‭ his book covers recent advancements in warfare technology such as cruise missiles, smart‬

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‭bombs, drones, and cyberattacks. It explores the impact of modern technology on globalization,‬
‭including offshoring, technology transfer, and converging cultures. The book also addresses the‬
‭connection between technological advancements and growing social and economic inequality,‬
‭discussing issues like technological unemployment and changing rewards for specific skills. It‬
‭delves into the effects of technology on human and environmental health, including genetics‬
‭research and the ethical implications of genetic alterations. The updated edition includes new‬
‭data on climate change, medical care costs, unemployment, income distribution, and‬
‭government support for research and development. While the book cannot cover all aspects of‬
‭technology and society, it aims to provide a foundation for further study and exploration. The‬
‭author expresses gratitude to colleagues and reviewers who provided valuable feedback on the‬
‭manuscript.‬

‭ echnology is a broad term that encompasses more than just digital devices. It is rooted in‬
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‭knowledge and includes the ways of thinking associated with technological advancement.‬
‭Technological changes do not always lead to progress, as they can negatively impact certain‬
‭individuals or groups. Technological fixes are not always the solution to complex problems.‬
‭Technology has brought both positive and negative outcomes, such as space exploration and‬
‭environmental pollution. Disruptions and failures, such as job loss and catastrophic events, have‬
‭also occurred. Public opinion largely favors technology, but this support is based on faith rather‬
‭than understanding.‬

I‭ n a society heavily influenced by technological change, our lack of understanding and‬

‭awareness of technology is a significant problem. However, it is possible to gain a better‬
‭understanding of the causes and consequences of technological change. All technologies, from‬
‭televisions to bridges, share common features. Before discussing the nature of technology, it is‬
‭important to provide a precise definition of the term. The word "technology" has roots in words‬
‭related to woodworking and craftsmanship. By the 18th century, "technology" referred to "a‬
‭Description of Arts, especially the Mechanical." Technologies are developed to enable us to do‬
‭things that would be otherwise impossible or to do them more efficiently. Humans possess a‬
‭unique ability to create tools and techniques, which distinguishes us from other creatures. Our‬
‭reliance on technology is essential for our survival and expansion as a species.‬

‭ echnology, including tools and techniques, is an integral part of human existence and essential‬
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‭for our survival and progress. It is incorrect to view technology as "unnatural" and separate‬
‭from human nature. The development, production, and use of technology require organization‬
‭and collaboration among individuals with various skills. Even simple technologies like‬
‭earthenware pots involve a complex network of suppliers, potters, marketers, and consumers.‬
‭Complex technologies, such as computerized manufacturing systems, require the combined‬
‭skills of many individuals. Organization plays a crucial role in technology, similar to how‬
‭software controls and guides a computer. The Egyptian pyramids are examples of early‬
‭organizational structures that facilitated technological achievements. Technology can be seen as‬
‭a system composed of interconnected devices, skills, and organizational structures. For a‬
‭technology to be effective, it requires support from other elements within the system. Thomas‬
‭Edison's development of electrical illumination demonstrates the need for a system that‬
‭includes the invention of a lightbulb, electrical generator, electrical lines, and metering devices.‬
‭The advancement of technology is often uneven, as it involves resolving tensions generated by‬
c‭ hanges within the technological system. The development of airplanes serves as an example of‬
‭this process.‬

‭ arly biplanes with drag-inducing wires and struts were limited by their engines, which were‬
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‭not powerful enough. This led to the design of aerodynamically cleaner aircraft to take‬
‭advantage of more powerful engines. However, these faster aircraft had the problem of high‬
‭landing speeds, which led to the invention of wing flaps and slots. The development of improved‬
‭airframes with more powerful engines in the 1940s spurred the development of turbojets.‬
‭Another example of technological interplay is seen in the evolution of writing instruments, from‬
‭organic goose-quill pens to mass-produced steel-nib pens, and eventually to ballpoint pens‬
‭manufactured through sophisticated processes. Technological systems do not emerge all at once,‬
‭but require adjustments in various aspects such as social, psychological, economic, and political‬
‭factors. Technological change can be complex and disruptive. Technology can be defined as a‬
‭system created by humans that uses knowledge and organization to produce objects and‬
‭techniques for specific goals, although it can also create its own needs.‬

‭ echnology can often create its own problems and needs. A prime example is aspirin, which was‬
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‭introduced to suppress fevers. However, research has shown that fevers are the body's natural‬
‭way of fighting infection. The introduction of aspirin led to the belief that fevers needed‬
‭intervention. Not all technology is developed for practical purposes; some are created for the‬
‭enjoyment of solving technical challenges or for prestige. Projects like the Daedalus‬
‭human-powered aircraft and space exploration programs serve as examples. Many technologies‬
‭have a dual nature, serving practical purposes while also being valued for their inherent‬
‭fascination. The development of technology is a dynamic and cumulative process, always striving‬
‭for improvement. Sometimes we rely on technology to solve all our problems, as symbolized by‬
‭the worship-like portrayal of Steve Jobs.‬

‭ echnological change is a continuous process of improvement within a specific technology. This‬

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‭progress can be graphically represented by an S-shaped curve, where the rate of advance‬
‭accelerates, reaches a peak, and then slows down. While technology is dynamic and cumulative,‬
‭the same cannot be said for other forms of human creativity, such as art and literature.‬
‭Technological progress does not guarantee progress in other areas of society. Nazi Germany, for‬
‭example, developed advanced technologies but had barbaric ideologies and treatment of people.‬
‭Conversely, technologically primitive societies can exhibit sophistication in art, religion, and‬
‭social relationships. The term "progress" is complex and value-laden, and its use is avoided here‬
‭unless clearly defined. Nevertheless, technological advances since the late eighteenth century‬
‭have fostered a belief in human progress.‬

