of pre-existing rocks.
Diaphaneity/Transparency - the degree to which light is Examples of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
SILICATES transmitted through a mineral Types of Syenitic Rocks
Silicates – a diverse group of minerals that make up a • Nepheline Syenite
significant portion of the earth’s crust. Composed of silicon Petrology • Quartz Syenite CONGLOMERATE
and oxygen atoms, often combined with other elements • Petrology is the study of the with particular emphasis on • Hornblende Syanite ❑Formed from large sediments
such as aluminum, magnesium, and iron. the physical, chemical, and possibly biological processes ❑Composed of pebbles and
Silica – present in many common building materials such that are involved in the formation of rocks. TYPES OF SYENITC ROCKS boulders, and smaller particles of
as drywall, asphalt, brick, cement, concrete, and etc. • Petrology is the study of rocks - igneous, metamorphic, calcite or quartz cement that binds
Used in flooring, mortars, cement, asphalt, and etc. to and sedimentary - and the processes that form and Nepheline Syenite is a white to light grey medium-grained the rock together.
increase their structural integrity and longevity. transform them. igneous rock. It promotes more rapid melting at lower
Plays crucial role in the formation of rocks and minerals, temperatures, thus reducing energy consumption,
influencing the physical and chemical properties of the IGNEOUS ROCKS lengthening SANDSTONE
earth’s surface. • “Igneous” comes from the Latin word “ignis” which means the life of the furnace and improving the yield and quality of ❑Most common type of sedimentary
Silicates in the context of Civil Engineering Decreased FIRE.
rock on Earth
soils permeability Increases strength of the concrete • Can also be called as “Magmatic Rocks” Hornblende Syenite has a wide variety of
Improved durability of concrete structures Reduces heat of • Igneous Rocks are rocks formed through the cooling and rocks containing calcium and monoclinic ❑Medium-grained clastic sedimentary
hydration. Enhanced Workability. solidification of Quartz Syenite is a syenite rock consisting rock
molten rock material called magma. Magma develops 5-20% of quartz ❑Made of compacted sand grains
CARBONATES, NITRATES, AND BORATES underneath the SHALE
crust; however, Igneous rocks can still be formed from Syenite Rocks are mostly found in: ❑Fine-grained clastic sedimentary
Carbonates – the polyatomic ion CO3^2 which consists of volcanoes or from ❑Arkansas and Montana in regions in North America rock.
one carbon atom bonded to three oxygen atoms. the surface of the Earth. ❑ Some regions in Europe such as Germany, Switzerland, ❑Composed of mud which is a mix
Primary Carbonates – form directly from chemical Norway and Sweden. of flakes clay minerals and silt
precipitation in aqueous environments. HOW ARE IGNEOUS ROCKS FORMED? ❑ Australia and Africa Syenite Rocks can be used in: size particles of other minerals.
Secondary Carbonates – form through the alteration of The mantle and crust of the Earth are naturally solid. ❑Has fissile property (split into
pre-existing minerals by chemical reactions. However, a few spots of magma emerge near the surface ❑Construction of Roads
thin layers).
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) – found in rocks such as as a result of geologic processes that trigger melting. The ❑Flooring
limestone and marble. magma is essential for the formation of volcanoes and ❑Landscaping 2. CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCK
Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3) - Found in rocks like igneous rocks. Magma arises when pressure and ❑Monuments, Artefacts -Formed by precipitation of minerals from water.
dolomite and magnesite. temperature conditions force a solid rock to melt. This ❑Small Figurines -Not made from pieces of pre-existing rocks
Iron Carbonate (FeCO3) - present in some sedimentary occurs predominantly in three main geological settings:
rocks. Its presence can affect the engineering properties of midocean ridges, subduction zones, and hotspots. Uses of Syenite CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY
soils and rocks. ❑Used as aggregate in buildings and Roads ROCKS
Carbonate rocks vary in strength and durability, affecting Magma is less dense than thesurrounding rocks which 1. Evaporitic Rock- Are formed within the depositional
❑Used as dimension stone for buildings
their suitability for construction materials and structural causes it to rise to the surfaces and basin from chemical substances
applications. undergoes a change in temperature and pressure resulting ❑Used in making natural cement
dissolved in the seawater or lake water.
It exhibits varying degrees of porosity and permeability, to a cooling, solidification, and crystallization. Although, ❑Used in flooring and interior Decoration -Common examples are rock gypsum and rock salt.
influencing their suitability for use in drainage systems, formation of igneous rocks happens underneath the Earth’s ❑Used in sculptures, monuments and small figurine. 2. Carbonate Rock- Contain Carbonate (CO3) as
reservoirs, and groundwater management. surface, it part of their composition.
can also occur when lava reaches the surface through DIORITE
Use in CE: cement production, aggregates, construction volcanoes. • is phaneritic, or coarse grained, and forms at 3. ORGANIC SEDIMENTARY ROCK
materials, and road base materials. depth when andesitic magma has lots of time -Formed from the accumulation of plant and animal debris.
Igneous Rocks are divided into two groups: to crystallize. This allows for more ion Examples of Organic Sedimentary Rocks
Nitrates – the polyatomic ion NO3^-, which consists of one • Extrusive Igneous Rocks and Intrusive Igneous Rocks transport, leading to much larger crystals. It is Fossiliferous Limestone- Also called fossil-rich limestone
nitrogen atom bonded to three oxygen atoms. produced in volcanic arcs, and in mountain since it mostly contains remains of once living organisms.
Highly soluble in water and exhibit oxidizing properties. Igneous Rocks are divided into two groups: building where it can occur in large volumes -One of the most common organic
Natural nitrates – naturally occur in soil and groundwater as batholiths in the roots of mountains. sedimentary rocks
as a result of biological processes and geological EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS- Also called as “Volcanic
-Made of mineral calcite and mostly contains remains of
weathering. Rocks” IMPORTANCE OF DIORITE
Synthetic Nitrates – produced synthetically and used in Rocks which are formed near the surface of the Earth once living ocean organisms
• One important use of Diorite is as stone that is used for
construction materials like concrete admixtures. -Lava cools down quickly causing the mineral crystals to Chalk Limestone
buildings and Statues.
Use in CE: water quality management, and explosives. have a lesser time to grow which makes the formation of • Diorite was used extensively by ancient civilizations for -Made of microscopic shells Coal Limestone
Borates – the polyatomic ion BO3^- or BO^4-, which rocks fine-grained (aphanatic).The crystals that formed the vases and other decorative -Are formed when pieces of dead plants are buried and
consists of one boron atom bonded to three or four oxygen rocks are microscopic and invisible to the naked eye. artwork and is still used for art today compacted under other sediments
atoms. -Most common type of volcanic rocks is basalt. Statue of Gudea, Diorite Vase, Neolithic Ax, Countertop -Deposited in water with low oxygen content

