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UNIT 1
Force , Motion, and Energy

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 Unit 1
MODULE

1
Overview
In Grade 7, you described an object’s motion in terms of displacement, speed or
velocity, and acceleration. You performed activities wherein you interpreted or created
visual representations of the motion of objects such as tape charts and motion graphs.
The concepts were arrived at by studying examples of uniform motion, or objects moving
in straight line at constant speed. Then you were also introduced to non-uniform motion
where the object covers unequal distances or displacements at equal intervals of time.
When a jeepney starts moving, it speeds up. When a jeepney nears a stop sign, it slows
down. The jeepney is covering different displacements at equal time intervals and
hence it is not moving at a uniform velocity. In other words, the jeepney is accelerating.

Most of the motions we come across in our daily life are non-uniform and the
primary cause of changes in motion is FORCE. In this module, you will learn about the
effects of force on motion. Newton’s Three Laws of Motion – the central organizing
principles of classical mechanics – will be presented and applied to real-life situations.

At the end of Module 1, you will be able to answer the following key questions:

• Do forces always result in motion?

• What are the conditions for an object to stay at rest, to keep moving at
constant velocity, or to move with increasing velocity?
• How is force related to acceleration?

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Activity 1
Forces on objects at rest

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to identify the forces acting on
an object at rest.

Materials:

Pen, a pair of scissors, 15-cm long, string, book

Procedure
Figure 3a. Hanging
Situation 1 pen

1. Hang a pen by a piece of string as shown in Figure 3a.

Q1. Is the pen at rest or in motion?

Note: Please be careful in handling sharp/pointed

Q2. Are there forces acting on objects.
the pen? If yes, draw the forces. You may use differently colored arrows to
represent these forces.

2. Cut the string with a pair of scissors.

Q3. What happens to the pen? What could have caused the pen’s motion?

Situation 2

1. Place a book on top of a table as shown in Figure

3b.

Q4. Is the book at rest or in motion?

Q5. Are there forces acting on the book? If yes, draw the forces acting on the
book.

2. Push the book in one direction and ask another

person to push it in the opposite direction at the
same time with the same amount of push (force).

Q6. Did the book move? How will you make the book
move?
Figure 3b. Book on a table

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 In the situations above, both the pen and the book are at rest. But this does not
mean that there are no forces acting on them. So what causes them to stay in place?
Consider the next activity.

Activity 2
Balance of forces

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. examine the conditions when two forces balance, and

2. explain the effect of balanced forces on the state of motion of an
object; and
3. relate balance of forces to real life situations.

Materials:

garter and two rulers

1 piece of sturdy cardboard
Threads or strings

Procedure:
Bore four holes around the cardboard. Label A, B, C, and D.

A
D

1. Attach threads to the holes.

2. Attach an improvised force measurer (garter and ruler) to thread A and another
one to thread D. Hold the cardboard to keep it still. Pull the garter with the ruler
along the same line such that when released, the cardboard remains at rest.
3. When the cardboard is at rest, examine the magnitudes and directions of the two
forces by reading the ruler.
4. Draw the line of action of the forces acting on the cardboard. Extend the lines until
they intersect. Mark the point of intersection and draw arrows starting at this point
to represent the forces acting on the cardboard.
5. Repeat steps 3 to 5 for pair B and C.

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Q7. When the cardboard is at rest, how do the magnitudes and directions of the pair of
forces acting on it compare?

6. Now here is a challenge. Find out the directions of all the forces such that when all
the threads were pulled with the same amount, the cardboard will not move or
rotate when released.

Experience the “see-saw” in the park with your friend.

Q8. If you draw the lines of action of all the forces acting on the board and extend the
lines, what will you get? _

Line of action

Normal force
Normal force

Pen Book
Force of gravity

Force of gravity

Fig.5 Force diagram

(a) Pen (a) Book

The diagram in Figure 5 shows the forces acting on the a) pen and b) book in
Activity 1. You learned in lower grades that all objects fall down because gravity pulls on
them towards the center of the earth. But what makes the pen and the book stay at rest?
The pen stays in place because of another force that acts on it that is supplied by the
string which we refer to in physics as tension force (T). The book, on the other hand,
stays at rest because of the upward push exerted on it by the table which we refer to as
normal force (Fn). Both the tension force and normal force counteract the pull of gravity
(Fg) that act on the objects. Study the diagram. How do the lengths of the arrows in each
case compare? How do the magnitudes and directions of the pair of forces compare?

In both cases, we can infer that the objects remained at rest because the forces
acting on them are equal in magnitude and in opposite directions and they lie along the
same line of action (Figure 5). The forces are balanced. This was also demonstrated in
Activity 2. Also, if you try out step 7 in Activity 2, you will find that the lines of action of
the four forces intersect through a single point. This also explains why the body does not
move or rotate.

Unbalanced Forces

If you cut the string connected to the pen from the previous activity, the pen will
fall. Or if you push the book on one side across the table, the book will move but will not
continue moving if you don’t continuously push it. The pen falls down because there is
no more force acting on it to counteract the pull of gravity. The book moves because of

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the push that you applied to it. In other words, the forces acting on these objects are no
longer balanced. If an object initially at rest is under an unbalanced force, it moves in
the direction of the unbalanced force.

How about if the object is already in motion, how will the unbalanced force affect
its motion?

Place a ball on the desk then push it gently to one side. Observe the motion of
the ball as it rolls down the desk. What makes the ball stop rolling after sometime?
Again, you need to identify the forces acting on the ball. You can see in Fig. 6 that the
force of gravity and the normal force are again acting on the ball. But these forces are
balanced, and so the ball stays on top of the desk. However, there is another force that
acts on the ball along the horizontal line or along the force that set the ball in motion. Do
you still remember your lesson on friction in the lower grades? You learned that friction
is a force that acts between surfaces that are in contact with one another. Friction in
general acts opposite the direction of motion. In the case of the rolling ball, the frictional
force acts between the surfaces of the ball and the desk and slows down the motion of
the ball.

As the ball rolls to the right as shown in Figure 6, friction acts to the left to retard
its motion. Since you did not push the ball continuously there is no force present to
balance the force of friction. So the ball slowed down and eventually stopped.
Fn

Ff

Fg

Figure 6. Forces acting on a rolling ball

Again, due to the unbalanced force, the object changes its state of motion hence
we say that it accelerates. Note that acceleration is a change in velocity therefore this
may be an increase or a decrease in velocity.

Combining Forces
When we combine or add forces to determine the net or unbalanced force, we
will limit our discussion to those forces which act along the same line of action. The
algebraic signs + and – are used to indicate the direction of forces. Unlike signs are
used for forces acting in opposite directions, like in the case of the book lying on the
table. The force of gravity (Fg) and normal force (Fn) are assigned opposite signs - Fn is
given a positive (+) sign while Fg is given a negative (-) sign. If both Fg and Fn are given
a magnitude value of 3 units, then the net force along this line (vertical) will be:
Fnet = Fn + Fg
= 3 units + (-3 units)
=0

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If the sum of the forces equate to zero, they are considered balanced. If the algebraic
sum is not equal to zero, the forces are not balanced. The non-zero sum is the net or
unbalanced force. This unbalanced or net force would cause a change in a body’s state
of motion.

Concept check:

Study the illustrations and answer the questions that

follow.
10 units
1. Refer to the figure on the left, say a boy and a girl are
10 units pulling a heavy crate at the same time with 10 units of
force each. What is the net force acting on the
object?

2. What if the boy and the girl pull the heavy crate at the
5 units 10 units same time in opposite directions with 10 units and 5
units of force respectively as illustrated on the figure
on the left, what will be the net force on the object?
Will the object move? To what direction will it move?

3. Suppose another girl pulls the heavy crate in with 5

5 units units of force in the same direction as the girl, what will be the net force that will
act on the object? Will the object move?

5 units 10 units

Newton’s Three Laws of Motion

The principles behind Newton’s laws of motion are very significant in

understanding the motion of objects in our universe. Their applications are all around
us. Understanding these laws therefore helps us understand why the things around us
move or behave the way they do.

Newton’s First Law of Motion: Law of Inertia

You learned that if the forces acting on an object at rest are balanced or if their
algebraic sum equates to zero, the object stays at rest. This illustrates Newton’s First
Law of Motion, a principle that was primarily based on the works of Galileo. The
following examples will help you understand this principle better.

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Activity 3
Investigating inertia

Objective:

At the end of this activity, you should be able to demonstrate Newton’s first law
of motion.

Materials:

empty glass 5-peso coins (5 pcs or more)

cardboard A plastic ruler
1-peso coin

Procedure

Coin Drop Cardboard Coin

1. Arrange the setup as shown

in Figure 7.

2. Slowly pull the cardboard Glass

with your hand and observe
what happens.

3. Arrange again the setup as shown.

4. This time, quickly Figure 7. Cardboard and coin
flick the cardboard with your finger.
Observe again what happens.

Q9. What happens when you slowly pulled the cardboard? Explain.

Q10. What happens when you flicked the cardboard? Explain.

Stack of Coins

5. Stack the coins on a flat level surface.

6. Quickly hit the coin at the bottom with the edge of the ruler.

Q11. What happens when you hit the coin at the bottom? Why is this so?

The examples above demonstrate the property of an object to resist any change
in its state of motion. In physics, this property is known as inertia. The coin dropped into
the glass because it was trying to remain in its state of rest. How about in the second
example? How will you explain the behavior of the coins when one of them was hit with
an edge of a ruler?

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Measure of Inertia

All objects have the tendency to resist changes in their state of motion or keep
doing what they are doing. However, changing a body’s state of motion depends on its
inertia. A more massive object which has more inertia is more difficult to move from rest,
slow down, speed up, or change its direction.

Newton's first law states that an object at rest will stay at rest or an object in
motion will stay in motion and travel in straight line, as long as no external net force acts
on it. The object will change its state of motion only if there is unbalanced or net force
acting upon it.

Law of Inertia
A body will remain at rest or move at constant velocity unless acted
upon by an external net or unbalanced force.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Law of Acceleration

You learned that when the velocity of a moving body changes, we describe the
motion as an accelerated motion. Is there any relationship between acceleration and any
unbalanced force that acts on the body? Find out in the next activity.

Activity 4
Force and acceleration

Objective:

After this activity, you should be able to describe how the net force acting on an
object affects its acceleration. Consider the situation below.

Materials:
4 rubber bands 1 wooden cart ticker tape
1 wooden holder for rubber 1 stop-watch

Procedure:

Consider this situation below:

A group of students conducted an experiment to

determine the relationship between the force
acting on the object and its acceleration. They
used identical rubber bands to pull the cart as
shown in Figure 8. They varied the number of
rubber bands to vary the force acting on the cart.
They started with 1 rubber band, then with 2, 3,
Figure8. Cart pulled by rubber bands
and 4 rubber bands, making sure that they

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stretched the rubber bands to the same length every time they pull the cart. They used a
ticker tape timer to determine the acceleration of the cart. A ticker tape was connected to
the cart such that when the cart was pulled, the paper tape will be pulled through the
timer. And as the paper tape was pulled through the timer, small dots are formed on the
tape. (Note: if materials are available learners can perform the activity).
Starting with the tape for 1 rubber band, they marked the first clear dot and every 6 th dot
thereafter and cut the tape along these points (Figure 9). Then they pasted the strips
side by side in order on a graphing paper to produce the tape chart for F=1 unit. They
did the same for the other tapes to produce tape charts for F=2 units, F=3 units, and
F=4 units.

Figure 9: Sample tape

A. Tape chart analysis

1. Obtain from your teacher the copies of the tape charts produced by the students
for the 4 runs.

Q12. Compare the charts. What similarities and differences have you noticed among
them?

The length of strip in each chart represents the total distance travelled by the cart
over a time interval of 0.10 seconds. Recall that the total distance travelled over
a unit time gives the average velocity of the moving body, or speed when
travelling in straight line. Hence, each strip represents the average velocity of the
cart over a time interval of 0.10 seconds.

2. Examine the tape chart for F=1 unit.

Q13. What does the increase in the lengths of the strips suggest? What can you say
about the motion of the cart - is it moving in uniform motion or is it accelerating?
Is this also true with the other runs?

Q14. How do you compare the increase in length of the strips in F= 1 unit? What does
this tell you about the change in the velocity of the cart? Is this also true with the
other tape charts?

Q15. How do you compare the increase in length of the strips among the four tape
charts? Which tape chart shows the greatest increase in the length of the strips?
Which tape chart shows the least increase in the length of the strips?

3. Draw a line that passes through all the dots at the ends of the strips in F=1 unit. Do
the same for the other tape charts.

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Q16. Describe the line formed. Does the same pattern exist for the other tape charts?

B. Quantitative analysis

You can also use the tape chart to compute for the average velocity (vave), change
in velocity (∆v), and acceleration (a) of the cart for each run. Work only on the tape
chart assigned to your group. Other groups will be working on the other charts. You
may follow the simple instruction below.

4. Label each strip 1,2,3,4, and 5 as shown in Figure 10.

1 2 3 4 5

Figure10: Sample tape chart

5. Compute for the average velocity of the cart over each time interval by measuring
the length of the strip and dividing it by the time covered to travel such distance.
Example, if the length of the strip is equal to 2.5 cm, then the average velocity
during that time interval will be
vave = 2.5 cm / 0.10sec
= 25 cm/s

Q17. How do the values of vave compare? What does this tell you about the motion of the
cart?

6. Next, determine the difference in the average velocities of the cart between two
successive time intervals. Example, you can get the difference in vave between
strips 1 & 2, between strips 2 & 3, and so on.

Q18. How do the computed values of ∆v compare? What does this tell you about the
motion of the cart?

7. Recall that acceleration is defined as the change in velocity per unit of time. To get
the acceleration of the cart, divide your computed values of ∆v in step 6 by 0.10
seconds, the unit of time. Have at least three computed values of a.

Q19. How do your computed values of a compare?

8. Compute for the average acceleration aave.

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9. Ask from the other groups the values of aave for the other tape charts. Record them
all in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Computed values of aave

Tape chart # of rubber bands aave
F = 1 unit 1
F = 2 units 2

F = 3 units 3

F = 4 units 4

Q20. In this activity, the number of rubber bands represents the magnitude or amount of
the force acting on the cart. How is acceleration of the cart related to the amount
of force acting on it?

If the net force acting on an object is constant, its velocity changes at a constant
rate over time. Hence, it is considered to be moving with constant acceleration. In the
tape chart, this is indicated by the uniform increase in length of the strips over time. But if
the force acting on the object is changed, its acceleration will also change. In your
previous activity, you noticed that as the number of rubber bands increases, the
acceleration of the cart also increases. When the net force is doubled, acceleration is
also doubled. When it is tripled, acceleration is also tripled. We can therefore say that at
constant mass, the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the magnitude of
the unbalanced force F acting on it. This relationship can be mathematically expressed
as:

a = kF where k = mass

What if the mass of the object is changed and the force is kept constant?
Acceleration also varies with the mass of the object. As the mass of the object
increases, with the same amount of force applied, its acceleration decreases. This
relationship can also be expressed as:

a = k (1/m) where k = net force

If you combine these two relationships, you would come up with this relationship:

Law of Acceleration
“The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass.”

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 This statement actually pertains to Newton’s second law of motion or Law of
Acceleration, because it is concerned with the relation of acceleration to mass and force.
This can be expressed in equation form as:

Acceleration = Net force / Mass

a = Fnet /m

This is often rearranged as: Fnet = ma

Like any other quantity, force has a unit, and it expressed in Newton (N). One
Newton is defined as the amount of force required to give a 1-kg mass an acceleration of
1 m/s/s, or

1Newton (N) = 1kg/ms2

Free Fall and Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Suppose you drop two books of different masses from the same height, which
will hit the ground first?