‭ echnology operates as a metaphor, transferring ideas from one area to another and shaping our‬
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‭way of thinking. In the late eighteenth century, the principle of feedback in technology‬
‭influenced the concept of a self-regulating market in economics. This idea suggests that the‬
‭actions of buyers and sellers in the market can bring supply and demand into equilibrium.‬
‭However, the real-world economy is complex and influenced by laws, regulations, and other‬
‭factors. The feedback principle is a useful metaphor but should not be taken as a literal‬
‭depiction of reality. Technological development is driven by rationality, characterized by‬
‭objective problem-solving, empirical examination of solutions, and logical selection of the most‬
‭appropriate ones. A rational society believes that solutions are possible and embraces constant‬
‭changes to achieve them.‬
‭ uman suffering caused by drought can be approached in various ways. Some may succumb to‬
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‭despair and attribute the drought to fate or God's will, while others may resort to prayers,‬
‭ceremonies, or sacrifices. However, there is no logical or empirical connection between these‬
‭activities and the circumstances that led to the drought. Rational approaches, based on logic and‬
‭empirical observation, are more effective and connected to the actual workings of the world. By‬
‭observing weather patterns, one can predict droughts and take necessary steps to alter farming‬
‭practices and conserve water. Other solutions include developing drought-resistant crops,‬
‭improving water conservation methods, and stimulating rainfall through cloud seeding. It is‬
‭important to note that rationality does not confer moral superiority, and even modern societies‬
‭engage in nonrational behaviors and beliefs. Rational thinking can lead to both beneficial‬
‭advancements and moral transgressions. Rational methods do not distinguish between ethically‬
‭justifiable and unjustifiable goals. Nazi Germany is an example of human destruction resulting‬
‭from rational thinking.‬

‭ he text discusses the impact of rationality and technology on society. It suggests that while‬
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‭rationality and scientific achievements have led to progress, they have also resulted in a loss of‬
‭spirituality and enchantment. The author highlights the idea that a purely rational approach can‬
‭lead to a sense of emptiness and the need to fill this void with frantic activity or substitutes. The‬
‭text also mentions concerns about the destruction of traditional values and structures due to the‬
‭spread of rational modes of thought. It argues that rationality often implies objectivity and‬
‭detachment, which can lead to a narrow focus on isolated parts of the world without considering‬
‭broader consequences. Additionally, it explores the complex relationship between gender and‬
‭technology, noting that technology is often seen as a male domain, but women have also made‬
‭significant contributions throughout history. The development of computer technology is given‬
‭as an example, showcasing the need for both rational and intuitive approaches to advance‬
‭technology. The text emphasizes that these thinking styles are not exclusive to either gender and‬
‭can vary among individuals.‬

‭ echnology has both benefits and costs, such as environmental degradation and nuclear threats.‬
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‭The concept of "technological determinism" suggests that technology acts as an independent‬
‭force, advancing with its own inner dynamic and beyond social control. However, the "social‬
‭constructivism" perspective argues that technology is shaped by social arrangements and‬
‭factors like political power, social class, and gender. Instead of asserting the supremacy of either‬
‭perspective, it is more useful to understand the reciprocal interactions and feedback loops‬
‭between technology and society. The emergence of new technologies often leads to unimagined‬
‭consequences, like the widespread use of computers today. From a technological determinist‬
‭standpoint, the computer's development seemed unpredictable in the 1940s but became‬
‭essential in a few decades. However, social constructivists argue that military support and‬
‭commercial enterprises played significant roles in advancing computer technology. This pattern‬
‭of social forces shaping technology is seen in many successful technologies.‬

‭ echnological and social change are both dynamic processes that interact with each other.‬
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‭Technology has played a major role in shaping our world, but it is not separate from society.‬
‭Social constructivism suggests that human agency can influence technological change, but this‬
‭power is not evenly distributed. Power and access to resources often shape technological‬
‭change, with certain technologies developed and disseminated to serve the interests of specific‬
‭groups. Living in a technological society presents a paradox - while we have access to powerful‬
‭technologies, most individuals have limited understanding and control over them. This can lead‬
t‭ o feelings of powerlessness and frustration. These feelings, combined with a belief in advanced‬
‭technology, can sometimes result in strange notions like fervent beliefs in UFOs. Some‬
‭individuals associate UFOs with a higher technology that they hope will solve Earth's problems‬
‭and distrust established authorities. Conspiracy theories appeal to those who feel excluded from‬
‭decision-making processes.‬

‭ belief in UFOs can lead to an excessive faith in technology and a distrust of those who control‬
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‭it. This distrust arises from people feeling excluded from decisions that shape their lives. Feeling‬
‭powerless over technology can cause both naive hope and paranoid reactions. It is crucial for‬
‭individuals' mental health to have a realistic sense of control over technology. Additionally,‬
‭widespread participation in technology development is essential for democracy. Assessing‬
‭technology's costs and benefits requires citizen participation. Technology's impact varies for‬
‭different individuals and groups. Chapter 17 expands on these themes. The discussion questions‬
‭include identifying the technology with the greatest benefit and harm, considering if new‬
‭technologies respond to existing needs, exploring gendered technologies, and justifying‬
‭impractical technologies.‬

‭ his text addresses several questions for discussion related to technological change and its‬
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‭impact on society. The first question considers how the internet can pose a threat to various‬
‭business enterprises, besides brick-and-mortar retail firms, and whether preventative measures‬
‭should be taken. The second question explores the justification of the Luddites' attacks on‬
‭machinery and alternative means of expressing grievances. The third question prompts the‬
‭identification of technological "fixes" and the assessment of their success or failure. Lastly, the‬
‭text discusses the implications of political leaders being referred to as "technocrats" and the‬
‭potential influence on voting decisions. Moving on to the second part, the text highlights that the‬
‭study of technology and society often focuses on the effects of specific technologies, but it‬
‭emphasizes the importance of understanding how new technologies emerge. It introduces two‬
‭modes of technological change: epochal transformations and incremental ones, while‬
‭acknowledging the influence of economics, politics, culture, and social arrangements on‬
‭technological trajectories. Additionally, it challenges the notion that scientific discoveries alone‬
‭drive technological advancements, asserting that the relationship between science and‬
‭technology is more complex.‬