Use in CE: Wood preservation, fire retardants, concrete Examples of Extrusive Igneous Rocks: Andesite, Basalt, GABBRO SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
additives, and coatings. Dacite, Obsidian, Pumice, Rhyolite, Scoria, Tuff • is an intrusive igneous rock that forms from the result of • The features of sedimentary rocks are formed during or
slow cooling of shortly after sediment deposition. Provide information
OXIDES INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS- Also called as “Plutonic magma inside of a volcano. It is very similar to the fast about how and where sedimentswere deposited.
Formed through weathering, metamorphism, sedimentary Rocks” Rocks which are formed within the Earth’s crust. cooling, extrusive basalt, as they both are formed from • BEDDING-Most common and important
processes. Complex interplay of geological processes. Slowly cooling of magma causes the crystals to grow mafic magmas that contain dark colored minerals such as sedimentary structures.Series of visible layers in a rock.
Hematite, Magnetite, Limonite, Corundum, Bauxite without reaching the surface resulting to a course grained pyroxene, plagioclase, amphibole and olivine. Beds are usually greater than 1 cm. Orientation of bedding
rocks (phaneritic).These rocks are visible with an unaided • is an intrusive igneous rock that forms from the result of helps in knowing the paleo-current direction of the old
Utilization in Engineering: critical roles in construction, eye. slow cooling of magma inside of a volcano. It is very similar rivers.
metallurgy, aerospace, stainless steel, and etc. to the fast cooling, extrusive basalt, as they both are • CROSS-BEDDING- Series of thin, inclined layers within
IGNEOUS ROCKS formed from mafic magmas that contain dark colored a horizontal bed of rock. Ripples, bars, dunes, and deltas
Need for geological engineering and Igneous Rocks are classifies according to its texture and minerals such as pyroxene, plagioclase, amphibole and are all indicators of deposition
composition. olivine. • GRADED BEDDING- The grain size changes gradually
SULFATES AND CHROMATES from the bottom to the top
Sulfates are used as surfactants; they reduce the surface TEXTURE COMPOSITION PEGMATITE • RIPPLE MARKS- The moving wind or water created little
tension of liquids. ➢ Phaneritic ➢ Felsic • is an igneous rock that form end of the stage a magma’s ridges on the surface of the sediment layer.
Chromates are used as corrosion inhibitors to protect ➢ Aphanitic ➢ Mafic crystallization. Pegmatites contain exceptionally large • MUD CRACKS- Polygon-like cracks formed in drying mud
metals from corrosion. ➢ Porphyritic ➢ Ultramafic crystals, and they contain rarely minerals than other types • FOSSILS- Remains of plants or animals that have been
Anhydrous – substance that does not contain water of rocks. preserved in rocks. These traces are usually the hard parts
Glauberite: less suitable for structural applications ➢ Vesicular ➢ Intermediate
of organisms in the form of bones or shells which are easier
Barite: Drilling fluids, concrete shielding, heavy concrete, ➢ Glassy BASALT to fossilize.
underwater construction, and highway barrier ➢ Pyroclastic • Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous rock
Anhydrite: construction materials, agricultural soil composed mainly of Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Rocks
amendment, and oil and gas industry IGNEOUS ROCKS plagioclase and pyroxene minerals. • Tectonic Setting has an impact on the distribution of
Hydrous – substance that contains water molecules. COMPOSITION sedimentary rocks. Specific sedimentary rock types'
Gypsum: construction materials and soil amendment The chemical and mineral make-up of a rock is referred to TYPES OF BASALT occurrence can be used to recreate historical plate tectonic
Polyhalite: Soil stabilization and deicing agent as itscomposition. The composition of igneous rock is • Tholeiitic basalt is relatively rich in silica and poor in setting.
Alunite: mined and treated to recover aluminum and classified into four groups: sodium. • Each type of tectonic plate boundary is identified by
potassium. Felsic, Intermediate, Mafic and Ultramafic. These • High and Low Titanium Basalts - Basalt rocks are in some erosion rates and depositional characteristics.
Epsomite: limited use in civil engineering classifications are based cases classified after their titanium (Ti) content in High-Ti
on the quantities and silica, iron, and magnesium contained and Low-Ti. IMPORTANCE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
SULFIDES -any various organic compounds characterized in the minerals High Titanium Basalt Low Titanium Basalt Sedimentary rocks have characteristics that help us
by a sulfur atom attached to two carbon atoms. FELSIC • Mid-Ocean ridge Basalt (MORB) - is a tholeiitic basalt understand old depositional habitats, such as the evolution
-Used as an indicator of primary sulfate and the potential - Poor in iron and magnesium commonly erupted only at ocean ridges and is of animals and the settings they lived in, how climate has
presence or likely formation of sulfate due to oxidation. - – 65-75% silica characteristically low in incompatible elements. changed through time, where and when faults were active,
INTERMEDIATE • High-alumina basalt - may be silica-undersaturated or and so on.
Categories: - 55-60% silica oversaturated Economic Resources- Most oil and gas travels within
Inorganic Sulfides – ionic compounds containing the - Composition between felsic and mafic • Alkali basalt- is relatively poor in silica and rich in sodium sedimentary rocks and where mostly reservoirs are