Think about this: If we use the second law of acceleration, the heavier book must
be the one to hit the ground first because gravity pulls on it with more force because of
its greater mass. But if we use the law of inertia, the lighter book must be the one to hit
the ground first because of its lesser inertia. But if you actually try it out, you would find
that they will both reach the floor at the same time. How come?

Gravity acts on all objects on the earth’s surface and causes them to accelerate
when released. This acceleration, known as the acceleration due to gravity g, is the
same for all objects on earth and is equal 9.8 m/s 2. This means that when objects fall,
their velocities increase by 9.8 m/s every 1 second.

The books in the example above fall to the ground at the same rate (acceleration)
even if they differ in mass. And since they were released from the same height at the
same time, they will reach the ground at the same time.

Circular Motion and Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Newton’s Second Law was arrived at by studying straight line motion. Does this
law apply to circular motion as well?

Try to whirl an object tied to a string horizontally above your head. Then observe
what happens if you release the object. How does it travel after release?

You learned in Grade 7 that acceleration does not only refer to change in speed.
It also refers to change in direction. In the case of circular motion, the whirling object
accelerates not due to the change in its speed but to the change in the direction of its
velocity. By Newton’s second law of motion, a net force must be acting on accelerating
objects. So where is this net force coming from? For the stone to move in a horizontal

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circle, what must you do? You have to pull the stone inward towards the center of the
circular path, right? So the force comes from the string that pulls the object towards the
center of its circular path (Figure 11). If you remove this force by either cutting or
releasing the string, you will observe that the object will continue to move straight and fly
off tangential to the path. This is the natural tendency of the object if there is no net force
acting on it, according to the First Law of Motion. But because of the net force from the
string, instead of going straight, the object accelerates inwards thereby covering a
circular path. The object is said to be in circular motion.

Figure 11. Object on

(Circular path) circular motion

Think about this!

If the object in uniform circular motion is accelerating towards the center of the circle, why
does it maintain a circular path at a constant radius and never get closer to the center of
the circle?

Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Law of Interaction

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Activity 5
Action-reaction

Objective:

In this activity, you should be able to state Newton’s Third Law of Motion.

Materials:

2 spring balances string

Procedure:

1. Connect 2 spring balances with their hooks. Ask your partner to hold one end of
the balance while you hold the other end horizontally. Pull the spring balance while
your partner just holds the other end. Record the reading on each balance.

Q21. What is the reading on your balance and that of your partner? What do these
values represent?
Q22. How do you compare the direction of your partner’s and your force?

2. Pull the spring balance harder. Be careful not to exceed the maximum reading on
the spring balance.

Q23. What is the reading on your balance and that of your partner?

Q24. How do you explain your observation?

3. Attach one end of your spring balance to the wall, while the other end is connected
to the second spring balance. Ask your partner to pull the spring balance.
Observe the reading on each balance.

Q25. What is the reading in each balance?

Q26. Compare the direction of the forces exerted on the two ends of the
connected spring balance.

In the simplest sense, a force is a push or a pull. However, Newton realized that
a force is not a thing in itself but part of mutual action, an interaction, between one thing
and another.

For example, consider the interaction between a hammer and a nail. A hammer
exerts a force on the nail and drives it into a board. But this is not the only force present
for there must also be a force exerted on the hammer to stop it in the process. What
exerts this force? The nail does. Newton reasoned that while the hammer exerts a
force on the nail, the nail exerts a force on the hammer. So, in the interaction between
the hammer and the nail, there is a pair of forces, one acting on the nail and the other
acting on the hammer. Such observations led Newton to his third law: the law of
interaction.

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 In Activity 5, you observed the similarities and differences between the interacting
forces in terms of magnitude and direction. This relationship is stated in Newton’s Third
Law of Motion – Law of Interaction.

Law of Interaction (Action-Reaction)

“For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.”

Because the forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, do you
think they will cancel each other? In this case, no addition of forces will take
place because these forces are acting on different bodies. The spring balances
act on each other.

The difference between the forces related to Law of Interaction and forces in a
balanced state are as follows:

Action-Reaction Forces Balanced Forces

• Two forces are equal in size. • Two forces are equal in size.
• Two forces are opposite to • Two forces are opposite to
each other in terms of each other in terms of
• direction. direction.
Two forces have the same • Two forces act along the same
line of action. line.
•
Action acts on one object, • Two forces act upon the same
while reaction acts on another object.
object.

Module 1 Forces and Motion: Post-test

Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the letter on your answer
sheet.
1. It refers to the size or strength of the force. It is commonly expressed in Newton
(N).
a. Magnitude c. Line of application
b. Direction d. line of action
2. It states that an object at rest will stay at rest or an object in motion will stay in
motion and travel in straight line, as long as no external net force act on it.
a. Newton’s third law b. Newton’s first law c. Newton’s second law
3. A body will remain at rest or move at constant velocity unless acted upon by an
external net or unbalanced force?
a. Acceleration b. Law of Inertia c. Law of Interaction
4. “The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net
force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass. “
a. Law of acceleration b. Law of interaction c. Law of Inertia
5. It states that “for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.”
a. Law of Inertia b. Law of Acceleration c. Law of Interaction

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References

Herr, N. (2008). The Sourcebook for Teaching Science, Jossey-Bass Teacher

Publishing Company.

Japan International Cooperation Agency. Guidance Manual for Textbook for Country-
Specific Group Traijning Course inIn-Service Teacher Education and Training in
Science and Mathematics for the Republic of South Africa

UP NISMED - Physics Teachers Resource Manual – DECS.

UP NISMED – Science IV Lesson Plans for Basic Education Curriculum

www.physicsclassroom.com

UP NISMED. (2002). Practical Work on High School Physics: Sourcebook for Teachers.
UP NISMED. Quezon City

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This module discusses the following
lessons:
Calculating Work
Work is a Method of Transferring Energy
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy

 Activity 1. Is There work done

 Activity 2. Potential Energy
 Activity 3. How POWER-ful am I?

What are you expected to learn

 identify situations in which work is done;
 describe how work is related to power and energy;
 differentiate potential and kinetic energy;
 relate speed and position of object to the amount of energy possessed by
a body;

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 Unit 1
MODULE

2 POWER and ENERGY

Overview

In Module 1, you utilized Newton’s Laws to analyze the motion of objects. You
investigated the motion of an object in relation to force, mass and acceleration.
In this module, motion will be investigated from the perspective of work and
energy. The concept of force, which you have taken up in Module 1, will be related to the
concepts of work and energy.
At the end of this module, you should be able to answer the following questions:

What is work?
What is energy?
How are work, energy and power related?

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 What is Work?
What comes to your mind when you hear the word ‘work’? The word work
has many meanings. When people ask, “What is your work?” They refer to a job
or employment. When people say, “I’ll meet you after work.” They refer to the part
of a day devoted to an occupation or undertaking. When your teacher asks,
“Have you done your homework?” They refer to the task or activity needed to be
accomplished.
In Physics, work is an abstract idea related to energy. When work is done
it is accompanied by a change in energy. When work is done by an object it loses
energy and when work is done on an object it gains energy.
In Module 1, you learned that force can change the state of motion of an
object. If an object is at rest, it can be moved by exerting force on it. If an object
is moving, it can be made to move faster or stopped by applying force on it. In
order to say that work is done on an object, there must be force applied to it and
the object moves in the direction of the applied force.
Work is done if the object you push or pulled moves a distance in the
direction towards which you are pushing or pulling it.

Figure 1. A girl pushing a chair

No work is done if the force you exert does not make the object move.

Figure 2. A boy pushing a wall

No work is done if the force you exert does not make the object move in the same
direction as the force you exerted.

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 Figure 3. A waiter carrying a tray.
Do activity 1 to see how well you understood ‘work’.

Activity 1
Is there work done?

Objective:

After performing this activity, you should be able to explain if work is done in
situations represented.
Material:
Illustrations below
Procedure:

Tell whether the situations shown below represent examples of work. Identify the one
doing the work and on which object the work is done. Write in your notebook your
answers and explanations.

2. A man lifting a box to be

1. A girl pulling her cart.
placed on a table.

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 3. A girl carrying a bag walking 4. A mango fruit falling from a
down a street. branch.

Calculating Work

Work is done when the force (F) applied to the object causes the object to have
a displacement (d) in the same direction as the force applied. The symbol for work is a
capital W. The work done by a force can be calculated as

As you have learned in Chapter 1, the unit of force is

Hence, the unit for Work, W

The unit, joule (J) is named after the English Physicist James
Prescott Joule. This is also a unit of energy. One (1) Joule is equal to the
work done or energy expended in applying a force of one Newton through a
distance of one meter.

Sample problem:

Suppose a woman is pushing a grocery cart with a 500 Newton force along the 7 meters
aisle, how much work is done in pushing the cart from one end of the aisle to the other?

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Try solving this:

A book of mass 1 kg is on the floor. If the book is lifted from the floor to the top shelf
which is 2 meters from the floor, how much work is done on the book?

Work is a Method of Transferring Energy

In Grade 7, you learned that there are different ways by which energy can be
transferred from one place to another. Sound and light are transferred by waves;
electrical energy is transferred by moving electrical charges through a complete circuit;
and heat is transferred either by randomly moving particles, or by electromagnetic
waves. Work is also a means of transferring energy from one object to another.

Do this!
Play a bowling game. Roll a plastic or rubber ball along the floor to hit an empty
plastic bottle.

Figure 4. A ball and a plastic bottle

Is there work done on the ball?

What can a moving ball do?

You have done work on the ball. The force you exerted in pushing the ball is in
the same direction as the motion of the ball. But then you did not continuously push the
ball until it hits the empty bottle. You just gave it a nudge and then it rolled. The force
exerted on the ball changed the ball’s motion. ‘Something’ was transferred to the ball
causing it to move continuously. That ‘something’ is called energy. The energy became
energy of motion of the ball.

A rolling ball can do work on the plastic bottle. When the ball hits the plastic
bottle, it can push it through a distance. Thus, a moving object can do work on anything
it hits because of its motion energy. Hence, energy is oftentimes defined as the ability or
capacity to do work.

Since work is done on the ball, it gains energy while the person that does work
on it loses energy. In the same manner, the rolling ball that does work on the empty
plastic bottle loses energy while the bottle gains energy. This shows that when work is
done, energy is transferred.

24
Kinetic Energy

The energy of a moving object is called energy of motion or kinetic energy (KE).
The word kinetic comes from the Greek word “kinetikos” which means moving. Kinetic
energy quantifies the amount of work the object can do because of its motion.

The plastic or rubber ball you pushed to hit an empty plastic bottle earlier has
kinetic energy. The force applied caused the ball to accelerate from rest to a certain
velocity, v. In Module 1, you learned that acceleration is the rate of change in velocity.
In the equation,

where v is the final velocity, vi is the initial velocity and t is the time.

Since the ball started from rest, the initial velocity is zero. Thus, the acceleration
is

Substituting this in Newton’s second law

The equation in finding the average velocity of the ball is

Since the initial velocity is zero, the average velocity, is

or

The distance travelled by the ball before it hits the empty plastic bottle is given by
the equation

where refers to the average velocity

25
 Let’s put the equations together. Since and , we get

This shows that the work done in accelerating an object is equal to the kinetic
energy gained by the object.

From the equation, you can see that the kinetic energy of an object depends on
its mass and velocity. What will happen to the KE of an object if its mass is doubled but
the velocity remains the same? How about if the velocity is doubled but the mass
remains the same?
As you have learned in Module 1, the unit for mass is kg while for velocity it is
meter per second.

Hence, the unit for Kinetic Energy, KE is

But,

26
Try solving this:

A 1000 kg car has a velocity of 17 m/s. What is the car’s kinetic energy?

Potential Energy

In activity 1 you were asked if the illustration of a man lifting a box demonstrates
work.

Figure 5. A man lifting a box

Which is doing work in the illustration? Is it the table, the box, or the man?

Yes you are correct and if you answered “The man is doing work on the box.”
What is the direction of the force exerted by the man on the box? Yes, it is upward. What
is the direction of the motion of the box? Yes, it is upward. Then we can say, work is
done by the man on the box.

As discussed previously, work is a way of transferring energy. Since the work is

done by the man, he loses energy. The work is done on the box, hence the box gains
energy.

In Grade 6, you learned about the force of gravity. It is the force that the earth
exerts on all objects on its surface. It is always directed downward or towards the center
of the earth. Hence, when an object is lifted from the ground, the work done is against
the force of gravity. An object gains energy when raised from the ground and loses
energy when made to fall. The energy gained or lost by the object is called gravitational
potential energy or simply potential energy (PE).

For example when a 1.0 kg book is lifted 0.5 m from the table, the force exerted
in lifting the book is equal to its weight.

The acceleration due to gravity, g is equal to 9.8 meters per second squared. The

work done in lifting the book is given by the equation

27
where the displacement (d) is the height (h) to which the object is lifted.

This shows that the work done in lifting an object is equal to the potential energy
gained by the object.

The potential energy of the book lifted at 0.5 m relative to the table is:

If the book is lifted higher than 0.5 m from the table, what would happen to its
potential energy?

The potential energy gained and lost by an object is dependent on the reference
level. Consider a table and a chair shown in Figure 6. If the same 1.0 kg book is held 1
m above the table, the potential energy gained by it is 9.8 J with the table as the
reference level; it is 14.7 J if the reference level is the chair; and 19.6 J if the reference
level is the floor. If the book is released from a height of 2 m, the potential energy lost
when it reaches the level of the table top is 9.8 J; 14.7 J when it reaches the level of the
chair; and 19.6 J when it reaches the floor.

book

1m
table

chair
1m
0.5 m
floor

Figure 6. A table and a chair

28
Try solving this:

If the same 1.0 kg book is lifted to 0.5 m above the table, but the table top is 1.0
m above the floor, what would be the potential energy of the book if the reference level
were the floor?

The energy of an object above the ground is called potential energy because it is
a ‘stored’ energy. It has the potential to do work once released. Think of water held in a
dam. It has potential energy. Once released, the water has the potential to move objects
along its way such as turbines in hydroelectric power plants. The potential energy of the
water is transformed into kinetic energy.

The gravitational potential energy is just one type of potential energy. Another
type is the elastic potential energy. Springs and rubber bands are called elastics. When
elastics are stretched and then let go, they will return to their original form if they were
not stretched beyond their elastic limit.

The force needed to stretch or compress elastics depends on the elasticity of the
object and the change in elongation. The relationship between the force and the change
in elongation ( was first observed by Robert Hooke, hence, the name Hooke’s Law
expressed as:

The proportionality holds true as long as the elastic limit of the elastics has not
been reached. The proportionality or force constant k is a measure of the elasticity of the
material.

Consider a spring. Since the force exerted in stretching a spring causes a

change in length, then work is done on the spring. When work is done, energy is
transferred. Thus, the stretched spring gains potential energy. The work done to stretch
the spring a distance x (the symbol x is used instead of d) is equal to its potential energy.
In equation;

The elastic potential energy depends on how much the elastic object is stretched
or compressed and the elasticity of the material.

What games do you play using rubber bands? What do you do with the rubber
bands in the games? Do Activity 2 to see how a rubber band ‘stores’ potential energy.