‭ echnological advance can drive scientific progress, and the diffusion of technologies can face‬
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‭challenges when transferring to different environments. The patent system influences‬
‭technological advancement but can also hinder the spread of new technologies. The emergence‬
‭of specific technologies is influenced by social factors, and the study of technological change is‬
‭guided by the perspective of social constructivism. This approach focuses on explaining why‬
‭certain technologies are perceived as superior and explores societal structures and processes‬
‭that impact technological choices. Interest groups and unequal power distribution play a role in‬
‭the development and selection of technologies. Technological change is seen as a political‬
‭process, where the success or failure of new technologies is not solely based on technical merits‬
‭but also influenced by specific interest groups.‬

S‭ ocial constructivism plays a significant role in understanding technological change, with‬

‭emphasis placed on the interplay between social and technical factors. However, Thomas P.‬
‭Hughes suggests that social constructivism is most relevant during the early stages of‬
‭technology development when various alternatives emerge. Once a technology is established, it‬
‭ ecomes challenging to deviate from the established path due to technical requirements and‬
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‭existing infrastructure. The social constructivist approach challenges the notion that‬
‭technological change is primarily driven by a few exceptional individuals, instead highlighting‬
‭the contributions of entrepreneurs who turn inventions into commercial successes. While some‬
‭individuals may be both inventors and successful entrepreneurs, most entrepreneurs capitalize‬
‭on other people's inventions. Determining the relative importance of "great men and women"‬
‭versus "social processes" in shaping technological history is complex, as incremental changes‬
‭and small improvements by anonymous individuals also play a crucial role. These small‬
‭advancements often arise through a learning process, problem-solving, and making incremental‬
‭improvements, ultimately leading to significant technological advancements.‬

‭ he evolution of steamboat machinery and railroad technology demonstrates that small‬

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‭improvements can have significant consequences. For example, machining a shaft with greater‬
‭precision or designing a more efficient cylinder packing can enhance performance. Similarly, the‬
‭development of railroad technology benefited from incremental improvements, resulting in‬
‭lower costs and increased efficiency. The same pattern of incremental yet substantial progress‬
‭continues in mature industries like the railroad industry today. For instance, American railroads‬
‭have reduced energy costs and improved locomotive capabilities through a series of‬
‭advancements such as turbochargers, computerized systems, and higher compression ratios. In‬
‭a world where technological innovation is crucial for a firm's success, even modest‬
‭advancements should be pursued. Research and development (R&D) is a key process in‬
‭technology development, with research generating breakthroughs and development turning‬
‭these breakthroughs into usable products. Development work is often costly and involves‬
‭significant investments in equipment and manpower. Scaling up from successful research to‬
‭large-scale production poses its own challenges but is necessary for commercial success.‬

‭ he development of penicillin is a prime example of the scaling-up process in technology. While‬

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‭the discovery of penicillin's bacteria-killing properties was groundbreaking, the development‬
‭phase was equally crucial. Initially, small-scale production of penicillin using Penicillium‬
‭notatum cultures was insufficient for widespread therapeutic use. However, large-scale‬
‭production was achieved through the development of a submerged fermentation process,‬
‭utilizing new tank designs and antifoaming products. Additionally, the use of corn steep liquor‬
‭as a culture medium significantly increased yields. Extracting penicillin from the fermentation‬
‭vats was solved through the process of freeze-drying. Consequently, by the end of World War II,‬
‭penicillin production reached 650 billion units, resulting in a significant reduction in cost.‬

‭ he importance of complementary technological advancements is exemplified in the history of‬

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‭the computer and the internal combustion engine. Charles Babbage's analytical engine,‬
‭developed in the 1820s, contained the essential elements of today's computers but lacked the‬
‭necessary operational mechanisms. It took over a century for practical computers to be realized‬
‭with advancements in solid-state electronics and storage devices. Similarly, the internal‬
‭combustion engine underwent improvements to its ignition timing and compression ratios to‬
‭enhance efficiency and power delivery.‬

I‭ n summary, the development of technologies often relies on complementary advancements and‬

‭problem resolution. The scaling-up process is crucial for achieving widespread use and‬
‭significant improvements in technology.‬
‭ he internal combustion engine's efficiency was improved through careful research into the‬
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‭combustion process and modifications to the engine's design. However, higher compression‬
‭ratios required changes not only to the engine but also to the fuel. Thomas Midgley and Charles‬
‭Kettering's research on tetraethyl lead showed that it allowed higher compression ratios,‬
‭resulting in improved power and economy. Despite these advancements, the addition of lead in‬
‭gasoline caused environmental damage and destroyed catalytic converters. As a result, lead had‬
‭to be replaced with less destructive additives. It's important to note that these changes were‬
‭implemented long after the internal combustion engine was invented and in widespread use.‬
‭Engine technology often requires ongoing modifications and customer feedback, with customers‬
‭effectively beta testing new products. A tragic example of this was a Tesla crash in 2016, where‬
‭the Auto Pilot mode failed to detect a truck turning in front of it. The viability of a new‬
‭technology can drive the development of complementary technologies. Bottlenecks in‬
‭technology often lead to the search for new solutions, sometimes borrowing from other‬
‭industries. An example is the use of microprocessors and computers in the automobile industry‬
‭to meet emissions requirements. Ultimately, the survival and evolution of the internal‬
‭combustion engine benefited from its integration with late twentieth-century technologies.‬

‭ he processes and technologies used in different industries can often be transferred and applied‬
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‭to new industries, leading to innovation and development. For example, the metalworking‬
‭industries in the nineteenth century all used similar processes and faced similar technical‬
‭challenges, allowing them to share technological solutions. The early automobile industry‬
‭benefited from the products and manufacturing techniques developed by the bicycle industry,‬
‭such as ball bearings, spoke wheels, drive chains, and stamped components. Similarly, the‬
‭turbojet engine drew heavily on designs and components from steam turbines. However, the‬
‭transfer of technology between industries does not happen automatically. It requires capable‬
‭individuals and organizations with incentives to function in both worlds and the ability to‬
‭communicate effectively. Technological innovation is a continuous process that occurs at the‬
‭interfaces between science, technology, and the market. It is influenced by social, economic, and‬
‭political factors, and not solely determined by individual genius. The realization of technological‬
‭advancements depends on appropriate social settings.‬