negative charge sulfide ion. MAFIC • Boninite- is a high magnesium form of basalt that is contained.
Organic Sulfides – a sulfur atom is covalently bonded to - 45-50% silica erupted generally in back-arc basins, distinguished by its Petroleum reservoirs- have organic-rich, sedimentary
two organic groups. - Rich in iron amd magnesium low titanium content and trace-element composition. source rocks that create petroleum when heated.
Phosphine Sulfides – formed from the reaction of organic ULTRAMAFIC
phosphines with sulfur. - Less than 40% silica USES OF BASALT Sedimentary rocks are the most common source of water
Processes in Mineral Origin: - Have more magnesium and iron and less • Crushed basalt as an aggregate in construction aquifers (although some are in fractured metamorphic and
Separation of an immiscible sulfide melt. silica projects igneous rocks). Due to water-rock interactions, the
Deposition from aqueous brine solutions at temp. in the GRANITE • Dimension Stone composition of the rocks has a significant impact on water
300-600 degrees Celsius at relatively high temp. • Granite is an igneous rock, which quality
means it forms when the magma of DOLERITE
a volcano oxidizes and then slowly • Dolerite is a dark colored igneous rock. It is Environmental Geology- Sediments cover two-thirds of
Contributions to CE: solidifies underneath the earth. compositionally equivalent to gabbro and basalt but the continents and almost the entire ocean floor,
Pollution Control – use of iron sulfide to develop functional Chemical Composition: texturally between them. accounting for 89 percent of the Earth's surface. They are
environmental materials. ✓70-77% Silica the hosts of the biosphere, as well as the majority of the
Nonferrous Metals – known for tensile strength, ✓11-13% Alumina SEDIMENTARY ROCKS rocks with which we interact directly or indirectly.
malleability, and corrosion resistivity. ✓3-5% Potassium Oxide and Soda What are Sedimentary Rocks?
Modified Concrete – sulfur concrete is a material with • formed from pre-existing rocks METAMORPHIC ROCKS
✓1% Lime
superior mechanical prope • formed from deposits that accumulates on the surface of • Derive from the Greek word “Meta” – after or change and
✓2-3% Iron the Earth or under the ocean. “Morph” – Shape or Form. It is used to denote the
PHOSPHATES, VANADATES, AND ARSENATES ✓0.03 to 1% Magnesia and Titania transformation of rocks into new type by the
grouped together as the same mineral class because they Sediments- are composed of minerals or once living matter recrystallization of their constituents
share similar chemical compositions and structural • Granites are easily identified as light-colored and coarse- called organic matter.
arrangements. grained as a result of slow cooling under the surface, METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCK
Phosphates: enabling for bigger crystal formation. Color difference is FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS • A rock undergoing metamorphism remains a solid rock
Monazite: Renewable Energy Use influenced by the percentage of each mineral present in the during the process. Rocks do not melt during most
Mimetite: Minor ore of lead sample conditions of metamorphism.
Metamorphism occurs because some minerals are stable BANDED GNEISS, LENTICULAR GNEISS, BIOTITE Strike and Dip Method This system is used to describe • Utility services that are available, such as water and
only under certain conditions of pressure and temperature. GNEISS , HORNBLENDE GNEISS, GRANITE GNEISS, the orientation of inclined bedding which is named after two electricity.
When pressure and temperature change, chemical DIORITE GNEISS, SYENITE GNEISS important principle components in describing 3D spatial • Sketches of topography including all existing structures,
reactions occur to cause the minerals in the rock to change orientation: strike and dip. cuts, fills, ground depression, ponds, and so on.
to an assemblage that is stable at the new pressure and USES OF GNEISS- Gneiss usually does not split along STRIKE- is the azimuth direction line formed by the • The state of any existing building at the site or nearby.
temperature conditions. planes of weakness like most other metamorphic rocks. intersection of horizontal plane and the plane of interest. Your notes should include exterior and interior cracks, any
This allows contractors to use gneiss as a crushed stone - Measured in map view. Utilizes azimuth noticeable tilt, type of construction (e.g., brick or framed
FACTORS THAT CONTROL METAMORPHISM in road construction, building site preparation, and convention (0-360°) stucco building), evidence of frost damage, molds, and any
• The mineral composition of the parent rock. landscaping projects. exceptional features.
• The temperature at which metamorphic process occur. DIP- is the bedding or geological layers and planes that are • Geological features from any exposed area such as a
• The type and amount of pressure during metamorphism. SCHIST not horizontal. road cut.
• The type of fluids present during metamorphism. Schist is a foliated metamorphic rock made up of plate- - Measured in cross-sectional view. Utilizes • Occasionally, a few boreholes may be dug to explore the
• The time available for metamorphism. shaped mineral grains that are large enough to see with an quadrant convention site
unaided eye. It usually forms on a continental side of a
• PROTOLITH – It is also known as the original rock or the convergent plate boundary where sedimentary rocks, such Dip values are always in the range of 0-90 degrees. A Geophysical methods may be used at reconnaissance