29
Activity 2
Rolling toy

Objective:

After performing this activity, you should be able to explain how a twisted rubber
band can do work and relate the work done to potential energy.

Materials Needed:

1 clear plastic container with cover

1 rubber band
1 pc 3-cm round barbecue sticks
1 pc barbecue stick with sharp part cut
masking tape

Procedure:

1. Make a hole at the center of the cover and at the bottom of the plastic container.

2. Insert the rubber band into the hole at the bottom of the container. Insert in
between the rubber band the 3-cm barbecue stick. Tape the barbecue stick to keep
it in place.

30
Figure 8. Steps in inserting the 3-cm barbecue stick

or a washer to the rubber band before inserting the long barbecue stick.

Figure 9. Steps in inserting the bead and the long barbecue stick
3. Insert the other end of the rubber band into the hole in the cover. Insert a bead

4. You just made a toy. Twist the rubber band by rotating the long barbecue stick.

Figure 10. Rotating the long barbecue stick

5. Lay the toy on the floor. Observe it.

Figure 11. Finished toy

Q1. What happens to the toy?

Q2. What kind of energy is ‘stored’ in the rubber band?

Q3. What kind of energy does a rolling toy have?

Q4. What transformation of energy happens in a rolling toy?

31
Work, Energy, and Power

So far, we have discussed the relationship between work and energy. Work is a
way of transferring energy. Energy is the capacity to do work. When work is done by an
object it loses energy and when work is done on an object it gains energy. Another
concept related to work and energy is power.

Power is the rate of doing work or the rate of using energy. In equation,

The unit for power is Joules per second. But maybe, you are more familiar with
watts (W) which is commonly used to measure power consumption of electrical devices.
The unit watt is named after James Watt who was a Scottish inventor and mechanical
engineer known for his improvements on steam engine technology. The conversion of
unit from joules per second to watts is:

Do Activity 3 to see your power output in walking or running up a flight of stairs.

Activity 3
How POWER-ful am I?

Objective:

After performing this activity, you should be able to compute for your power
output in walking or running up a flight of stairs.

Materials Needed:

meterstick timer

Procedure:

1. Write the group members’ names in the first column of Table 1.

2. Enter each member’s weight in column 2. To solve for the weight, multiply the mass
(in kg) by acceleration due to gravity (g=9.8 m/s 2).

3. Measure the height of the flight of stairs that you will climb. Record it on the table.

32
 h

Figure 1. Height of the stairs

4. Each member will walk or run up the flight of stairs. Use a stopwatch or any watch to
get the time it takes for each member to climb the stairs. Record the time in the 4 th
column.

5. Solve for the energy expended by each member. Record them in the 5 th column of
the table.

6. Compute for the power output of each member.

Table 1. Power Output

Height of Time taken to climb Energy
Weight expended Power
Name stairs the stairs
(N) (J) (J/s)
(m) (s)

Q1. Who among the group members had the highest power output?

Q2. What is the highest power output?

Q3. Who among the group members had the lowest power output?

Q4. What is the lowest power output?

Q5. What can you say about the work done by each member of the group? Did each
member perform the same amount of work in climbing the stairs?

Q6. What factor/s determined the highest/lowest power output?

33
Module 2. Power and Energy: Post-test
Directions: Reshuffle the letters in the boxes to form and identify the term referred in
each number. Supply it with correct letter to complete the word.

I K ii C E I T 1. It is the energy possessed by moving

objects.
T C E A N O 2. The energy of an object above the
ground

L I

R K O 3. This is done whenever a force acting on

an object causes it to be displaced.

Please refer to the correct answer below.

These are the concepts that you need to remember about work and energy:

• Work is done on an object when the force applied to it covers a distance in the
direction of the applied force.

• Work is a way of transferring energy.

• When work is done by an object it loses energy and when work is done on an
object it gains energy.

• The energy of an object enables it to do work.

• A moving object has energy called energy of motion or kinetic energy.

• An object above a specified level has energy due to its position called potential
energy.

• An elastic object that is stretched or compressed or twisted has energy called

potential energy.

• Power is the rate of doing work or the rate of using energy.

Post-test Module 2. Work and Energy

1. KINETIC 2. POTENTIAL C. WORK

34
References

Henderson, Tom. (21 January 2013). Retrieved from

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/energy/
Hewitt, P.G. (2002). Conceptual physics. USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Saddle River, New
Jersey.
Kirkpatrick, L.D. and Wheeler, G.F. (1998). Physics a world view. USA: Saunders
College Publishing
Ostdiek, V.J. and Bord, D.J. (1987). Inquiry into Physics. USA: West Publishing
Company
DepEd. Science and Technology IV. SEDP Series. (1992). Philippines: Book Media
Press, Inc.

35
 Unit 1
MODULE

3 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

This module discusses the following lessons:

Activity 1: Explaining hotness or coldness

Activity 2: Dye in water
Activity 3.1: What happens when ice melts?
Activity 3.2: What happens to the temperature of water as it boils?
Activity 4. What is the relationship between the mass of a material and the
amount of heat it can transfer?
Activity 5: Comparing heat capacities

What you are expected to learn

After going through this module, you should be able to:
Differentiate between heat and temperature at the molecular level

36
 Unit 1
MODULE

3 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Overview
Heat transfer happens around us all the time. Although we do not see how this
process actually takes place, its effects are evident. In fact, we rely on these effects
everyday in many of the activities that we do. Understanding the concepts behind heat
transfer therefore helps us do our activities more efficiently.

You have learned in previous grades that heat transfer takes place between
objects or places of different temperatures, and that heat transfers from an object of
higher temperature to an object of lower temperature. You have also learned that heat
can be transferred through conduction, convection, or radiation, and that heat transfers
either through moving particles or electromagnetic waves. Lastly, you also learned about
some factors that affect heat transfer, like the conductivity of the materials.

This time, you will learn more about heat transfer by exploring its effects on
materials. You will also learn about the factors that affect the amount of heat that an
object can absorb or release and describe how these are related to the amount of heat
transferred.

People often interchange the use of the terms heat and temperature in their daily
conversation. They also think that heat and temperature are just the same. But for
physicists, heat and temperature are two different concepts. So in this module, you will
also learn the difference between heat and temperature.

At the end of this module, you are expected to answer the following key
questions:

What happens to solids, liquids, or gases when they absorb or

release heat?
Does heat affect all kinds of materials in the same way?
Are heat and temperature one and the same?

37
Points to remember…

Remember that heat is the transfer of energy between objects or places because of
difference in temperature. Heat exists as ‘energy in transit’ and it is not contained in an
object. The energy that is actually contained in an object due to the motion of its particles is
called thermal energy. The thermal energy of an object is changed if heat is transferred to
or from it. Since the amount of heat transferred relates to the amount of change in thermal
energy, the term heat in this module is also used to refer to the measure of thermal energy
transferred.

Note also that the activities in this module involve hot and boiling water, so extra
care should always be observed.

Activity 1
Explaining hotness or coldness

This first activity deals with one of the major effects of heat transfer, which is
temperature change. You will describe the hotness or coldness of an object in terms of
its temperature. You will also compare the changes in the temperature of water to
determine the relationship between the amount of heat transferred and the resulting
temperature change.

Materials Needed:

3 identical containers like empty 1.5-L bottle

thermometer
250mL hot water
250mL liter tap water 250ml cold
water

Procedure:

1. Fill the three containers half way with equal amount of cold water. Arrange them
next to one another as shown in Figure 1 below.

38
 1 2 3
Figure 1. Different liquid samples at different temperatures

2. Place your finger for a while into any of the containers.

Try to recall your lesson on Heat Transfer in Grade 7 and answer the following
questions:

Q1. What actually transferred when you dipped your finger into the water? In what
direction did it transfer?

Q2. Was the water ‘hot’ or ‘cold’? Explain.

Discuss your answers with the group. Try to estimate the temperature of the water
in the containers.

3. Measure with a thermometer the temperature of the water in each container.

Record your measurements in Table 1 below. (Note: The initial temperature of the
water in each container should be the same as they come from the same source.)
Table 1: Data for Activity 1
Estimated temperature of water: ____ (°C)

Measured
Change in
temperature (°C)
Container temperature
(Co)
Initial Final

2
3

Q3. How close is your estimated value to the measured temperature of the water?

4. Add the same amount of hot water to container 1, tap water to container 2 and the
same cold water to container 3. Leave the containers for a while.

39
5. Dip your fingers again, this time into the three containers. Make sure that you do
not dip the same finger into the containers.

Q4. Which container feels ‘hottest’? Which container feels ‘coolest’?

Q5. What do you think causes the difference in the hotness or coldness of the water
inside the containers?

6. Measure and record the temperature of the water in all containers. Calculate the
change in the temperature of water in each container.

Q6. In which container(s) is heat transfer taking place? What evidence best supports
your answer? Within this container, which absorbs heat? Which gives off heat?

Q7. In which container was there the greatest amount of heat transferred? What is the
basis of your answer?

Q8. How are the amount of heat transferred and the change in temperature of water
related?
___________________________________________________________________

You have just observed that if heat is absorbed or given off by an object,
generally the temperature may change. If the water at 10oC absorbs heat, the
temperature rises. Note however that heat may be added to or removed from an object
but the temperature may not change. This concept will be detailed further in the
succeeding sections.
How do we explain the rise in temperature when heat is absorbed? In this next
activity, you will take a closer look at what is actually happening at the particle level and
infer what happens to the particles of an object when heat is added to it.

Face-to-face instruction

Activity 2
Dye in water
At the end of this activity, you should be able to explain the scattering or diffussion of
the dye in water at different temperatures.

Materials Needed:

3 transparent containers (empty 1.5-liter bottle)

1 thermometer
3 medicine droppers
hot water

40
 tap water (room temperature)
cold water dye (alugbati seeds)

Procedure:

1. Fill the three containers separately with cold water, tap water, and hot water.

2. Measure the temperature of the water in each container. Record your

measurements in Table 2 below.

Table 2: Data for Activity 2

Temperature
Container ( 0C) Observations

3. With the dropper, place a drop of dye into the center of each container as shown in
Figure 2. (Note: It is better if you place drops of dye into the three samples
simultaneously.)

Figure 2 beakers filled with water for samples

4. Carefully observe and compare the behavior of the dye in the three containers.
Write down your observations in Table 2.

41
Q9. What similarities and differences did you observe when a drop of dye was added to
each container?

Q10. In which container did the dye scatter the fastest? In which di it scatter the
slowest?

Q11. How do you relate the temperature of the water to the rate of scattering of the dye?
_________________________________________________________________

You learned in Module 2 that moving objects possess kinetic energy. All the
objects that you see around you that are moving possess kinetic energy. But do you
know that even the very small things that you cannot see, like the particles of objects,
are also moving and have kinetic energy? Take for example the water inside the
containers in Activity 2. The scattering of the dye through the water indicates that the
particles of water are moving. You will learn more about the movement of the particles of
matter in the third quarter when you discuss about the Particle Theory of Matter.

You also noticed that the rate of scattering of the dye throughout the water differs
in each container. It can then be inferred that the speed of the particles of water varies in
each container. Since kinetic energy depends on speed, the kinetic energies of the
particles also vary.

Q12. In which container are the particles of water moving fastest? In which container are
the particles moving slowest?

Q13. How is temperature related to the speed of the particles?

Q14. How is temperature related to the kinetic energy of particles?

If heat is added to an object, the particles of the object gain kinetic energy and
they move faster. Since temperature is directly related to kinetic energy, any gain in
kinetic energy would cause the temperature to increase. Conversely, if heat is
transferred or removed from an object, it loses kinetic energy, its particles move slower
and the body’s temperature decreases.

Thermal Expansion, the Working Principle of the Mercury

Thermometer

You know that temperature is measured by the use of thermometer. You have
most probably used this device many times. The thermometer commonly available in our
schools is the liquid thermometer, which has a column of either mercury or alcohol.
When the thermometer is placed in contact with any object the mercury column inside
the glass either rises or drops.

Why does the liquid inside the tube of the thermometer rise or fall? This happens
because the mercury inside the tube expands or contracts in response to a change in
temperature. When the thermometer bulb is placed in hot water, the liquid inside the
tube expands. As it does, it takes more space and so it goes up the tube. When the bulb
is placed in cold water, the liquid contracts and so it goes down the tube. Note that the
glass also expands or contracts but the liquid inside it expands or contracts more such
that the expansion of contraction becomes noticeable

42
 To be
redrawn

a b

Figure 3. Thermometers in a) hot liquid and b) cold liquid

In physics, this is called thermal expansion, another effect of heat transfer. But
thermal expansion does not apply only to the liquid inside the thermometer. In fact, it
applies to almost everything around us, be it a solid, a liquid, or a gas. If allowed by your
teacher, you may try this simple activity to demonstrate expansion of a solid when
heated.
Try this!

You will need: copper wire (around 2m long), candles, meter stick, 2 iron stands with
clamps or rings, standard weight (or any mass around 500g)

What to do:

Prepare the setup as shown below. Make sure that the ends of the copper wire
are secured or clamped firmly. Hang the weight in the middle of the wire. Use the
candles to warm the wire at different points. Do this for 1 or 2 minutes and observe
what will happen to the height of the weight.

Ruler or
Copper wire meterstick Weight

Figure 4. Setup for expansion of wire experiment

43
 If you tried out this experiment, you would have observed that when you heated
the entire length of the wire, the weight moved down or its height decreased a little.
This indicates that the wire expanded or increased in length when heated.

There are so many applications of thermal expansion around us. Some are
beneficial and others can be a burden to us. One example of thermal expansion in solid is
the sagging of electrical power lines or telephone wires on hot days. This happens
because heat causes them to expand. Have you ever wondered why it is difficult to open a
jar that was just taken out of the refrigerator or why motorists are advised not to
overinflate their car tires or fill their gasoline tanks to the brim? How will you apply the
concepts of thermal expansion to explain all these?

Phase Change

Another change that may occur when heat is added to or taken out from an
object is phase change. For example, you know that water can change from solid (ice) to
liquid (water) or from liquid to gas (steam). The next activity will allow you to observe the
changes that take place when ice turns to liquid water.

Activity 3.1
What happens when ice melts?
After this activity, you should be able to answer this question:

What happens to the temperature of water while changing from

ice to liquid water?

Materials needed:

crushed ice
1 plastic container
thermometer
Timer/clock

Procedure:

1. Put some crushed ice and a little cold water into the container.

2. Stir the contents of the container for few seconds; then, measure the temperature
of the contents.

44
 Avoid letting the thermometer touch the bottom of the container to ensure that you
are actually measuring the temperature of the water.
Record your temperature reading in Table 3 below.

Table 3: Temperature readings for melting ice

Time (min) Temperature (°C)

0 (Initial)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

3. Repeat step 2 every 2 minutes. Make sure that you stir and measure exactly the
same way each time. Record each measurement in Table 3.

Q15. Why does the ice inside the container melt after sometime?

4. Continue measuring until the ice has totally melted and even after it has already
melted completely (around 4-6 minutes more).

5. Construct a temperature against time graph. Draw a smooth line that passes
through almost all the points.

Q16. Which is your dependent variable? Which is your independent

variable? (Note that the independent quantity is plotted along the X-
axis while the dependent quantity is plotted along the Y-axis.

Q17. Describe your graph.

Q18. Describe the temperature of the water while the ice melting.

Q19. Describe the temperature of the water after the ice has melted.