‭ echnological innovation is influenced by supply and demand. While new technologies may be‬
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‭invented, their adoption and use depend on a desire for them and the ability to pay for them,‬
‭known as "effective demand." The configuration of a society and its determination of effective‬
‭demand for certain technologies play a role in their success or failure. Research by Jacob‬
‭Schmookler shows that the emergence of patents in various industries is closely related to the‬
‭level of demand for their products. Anticipated profits and market size also drive technological‬
‭innovation for commercial enterprises. The history of photography in the 19th century‬
‭exemplifies how social changes, specifically the rise of the property-owning commercial and‬
‭industrial bourgeoisie, led to the growth of photography as a means for this new elite to flaunt‬
‭their affluence. The demand for photographic portraits emerged as a result of the bourgeoisie's‬
‭desire to showcase their status when traditional painted portraits were expensive and‬
‭time-consuming.‬

‭ ew and cheaper photography methods emerged in the later decades of the century to meet the‬
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‭demands of poorer yet increasingly affluent people. Today, the mass demand for photography‬
‭has led to the development of diverse photographic apparatus, from mobile phone cameras to‬
‭advanced digital cameras. Successful technological development requires considering customer‬
r‭ equirements, as revealed by a study that found understanding customer needs to be a key‬
‭determinant of a firm's innovative success. However, many inventions fail due to an inability to‬
‭accurately assess demand, often because entrepreneurs become infatuated with their invention‬
‭and neglect market evaluation. Only a small percentage of patents achieve commercial success‬
‭as a result. Gauging potential demand for a new product can be challenging, as illustrated by the‬
‭failure of established business machine manufacturers to recognize the potential of the first‬
‭Xerox machine and the misjudgments of inventors like Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas‬
‭Edison. The history of radio also demonstrates how technology can be used in ways unforeseen‬
‭by inventors. These examples challenge the theory that technologies primarily emerge from‬
‭demand, suggesting a distinction between refinements/improvements and groundbreaking‬
‭breakthroughs that are difficult to predict in terms of uses and customers.‬

‭ dvances in technology can be categorized into two types: incremental improvements and‬
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‭radical innovations. Incremental improvements occur within an existing known context, where‬
‭there is already a market demand for enhancements to existing technologies. For example,‬
‭smartphone manufacturers introduce new models regularly with minor improvements. On the‬
‭other hand, radical innovations are uncertain and could either satisfy a latent need or create a‬
‭new one, or they could fail entirely. It is difficult to predict their reception. Market economies‬
‭play a crucial role in driving technological innovation. The distribution of wealth and power can‬
‭either hinder or promote technological advancements. In the European Middle Ages, the‬
‭aristocracy and religious institutions showed little interest in technological matters, leading to‬
‭slow progress. However, as the merchant class grew in influence and demands, the development‬
‭of technologies surpassed even the grand cathedrals. The rise of capitalism and the market‬
‭system in the mid-fifteenth century greatly stimulated technological innovation. A market‬
‭economy encourages inventors and innovators by promising financial rewards for meeting‬
‭consumer needs. Overall, market economies provide a receptive environment for technological‬
‭innovation.‬

I‭ n a market economy, competition drives technological innovation as producers strive to create‬

‭better products and lower production costs. The market system is effective at meeting the‬
‭auxiliary requirements for technological advancement. Conversely, centrally planned economies,‬
‭such as the Soviet Union and China, face obstacles to innovation due to their rigid economic‬
‭management systems. These economies have experienced a slower rate of technological‬
‭development compared to the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. Dissatisfaction with the‬
‭lack of progress led China to introduce market-based reforms, while the Soviet Union attempted‬
‭to do the same but ultimately collapsed. These experiences demonstrate that market-based‬
‭reforms have contributed significantly to economic and technological development, although‬
‭they have also resulted in greater economic and social inequality. Centrally planned economies‬
‭struggle with the tension between their predictable routines and the unpredictable nature of‬
‭technological innovation. Bureaucratic procedures that work well for routine tasks fail when‬
‭applied to innovation.‬

I‭ nnovation is a risky and unpredictable activity that cannot easily fit into predetermined‬
‭structures. Centrally planned economies further disincentivize technological innovation by only‬
‭rewarding the fulfillment and overfulfillment of quotas for established products, neglecting the‬
‭production of innovative products. Although market forces have traditionally been seen as the‬
‭main driver of technological innovation, government institutions have become increasingly‬
‭important sources of technological advance. It is important to note that technological‬
a‭ dvancement should not be equated with the superiority of a market economy, as both‬
‭capitalism and the market have produced technologies that have been detrimental to people and‬
‭the environment. Technological innovation is not always driven by economic motives or‬
‭practical problem-solving. In fact, practical inventions, including those with immediate‬
‭applications, can often be traced back to a spirit of play, curiosity, and the pursuit of knowledge‬
‭for its own sake. Benjamin Franklin, for example, made inquiries into the nature of electricity‬
‭without immediate practical value, but his efforts laid the foundation for many useful devices‬
‭that followed. Similarly, Robert Goddard's imagination and curiosity led to his invention of the‬
‭liquid-fueled rocket.‬

‭ obert Goddard, a pioneer of space travel, had a vision of ascending to Mars as a young boy.‬
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‭Little did he know that his vision would eventually lead to the development of orbiting satellites,‬
‭weather prediction systems, global positioning systems, and even new weapons. Throughout his‬
‭life, Goddard was driven by the dream of space travel, with practical consequences being a‬
‭secondary concern. This highlights the role of government in promoting technological change, as‬
‭not all technologies are shaped by market forces. While market-oriented firms focus on‬
‭minimizing costs, there are sectors where costs are secondary, such as in the defense industry or‬
‭modern medical technologies. Political and social factors play a significant role in technological‬
‭choices and development, as technologies are creations of society and don't develop solely based‬
‭on economic considerations.‬