parent rock. as shales and mudstones, have been subjected to dip angle of 0 degree defines horizontal plane while 90 stage as it is simple and quick means for knowing
• PARENT ROCK- Sedimentary or Igneous Rock. The compressive forces, heat, and chemical activity. degrees describes a vertically oriented plane. stratification. It helps in deciding the course of detailed
initial unmetamorphosed rock • To become schist, a shale must be metamorphosed in 0-20° - Shallow investigation.
• STABILITY OF MINERALS - is what determines which steps through slate and then through phyllite. If the schist 20-50° - Moderate
minerals form as metamorphism takes place. Subjected to is metamorphosed further, it might become a granular rock 50-90° - Steep The most commonly used methods for reconnaissance
temperature and pressure, some minerals will undergo known as gneiss. survey are electrical resistivity phase two method and
chemical reactions, while some might just change their size seismic method.
and shape. VARIETY OF SCHIST
MICA SCHIST, GRAPHITE SCHIST, SATUROLITE SOIL EXPLORATION PROGRAM- A soils exploration
FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS SCHIST CHLORITE SCHIST program usually involves test pits and/or soil borings
• Foliated means the parallel arrangement of certain USES AND APPLICATION: building houses or walls, used (boreholes). During the site visit (Phase II), you should
mineral grains that gives the rock a striped appearance. to make decorative rock walls, used as a decorative stone TYPES OF DIP work out most of the soil exploration program. A detailed
Foliation forms when pressure squeezes the flat or as well as for jewelry. True Dip is the inclination of a plane measured in a plane soils exploration consists of:
elongate minerals within a rock so they become aligned. trending perpendicular to the strike. 1. Determining the need for and extent of geophysical
These rocks develop a platy or sheet-like structure that STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY is the study of factors such as Apparent Dip is the inclination of a plane measured in a exploration.
reflects the direction that pressure was applied. origin,occurrence, classification, type and effects of various plane that is not perpendicular to the strike. 2. Preliminary location of each borehole and/or test pit.
secondary structures like folds, faults, joints, rock cleavage 3. Numbering of the boreholes or test pits.
NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS Non-foliated and are different from those primary structures such as 4. Planned depth of each borehole or test pit.
metamorphic rocks do not have a platy or sheet-like bedding and vesicular structure, which develop in rock at 5. Methods and procedures for advancing the boreholes.
structure. Some rocks, are made of minerals that are not the time of their formation EXAMPLE OF ATTITUDE OF BED USING THE STRIKE 6. Sampling instructions for at least the first borehole. The
flat or elongate. No matter how much pressure you apply, (Tandon, 2003) AND DIP METHOD: sampling instructions must include the number of samples
the grains will not align and possible locations. Changes in the sampling
• Another type of metamorphism, contact metamorphism, The Right Hand Rule This rule is followed by most instructions often occur after the first borehole.
occurs when hot igneous rock intrudes into some geologist in the world for consistency. The azimuth 7. Determining the need for and types of in situ tests.
preexisting rock. Rock Mechanics- is the theoretical and applied science of direction of the strike is recorded such that true dip is 8. Requirements for groundwater observations.
• The pre-existing rock is essentially baked by the heat, the mechanical behavior of rock. It is a branch of inclined to the right of the observer. In this case, the
changing the mineral structure of the rock without addition mechanics concerned with the response of rock to the strike azimuth could be to any quadrant. PHASES OF SOILS EXPLORATION
of pressure. force fields of its physical environment. It is an important Detailed soils exploration. The objectives of a detailed
field in civil engineering as it applies in the majority of WHEN YOU APPLY THIS RULE, THE THUMB soils exploration are:
QUARTZITE- Quartzite is a metamorphic rock formed infrastructure projects like dams, roads, tunnels, bridges, REPRESENTS THE DIRECTION OF THE STRIKE AND • To determine the geological structure, which should
when quartz rich sandstone or chert has been exposed to buildings, and protection of slopes. THE FOUR REMAINING FINGERS REPRESENTS THE include the thickness, sequence, and extent of the soil
high temperatures and pressures. Such conditions fuse DIRECTION OF THE DIP. strata. To determine the groundwater conditions. To obtain
the quartz grains together forming a dense, hard, The distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is the disturbed and undisturbed samples for laboratory tests. To
equigranular rock. use of elevation contour lines to show the shape of the Dip-line Trend and Plunge As the name suggests, this conduct in situ tests
Earth's surface. method is similar to the method trend and plunge of in Laboratory testing. The objectives of laboratory tests are:
MARBLE Marble is a metamorphic rock formed when determining linear attitude. This method relies on the To classify the soils.To determine soil strength, failure
limestone is exposed to high temperatures and pressures. Elevation contours are imaginary lines connecting points implicit 90 degree angle between true dip azimuth and the stresses and strains, stress–strain response, permeability,