Were you able to see in your graph a horizontal line similar to the part encircled
in Figure 5? This was during the time when solid (ice) was turning to liquid water. During
this stage, the temperature of the water remained the same, as shown by the horizontal
line. Remember that a change in temperature indicates a change in kinetic energy. In
this case, there was no change in the kinetic energy of the particles. So what happened
to the heat energy that was continuously transferred to the water? The energy absorbed
by the water is used by the particles to overcome the attractive forces between them,

45
and not to increase the speed of particles. The temperature of the water will only start to
increase after the ice has totally melted.

What if you continue to heat the water further until it boils? What do you think will
happen to the temperature of the water?

Activity 3.2
What happens to the temperature of water as it
boils?

Materials:
Kettle
Hot water
thermometer (can measure up to 100°C)

Procedure:

1. Measure and record the temperature of the water every 2 minutes until it boils.
Once the water starts to boil, continue taking the temperature for 4-6 more
minutes.

2. Plot the graph of temperature against time.

Q20. Describe and interpret your graph.

Q21. What similarities and differences have you noticed between your graphs in Activity
3.1 and Activity 3.2?

If you heat up the same sample from ice to water then from water to gas (vapor)
and plot the graph of temperature vs time, it would look like the graph in Figure 5. The
graph shows that the ice absorbs heat as evidenced by the temperature rise; the
temperature remains the same when ice starts to melt and until all the ice has melted;
then the temperature rises again until water boils. The temperature remains constant at
boiling temperature when water starts turning to steam and until all the liquid water has
become water vapor.

46
 In the previous activities, you have seen how ice melts and how water boils.
Remember that generally, as heat is added to an object, its temperature rises and
conversely if removed, the temperature drops. However, if there is a change in phase
such that of melting ice or boiling water, the heat added is only used to change the
phase of the object.

In Activity 1, you found that the high temperature water transferred more heat
than water at a lower temperature. This is shown by a greater increase in temperature of
the object that absorbed the heat. What other factors determine the amount of heat that
a body can transfer?

Activity 4
What is the relationship between the mass of a
material and the amount of heat it can transfer?

Task:

In this activity, your group is assigned to plan and conduct a simple investigation to
determine the relationship between the mass of a material and the amount of heat
that it can transfer. You need to gather and analyze data to come up with answers to
the question given above. Apply what you learned in grade 7 about doing simple
investigations.

1. Start with your group’s prediction below:

Prediction:____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

47
2. Below are some guides to help you with your task.

a. What are your variables?

Independent variable:
Dependent variable:
Controlled variable (constant):

b. What materials are you going to use for your simple investigation?

c. What quantities are you going to measure for your data?

d. How are you going to analyze and present your quantities (data) to describe the
relationship among the variables?

3. Write your step-by-step procedure. Let your teacher check your procedure first
before you proceed. Precautions should always be observed.

4. Present your data systematically.

If you were successful in your investigation, you would have realized that the
amount of heat transferred depends not only on the temperature of the material. It also
depends on the mass or amount of material. Objects with greater mass have more
thermal energy and can transfer more heat.

___________________________________________________________________

Heat Capacity

Earlier in this module, you learned that materials expand when heated or contract
when cooled. This time, you will study another thermal property of materials —their
ability to absorb or release heat that results in temperature change. In science, the
amount of heat needed by a material to increase its temperature by a degree is called
heat capacity (C). To be more specific, the term specific heat capacity (c) is used, and
this refers to the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of one unit mass
of a given material by one Celsius degree. For example, water has a specific heat
capacity of 1 cal/g°C. So it takes 1 calorie of heat to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water by 1°C.

48
 Face-to-face instruction

Activity 5
Comparing heat capacities

Objectives:
After performing this activity, you should be able to compare the heat capacities
of the given liquid samples.

Materials:

2 identical small containers (each with 100mL of liquid sample)

2 identical large containers (large enough to accommodate the small containers)
2 thermometers
hot water
liquid samples: water, cooking oil

Note: Store the liquid samples in the same room to ensure that both are at room
temperature when you do the activity.

Procedure:

1. Pour 100mL of water into one of the small containers and the same amount of
cooking oil into the other container. Measure and record their initial temperature
in Table 4 below.

Table 4. Heat Capacities of Some Liquid

Initial
Heating time
temperature
Cooking Oil
Water

2. Place the small container with oil in a larger container with hot water. Make sure
that the hot water does not mix with the liquid sample.

3. Measure the time it takes for the oil to increase in temperature by 5 °C. Example,
if the initial temperature of the liquid is 28 oC, take the time it takes for the
temperature to reach 33oC. Record your measured heating time in Table 4.

4. Do the same with the water sample. Make sure that the amount and
temperature of the hot water is the same for both samples. Record also your
measurement in Table 4.

49
Q22. Which liquid requires more time to increase in temperature by 5 degrees?

Q23. Which liquid requires more heat to increase in temperature by 5 degrees?

Q24. Which liquid has a greater heat capacity?

Different materials have different specific heat capacities. Many metals have low
specific heat capacities. This makes them easy to heat up and cool down. Water, on the
other hand, has a high specific heat capacity and so it takes a long time to heat and a
long time to cool. This makes the water a good coolant for car radiators. Because of its
high specific heat capacity, it can absorb a large amount of heat without causing its
temperature to rise too high.

Heat and Temperature

You have already recognized the relationship between heat and temperature.
How are they similar and different? Go back to the results of your previous experiments
and analyze your findings. Then try to answer questions below.

• Which has a higher temperature, 1 cup of boiling water or 1 teapot of boiling

water? Which can transfer more heat, 1 cup of boiling water or 1 teapot of
boiling water? Explain your answer.

• Which can transfer more heat, a cup of boiling water or a cup of tap water? If
you increase the amount of the boiling water and tap water twice, will their
temperature change? Explain your answer.

• Which can transfer more heat, a cup of boiling water or 1 basin of tap water?
(You may try this out if you have time.)

So how are heat and temperature different? Well, here are the important points
to consider about the difference between heat and temperature. First, heat is a form of
energy while temperature is not a form of energy. Temperature is a measure of the
average kinetic energy of the particles and it does not depend on the mass of the object.
It can be measured directly with the use of thermometers. Heat cannot be measured
directly. But you can make use of the measurable quantities related to heat to determine
how much heat (Q) is absorbed by the object. These are the change in temperature
(∆T), mass (m), and specific heat capacity (c) of the object. The relation among these
quantities is expressed as: Q=mc T.

50
Module 3. Heat and temperature Post-test
Direction: Chose the letter of the correct answer. Write it on your answer sheet.
1. The transfer of energy between objects or places.
a. Heat b. Thermometer c. cold
2. It is the amount of heat needed by a material to increase its temperature by a
degree?
a. Heat capacity b. Temperature c. Hotness
Key to correction
1. A 2. A
References and Links

Heat and Temperature. Retrieved October 12, 2012 from

http://www.biol.wwu.edu/donovan/SciEd491/HeatTempUnit.pdf

Expansion and Contraction. Retrieved October 12, 2012 from

http://schools.cbe.ab.ca/b682/pdfs/Science%207/Heat-and-
TemperatureUnit3_T4_T6.pdf

51
 Unit 1
MODULE

4 ELECTRICITY

This module discusses the following

lessons:
Electric Current
Voltage
Resistance

 Activity 1. Current and voltage

 Activity 2. Current and resistance
 Activity 3. What’s the connection

What are you expected to learn

11. infer the relationship between current and charge;
12. explain the advantages of series and parallel connections in homes;
and
13. differentiate electrical power and energy; and
14. relate speed and position of object to the amount of energy possessed
by a body;

52
 Unit 1
MODULE

4 ELECTRICITY

Overview

Electricity is a part of our daily lives. Many of the activities we do everyday

depend on electricity. The discovery of electricity changed people’s lives. Can you watch
your favorite show on TV without electricity? Can you use your computers without
electricity? Imagine our life today without electricity.

You have been learning a lot about electricity from Grade 3 to Grade 7. You have
learned about its sources and uses; what materials make good conductors of electricity;
what makes up an electric circuit; and how electrical energy is transferred or
transformed into other forms of energy.

In this module, you will learn more about electricity. There are three quantities
that you should be familiar with in the study of electricity. These are electric current,
voltage, and resistance. You will use the relationships among these quantities in learning
about circuit connections. You will also learn that some of the safety precautions you
have been warned about can be explained by the relationships among voltage, current,
and resistance.

At the end of this module you should be able to answer the following questions:

How do voltage and resistance affect electric current?

What are the safety precautions needed in using electricity?

53
Electric Current

In Grade 7, you learned that a circuit is any arrangement of a source of energy

(battery), connecting wires, and a load (e.g. bulbs). You also learned that a complete or
a closed circuit provides a path for electrical charges to flow. Electric current is a
measure of the number of electrical charges passing through a cross section of a
conductor in a given time. The direction of conventional current or simply current is from
the positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal.

The symbol for current is capital letter I. The unit, ampere (A), is named after
Andre-Marie Ampere, a French physicist who made important contributions to the theory
of electricity and magnetism.

An ammeter measures electric current. Figure 1 shows how the ammeter is

connected in a circuit. The positive terminal of an ammeter is connected to the positive
terminal of the energy source (e.g. battery) while the negative terminal is connected to
the negative terminal of the energy source as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Ammeter connected in a circuit

Voltage

What makes the charges move in a closed circuit? In Module 2, you learned that
when work is done on an object, energy is transferred which can become energy of
motion of the object. In a circuit, work must be done on the charges to make them move.
The battery supplies the energy in electric circuits. The chemical energy in the battery is
transformed to electrical energy. This electrical energy moves the charges in a circuit.

A battery consists of several dry cells or wet cells. Both dry and wet cells contain
a conducting medium called electrolyte. The batteries we use in flashlights and watches
are dry cells.

54
 The symbol for voltage is capital letter V. The unit, volts (V), is named after the
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta who invented the voltaic pile, the forerunner of what
we now call the dry cell.

A voltmeter measures voltage. Figure 2 shows how the voltmeter is connected in

a circuit. The voltmeter should be connected across the load being tested. The positive
terminal of a voltmeter is connected to the positive terminal of the bulb while the
negative terminal is connected to the negative terminal of the bulb as shown in Figure 2.

negative terminal positive terminal

of the bulb of the bulb

Figure 2. Voltmeter connected across the load

If voltage is needed for charges to flow, how does the amount of voltage affect
current? Find out in Activity 1.

Face-to-face instructions

Activity 1
Current and voltage

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. measure the electric current and voltage in a circuit using an ammeter and
voltmeter respectively; and

2. determine the relationship between electric current and voltage in a circuit.

55
Materials Needed:

1 ammeter 1 voltmeter

battery
ammeter

bulb switch
Fig.3. Ammeter connected in a circuit
with one dry cell

2 dry cells (1.5 V each) 2 dry cell holders

4 connecting wires 1 switch
1 bulb 1 bulb holder

Procedure:

1. Construct a simple circuit using a dry cell, a bulb, a switch and an ammeter. Close
the circuit by turning on the switch. Observe the bulb and the ammeter. Record the
ammeter reading in Table 1. Upon completion of the task, switch off the circuit.

Q1. What is the reading on the ammeter?

2. Add another dry cell to the circuit. Record the electric current measurement in
Table 1. Once the task is done, turn off the switch.

Figure 4. Ammeter connected in a circuit with two dry cells

56
 Table 1
No. of batteries Voltage (V) Current (A)
1
2

Q2. Compare the brightness of the bulb with one dry cell to its brightness when there are
two dry cells in the circuit.

Q3. What is the ammeter reading this time?

Q4. What can be inferred about the current passing through the bulb?

3. Connect the voltmeter in the circuit as shown in Figure 5. Switch on and record the
voltage in table 1. Once the task is done, turn off the switch.

Figure 5. Voltmeter connected in a circuit with one dry cell

Q5. What is the voltmeter reading?

4. Add another dry cell to the circuit. Record the voltmeter reading in Table 1.
Observe the brightness of the bulb. Once the task is done, turn off the switch.

Figure 6. Voltmeter connected in a circuit with two dry cells

Q6. Describe the brightness of the bulb.

57
Q7. What is the voltmeter reading this time?

Q8. What can be inferred about the voltage across the bulb?

Q9. Refer to Table 1, how are voltage and current related?

In Activity 1, the current and voltage in circuits with 1 dry cell and 2 dry cells were
compared. You observed that the ammeter and voltmeter readings are greater in the
circuit with 2 dry cells as compared to the circuit which has only one dry cell. Also, the
bulb in the circuit with 2 dry cells glowed brighter than the bulb in the circuit with only 1
dry cell. The activity showed that as the voltage increases, the current also increases.

However, a circuit is not only about voltage and current. There is another
component which is the load. A load is any component in a circuit that converts
electricity into light, heat, or mechanical motion. In the circuit you constructed in Activity
1, the bulb is the load. If two bulbs were used in the circuit, would there be a change in
the circuit current? You will find out in Activity 2.

Resistance

When electric charges flow through the wires and loads of the circuits they
encounter resistance or a hindrance to their movement. So another factor that affects
the flow of charges or current is resistance.

The symbol for resistance is capital letter R. The unit, ohms (Ω) is named after
the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm.

How is current affected by the resistance of the load in a circuit? Do activity 2 to

find out.

Activity 2
Current and resistance

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to determine the

relationship between electric current and resistance.

Materials Needed:

1 ammeter 2 dry cells

2 dry cell holders 4 connecting wires or alligator clips

58
 1 switch 3 flashlight bulbs (voltage rating of 2.5V each)
3 bulb holders

Procedure:

1. Construct a simple circuit using one bulb, 2 dry cells and an ammeter as shown in
Figure 7. Record the electric current measurement in Table 2. Once the task is
done, turn off the switch.

Figure 7. Ammeter connected in a circuit with one bulb and two dry cells

2. To increase the resistance, add another bulb in the circuit. Connect the ammeter
and record the electric current measurement in Table 2. Once the task is done,
turn off the switch.

Figure 8. Ammeter connected in a circuit with two bulbs and two dry cells

3. To further increase the resistance, add another bulb in the circuit. Connect the
ammeter and record the electric current measurement in Table 2. Once the task is
done, turn off the switch.

59
 Figure 9. An ammeter connected in a circuit with three bulbs and two dry cells

Table 2 Measurement of Electric Current

No. of bulbs Current (A)

Q10. Based on Table 2, what happens to the current in the circuit as the resistance
increases (increasing of bulbs)?

4. Connect the ammeter at different points around the circuit shown in Figure 10.
Make sure that the positive terminal of the ammeter is connected to the positive
terminal of the dry cell while the negative terminal is connected to the negative
terminal of the dry cell. Once the task is done, turn off the switch.

B C

Figure 10. Ammeter connected between two bulbs in a circuit

Q11. Compare the current at different points in the circuit.

Q12. What can you infer about the current through the circuit?

60
 In Activity 2, you added bulbs to the circuit to see if the current in the circuit will
be affected. You observed that keeping the number of dry cells the same, adding more
bulbs resulted in a decrease in current. Since adding more bulbs means increasing the
resistance in the circuit, it can be inferred that the resistance limits the current in the
circuit. You further observed that the current is the same in any part of the circuit as
evidenced by the ammeter readings.

How is the result in Activity 1, related to the result in Activity 2?

The results of Activity 1 showed that for a fixed resistance (one bulb), as the
voltage increases, the current also increases.
For Activity 2, the results showed that keeping the voltage the same (2 dry cells),
when the resistance increases, the current decreases.

At this point, you are already very familiar in constructing a circuit. In Activity 3
you will find out if connecting loads in different ways would affect the current and voltage
of the circuit

Face-to-face instructions

Activity 3
What’s the connection?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. connect loads in different ways and

2. explain the similarities and differences between the circuit connections.