‭ hapter Four of the text focuses on the relationship between scientific knowledge and‬
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‭technological advancement. It explores the idea that technology is often seen as the application‬
‭of scientific discoveries. Several examples are given to support this notion, such as medical‬
‭practices being influenced by biology, transistors relying on quantum mechanics, and synthetic‬
‭materials being made possible by polymer chemistry research. The chapter also raises questions‬
‭for discussion, including the effectiveness of the social construction approach in explaining‬
‭technological innovation, the prominence of contemporary inventors compared to historical‬
‭figures, the source of effective demand for technologies, how to assess market receptiveness for‬
‭new technologies, and the changes leaders of developing countries can implement to accelerate‬
‭technological innovation.‬

‭ his text discusses the relationship between science and technology and how they have‬
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‭influenced each other throughout history. It highlights that technological advances have often‬
‭occurred without the benefit of scientific knowledge, and scientific progress has sometimes‬
‭relied on prior technological achievements. The ancient Greeks made significant technological‬
‭advancements in areas like agriculture and military equipment, but these innovations were not‬
‭strongly connected to their scientific discoveries. Similarly, the Romans demonstrated‬
‭impressive engineering skills, particularly in the construction of aqueducts, without relying‬
‭heavily on scientific principles. The European Middle Ages saw gradual technological progress,‬
‭including advancements in agriculture, harnessing wind and water power, and the construction‬
‭of cathedrals. However, these advancements were largely independent of scientific inquiries, as‬
‭medieval science was not as dynamic as medieval technology.‬

‭ he text explores the historical relationship between science and technology, highlighting their‬
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‭disconnect for most of human history. It notes that scientific advancements have often not led to‬
‭practical technological applications. A study conducted by the U.S. Defense Department found‬
‭that only a small percentage of events that contributed to the development of major weapons‬
s‭ ystems were the result of basic scientific research. Another study on the design of military‬
‭weapons found that most relevant research had been done well before the projects were‬
‭initiated. However, it is important to note that these studies have limitations and do not capture‬
‭the long-term influences of scientific research. While some innovations have been directly tied‬
‭to prior scientific research, the sequence from scientific discovery to technological innovation is‬
‭not linear. This challenges the notion that technology is simply applied science.‬

‭ he text highlights the difference between science and technology, emphasizing that science‬
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‭focuses on the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, while technology applies knowledge to‬
‭achieve practical goals. Although their content may be similar, their underlying motivations‬
‭differ. Science is often seen as pure and independent of external influences, but recent‬
‭scholarship suggests that it is influenced by social, cultural, economic, and political factors.‬
‭However, this view is still controversial, and most people still perceive science as objective and‬
‭pure. Scientists enjoy autonomy and are able to resist control from sponsors, while engineers‬
‭work under tighter constraints and are expected to produce immediate practical results. The‬
‭motivations of employers and patrons play a significant role in differentiating scientific and‬
‭technological inquiries.‬

‭ he underlying physics of low-temperature superconductivity is not well understood, despite its‬

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‭numerous technological applications. Technological knowledge differs from scientific knowledge‬
‭in that it focuses on whether something will work, rather than its truth. Throughout history,‬
‭many technologies have been successfully applied without a thorough understanding of their‬
‭underlying principles. Today, high-temperature superconducting materials are being used in‬
‭various devices despite the mystery surrounding their physics. Scientific discoveries often stem‬
‭from technological advancements, such as the development of devices and instruments. These‬
‭tools have expanded our ability to observe and analyze scientific phenomena. Additionally,‬
‭scientific advances have been spurred by technologies that defy accepted scientific explanations‬
‭and theories. This was demonstrated by the steam injector, which challenged the prevailing‬
‭theory of heat and led to the understanding of the interconvertibility of heat and work.‬

‭ he rivalry between the caloric theory and the kinetic theory of heat was resolved by the‬
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‭invention of the steam injector, which demonstrated the validity of the kinetic theory. The steam‬
‭injector also exemplifies the intertwined nature of science and technology, as it relied on both‬
‭scientific theories and practical engineering. This illustrates that technology can function even‬
‭without a complete scientific explanation. Furthermore, scientific knowledge can drive‬
‭technological advancements, while technology can inspire new scientific inquiries. The‬
‭invention of the laser is a prime example of this feedback loop, as it emerged from radar‬
‭technology and led to various applications, such as surgical procedures and barcode scanners.‬
‭The reciprocal relationship between science and technology is dynamic and can be observed in‬
‭the Nobel Prize, which often recognizes inventions and techniques. Overall, when science and‬
‭technology collaborate, progress is accelerated compared to when they remain separate‬
‭endeavors.‬

‭ echnology plays a crucial role in legitimizing science and giving it prestige and legitimacy.‬
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‭While scientific research may not always directly lead to new technologies, the belief in the‬
‭practical outcomes of scientific inquiry has contributed to the immense respect and support that‬
‭science enjoys today. Expensive scientific projects, such as the James Webb Space Telescope and‬
‭Europe's Large Hadron Collider, require significant funding, which often comes from sponsors‬
‭ ho expect some practical benefits. Even if these specific projects may not generate‬
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‭technological spinoffs, the promise of practical paybacks is crucial for funding other high-priced‬
‭research programs. Grant applications for scientific research often emphasize the potential‬
‭useful outcomes, which highlights the expectation that science will produce practical results.‬
‭The willingness of government agencies to fund scientific research and citizens to contribute‬
‭through taxes reflects the widespread belief in the legitimacy of science. Science's ability to‬
‭deliver tangible results through technology is what ultimately distinguishes it from other ways‬
‭of knowing, such as poetry, religion, art, philosophy, and the occult. Despite its insulation from‬
‭economic demands, science's ability to produce concrete outcomes is seen as proof of its‬
‭effectiveness.‬