Marble forms under such conditions because the calcite having the same elevation on the surface of the land above strike. compatibility, and settlement parameters. Not all of these
forming the limestone recrystallizes forming a denser rock or below a reference surface, which is usually mean sea may be required for a project.
consisting of roughly equi-granular calcite level. Contours make it possible to show the height and Write a report. The report must contain a clear description
crystals. How marble processed to create as a useful shape of mountains, the depths of the ocean of the soils at the site, methods of exploration, soil
rocks? bottom, and the steepness of slopes. stratigraphy, in situ and laboratory test methods and
results, and the location of the groundwater. You should
Marble Mining- Marble is currently being obtained from Geologic maps -represent the distribution of different include information on and/or explanations of any unusual
open cast quarries. Arrival and Unloading of Marble Blocks types of rock and surficial deposits, as well as locations of soil, water-bearing stratum, and any soil and groundwater
The blocks are unloaded and classified in the blocks yard geologic structures such as faults and folds. Geologic conditions such as frost susceptibility or waterlogged areas
prior to being sawed. maps are the primary source of information for various that may be troublesome during phase five
Marble Cutting Marble is cut using multiwire or block aspects of land-use planning, including the siting of construction.
cutters. buildings and transportation systems. Field Testing-is a term used for all in-situ based methods
MODULE 5: GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL and techniques used to determine different properties of
Strengthening and Polishing Slabs -are taken to the Map View - Also known as top view. It us the birds eye view INVESTIGATIONS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING soils qualitatively and quantitatively. Measure the
production line for further processing. of the earth surface. Remember that a geologic map will be GEOTECHNICAL INVISTIGATIONS- are performed by properties of the subsurface soil directly without removal
seen in map view. geotechnical engineers or engineering geologists to obtain The properties determined are the physical, strength,
Slab Storage - The slabs will be ready for display or will information on the physical properties of soil and rock deformability and hydromechanical properties of
go directly to packaging ready for shipment. Loading Cross-Sectional View A geologic cross-section shows around a site to design earthworks and foundation for geomaterials in geotechnical site investigation
Different shipment methods depending on the destination geologic featuresfrom the side view. It is a representation proposed structures and for repair of distress to earthworks Geophysical explorations- are nondestructive
of a geometry on a plane perpendicular to the earths and structures caused by subsurface conditions techniques used to provide spatial information on soils,
USES OF MARBLES: Supreme Court Building, Taj Mahal surface. rocks, and hydrological and environmental conditions.
Washington Monument, Bust of Artemis, -Usually, geotechnical investigations are conducted
YOUNGEST --> OLDEST only on a fraction of a proposed site because it would Popular methods are:
SLATE- Slate is a metamorphic rock that originated as a be prohibitively expensive to conduct an extensive 1. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
shale, a sedimentary rock. Slate is a fine-grained, foliated QUATERNARY(Q), TERTIARY(T), CRETACEOUS(K), investigation of a whole site. 2. Seismic Surveys
metamorphic rock composed of clay or volcanic ash JURASSIC(J), TRIASSIC(Tr), PERMIAN(P), -A geotechnical investigation will include surface 3. Electrical Resistivity
formed through low-grade regional metamorphism altering PENNSYLVANIAN(lP), MISSISSIPIAN(M), exploration and subsurface exploration of a site. 4. Others geophysical methods such as Gamma
shale or mudstone. It is the foliated metamorphic rock DEVONIAN(D), SILURIAN(S), ORDOVICIAN(O), -A site investigation is tasked with discovering the Density, Neutron Porosity, Sonic-VDL, Microgravity
with the finest grain size. It is also a foliated rock that shows CAMBRIAN(-C), PreCambrian (p-C) current soil status and subsurface conditions
"slaty cleavage." -Surface-level and subsurface field tests will be conducted Subsurface Sounding Explorations- The subsurface
There are some helpful hints to remember when during a geotechnical investigation and soil samples will be methods of sounding includes penetrometer test with or
COMPOSITION OF SLATE Slate is mostly made up of clay constructing a cross-section: taken and studied to determine the feasibility of building on without geophysical methods. The cone penetration data is
minerals or micas, depending on the degree of 1. Anticlines – these folds have the oldest beds in the a site. Thus, we will be treating soils as ideal or correlated with density, bearing capacity etc. Sounding
metamorphism it has undergone. With increasing heat and middle, with beds dipping away from the axis. Plunging hypothetical materials and use statistical method consists of measurement of variation of resistance
pressure, the initial clay minerals in shale transform into anticlines plunge towards the closed end of the V. average properties. However, in many cases, statistical of the soil with depth. It can be carried our either by Static
micas. Slate can also contain a lot of quartz, along with 2. Synclines – these folds have the youngest beds in the average values could mislead because a weak or Cone Penetration Test (CPT) in soft soils like cohesive