Materials Needed:

For Circuit A:
3 connecting wires
2 identical bulbs with holder
2 dry cells with holder

For Circuit B:
4 connecting wires
2 identical bulbs with holder
2 dry cells with holder

voltmeter for both circuits

61
Procedure:

1. Construct a circuit using three connecting wires, two identical bulbs and two
batteries such that when one bulb is unscrewed the other bulb goes out also.
Once you’re done with the task, disconnect the battery from the circuit.

2. Draw your setup. Label this Circuit A.

3. Trace the paths of current in Circuit A.

Q13. How many path/s of current are there in the circuit?

Q14. Why did the other bulb go out also when you unscrewed the other?

4. This time, construct a circuit using four connecting wires, two identical bulbs and
two batteries such that when one bulb is unscrewed, the other bulb remains
lighted. Once you’re done with the task, disconnect the battery from the circuit.

5. Draw your setup. Label this Circuit B.

6. Trace the path of current in Circuit B.

Q15. How many paths can the current take in Circuit B?

Q16. Explain why the other bulb remains lighted when you unscrewed one of them.

7. Put Circuits A and B side by side. Observe the brightness of the bulbs.

Q17. Which circuit has brighter bulbs, A or B?

Q18. Using the brightness of the bulbs as an indicator of the magnitude of the current,
compare the current in Circuit A and in Circuit B?

8. Measure the voltage across the two bulbs as well as the voltage across each bulb
in Circuit A. Record your readings in Table 3. Do the same in Circuit B.

Table 3
Circuit Voltage drop (V) Voltage across the two bulbs
Bulb 1 Bulb 2 (V)
A
B

In Circuit A, the bulbs are connected in series, while in Circuit B, the bulbs are
connected in parallel. Series and parallel connections are the two ways of wiring loads.
In a series connection, there is only one path for the current. In a parallel connection the
current from the battery can branch out to the two bulbs. Hence the current can take the
path through Bulb 1 and the path through Bulb 2.

The current in Circuit A takes only one path, passing through the two bulbs.
When one bulb is unscrewed or removed, a gap is created. A gap or a break anywhere

62
 in the path stops the flow of charges and therefore no current passes through to the
other bulb.

In Circuit B, the current can take two paths - one path for each bulb. When one
bulb is unscrewed or removed, the other bulb is still part of a complete circuit and
remains lighted.

Let us compare the other characteristics of Circuits A and B. Circuit A is similar to

the circuit of three bulbs you made in Activity 2. The bulbs are connected in series. In
this type of connection, the resistance increases with the number of bulbs added in the
circuit. The total resistance in the circuit is the sum of the resistance offered by each
bulb.

You observed in Activity 2 that as the total resistance increases, the current
through the circuit decreases. You also measured the current and voltage at different
parts of the circuit. Your measurements showed that the current is the same anywhere
in a series circuit, and the sum of the voltages across each bulb equalled that of the
voltage source.

On the other hand, Circuit B has 2 bulbs which were connected in parallel. You
observed that the voltage across each bulb is almost equal to the voltage of the two dry
cells, indicating that the voltage anywhere in the circuit is the same. However, when the
brightness of the bulbs in Circuit B is compared to that of the bulbs in Circuit A, those of
Circuit B were brighter than those of A. This means the current in B is greater than the
current in A. Since the voltage in A and B are the same (2 dry cells), the greater current
in B indicates that the total resistance of Circuit B is less than the total resistance of
Circuit A. We can infer that when loads (bulbs) are connected in parallel, the total
resistance of the circuit decreases; when the loads are connected in series, the total
resistance increases. Table 4 compares the total current, total voltage and total
resistance of series and parallel circuits.

Table 4 .
Series connection Parallel connection
Total current Same as current in individual load Equal to the sum of current in
individual loads
Total voltage Equal to the sum of the voltages Same anywhere across two
across each load points in the circuit
Total Increases with increasing load Decreases with increasing load
resistance

Look at the connections of wirings in your house. Which are connected in series? Which
are connected in parallel? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each type of
connection?

63
 Safety in Using Electricity

Your parents have probably cautioned you about the use of electrical devices even
before you reached school age. You were told not to touch electrical outlets or insert
anything into it. You were told not to touch any open electrical wires in the house. Well they
may not have explained it to you back then, but they have valid reasons.

Firemen advise homeowners to check the electrical connections in their homes

especially the condition of the wires. They advise homeowners to replace exposed electrical
wires. Why is there a need to cover exposed wires? You will find the answer in Activity 4.

A short circuit happens when the exposed parts of the electrical wires touch one
another. When the exposed wires were made to touch, a shortened path is provided for
the current, hence the term short circuit. Since the path has been shortened, current will
no longer take the path through the bulb, thereby decreasing the total resistance in the
path of current. This will result in a large current in the shortened circuit. Short circuits
are dangerous especially with the high line voltage in our houses (220V compare to 1.5V
of dry cells) because the large current produced can generate a lot of heat that could
start a fire.

The current that a wire of given diameter can safely carry is indicated by its
current rating. When the current in the circuit exceeds the wire’s current rating, an
overload of the circuit occurs. Overloading can also generate a lot of heat in the wire
that can cause a fire outbreak.

In designing electrical installations, engineers estimate the current

requirements of appliances and electrical devices the owner intends to use and make
these as the basis for selecting the appropriate size of wire in wiring the house.

When there are too many appliances plugged into one outlet (also called octopus
wiring) the loads are effectively connected in parallel and overloading may also occur.
Figure 16 shows an example of octopus wiring.

Q27. What happens to the total resistance of the circuit when more and more appliances
are connected to one outlet?

Q28. What happens to the total current?

Q29. Overloading a circuit can start a fire. How is this possible?

Summary

Electric charges can only flow continuously in a complete circuit. The voltage
provides the energy that moves the charges in the circuit. The current is determined by
the voltage and the total resistance of the circuit. Current is directly proportional to
voltage but inversely proportional to resistance.

64
 In a series circuit, the loads are connected to form a single pathway for electric
charges to pass. In a parallel circuit, the loads are connected to form branches, each of
which provides a separate path for current.

A short circuit happens when the circuit offers little or no resistance to the flow of
charges. This results in a large amount of current in the circuit. When the current in the
circuit exceeds the wire’s current rating, overload of the circuit occurs.

Module 4. Electricity Post-test

Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it on your answer sheet.
1. A German physicist who named the unit, ohms (Ω) for resistance (R).
A. Galileo B. George Simon Ohm C. Isaac Newton
2. When does short circuit happen?
3. What happens to the total resistance of the circuit when more and more appliances
are connected to one outlet?
4. What happens to the total current?

5. Overloading a circuit can start a fire. Explain.

References and Links

Henderson, Tom. (21 January 2013). Retrieved from

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/energy/

Hewitt, P.G. (2002). Conceptual physics. USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Saddle River, New
Jersey.

Kirkpatrick, L.D. and Wheeler, G.F. (1998).Physics a world view. USA: Saunders
College Publishing

Ostdiek, V.J. and Bord, D.J. (1987).Inquiry into Physics. USA: West Publishing
Company
DepEd.Science and Technology IV.SEDP Series. (1992). Philippines: Book Media
Press, Inc.

http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_3/4.html

65
This module discusses the following
lessons:
Propagation and Characteristics of Sound
Reflection of Sound
Refraction of Sound
 Activity 1. The dancing salt and the moving beads!
 Activity 2. Characteristics of Waves: Comparing longitudinal and
transverse waves
 Activity 3. Sound race… Where does sound travel fastest?
 Activity 4. Chimes… Chimes… Chimes…
 Activity 5. Faster sound… In hotter or cooler?
 Activity 6. Reflecting and Refracting sound

What are you expected to learn

Infer how the movement of particles of an object affect the speed of sound
through it;

Investigate the effect of temperature to speed of sound through fair testing

66
 Unit 1
MODULE

5 SOUNDS

Overview

“Hey I just met you and this is crazy. So here’s my number so call me maybe...”
This is the popular song of Carly Rae Jepsen released in 2012. I bet you know this song.
Can you sing the other lines? Is this the ring tone of your mobile? What about your ring
back tone? Would you want that of Maroon 5’s payphone also released in 2012? “I’m at
the payphone trying to call home. All of my change I’ve spent on you...” These are cool
and beautiful songs to listen to.

Acoustics, the Science of sound has gone all the way from a mere transfer of
energy to the creation of tunes and music for entertainment. Most of our gadgets are
sound embedded to amuse us. In the field of geology and oceanography, sound is used
to determine depths. The health sciences are also using ultrasound for medical
purposes. Some animals are dependent on sound for movement. The newest focus of
sound science is on ecology where ecological patterns and phenomena are predicted
based on sounds released by the different components of the ecosystem. So, are you
ready to have fun with sounds?

In this module, you will learn sound propagation. While you learn about sound,
wave description and characteristics will also be introduced to you. Among the
characteristics, you will focus on the speed of sound. You will find out through simple
activities through which medium sound travels fastest. You will also find out how the
temperature of the medium affects the speed of sound. In the quest to explore more
about sound science, you will be acquainted with the properties of waves, specifically
reflection and refraction.

Through which medium does sound travel fastest- solid, liquid, or gas?
How does the temperature of the medium affect the speed of sound?
How are reflection and refraction manifested in sound?

67
Propagation and Characteristics of Sound

Figure 1. Supersonic Figure 2. Hearing Sounds

Have you experienced hearing a sonic boom? Figure 1 shows a whitish cloud at
the tail end of the aircraft. This usually happens when the aircraft travels at a speed
faster than the speed of sound, i.e., the aircraft travels at supersonic speed producing a
sonic boom.

A sonic boom happens when the aircraft or any vehicle breaks the sound barrier
while it accelerates and outruns the speed of sound. A loud explosive sound is heard on
the ground and is called a sonic boom. The aircraft that does this is usually called
supersonic. There are more amazing occurrences or phenomena related to sound.
Read on and find out.

Sound Propagation

Sound consists of waves of air particles.

Generally, sound propagates and travels through air. It
can also be propagated through other media. Since it
needs a medium to propagate, it is considered a
mechanical wave. In propagating sound, the waves are
characterized as longitudinal waves. These are waves
that travel parallel to the motion of the particles. Do all
these terms and concepts seem confusing? Let’s try the
succeeding activities to get a clearer picture of what
sound waves are.

Figure 3. Propagating Sound

68
Activity 1
The dancing salt and the moving beads!

Objectives:

At the end of the activity, you will be able to infer that:

1. sound consists of vibrations that travel through the air; and

2. sound is transmitted in air through vibrations of air particles

Materials:

1 rubber band
1 piece of plastic sheet
1 empty 800-g can of powdered milk
1 wooden ruler
1 empty 400-g can of evaporated milk
rock salt
1 dowel or 1 wooden rod
1 blue bead
4 colored beads
3 inches of tape
2 large books
scissors
5 pieces of string
paper slinky spring
transistor radio

Procedure:

Part A: Vibrations produce sound

1. Prepare all the materials needed for the activity. Make sure that you find a work
area far enough from other groups.

2. Put the plastic tightly over the open end of the large can and hold it while your
partner puts the rubber band over it.

3. Sprinkle some rock salt on top of the plastic.

4. Hold the small can close to the salt and tap the side of the small can with the
ruler as shown in Figure 4.

69
 Figure 4
Q1. What happens to the salt?

5. Try tapping the small can in different spots or holding it in different directions.
Find out how you should hold and tap the can to get the salt to move and dance
the most.

Q2. How were you able to make the salt move and dance the most?

Q3. What was produced when you tapped the small can? Did you observe the salt
bounce or dance on top of the plastic while you tapped the small can?

Q4. What made the salt bounce up and down?

Q5. From your observations, how would you define sound?

6. Switch on the transistor radio and position the speaker near the large can.
Observe the rock salt.

7. Increase the volume of the radio while it is still positioned near the large can.
Observe the rock salt again.

Q6. What happened to the rock salt as the loudness is increased?

Q7. Which wave characteristic is affected by the loudness or the intensity of sound?

Part B: Transmitting sound

8. Let two books stand up as shown in Figure 5. Place the dowel on top of the 2
books.

Figure 5. Set up for Activity 1B

70
9. Cut out an image of a human ear from a magazine and tape it to one of the
books.

10. Start with the blue bead. Tape the string to the mark on the dowel that is farthest
away from the ear.

11. Then tape the 4 colored beads to the other 4 marks. Make sure that all the beads
hang in a straight line.

12. The colored beads represent air particles. Create vibrations (sound) in the air by
tapping the blue bead toward the colored beads.

Q8. What happens to the other colored beads when the blue bead is tapped?

13. Create more vibrations by continuously tapping the blue bead and observe the
other beads.

Q9. Are there occasion when the beads converge then expand?

14. If the beads represent air particles, what do the converging and expanding of the
beads represent?

15. Connect one end of the slinky to a fixed point. Hold the other end then push and
pull the slinky continuously. Record your observations.

Q10. Are there converging and expanding parts of the slinky?

Q11. How then is sound classified as a wave?

16. This time shake the other end of the slinky while the other end is still connected
to the fixed point. Record your observations.

Were you able to get good sets of data from the activity? Did you enjoy watching the
salt dance and the beads move? The salt and the beads represent particles of air when
disturbed. The disturbance encountered by the salt and the beads causes the salt to
bounce up and down and the beads to move together and spread alternately. In grade 7,
you discussed that energy is transferred or transmitted from one object to another.
Bouncing salt is also a manifestation of energy transmission. When sound is created by
tapping the small can, the wave (sound) is transmitted by air to the larger can causing
the plastic cover of the larger can to vibrate transferring energy to the rock salt. And
voila!—dancing rock salt!

What about the beads? Did you observe the alternating converging and
spreading of the beads? Compare this to your observations in the slinky spring. The
converging portions of the beads match the compressions in the slinky while the
spreading portions are the rarefactions of the slinky. With the compressions and

71
rarefactions, what you were able to produce is called a longitudinal wave. Longitudinal
waves are waves that are usually created by pulling and pushing the material or medium
just like in the slinky (Figure 6). Alternating compressions and rarefactions are observed.
These compressions and rarefactions move along with the direction of the pushing and
pulling activity of the material or medium. Thus, the wave moves parallel to the motion of
material or the particles of the medium. This is known as a longitudinal wave.

Figure 6. Longitudinal wave

Figure 7. Transverse wave

Let us compare the longitudinal wave with the other kind of wave known as a
transverse wave in Figure 7. The compressions resemble the trough while the
rarefactions are the crests. Do you still remember these characteristics of waves? The
trough is the lowest part of a transverse wave while the crest is the highest portion. The
distance from one compression to the next or between two successive compressions in
a longitudinal wave equals the wavelength.
If you count the number of compressions passing by a certain point in 1 second,
you are able to determine the frequency of the longitudinal wave. If you multiply the
measured wavelength and the computed frequency you will be able to determine the
speed of the wave. In equation,

There are other variations in the equation for the speed of the wave. The period of the
longitudinal wave is the reciprocal of its frequency . This means that the speed of
the wave can be expressed as the ratio of the wavelength and the period,

72
 Let us try to compare the characteristics of longitudinal wave with that of the
transverse wave in Activity 2.

Activity 2
Characteristics of waves: Comparing longitudinal
and transverse waves
Objectives:

At the end of the activity, you will be able to:

1. distinguish the different characteristics of waves;

2. determine their frequency and wavelength; and
3. compute the wave speed based on the frequency and wavelength

Materials:

Pentel pen or permanent marker

stopwatch or mobile phone
meterstick
old calendar (big poster calendar) or old newspaper
metal slinky

Procedure:

1. Place the old calendar or old newspaper on the floor. Make sure that the
newspaper or old calendar is long enough to accommodate the full length of the
slinky spring.