S‭ cientific research is characterized by uncertainty and unpredictability, making it difficult to‬

‭produce useful discoveries on demand. Scientific knowledge is often pursued for its own sake,‬
‭with scientists focused on testing theories and solving problems generated by previous‬
‭inquiries. Technology, on the other hand, is more directed and predictable, aiming to solve‬
‭specific problems. While scientific knowledge can be applied to technology, it is typically‬
‭engineers and technologists who appropriate and utilize it for their own purposes. In rare‬
‭instances, scientific knowledge directly drives technological advancements.‬

‭ he transfer of scientific knowledge to technology is often an indirect and subtle process.‬

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‭Scientific research can motivate technological change by identifying unseen problems and‬
‭suggesting new opportunities. For example, in the 1930s, aerodynamic research showed the‬
‭limitations of propeller-driven aircraft at high speeds and pointed towards the development of‬
‭jet engines.‬

‭ oday, technology heavily relies on scientific inquiry, but much of this integration is indirect.‬
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‭Scientific knowledge is disseminated through engineering education and appears in handbooks‬
‭and textbooks, which influence technological development. However, challenges can arise even‬
‭in this process.‬

‭ ngineering education has been criticized for relying too heavily on science-based instruction,‬
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‭leading to a devaluation of nonverbal thought, an excessive focus on mathematics, and a‬
‭reluctance to tackle problems without a single unique solution. The overemphasis on science‬
‭can hinder creativity and result in a rigid approach to technological problem-solving. However,‬
‭science and technology operate in different realms and must bridge their differences to foster‬
‭productive collaboration. In some cases, individuals and organizations that participate in both‬
‭scientific and technological communities serve as translators, converting information between‬
‭the two domains. The invention of the vacuum tube, a crucial component of early radio and‬
‭television technology, exemplifies this bridging of science and technology. Thomas Edison's‬
‭observation of current flow between a bulb filament and a metal plate led to the development of‬
‭the vacuum tube by John Ambrose Fleming. Fleming, a scientifically trained engineer and‬
‭teacher, acted as a translator between science and technology, converting scientific curiosity into‬
‭practical technology. While science and technology differ, they also share common‬
‭characteristics.‬

S‭ cience and technology both rely on the accumulation of knowledge and build upon previous‬
‭discoveries. The cultural climate of curiosity, experimentation, and improvement supports both‬
‭fields since the early days of the Industrial Revolution. Rational thought processes are integral to‬
t‭ he methodology of science and technology, including challenging traditional authorities,‬
‭observation, testing, experimentation, and precise measurement. Robert Pirsig's explanation of‬
‭fixing a motorcycle in "Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance" demonstrates how‬
‭technological problem-solving aligns with scientific inquiry through hypothesis formulation and‬
‭experimentations. However, while rationality plays a significant role, both science and‬
‭technology also involve human creativity, imagination, and nonrational thought processes. The‬
‭validation or refutation of scientific theories and the evaluation of technology are not strictly‬
‭rational processes but can be influenced by interpretation, worldviews, values, and ethical‬
‭standards. Despite their differences, science and technology share common elements.‬

‭ athematics plays a crucial role as both a language and analytical tool in science and technology.‬
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‭Engineers and technology practitioners rely on organized knowledge shared through various‬
‭mediums like journals, books, and professional meetings, similar to scientists. However, the‬
‭distinction between basic science and technological application has become blurry, leading to‬
‭the emergence of "technoscience." In fields like biotechnology, the sharing of scientific‬
‭discoveries has decreased due to their lucrative potential and proprietary nature. Both private‬
‭firms and universities, involved in cutting-edge technologies, have a stake in keeping scientific‬
‭knowledge restricted. This goes against the tradition of freely distributing ideas and research‬
‭findings, potentially hindering progress in both science and technology. Science and technology‬
‭are driven by an optimistic and progressive spirit, where failures lead to better theories and‬
‭improved solutions. The relationship between science and technology has always been complex,‬
‭marked by tensions and attractions. Historically, they grew independently and later formed a‬
‭convenient but not wholly harmonious partnership. Both partners value their independence and‬
‭occasionally argue over their contributions to the relationship.‬

‭ his passage describes the relationship between science and technology as a modern marriage,‬
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‭where they have mutual responsibilities, disagreements, and coexistence. While science and‬
‭technology rely on each other and share resources, they maintain their separate identities. The‬
‭passage emphasizes that technology is not simply applied science, as scientific knowledge often‬
‭influences technological practices indirectly. Similarly, scientific advancements are often the‬
‭result of prior achievements in technology. Although science and technology thrive in close‬
‭contact, they are distinct enterprises.‬

‭ he passage ends with three discussion questions. The first question queries why the US‬
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‭government canceled an expensive scientific research project but continued to support a more‬
‭costly International Space Station project. The second question explores the association‬
‭between science and technology in popular thought and how they both benefit from this‬
‭association. The final question asks which would be personally more satisfying: making a‬
‭scientific discovery or inventing a useful technology, disregarding monetary considerations.‬

‭ his text raises questions about the distribution of research funds in different fields, particularly‬
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‭in terms of the disparity between grants given to the natural sciences compared to the social‬
‭sciences and humanities. It also asks if engineering programs should reconsider their‬
‭curriculum to include a wider range of courses.‬

‭ oving on to the diffusion of technology, the text emphasizes the importance of putting‬
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‭technology to use rather than keeping it confined to laboratories or inventors' basements. It‬
‭discusses the process of how technologies spread, starting with their diffusion between‬
‭countries and then focusing on how they are adopted within individual business firms.‬

‭ he text then highlights the misconception that technological progress is solely the result of‬
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‭indigenous efforts, debunking this notion by emphasizing the need for external influences in the‬
‭form of ideas, tools, and materials. It concludes by acknowledging that while certain countries‬
‭may have been leaders in technological innovations up to the year 1500, continued progress‬
‭requires a constant infusion of diverse influences.‬