feldspar, calcite, pyrite, hematite, and other minerals. middle, with beds dipping towards the axis. Plunging discontinuous soil layer at a particular location may control soils or by dynamic cone penetration test in cohesionless
synclines plunge towards the open end of the V. the stability of a geotechnical system (e.g., a foundation). soil.
COLOR- Most slates are gray in color and come in a 3. As streams intersect dipping beds of rock, they will
variety of hues ranging from light to dark gray. Slate comes cut V shapes in the direction of dip. PURPOSE OF GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS Standard Penetration Test (ASTM D1586)- A standard
in a variety of colors, including green, red, black, purple, A soils investigation program is necessary to provide penetration test (SPT) is an in-situ dynamic penetration test
and brown. The amount and kind of iron and organic Attitude is a general term for the orientation of a line or information for design and construction, environmental designed to provide information on the properties of soil,
material contained in the rock usually determine the color plane .Attitude refers to the three dimensional orientation assessment, and project due diligence while also collecting a disturbed soil sample for grain-size
of slate.GREEN SLATE, BLUE SLATE. DARK SLATE of a planar and linear features such as bed, a joint, a 1. Suitability: To determine the suitability of the site and analysis and soil classification.
,PURPLE SLATE. hornblende needle or a fold. the environment for the proposed work. -This test shall be performed in boreholes in order to
2. Design: To enable an adequate and economic design estimate consistency, relative density, and strength-
FORMATION OF SLATE- Slate is formed through the including temporary works design which can be provided. deformation parameters of soils.
regional metamorphosis of mudstone or shale under low- 3. Construction Method: To plan the best construction -SPT testing can also be carried out in weak weathered
pressure conditions. method depending on the sources of materials/waste. rock.
-When shale or mudstone is exposed to heavy pressure 4. Effect of Changes: To determine the changes that will -SPT testing shall be performed at certain numbers and
and heat from a tectonic plate activity, its clay mineral occur in the soil and surrounding circumstances, either respective intervals to the borehole depth termination for
components metamorphose into mica minerals. Mica naturally or because of work. all boreholes.
minerals such as biotite, chlorite, and muscovite, are the 5. Site Selection: When there is a site option, to provide
main components of slate. Attitude of Planar Structure advice and guidance. Split-Spoon Sampler (or Split-Barrel Sampler)
-Formed through the process of foliation. The attitude of planar structure is defined by strike and dip This sampler is typically an 18"-30" long, 2.0" outside
-Layers of rocks are then formed perpendicular to the Strike and dip describe the orientation of a plane in a TECHNICAL OBJECTIVESOF THE INVESTIGATION diameter hollow tube split in half lengthwise. A hardened
direction of the pressure of metamorphic compression. space. 1. Determine the sequence, thickness and lateral extent of metal drive shoe with a 1.375" opening is attached to the
This gives slate its ability to cleave along flat planes. Strike is the azimuth direction line formed by the the soil strata and, where appropriate the level of bedrock; bottom end, and a one-way valve and drill rod adapter at
intersection of horizontal plane and the plane of interest. 2. Obtain representative samples of the soils (and rock) for the sampler head. It is driven into the ground with a 140-
USES OF SLATE: SLATE SIDING, SLATE TILE Dip is the inclination of the plane measured down. Dip is a identification and classification and, if necessary for use in pound (63.5 kg) hammer falling 30". The blow counts
FLOORING, SCHOOL SLATE vector; it gives the direction and amount of dip of the plane. laboratory tests to determine relevant soil parameters; (hammer strikes) required to advance the sampler a total
3. Identify the groundwater conditions of 18" are counted and reported. Generally used for non-
GNEISS Examples of Planar Structure Bedding, fault, fold axial cohesive soils, samples taken this way are considered
• It is a medium- to coarse-grained, semi schistose plane, layering of lava, cleavage & schistosity. PHASES OF GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION disturbed.
metamorphic rock. It is a high-grade metamorphic rock. The attitude of linear structure is defined by trend and This phase is sometimes called “desk study.” It involves
• It is characterized by alternating light and dark bands plunge. collection of available information such as a site plan; type, Modified California Sampler- Similar in concept to the
differing in mineral composition. Trend is the bearing of the line and Plunge is the inclination size, and importance of the structure; loading conditions; SPT sampler, the sampler barrel has a larger diameter and
• It is formed by the metamorphosis of granite of the line previous geotechnical reports; maps, including is usually lined with metal tubes to contain samples.
(orthogneiss), or sedimentary rock (paragneiss). Linear Structures are also defined by their pitch / rake on topographic maps, aerial photographs, still Samples from the Modified California Sampler are
a given plane: photographs, satellite imagery, and geologic maps; considered disturbed due to the large area ratio of the