2. Put the slinky on top of the old newspaper or old calendar. Ask one of your group
mates to hold one end of the slinky at the one end of the newspaper. This will
serve as the fixed end.

3. Another group mate will hold the other end of the slinky. This is the movable end.

4. The other members of the group should be along the sides so they can mark the
corresponding crests. Identify a reference point (point A) along the slinky from
which you are going to base your frequency count.

5. Shake the movable end in horizontal plane of the paper. Apply just enough force to
create large wave pulses. Make sure, however, that the crest and trough parts will
still be formed within the newspaper area.

73
6. Another group mate should count the number of pulses passing through point A in
a minute. This is the frequency in waves per minute. You can convert this later to
waves per second.

7. While your classmate is creating transverse waves by shaking the slinky, note by
marking on the newspaper the crest and the trough of the created wave pulses.

8. Trace the wave form then measure the wavelength of the wave pulses. Record all
your data on the answer sheet provided.

9. Repeat steps 5 to 8 for two more trials. Compute for the wave speed in each of the
3 trials. Determine also the average speed of the wave in the slinky.

10. For the second set up, repeat the whole procedure (steps 1 to 9) but this time
instead of shaking the slinky, pull and push the slinky to create a longitudinal wave.

11. Note and mark the areas/regions in the newspaper where the slinky forms
compressions and rarefactions.

12. Count the number of compressions passing through point A in a minute. This is the
frequency of the longitudinal wave in waves per minute.

13. Measure the length between 2 compressions. This is the wavelength of the
longitudinal wave.

14. Do this for three more trials, and then compute for the wave speed and the
average speed of the wave in the slinky.

Q12. When there are more waves passing through the reference point in a period of
time, which wave characteristic also increases?

Q13. When there are more waves passing through the reference point in a period of
time, what happens to the wavelength of the waves?

As you have observed in Activity 2, there are many characteristics common to

both transverse wave and longitudinal wave. The difference is in the motion of particles
with respect to the direction of travel of the wave. Again, in a transverse wave, the
movement of particles is perpendicular to the direction of wave travel. In a longitudinal
wave, on the other hand, travel is parallel to the movement of the particles (Figure 8). In
longitudinal waves, compressions are created when a push is applied on air. When air is
pushed, there is a force applied on a unit area of air. From your science in the lower
grades, the force applied per unit area is called pressure. This means that longitudinal
waves are created by pressure and are also called pressure waves. Basically, sound as
you have observed it is a longitudinal wave and a pressure wave. Just like the
transverse waves, it has wave characteristics. Its movement is parallel to the particle
motion. But do the particles in a way affect the movement of sound? What factors affect
sound speed? Let us try finding this out in the next activities.

74
 Figure 8. Anatomy of Transverse and longitudinal waves

Activity 3
Sound race...Where does sound travel fastest?

Objective:

At the end of the activity, you will be able to distinguish which material transmits
sound the best.

Materials:
watch/clock that ticks
mobile phone wooden dowel 80-
100 cm long
metal rod 80-100 cm long
string (1 meter)
metal spoon
3 pieces zip lock bag (3x3) or waterproof mobile phone carrying
case

Procedure:

1. Hold a ticking watch/clock as far away from your body as you can. Observe
whether or not you can hear the ticking.

2. Press one end of the wooden dowel against the back part of the watch and the
other end beside your ear. Listen very well to the ticking sound. Note your
observations.

75
3. Repeat this step (step 2) using a metal rod instead of the wooden dowel. Record
your observations.

Q14. Did you hear the watch tick when you held it at arm's length? When you held it
against the wooden dowel? When you held it against the metal rod?

4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 using a vibrating mobile phone instead. Record your

observations.

Q15. Did you hear the mobile phone vibrate when you held it at arm's length? When you
held it against the wooden dowel? When you held it against the metal rod?

5. Place the mobile phone in the waterproof carrying case and dip it in a basin of
water while it vibrates.
Q16. Based on your observations, which is a better carrier of sound? Air or wood?
Air or water? Air or metal? Water or metal?

6. At the center of the meter long string, tie the handle of the metal spoon. Hold
the string at each end and knock the spoon against the table to make it ring or
to create a sound. Listen to the ringing sound for a few seconds then press the
ends of the strings against your ears. Observe and record the difference in
sound with and without the string pressed against your ear.
7. Knock the spoon against the table. When you can no longer hear the sound of
the ringing spoon, press the ends of the string against your ears. Observe and
note whether or not you could hear the ringing of the spoon again.

Q17. How did the sound of the spoon change when the string was held against your
ears?

Q18. When the ringing of the spoon was too quiet to be heard through the air,
could it be heard through the string?

Q19. Is the string a better medium for sound to propagate in than air?

So, through which material does sound travel fastest? Through which
material did sound travel the slowest? Why does sound travel fastest in solids and
slowest in air? Do you have any idea what makes sound move fast in solids?

Figure 9 shows a model for the three states of matter. Identify which is solid,
liquid or gas. Now, do you have any hint why sound moves fastest in a solid medium?
To give us a better picture of the differences of the three states of matter, consider
worksheet 1. Then with the aid of Activity No.4 Chimes...Chimes...Chimes...you will be
able to determine what makes solid the best transmitter of sound.

76
 Figure 9. A model for the three states of matter

Worksheet 1: Solids, Liquids, & Gases

Direction: Using several resources and references, compare the different characteristics
of solids, liquids, and gases by completing the table below. You have learned some of
these in your lower grades and you can infer the others from experiences and
observations.

Comparing Solids, Liquids, and Gases

Characteristics Solid Liquid Gas

Intermolecular spacing
Volume
Ability to flow
Compressibility

Density

Activity 4
Chimes…Chimes…Chimes…

Objective:
At the end of the activity, you will be able to infer using improvised chimes that
closely spaced materials are the best transmitters of sound.

Materials:
materials for the chime
nylon string or thread
plastic lid or wood about 1 ½ foot long
small electric fan
pair of scissors
nail and hammer
beads
paint

77
iron stand

Procedure:

Improvised Chime

1. Go on a treasure hunt and look for items that will create a lovely sound when
they collide, such as seashells, bells, beads, spoons, forks, and stones.

2. If the items are thin enough, poke a hole through them with a nail. Then pull a
piece of string or nylon thread through each hole, and tie a knot.

3. For heavier objects, such as stones, spoons, or forks; wrap the string around the
object a few times, and rub non-toxic liquid glue over the string to hold it in place.

4. Next, find a colorful plastic lid or a nice looking pieces of wood to serve as the top
of the wind chime.

5. Tie at least 6 of these stringed objects on the plastic lid or on the wood. Make
sure that the strands are evenly spaced and are not too far apart from each
other.

6. Finally, tie another string at the two ends of the plastic lid or on the wood for
hanging the chime.

Sounding the Chimes

1. Hang your chime in an iron stand where there is no wind source except your
handy fan.

2. With the 6 stringed objects hanging on the wooden or plastic lid, switch on the
fan and observe. This is your CHIME 1. Listen to the sound created by your
chime. Ask one of your classmates to move away from the chime until the sound
is not heard anymore. Measure this distance from the chime to your classmate
and record your results.

3. Repeat step 2 but add 4 more stringed objects on the chimes creating chime
with 10 stringed objects. Make sure that you tie the additional stringed objects in
between the original ones. This is your CHIME 2.

Q20. Observe what happens. With which chime did you record a longer distance?

Q21. Which chime had more stringed objects? Which chime had more closely spaced
stringed objects given the same wooden lid?

4. Repeat step 2 but add 4 more stringed objects on the chime creating a chime
with 14 stringed objects. This is your CHIME 3.

Q22. Observe what happens. With which chime did you record the longest distance?

78
Q23. Which chime has the most stringed objects? Which chime has the most
closely spaced stringed objects given the same wooden lid?

Q24. How would you relate the measured distance reached by the sound created
by the chime and the spacing of the stringed objects in each of the 3 chimes?

Q25. Which chime is capable of transmitting sound the best?

Q26. How would you relate the distance of the stringed objects in the chime and
the capability of the chime to transmit sound?

The speed of sound may differ for different types of solids, liquids, and gases.
For one, the elastic properties are different for different materials. This property (elastic
property) is the tendency of a material to maintain its shape and not deform when a force
is applied to the object or medium. Steel for example will experience a smaller
deformation than rubber when a force is applied to the materials. Steel is a rigid material
while rubber can easily deform and is known as a flexible material.

At the molecular level, a rigid material is distinguished by atoms and/or particles

with strong forces of attraction for each other. Particles that quickly return to their rest
position can vibrate at higher speeds. Thus, sound can travel faster in mediums with
higher elastic properties (like steel) than it can through solids like rubber, which have
lower elastic properties.

Does the phase of matter affect the speed of sound? It actually has a large
impact upon the elastic properties of a medium. Generally, the bond strength between
particles is strongest in solid materials and is weakest in gases. Thus, sound waves
travel faster in solids than in liquids, and faster in liquids than in gases. While the density
of a medium also affects the speed of sound, the elastic properties have a greater
influence on wave speed. This idea was already introduced in the Grade 7 lessons.
Among solids, the most rigid would transmit sound faster. Just like the case of wood and
metal in Activity 3.

What other factors may affect the speed of sound in a medium? What about
temperature? Can the temperature of the medium affect how sound moves? Find out in
the next activity.

79
Properties of Sound

Figure 10. Ultrasound image Figure 11. Live concert

Figures 10 and 11 are the amazing contribution of sound to other fields such as
health, wellness and the arts particularly the music industry. We can experience or
observe these as consequences of what are commonly called properties of sound
waves. Ultrasound works on the principle of reflection of sound waves while concerts in
open field benefit from refraction of sound. Want to know more about these amazing
sound treats?

Reflection of Sound

A lot of people love to sing inside the

bathroom because of privacy. A study conducted
noted that people would open their mouths wide
when they sing in private places like the baths.
Another reason is the hard wall surfaces of the
bathroom usually made of wood or tiles brings
about multiple reflection of sound. These hard
walls or surfaces and the small dimension of the
bathroom typically create an aurally pleasing
acoustic environment with many echoes and
reverberations contributing to the fullness and
depth of voice. Well, this may not be the effect in
the outside world though.
Look at Figure 12 and try it yourself.
Figure 12. Bathroom singing

Just like any other wave, sound also exhibits reflection. Reflection is usually described
as the turning or bouncing back of a wave as it hits a barrier. An echo is an example of
a reflected sound. Reverberation on the other hand refers to the multiple reflections or
echoes in a certain place. A reverberation often occurs in a small room with height,
width, and length dimensions of approximately 17
meters or less. This best fits the bathroom which
enhances the voice.

In theaters and movie houses, there are also

reverberations and echoes. But these are not
pleasing to the ears during a play or a movie. To
lessen these, designers use curtains and cloth cover

Figure 13. SONAR

80
for the chairs and carpets. Check out the different movie houses and look for features
inside that decreases reverberations and echoes.

Echo sounding is another application of sound reflection. This is used by scientists to

map the sea floor and to determine the depth of the ocean or sea. This is just the same
as how bats use sound to detect distances. What about you, can you identify other
applications of sound reflection?

Refraction of Sound

Have you ever wondered why open field concerts are usually held during night
time? Having concert at night gives a chance for everyone to see and enjoy the live
show because there is no work and no school. Sound also contributes to this scheduling
of concerts. Usually, sound is heard better in far areas during night time than during
daytime. This happens due to what is known as refraction. Refraction is described as the
change in speed of sound when it encounters a medium of different density. As what
you had earlier in this module, sound travels faster in hotter media. This change in
speed of sound during refraction is also manifested as sort of “bending” of sound waves.

When sound propagates in air, where the temperature changes with altitude,
sound bends towards the hotter region. In this case, refraction happens. The refraction is
due to the different refractive indices of air because of the difference in temperature. At
daytime, when the sun is shining, the air near Earth’s surface is cooler than the air
above. From what you encountered in Activity 5, you learned that sound travels faster in
hotter medium. Since Earth’s surface is warmer than air above during daytime, then

Figure14. Sound refraction at day time Figure15. Sound refraction at night time

sound would move from the warmer region (Earth surface) towards the cooler air above.
Thus, sound waves will be refracted to the sky (Figure 14). At night time, the air above
the Earth’s surface is heated by the heat emitted by the ground, making it hotter than the
Earth surface which is cooler due to the absence of the sun during nighttime. This
makes sound move from the warmer region above towards the cooler region near the
Earth’s surface. Thus, sound waves are refracted to the Earth’s surface (Figure15). This
makes open field concerts better done during night time as sound waves are refracted

81
from the stage towards the audience. This gives a clearer and more audible music to
enjoy.

Summary

Sound waves are examples of longitudinal waves. They also exhibit characteristic
features such as frequency, amplitude, wavelength, period and wave speed. The crest
and the trough of transverse waves, however, are synonymous to compressions and
rarefactions of longitudinal waves. These compressions and rarefactions are created
when the particles of the medium are alternately pushed and pulled. The alternate
pushing and pulling mechanically exerts force on unit areas of air particles and thus
creating pressure waves. Compressions form when air particles or molecules of the
medium are pushed creating lesser distance between particles, while rarefactions occur
when the particles are somewhat pulled away from other particles creating a wider
distance between particles. This alternating compressions and rarefaction make up the
longitudinal waves like sound waves.

Just like other waves, the speed of a sound wave is determined by taking the product of
the frequency and the wavelength. Speed of sound however is dependent on factors
such as density, elasticity of the medium and temperature. The more elastic the medium
is the faster the sound travels. Likewise, a direct relation is observed between
temperature and sound speed.

Properties of waves such as reflection and refraction are also evident in sound waves.
Reflected sound is known as an echo while repeated echo in a small dimension space
or room is called reverberation. Change in speed resulting to bending of sound or
refraction are usually observed with changes in temperature at certain altitude. What
about transverse waves like light? Can we also observe these properties? Let’s find out
in the next module!

Module 5 Sounds Post-test

Directions: Choose the correct answer inside the box below. Write the answers on a
sheet of paper.

Frequency longitudinal wave

Crest wavelength
Reverberation Echo
trough
1. A type of wave that moves parallel to the motion of material or the particles of the
medium?
2. The lowest part of a transverse wave is called_______.
3. The highest part of the transverse wave is called_______.
4. _______ is the distance from one compression to the next or between two
successive compressions in a longitudinal wave.
5. _______ is the number of compressions passing by a certain point in 1 second.
6. _______ is an example of a reflected sound.
7. _______ refers to the multiple reflections or echoes in a certain place.References
and Links

http://www.hk-phy.org/iq/sound_night/sound_night_e.html

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 http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age11-14/Sound/text/Refraction_of_sound/index.html
http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age11-14/Sound/text/Refraction_of_sound/index.html

Unit 1
MODULE

6 COLORS OF LIGHT

This module discusses the following

lessons:
Refraction of light
Refracting Light
 Activity 1. The colors of the rainbow… The colors of light
 Activity 2. Red versus violet
 Activity 3. Which color has the most energy?
 Activity 4. The color spectrum wheel revisited
 Activity 5. Scientific explanations behind certain beliefs

What are you expected to learn

17. demonstrate the existence of the color components of visible light using a
prism or diffraction grating;
18. explain the hierarchy of colors in relation to energy;
19. explain that red is the least bent and violet the most bent according to their
wavelengths or frequencies;

83
 Unit 1
MODULE

6 COLORS OF LIGHT
Overview

Optics, the science of Light has gone all the way from a mere transfer of energy
to the creation of colors for entertainment and other purposes. Most of our gadgets are
light emitting for efficiency when used at night. In the field of medicine light is used to cut
through the skin for surgery as in laparoscopy. The health sciences are also using light
for other medical purposes. But the most important purpose is for humans and other
animals to see the beautiful world through light. So, are you ready to explore the
characteristics and properties of light?