‭ hina had a rich history of inventive achievements by 1500, including the compass, paper,‬
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‭gunpowder, and various other inventions like bridges, boats, and earthquake detection devices.‬
‭However, within two centuries, Europe surpassed China in economic and technological vitality.‬
‭This was due to Europe successfully adopting Chinese inventions like paper, printing, and the‬
‭compass, which facilitated the spread of ideas, literacy, and European economic power. The‬
‭trend of adopting foreign technologies was not new for the Western world, as inventions like the‬
‭stirrup and horse collar originated elsewhere but greatly impacted Western progress. In‬
‭contrast, China was less receptive to foreign inventions, believing they were self-sufficient and‬
‭looking down on the outside world. Even when exposed to Western ideas in the late 19th and‬
‭early 20th centuries, such efforts were limited by the ruling elite and ultimately overshadowed‬
‭by a return to traditional values. The establishment of a Communist state in 1949 did not change‬
‭this, as China remained aloof to foreign ideas and reliant on self-sufficiency.‬

‭ fter Mao Zedong's death in 1976, China's attitude towards foreign technologies and cultural‬
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‭exchange has significantly changed. They now welcome anything that aids in their material‬
‭modernization and cultural advancement. In contrast, Japan adopted an aggressive‬
‭industrialization policy after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, relying on imported technologies‬
‭and seeking foreign technical advice. Initially, Japanese industrial products were often copies of‬
‭foreign ones, but with experience, they improved to match Western goods. The early American‬
‭industrialization also relied heavily on imported technologies, such as the construction of the‬
‭first mechanized spinning factory by Samuel Slater, an immigrant from England. American‬
‭technological development owes much to imported implements, materials, and processes, as‬
‭well as immigrant scientists, inventors, and engineers. For example, Leo Baekeland, a Belgian,‬
‭developed one of the first plastics, Bakelite, and Charles Steinmetz, a German immigrant, played‬
‭a crucial role in the American electrical industry. This pattern of reliance on foreign technologies‬
‭and contributions from immigrants continues to this day.‬

‭ etween 1995 and 2005, over a quarter of new engineering and technology firms in the US had‬
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‭foreign-born founders or top executives, such as Sergey Brin of Google and Pierre Omidyar of‬
‭eBay. Immigrant inventors and entrepreneurs, along with their native counterparts, have‬
‭benefited from skilled workers who have immigrated and contributed to technological‬
‭advancement. Many technologically advanced countries establish factories in developing‬
‭nations, mainly for cheap labor. Some view these offshore enterprises as disconnected from the‬
‭host country's economy and society, only focused on cheap production. However, others believe‬
‭these enterprises stimulate skills development and technological progress. Countries like‬
‭Taiwan, Korea, and China have recognized that cheap labor alone is not advantageous in the long‬
‭run, so they focus on upgrading their workforce's skills. China, in particular, has pushed for‬
‭technology transfer from multinational firms, sometimes resorting to piracy. Technology‬
‭transfer can occur when advanced production lines are established in developing countries, but‬
‭it is debatable whether this should be considered appropriate technology. Copying technology is‬
‭ ot an easy task, as technologies are complex systems and require complementary inputs.‬
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‭Occasionally, leapfrogging stages of development is possible, as seen with cell phones providing‬
‭access to communication without the need for a wired infrastructure. However, successful use of‬
‭advanced imported technologies often depends on prior involvement with well-established‬
‭technologies. Effective use of foreign technologies necessitates a skilled labor force with diverse‬
‭capabilities.‬

‭ he successful utilization of imported technologies requires indigenous capability and‬

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‭indigenous innovative efforts. Countries with high levels of indigenous research and‬
‭development tend to be more successful in using foreign technologies. It is important to note‬
‭that countries with high innovation rates make quicker use of technologies developed‬
‭elsewhere. Making effective use of imported technologies often requires a stock of indigenous‬
‭skills that may not always be easily found. The diffusion process can result in significant‬
‭modifications to the technology being transferred. In some cases, the nature and purpose of the‬
‭technology may change. Fine-tuning and adaptation of the technology to local conditions often‬
‭occur during the diffusion process. Examples include the use of different types of cotton in‬
‭textile factories and changes in locomotive design to accommodate sharper curves in the United‬
‭States. The early development of the Japanese steel industry also required adaptations and‬
‭learnings from Europe.‬

‭ he narrative provided highlights the historical example of Japan's successful attempt to‬
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‭establish a modern iron and steel industry in the 19th century. Initially, the country faced‬
‭challenges in imitating foreign technology, with failures in cannon production. However, by‬
‭leveraging native capabilities and addressing production and design problems, the industry‬
‭eventually flourished. This example illustrates that technological diffusion requires active‬
‭participation and a blending of foreign expertise with indigenous capabilities.‬

‭ he assumption that the use of technologies developed in advanced nations is necessary for the‬
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‭modernization of developing countries is questioned. Developing countries today, unlike‬
‭19th-century Japan and the United States, face greater economic disparities and lack in human‬
‭skills. This poses difficulties in effectively utilizing sophisticated technologies designed for‬
‭developed nations. Additionally, these countries have large and growing populations, leading to‬
‭a need for job creation.‬

‭ any technologies developed in economically advanced nations prioritize labor-saving rather‬

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‭than maximizing its use, creating a further challenge for poor countries with high rates of youth‬
‭unemployment.‬