Formation of Gneiss- Gneiss usually forms by regional Pitch / Rake – The acute angle between the line and and newspaper clippings. An assortment of maps giving sampler (sampler wall area/sample cross sectional area).
metamorphism at convergent plate boundaries. It is a high- strike of the plane on which the line lies. geology, contours and elevations, climate, land
grade metamorphic rock in which mineral grains Examples of Linear Structure Fold axis, hingeline, use, aerial photos, regional seismicity, and hydrology are Shelby Tube Sampler- This sampler consists of a thin-
recrystallized under intense heat and pressure. intersection of two planes, stretched pebbles, and other available on the Internet. walled tube with a cutting edge at the toe. Used in the
• This alteration increased the size of the mineral grains lineations. collection of intact and mostly undisturbed samples of
and segregated them into bands, a transformation which Geographical information system (GIS)—an integration fine grain soils, like clay or silts (ASTM D1587M-15)
made the rock and its minerals more stable in their Quadrant Bearings -In this method the compass dial is of software, hardware, and digital data to capture, manage, Collected samples can be teste for chemical and
metamorphic environment. The most common path begins divided into four quadrants, namely NE, SE, SW, and NW. analyze and display spatial information—can be used to geotechnical analyses (hydraulic conductivity and
with shale, which is a sedimentary rock. Regional North and south are at 0 degrees, and depending on the view, share, understand, question, interpret, and visualize permeability)
metamorphism can transform shale into slate, then phyllite, quadrant, angles (up to 90 degrees) are measured away data in ways that reveal relationships, phase one patterns,
then schist, and finally into gneiss. from north or south (whichever is nearer) towards East and and trends. Piston Samplers- These samplers are thin-walled metal
West directions. tubes which contain a piston at the tip. The samplers are
Composition of Gneiss- is not defined by its composition, Azimuth- A compass direction of a line measured in PRELIMINARY RECONNAISSANCE OR A SITE VISIT to pushed into the bottom of a borehole, with the piston
most specimens have bands of feldspar and quartz grains degrees (0-360 degrees) clockwise from north with provide a general picture of the topography and geology of remaining at the surface of the soil while the tube slides
in an interlocking texture. These bands are usually light in north=0, east=90, south=180, and west=275. the site. It is necessary that you take with you on the site past it. These samplers will return undisturbed samples in
color and alternate with bands of darker-colored minerals visit all the information gathered in Phase I to compare with soft soils, but are difficult to advance in sands and stiff
with platy or elongate habits. Brunton Compass the current conditions of the site. Your site visit notes clays, and can be damaged (compromising the sample) if
• The dark minerals sometimes exhibit an orientation • Properly known as Brunton Pocket Transit should include the following: gravel is encountered.
determined by the pressures of metamorphism. • Essential tool for field geologists, environmental
engineers, and surveyors. Made by Brunton Inc. of • Photographs of the site and its neighborhood. Cone penetration test (CPT) this test is performed using
VARITIES OF GNEISS Riverton, Wyoming. Patented in 1987 by David Brunton. • Access to the site for workers and equipment. an instrumented probe with a conical tip, pushed into the
• Sketches of all fences, utility posts, driveways, walkways, soil hydraulically at a constant rate. A basic CPT instrument
drainage systems, and so on. reports tip resistance and shear resistance along the
cylindrical barrel. CPT data has been correlated to soil weight and optimal water content a soil can achieve for a
properties. Sometimes instruments other than the basic given compaction effort.
CPT probe are used, including:
1. CPTu - Piezocone Penetrometer STRENGTH AND DEFORMATION TESTS
2. SCPTu - Seismic Piezocone Penetrometer (ENGINEERING PROPERTIES TEST)
3. Full Flow Penetrometers - T-bar, Ball, and
Plate California Bearing Ratio (CBR Test)- California bearing
4. Flat Plate Dilatometer Test (DMT) ratio is a test to determine the aptitude of a soil or
aggregate sample as a road subgrade. A plunger is pushed
Open Trial Pits A pit is dug by hand using shovels or with into a compacted sample, and its resistance is measured.
a machine such as a backhoe. This method can provide This test was developed by Caltrans, but it is no longer
excellent shallow-depth soil stratigraphy. In fine grained or used in the Caltrans pavement design method. It is still
cohesive soils up to 3 m depth, vertical cuts without any used as a cheap method to estimate the resilient modulus.
support can be made whereas in coarse-grained or
cohesionless soil braced excavation is required which is Direct Shear test The direct shear test determines the
costly. consolidated, drained strength properties of a sample. A
constant strain rate is applied to a single shear plane under
Exploratory Boring- Excavating test pits for a large depth a normal load, and the load response is measured. If this
requires more labor, cost and area which is either not test is performed with different normal loads, the common
feasible or uneconomical. Boring is preferred if depth of shear strength parameters can be determined
investigation is more than 2 or 3 m. The different types of
borings methods are auger boring, wash boring, rotary Oedometer test This can be used to determine
drilling and percussion boring. consolidation and swelling parameters.