In this module, you will learn some properties and characteristics of light. Among
the characteristics and properties of light, we will focus on refraction and specifically,
dispersion of light. We will try to find through simple activities how light disperse to form
the colors of light. We will also try to find the difference of the colors of light in terms of
frequency, wavelength, and energy. The different activities provided in this module will
make us realize the beauty of everything with light.

How are refraction and dispersion demonstrated in light?

Among the different colors of light, which is bent the most and the
least when light enters interfaces?
Why do we see spectacular events in the sky like rainbows, red
sunsets and blue skies?

84
 1F
. Apparent Depth … Refracted light
i
Refraction
g of Light
u
r you know that the boy made the stunt in a 6-ft deep swimming pool? But as it
Did
appearse in Figure 1 (above) the water is just shallow and the stunt would not be
dangerousii at all. This optical illusion is known as apparent depth. Apparent depth is the
g
illusion that objects under the water appear to be nearer the surface than they really are.
This is uvisible when an observer is standing beside the swimming pool looking at an
object under
r water. This phenomenon is a consequence of the refraction or bending of
light when
e light traverses the air-water boundary.

85
Refracting Light

Figure 2. The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Light exhibits the characteristics and properties of a wave. It is classified as an

electromagnetic wave located between the spectrum of infrared and ultraviolet. As an
electromagnetic wave it does not need a medium in order to propagate. It moves in its
maximum speed in vacuum. But this speed decreases as it moves along different media.
This characteristic of light consequently shows bending when it crosses the boundary
between two media. Apparent distortion of an object seen at the boundary between
media is observed.

86
 Figure 3. Show me the coin…

Figure 4. Broken pencil

Figures 3 and 4 are the basic examples of refraction of light. Refraction is the
bending of light when it travels from one medium to another of different optical densities.
The pencil as shown in Figure 4 is not really broken. If we remove the water from the
glass and look at the pencil, the pencil would look normally straight. Now try pouring
water onto the glass and, voila - a broken pencil. This happens because of the change
in speed and orientation of the light with respect to the normal as it traverses a new
medium of a different density.

Light travels so fast. From your lesson in your Grade 7, it is approximated to travel at a
speed of 3.0 x 108 or 300, 000, 000 m/s in a vacuum. This speed decreases when light
travels in a optically dense medium. This means that the speed of light is dependent on
the properties of the medium. The optical density of the medium is different from its
physical density. Physical density is described as the mass per unit volume of the
medium. On the other hand, the sluggishness of the atoms of a medium to maintain the
absorbed energy before reemitting it is called optical density. When light crosses the

87
boundary of two media of different optical density, a change in speed takes place. This
change in speed is manifested as bending of the light ray.

Figure 5. Refraction of light

In Figure 6, light travels from air to water. We observe that the incident angle
(<i) formed by the incident ray is greater than the angle of refraction (<r) inside the
second medium. We can see that the light ray refracts or bends towards the normal line
(the line perpendicular to the interfaces. Thus, light bends towards the normal when
traveling from a less dense medium to a medium of higher density.

Figure 6. Refraction of Light in Water

88
 A known indicator of the optical density of a material is the index of refraction of
the material. Index of refraction represented by the symbol n is the ratio of the speed of
light in vacuum and its speed in another medium. In symbols;

The index of refraction of a material is a quantity that compares the speed of light
in that material to its speed in a vacuum. Since the speed of light in vacuum is the
highest attainable speed in the universe, the index of refraction is always greater than 1.
The n values of other media are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Index of Refraction of other materials

Materials Index of Refraction
Diamond 2.147

Zircon 1.923

Light flint glass 1.580

Crown glass 1.520

Ethyl alcohol 1.510

Water 1.360

Ice air 1.310

Vacuum 1.000

Air 1.0003

89
Activity 1
The colors of the rainbow...The colors of light

Objectives:

At the end of the activity, you will be able to infer that:

1. white light is made up of many different colors of light; and

2. each of these colors of light bends differently when it strikes objects like a
prism.

Materials:

a sunny window
plastic container filled with water 2
sheets of white paper a small mirror
penlight prism
stack of books

Procedure:

Part A: ROY G. BIV on paper using a bowl of water

1. Place the bowl near the window. Make sure

that there is plenty of sunlight in that part of the
window.

2. Set the mirror partway into the water facing the

light as shown in the figure on the right.

3. Hold the piece of paper up to intercept the reflected beam.

4. Adjust the position of the mirror until you see color bands on the piece of paper.

Q1. List and arrange the observed colors according to how they appear on the paper.

Part B: ROYGBIV using a prism

1. Position a stack of books near the window where there is plenty of sunlight.

2. Place a white sheet of paper on top of the stack of books.

3. On top of this sheet place the prism. Make sure that sunlight from the window
reaches the prism.

90
4. Position the prism until a rainbow or the colors of light appear on the white sheet of
paper.

5. Use the table below to note the refractive indices of the colors of light in acrylic or
crown glass

Material/Color of light Wavelength, Index of

(nm) refraction, n
Acrylic
• Red 650 1.488
• Orange 600 1.490
• Yellow 550 1.497
• Green 500 1.495

• Blue 450 1.502

• Violet 400 1.508

Crown Glass
• Red 650 1.512
• Orange 600 1.515
• Yellow 550 1.518
• Green 500 1.520

• Blue Violet 440 1.525

400 1.530

6. Record all your observations in the worksheet provided.

Q2. Describe the position of the different colors after passing through the prism

Q3. Explain the dispersion of white light. Why is the prism or water able to separate the
colors of white light?

Q4. Compare your results in the first part with your results in the second part. Are there
any differences? What might account for the differences?

Q5. What did you observe with the indices of refraction of the colors of light in the acrylic
prism?

Q6. How would this indices of refraction account for the arrangement of colors of light?

91
 Were you able to get good sets of data from the activity? Did you enjoy watching
how the rainbow colors appear when white light strikes the prism or the mirror in the
bowl of water? We highlight here the arrangement of colors of light as ROYGBIV when
dispersion happens. Again, dispersion is a special kind of refraction which provided us
colors of light. This phenomenon is observed when white light passes through a
triangular prism. When white light enters a prism, separation into different colors is
observed. Remember the concept of refractive indices in the previous module and in the
first part of the lesson? The refractive indices of the different colors of light indicate that
light of different colors travels at different speeds in the prism which accounts for the
different degrees of bending. Thus, blue light with greater refractive index refracts more
and appears at the bottom of the red light. Activity 3, however, will give you a better idea
why this is so.

Activity 2
Red versus violet...

Objectives:

At the end of the activity, you will be able to observe that bending depends on the
refractive index of the color of light.

Materials:

2 sheets of white paper

a small mirror
flashlight
prism

Procedure:

1. Place or position two glass prisms on top of a white sheet of paper and near a
white screen. It would be better if the white screen is positioned vertically.

2. Position a flashlight on the other side of the prisms. Switch on the flashlight and let
the light strike the mirror.

3. Make the necessary adjustment in the position of the prism or in the position of the
flashlight until you observe a clear view of the different colors of light on the screen.

4. Mark the position of the colors of light on the white screen. Mark also the positions
of the flashlight and the prism on the white sheet of paper.

5. Trace the light beam from the flashlight to the prism. Then trace the light ray from
the prism to each of the colors of light on the white screen.

6. Draw a line that bisects the prism located near the white screen vertically. This is
line AO.

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Q7. Did you observe the colors of light just as they appeared in the first activity?

Q8. How were these colors of light arranged on the white screen?

Q9. With respect to line AO, which among the colors of light on the white screen is most
bent, red light or blue light?

Below is a table of wavelength and refractive indices of the color of light in a crown
glass prism.

Material/Color of light λ (nm) n

Acrylic
• Red 650 1.488
• Orange 600 1.490
• Yellow 550 1.497
• Green 500 1.495

• Blue 450 1.502

• Violet 400 1.508

Material/Color of light λ (nm) n

Crown Glass
• Red 650 1.512
• Orange 600 1.515
• Yellow 550 1.518
• Green 500 1.520

• Blue 440 1.525

• Violet 400 1.530

Q10. How would you relate the refractive index with the bending of the color of light?

93
But what does this arrangement of colors of light exhibit in terms of energy? Which color
of light has the greatest energy? The next activity (Activity No. 4) will provide you with
answers to this question. In this activity, you will be able to relate the arrangement of the
colors and the corresponding energies.

Activity 3
Which color has the MOST energy?

Objectives:

At the end of the activity, you will be able to infer that:

1. energy of the colors of light increases as one goes towards the right side of
the color spectrum; and

2. red light has the least energy and blue light has the most energy.

Materials:

six (6) thermometers (special thermometers which are sensitive to small changes
in temperature)
colored plastic (half sheets of Red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet)
stapler scissors Scotch tape string (nylon)
intense light source (if it is not sunny)

Procedure:

1. First, hang these thermometers in a shaded area. Wait for 10 minutes, then quickly
observe and record the temperature shown by each thermometer. This will serve
as the initial temperature of the thermometers. Wrap each thermometer with a
different colored plastic. You may use Scotch tape to secure the thermometer.

2. Connect strings at the end part of the thermometer.

3. Then hang the thermometers with their respective wraps directly under the sun or
an intense light source.

4. Record the temperature readings in each thermometer every five minutes.

94
 Time Temperature Readings (oC)
Interval Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet
Initial T

Ist 5 min

10 min

15 min

20 min

25 min

30 min

Average

Q11. Which thermometer registered the lowest temperature?

Q12. Which thermometer registered the highest temperature?

Q13. Which colored plastic allowed more energy to pass through it?

Q14. Which colored plastic allowed the least energy to pass through it?

Q15. From your answers in Q13 and Q14, which color of light has the least
energy? The most energy?

Did you have a good set of results? Were you able to enjoy the activity on the
energy of colors of light?
Temperature as we have defined it in the previous module is the average kinetic
energy of the molecules of an object. The higher the registered temperature, the greater
is the average kinetic energy. When the violet colored wrapper is hit by sunlight or a light
source, only the violet component of white light passes through the plastic. Since the
thermometer wrapped in violet plastic registered the highest temperature, violet light then
greatly increases the average kinetic energy of the air surrounding the thermometer.
On the other hand, the thermometer with the red plastic cover only allows red
light to pass through it. This means that since the thermometer covered with the red
plastic sheet registered the lowest temperature, red light only brings about a minimal
increase in the average kinetic energy of the air surrounding the thermometer. On which
other characteristics of color of light does the energy of the colors of light depend on?

95
 Activity 4 revisits the activity you have already done in Grade 7. The focus of the
activity in Grade 7 however, was to identify the corresponding frequency and wavelength
of each color of light and the computation of the speed of each. We noted last time that
the speed of the wave is the product of the frequency of the wave and the corresponding
wavelength. This time we will focus on how energy relates to the frequency of the colors
of light.

Activity 4
The color spectrum wheel revisited

Objectives:

At the end of the activity, you will be able to infer that:

1. light is composed of colors of different frequencies and wavelength;

2. the frequencies of the colors of light are inversely proportional to the
wavelength;
3. the product of the frequency and the wavelength of the colors of light is a
constant; and
4. the arrangement of colors of light shows the hierarchy of the color’s
corresponding energy.

Materials:

Color Spectrum Wheel Pattern Cardboard or illustration board

white screen button fastener
glue or paste

Procedure

Part 1: Color Wheel

1. Cut the two art files that make up the wheel on the next pages.

2. Cut along the lines drawn on the top wheel. Cut the 2 sides as shown. The small
window near the center of the wheel should be completely cut out and removed.

3. Punch a hole at the center of the two wheels. You may use a button fastener to
secure the two wheels together one on top of the other, but they should be free to
rotate relative to each other.

4. When you see a region of the color spectrum show up in the open window and the
"W,F, E" that correspond to that region showing up under the flaps, then you know
that you have done it right.

96
97
Part 2: Characteristics of Light

1. Try out your Color Spectrum Wheel by positioning the innermost of the flaps on
COLOR SPECTRUM. This will simultaneously position the other flaps to
WAVELENGTH, FREQUENCY, and ENERGY.

2. Turn the upper wheel and observe the combinations.

3. Fill in the table below with the corresponding combinations you have observed
using your Spectrum Color Wheel.

98
 Frequency Wavelength Frequency x Energy (eV)
(Hz) (m) wavelength
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet

4. You will need to convert the equivalents of frequencies to Hz, the equivalent
wavelengths to meters, and Joule to eV.

Note the following equivalents:

• Terra (T) is a prefix for 1012 (1 THz = 1 x 1012 Hz)

• nano (n) is a prefix equivalent to 10-9 (1 nm = 1 x 10-9 m)
• 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 Joule

Q16. Which color registered the highest frequency? shortest wavelength?

Q17. Which color registered the lowest frequency? longest wavelength?

Q18. What did you observe about the wavelengths and frequencies of the different
colors of light?

Q19. What did you observe about the products of frequencies and wavelengths?

Q20. Does the frequencies of the colors of light increase from Red to Violet?

Q21. What did you observe about the corresponding energies from Red to Violet?

Q22. How is frequency relate to energy of colors of light?

Now you have an idea why rainbows appear the way they do. Rainbows are
created just like the colors of light appeared in Activity 1. A prism is needed to break the
white light into the different colors of light. With the different refractive indices of the
colors of light, bending is also different for each of the colors of light. From Activity 2 you
have just found that Blue light is bent most. Thus, a rainbow starts with the RED light
being at the topmost and ends with the VIOLET light being on the bottom of the bow?
However, you saw the Blue at the bottom since Violet light is not very visible. But which
acts as a prism in the sky for real large rainbows to form? Do you still believe that there
is really a pot of gold at the end of the bow? There are many other beliefs about what we

99
usually observe in the sky. Are these really true? Do they have scientific bases? Can
you explain these phenomena? Let’s try Activity 5.

Activity 5
Scientific explanations behind certain beliefs

Objectives:

At the end of the activity, you will be able to come up with a presentation of the
scientific explanations of certain superstitious beliefs related to observable phenomena in
the sky.

Materials:

interview guide
pen and paper

Procedure:

1. With your classmates or family members, draft about 5 questions that you intend to
ask people so that you will be able to get information about your beliefs of the
people in the locality regarding the following phenomena:

a. Red sky in the afternoon (sunset)

b. Why the sky is blue
c. There’s a pot of gold at the end of the rainbow

2. After writing the draft interview questions, have the questions checked by your
teacher.

3. With the interview guide, visit old folks and conduct interviews.

4. Discuss with your group the basic scientific explanations behind the superstitious
beliefs. Complete the table in the worksheet.

5. You need to come up with a creative way of showing scientific explanations about
the phenomena mentioned above in any form: electronic, play, or simulations.