‭ abor-saving technologies that substitute capital for labor are often used in wealthier nations.‬
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‭However, poor countries lack capital, making it difficult to adopt these technologies.‬
‭Additionally, it is unrealistic to expect developing nations to consume resources at the same rate‬
‭as developed countries. Introducing technologies that have worked in rich nations can fail in‬
‭different settings and negatively impact a nation's development, concentrating resources among‬
‭privileged segments of the population and leaving others in poverty. For instance, the‬
‭introduction of large tractors in Pakistan led to job loss for farm laborers without significantly‬
‭increasing crop yields. Critics argue that poor countries need "appropriate technologies" that‬
‭are suitable for their conditions. These technologies aim to enhance production, employment,‬
‭wealth distribution, empowerment, economic independence, and environmental preservation.‬
S‭ ome examples include hand-powered nut shellers, bicycle-powered irrigation pumps, and‬
‭solar-powered lights. The challenge lies in developing and implementing these technologies.‬
‭While increasing employment is important, selecting technologies solely based on the number‬
‭of workers employed may not be efficient. Higher production costs due to large labor forces can‬
‭lead to higher prices, reduced sales, and fewer jobs in other sectors.‬

‭ he use of highly labor-intensive production methods in one firm or industry can actually‬
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‭decrease overall employment in the economy. Economic calculations do not always govern the‬
‭choice of technologies; technologies may be chosen to meet the needs of powerful segments of‬
‭society or for their aesthetic appeal. Even practical businessmen in underdeveloped countries‬
‭may prefer advanced foreign technologies that are not economically beneficial. The appropriate‬
‭technology movement recognizes that technology choices should be connected to larger issues‬
‭and considers the role of powerful groups and institutions, such as donors, lending agencies, and‬
‭multinational corporations. The international distribution of research and development‬
‭expenses greatly hinders the emergence of appropriate technologies in poor countries.‬
‭Appropriate technologies cannot solve all problems of poverty and backwardness, and the‬
‭transfer of sophisticated technologies from developed countries may cause harm. The selection‬
‭of technologies reflects many larger issues, such as sustainability. Technologies are considered‬
‭appropriate when they save energy, require minimal resources, and reduce environmental‬
‭stress. The diffusion of technologies within organizations is influenced by attributes such as‬
‭relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability. Perceptions play a‬
‭significant role in the adoption or rejection of innovations.‬

‭ he go/no-go decisions for adopting technologies are made by people, and these decisions are‬
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‭influenced by both objective and nonobjective factors. These decisions are usually made within a‬
‭social context, reflecting social processes and institutions. Effective technology transfer often‬
‭requires a learning process as new products or processes move from one environment to‬
‭another. This transfer may necessitate the use of a "translator" who can bridge the gap between‬
‭different settings and transfer information effectively. The history of radio exemplifies this‬
‭process, where information was translated and transformed at each stage of development. The‬
‭adoption of technological innovations by private businesses is driven by economic goals such as‬
‭cost reduction, product improvement, profit growth, market penetration, or a combination of‬
‭these. The speed and extent of technology diffusion depend on expectations of costs and‬
‭benefits, but uncertainties and risks can arise that cannot be evaluated through conventional‬
‭economic analysis. Some technologies fail to meet expectations, while others surpass them when‬
‭combined with complementary technologies. The potential of an emerging technology may be‬
‭the most challenging aspect to assess, and it can take many years for a technology to transition‬
‭from invention to successful commercialization. The decision to adopt a technology involves‬
‭weighing the expected benefits against uncertainties and the speed at which these uncertainties‬
‭can be resolved. Uncertainties can be converted into risks as information is gathered and‬
‭experience is gained, enabling decision-makers to make informed judgments.‬

‭ he presence of uncertainties in new ventures can make decision makers more comfortable‬
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‭assessing technical success than marketing success. The Concorde supersonic airliner serves as‬
‭an example of a technological achievement that was a commercial failure. The Concorde was‬
‭expensive to operate and maintain, leading to costs that exceeded its generated revenues. The‬
‭Not Invented Here (NIH) syndrome explains why some people and organizations are reluctant to‬
‭adopt technologies developed elsewhere. Internal resistance to technological innovation can be‬
a‭ ttributed to the discomfort it generates and the compatibility of internally generated‬
‭technologies with established structures. However, a dynamic firm should not ignore useful‬
‭technologies from external sources. Exclusive possession of a technology can create advantages,‬
‭leading firms or countries to restrict its diffusion. Examples include the glassmakers of Venice‬
‭guarding their glassmaking secrets and England enacting laws to prevent skilled artisans from‬
‭emigrating. Advanced nations also employ export licensing requirements to prevent the transfer‬
‭of specific technologies that may compromise national security.‬

I‭ n 2012, the US government requested researchers to temporarily withhold the publication of‬
‭some research results on bird flu due to concerns that the information could be used for‬
‭bioterrorism. However, past efforts to suppress the flow of knowledge and technology have‬
‭rarely been successful. It is challenging to control the transfer of plans, equipment, data, and‬
‭products, and restricting the movement of people is difficult in a free society. Attempts to block‬
‭technology exports may harm a country more than others as technological development relies‬
‭on information exchange. Moreover, the most crucial aspect is often knowing that a technology‬
‭exists, rather than specific technical details. The possession of a patent grants exclusive use of an‬
‭invention and is a legal monopoly. Although patents aim to restrict technology to one entity, they‬
‭also stimulate diffusion by making the invention public and available for inspection.‬

‭ he text discusses the role of patents in encouraging innovation and the potential limitations‬
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‭and drawbacks of the patent system. It mentions that while patents protect inventors' rights,‬
‭they can also inhibit technological advancement by allowing dominant companies to suppress‬
‭new inventions or use patents as strategic weapons against competitors. Critics argue that‬
‭patents can be used to harass competitors and collect undeserved royalties. The significance of‬
‭patents in stimulating invention is also debated, with critics suggesting that the correlation‬
‭between a strong patent system and the rate of invention is weak. The text further explains that‬
‭patents do not always provide overwhelming competitive advantages as there is often room for‬
‭inventing around them, and industries rarely have a single "master patent" to repulse‬
‭competitors. The example of George Selden's automobile patent is given to illustrate the concept‬
‭of a "submarine patent." It also notes that patents do not guarantee ironclad protection for‬
‭inventors and can result in costly legal battles. Ultimately, the impact of the patent system on‬
‭technological advancement remains a subject of ongoing debate.‬