Auger Boring is carried out in soil which can stay without Triaxial shear tests This is a type of test that is used to
casing support or drilling mud. Thismethod is not suitable determine the shear strength properties of a soil. It can
for sandy or silty soil below water table. The procedure of simulate the confining pressure a soil would see deep into
auger boring: the ground. It can also simulate drained and undrained
1. Auger is pushed in the soil and rotated so conditions.
that soil sample fills up in annular space.
2 . Withdraw the auger and clean it Hydraulic Conductivity Tests There are several tests
3. Add extension rod if requires and repeat step available to determine a soil's hydraulic conductivity. They
1 and 2. include the constant head, falling head, and constant flow
methods. The soil samples tested can be any type include
remolded, undisturbed, and compacted samples.

Wash Boring In wash boring, water is flushed under

pressure through an inner tube which may be rotated and
moved upward and downward inside a casing pipe. The
lower end of the pipe is fixed with sharp cutting edge which
cuts the soil and soil floats up through the casing pipe
around the tube. The samples collected with this method
may not be useful for laboratory testing.

Percussion Boring This method consists of breaking up

of the formation by repeated blows from a bit or chisel.
Water is added at the time of boring and debris baled out
at intervals. Where the boring is in soil or into soft rocks
and provided that a sampler can be driven into them, cores
may be obtained at suitable intervals. The soil sample
obtained is normally disturbed but representative. This is
the best method for rapid drilling of bore holes in gravelly
strata.

Rotary Boring In rotary drilling, boring is affected by

the cutting action of a rotating bit which should be kept in
firm contact with the bottom of the hole. The bit is carried
at the end of hollow jointed drill rods which are rotated by
a suitable chuck. A mud-laden fluid or grout is pumped
continuously down the hollow drill rods and the fluid returns
to the surface in the annular space between rods and the
side of the hole. Protective casing usually not required.

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

standards available for site investigation and sampling:
• ASTM D420—87: Standard guide for investigating and
sampling soil and rock,
• ASTM D1452—80: Soil investigation and sampling by
auger borings,
• ASTM D1587—83: Thin-walled tube sampling,
• ASTM D3550—84: Standard practice for ring-lined barrel
sampling of soils,
• ASTM D2113—83 (reapproved 1987) Standard practice
for diamond core drilling for
site investigation,
• ASTM D4220—83: Standard practices for preserving and
transporting soil samples. In the UK the provisions given in
BS 5930 (which in any case describes itself as acode of
practice, rather than a standard) for drilling and sampling
generally are not suitable for inclusion in a contract
specification (see, for example, Clayton (1986) for
criticisms).

Vane Shear Test ASTM D2573-72- This is an in-place

shear test in which a rod with thin radial vanes at the end
is forced into the soil and the resistance to rotation of the
rod is determined. VST addresses testing on land and for
testing in drill holes or by self drilling or continuous push
methods from the ground surface. VST provides an
indication of in-situ undrained shear strength of fine-
grained clays and silts or other fine geomaterials where
undrained strength determination isrequired.

Field Density Test- Another common field test is checking

relative density of the soil. This is done with a sand cone,
nuclear densitometer, or balloon method. A cone
penetrometer or dynamic cone penetrometer is frequently
used in fine grain soils.

Laboratory Tests- A wide variety of laboratory tests can

be performed on soils to measure a wide variety of soil
properties. Some soil properties are intrinsic to the
composition of the soil matrix and are not affected by
sample disturbance, while other properties depend on the
structure of the soil as well as its composition and can only
be effectively tested on relatively undisturbed samples.

Laboratory tests can be classified into: classification and

index property tests; strength and deformation tests; and
hydraulic conductivity tests.

CLASSIFICATION AND INDEX PROPERTY TESTS

Visual Classification Test- This is done to visually and
manually examine soil samples with respect to texture,
plasticity, andcolor

Water Content Determination- This test provides the

water content of the soil, normally expressed as a
percentage of the weight of water to the dry weight of the
soil. Unit weight determination. This test is used to
determine the total/moist and dry densities or unit weights
of soil specimen.

Atterberg Limits Tests- The Atterberg limits define the

boundaries of several states of consistency for plastic soils.
The boundaries are defined by the amount of water a soil
needs to be at one of those boundaries. The boundaries
are called the plastic limit and the liquid limit, and the
difference between them is called the plasticity index. The
shrinkage limit is also a part of the Atterberg limits.

Particle-size distribution- This is done to determine the

soil gradation. Coarser particles are separated in the sieve
analysis portion, and the finer particles are analyzed with a
hydrometer. The distinction between coarse and fine
particles is usually made at 75 μm..

Specific Gravity Test- This test determines the specific

gravity of soil solids passing the 4.75-mm sieve (No. 4) by
means of a water pycnometer.

Soil Compaction Tests- Soil compaction test includes

Standard Proctor, Modified Proctor, and California Test.
These tests are used to determine the maximum unit