100
 Rubric Scoring Guide

CATEGORY 4 3 2 1

Well-rehearsed
with smooth Rehearsed with Delivery not
delivery that smooth, but
holds audience fairly smooth
able to maintain Delivery not
attention. delivery that
interest of the smooth and
Explanations holds audience audience most audience
presented are attention most of the time.
attention often
easy to follow of the time. Explanations
lost.
and there is no Explanations presented not
Presentation Explanations are
script reading or presented are very easily
(50%) very vague and
definition easy to follow understood and
the presenters
reading during and there is there is script
settle with
the script reading or reading or
reading the
presentation. definition definition
whole
Props used are reading during reading during
presentation.
very useful the the
during the presentation. presentation.
presentation

Questions are
Questions are Questions are somewhat Questions NOT
very appropriate appropriate to appropriate to
to determine determine appropriate to determine
determine
information information information
about about information about
Interview about
Guide superstitious superstitious superstitious
beliefs beliefs superstitious beliefs
(15%) beliefs
of folks of folks of folks
of folks
There are no There are few There are many
There are many
grammatical of grammatical of grammatical of
grammatical of
spelling errors. spelling errors. spelling errors.
spelling errors.

Almost all of the

superstitious
Most of the Some of the
Superstitious beliefs listed are
superstitious superstitious
Table of beliefs listed are beliefs listed beliefs listed empirically
Superstitious empirically are empirically are empirically based. Scientific
beliefs and based. based. based. explanations not
Scientific Scientific Scientific Scientific accurately
Explanation explanations explanations
explanations stated. There
(35%) are somewhat are somewhat
are accurately are many
accurately accurately
stated misconceptions
stated stated
identified in the
explanations

101
Summary

Light is both of particle and wavelike nature. This dual nature of light brings about
several observable phenomena in the sky. Light as a wave exhibits properties just like
any other waves. When light moves from one medium to another of a different density,
the speed changes, bringing about changes in the direction of the refracted ray with
respect to the normal line. This is known as refraction. Refraction of light, however, may
result in a display of colors of light when it passes through materials that can have varied
refractive indices for every wavelength of color that passes through them. A glass prism,
for example, has varied refractive indices per wavelength of color resulting in different
bending angles of the refracted colors of light with respect to the normal line. This
phenomenon is better known as dispersion.

With the concept of dispersion, colors of light are hierarchically arranged as

ROYGBIV according to frequency and energy of the colors of light. Red happens to
have the lowest frequency and the least energy. Energy and frequency increases as one
moves from red light towards violet light. This display of colors of lights by dispersion of
white light is one of the consequences of refraction of light aside from the apparent
depth mentioned previously. Other consequences are the phenomena of blue skies and
red sunsets.

What other properties of light can be observed? Excited to know? These will be
introduced to you when you go to Grade 9! In the meantime, relax and enjoy the next
module.

Module 6. Colors of light Post-test

Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. This dimensionless quantity is represented by the symbol n and is an indicator of the
optical density of a material. What is this?
a. Speed of light b. index of refraction c. angle of refraction
2. ________ is the bending of light when it travels from one medium to another of
different optical densities?
a. Reflection b. Dispersion c. Refraction
3. The sluggishness of the atoms of a medium to maintain the absorbed energy before
reemitting is called__________.
a. Optical density b. wavelength c. index of refraction

References

Hewitt, Paul. (1989). Conceptual physics (6 th Ed.) London: Scoot, Foresman and
Company

http://users.hal-pc.org/~clement/Simulations/Mixing%20Colors/rgbColor.html

http://www.cs.brown.edu/exploratories/freeSoftware/repository/edu/brown/cs/explorat
ories/applets/combinedColorMixing/combined_color_mixing_java_plugin.html

http://www.shs.d211.org/science/faculty/MJP/s369/light/docs/RayDiagrams.htm

http://www.phy-astr.gsu.edu

102
 Unit 2
MODULE

1 EARTHQUAKES AND
FAULTS

This module discusses the following

lessons:
What is fault?
 Activity 1. A fault-y setup :How do Faults Produce Quakes
 Activity 2. Stick ‘n’ slip
 Activity 3. Stick ‘n’ shake
 Activity 4. Where does an earthquake start?
 Activity 5. Tsunami!

What are you expected to learn?

1. using models or illustrations, explain how movements along faults generate
earthquakes;

2. differentiate
2.1 epicenter of an earthquake from its focus;
2.2 intensity of an earthquake from its magnitude;
2.3 active and inactive faults;

3. demonstrate how underwater earthquakes generate tsunamis;

4. explain how earthquake wave provide information about the interior of the earth

103
 Unit 2
MODULE

1 EARTHQUAKES AND
FAULTS

Overview

If you recall, it was mentioned in Grade 7 that the Philippines is located along the
Ring of Fire. How does this affect us? People who live along the Ring of Fire have to put
up with earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. In this module, we will focus on
earthquakes.

An earthquake is one of the most frightening things that anyone can ever
experience. You grow up believing that the Earth is rock solid and steady. But then the
ground suddenly shakes and you do not know what to believe anymore.

Strong earthquakes have caused countless deaths all over the world, even
before people have started recording these events. No wonder scientists have been
working very hard to find a way to predict when an earthquake occurs.

No one can stop quakes from happening. But there are things that people can do
to avoid or reduce loss of life and damage to property. The first step is to have a clear
understanding of the occurrence of earthquakes.

Why do earthquakes occur?

What is the relationship between earthquakes and faults?

104
What is a Fault?

On July 16, 1990, a strong earthquake hit Luzon. Have you heard about it?
Maybe not, because it happened before you were born. But if your parents are from
Luzon, they surely know about the earthquake. It is possible that they were even
affected by it.

During that earthquake, many people lost their lives and many more were
injured. A lot of buildings and other structures were either damaged or destroyed. The
earthquake had a magnitude of 7.8 and its epicenter was located in Nueva Ecija.
According to scientists, the earthquake was caused by movement along the Philippine
Fault.

Fault, epicenter, magnitude. Do you know what these terms mean? You will learn
about them in this module. Let’s start.

Earthquakes are associated with faults. When a fault suddenly moves, an

earthquake occurs. Do you know what a fault is? Do the following activity to find out.

Activity 1
A fault-y setup

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. describe the appearance of a fault; and

2. explain how a fault forms.

Materials Needed:
two sheets of cardboard (or folder)
fine sand
ruler
newspaper (or plastic sheet ) as wide as a newspaper page

105
Procedure:

1. Spread the newspaper on a table. Do the activity on the newspaper.

2. Arrange the two sheets of cardboard edge to edge (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Cardboard sheets placed side by side.

3. Pour sand along the boundary of the two sheets (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Sand along the boundary.

4. With the ruler, flatten the top of the sand and make two parallel lines.

106
 Figure 3. Top of sand flattened.

5. Now, move the sheets slowly in the direction shown in Figure 3.

Q1. As you move the sheets, what is formed in the sand?

Q2. What happens to the lines?

107
 Now, study Figure 4. Do you see anything unusual?

Figure 4. Can you spot the fault? (Image courtesy of the GEER Association and
National Science Foundation)

If you look at the picture carefully, you can guess that the road was originally in
one piece. But the road is no longer continuous. There is a cut across the road and now
there are two sections. One section has moved with respect to the other.

Compare what you see in the picture and what you saw in the activity. Is there
something in the picture that looks like what was formed in the activity? Do you see
anything similar?

Based on the activity and the picture, you can probably guess what a fault is by
now. A fault is a break in the Earth’s crust, and along the break, significant movement
has taken place.

How do Faults Produce Quakes?

In the following activity, you will learn how earthquakes are related to faults.

108
Activity 2.
Stick ‘n’ slip
Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. explain how faults generate earthquakes; and

2. explain why not all movement along faults produces earthquakes.

Materials Needed:
two small boxes (fruit juice boxes are ideal)
masking tape rubber
band
paper clip

Procedure:

1. Attach the rubber band to the paper clip. Then attach the paper clip to one end of
one box. (See Figure 5. The ruler is included for scale.)

Figure 5. Two boxes - one with a rubber band attached to a paper clip

2. Place the boxes side by side. Put a toy house on the box with the rubber band.
Then tape (lightly) the two boxes together as shown in Figure 6. Important: Do
not stick the tape on the boxes too much. The tape is meant to come off.

109
 Figure 6. Two boxes side by side and lightly
taped. Toy house on top of box with rubber
band)

Figure 7. Rubber band on box with toy house

pulled slowly. Observe what happens.

3. With your left hand, hold the box without the rubber band in place. With your
other hand, slowly pull on the rubber band in the direction shown in Figure 7.

Q3. What happens to the rubber band?

110
Q4. Keep on pulling on the rubber band. What happens to the box attached to the
rubber band? Note: The tape is supposed to come off, so stick it on very
lightly.

Q5. What happens to the “house”?

Q6. Which is the “fault” in this setup?

Imagine the boxes as the ground, and the boundary between them as a fault.
Energy from inside the Earth makes the ground move. You simulate this by pulling on
the rubber band. There is no movement right away because of friction. (What represents
friction in the activity?)

Once friction is overcome, the ground suddenly moves and an earthquake

occurs. Some scientists describe this process as stick and slip. At first, the rocks are
stuck together due to friction. Later, the rocks suddenly slip, generating an earthquake.
Every time a fault slips, the Earth quakes.

In the activity, there was a sudden jerk, but no shaking. The boxes did not shake
as in a real earthquake. Let us see what the next model does (shows?).

Activity 3.
Stick ‘n’ shake
Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. explain the effect of bending of rocks along faults, and

2. relate faults movement and earthquakes

Materials Needed:

two plastic rulers

a bit of clay

Procedure:

1. Using the clay, attach the rulers’ ends together (how long is the overlap between
rulers?) (Figure 8 shows closeup photos of side and top views of the setup.)

111
 Figure 8. Side view and top view of setup.

2. Hold the rulers as shown in the picture below. Then slowly move your hands in
the direction of the arrows.

Figure 9. Right hand pushes Figure 10. What is stored in the bent
(arrow up) while left hand pulls ruler?
(arrow down)
Q8. What happens when bending becomes too much? Note: If nothing happens,
separate the rulers and re-attach them only slightly.

The activity you just performed simulates how rocks bend along a fault. Think of the rulers as if they we

Figure 11.
Drawing A shows
the ground before
bending. In
Drawing B, the
ground is bending,
storing energy. In
Drawing C, the
bending limit is
reached, and the
ground has
snapped.

112
 Drawing A shows how the rocks look at first. Then energy from inside the Earth
makes the rocks bend (Drawing B). But as mentioned earlier, the rocks along the fault
do not move immediately. Friction keeps them in place. (In the activity, what represents
friction?)

When too much bending occurs and the limit is reached, the rocks suddenly
snap (Drawing C). The bent rocks straighten out and vibrate. The vibrations travel in all
directions and people in different places will feel them as a quake. An earthquake is a
vibration of the Earth due to the rapid release of energy.

Focus and Epicenter

Now that you know the relationship between faults and earthquakes, it is time to
get to know the meaning of terms used when earthquakes are reported in the news.

Activity 4.
Where does an earthquake start?
Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. differentiate between focus and epicenter; and

2. demonstrate how movement along faults affect the surroundings.

Materials Needed:
fault model (photocopied)
scissors
paste

Procedure:

1. Photocopy the Fault Model (Figure 12; you can also trace it on paper). Then cut
along the outlines of the two drawings.
2. Fold along the lines and paste where indicated. In the end, you should have a
model consisting of two parts that fit together (Figure 13).
3. The upper surface of the model represents the surface of the Earth. The trace of
the fault on the surface of the Earth is called the fault line. Be ready to point out
the fault line when your teacher calls on you.
4. Pull the two pieces apart (Figure 14). The flat surface between the two pieces is
called the fault plane. This is where fault slip or fault movement happens. Point
out the fault plane when your teacher asks you.

113
5. The place where the fault begins to slip is called the focus. It is where the first
movement occurs. Thus, the focus is the origin of the earthquake. Be ready to
explain it to your teacher.

Figure 12. Fault Model

114
 Figure 13. (Left) The fault model is made of two parts that fit together.
(Right) The flat surface between the two parts represents the fault plane.

6. Put the two pieces of the model together. The focus is now hidden
“underground.” Now, imagine a vertical line from the focus to the upper surface of
the model. Mark the place where you expect the line to come out.

The spot directly above the focus on the surface of the Earth is called the
epicenter. Show the “epicenter” of your model to your teacher.

Q9. Use your model to show different types of movement along a fault. How would the
surroundings be affected?

How Strong is the Earthquake?

An earthquake may be described in two ways: intensity and magnitude. The

intensity of an earthquake gives us an idea of how strong or weak the shaking is. The
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) uses the following scale
to describe the intensity of earthquakes in the Philippines.

115
Table 1. PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)

Intensity
Description
Scale

Scarcely Perceptible - Perceptible to people under favorable

I circumstances. Delicately balanced objects are disturbed slightly.
Still water in containers oscillates slowly.

Slightly Felt - Felt by few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging

II
objects swing slightly. Still water in containers oscillates noticeably.

Weak - Felt by many people indoors especially in upper floors of

buildings. Vibration is felt like one passing of a light truck. Dizziness
III
and nausea are experienced by some people. Hanging objects
swing moderately. Still water in containers oscillates moderately.

Moderately Strong - Felt generally by people indoors and by some

people outdoors. Light sleepers are awakened. Vibration is felt like a
passing of heavy truck. Hanging objects swing considerably. Dinner,
IV plates, glasses, windows, and doors rattle. Floors and walls of wood
framed buildings creak. Standing motor cars may rock slightly.
Liquids in containers are slightly disturbed. Water in containers
oscillate strongly. Rumbling sound may sometimes be heard.

Strong - Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many

sleeping people are awakened. Some are frightened, some run
outdoors. Strong shaking and rocking felt throughout building.
V Hanging objects swing violently. Dining utensils clatter and clink;
some are broken. Small, light and unstable objects may fall or
overturn. Liquids spill from filled open containers. Standing vehicles
rock noticeably. Shaking of leaves and twigs of trees are noticeable.

116
 Very Strong - Many people are frightened; many run outdoors.
Some people lose their balance. Motorists feel like driving in flat
tires. Heavy objects or furniture move or may be shifted. Small
church bells may ring. Wall plaster may crack. Very old or poorly
VI
built houses and man-made structures are slightly damaged though
well-built structures are not affected. Limited rockfalls and rolling
boulders occur in hilly to mountainous areas and escarpments.
Trees are noticeably shaken.

Destructive - Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People

find it difficult to stand in upper floors. Heavy objects and furniture
overturn or topple. Big church bells may ring. Old or poorly-built
structures suffer considerably damage. Some well-built structures
are slightly damaged. Some cracks may appear on dikes, fish
VII ponds, road surface, or concrete hollow block walls. Limited
liquefaction, lateral spreading and landslides are observed. Trees
are shaken strongly. (Liquefaction is a process by which loose
saturated sand lose strength during an earthquake and behave like
liquid).

Very Destructive - People are panicky. People find it difficult to

stand even outdoors. Many well-built buildings are considerably
damaged. Concrete dikes and foundation of bridges are destroyed
by ground settling or toppling. Railway tracks are bent or broken.
Tombstones may be displaced, twisted or overturned. Utility posts,
towers and monuments may tilt or topple. Water and sewer pipes
VIII
may be bent, twisted or broken. Liquefaction and lateral spreading
cause man-made structure to sink, tilt or topple. Numerous
landslides and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly areas.
Boulders are thrown out from their positions particularly near the
epicenter. Fissures and faults rupture may be observed. Trees are
violently shaken. Water splash or slop over dikes or banks of rivers.

117
 Devastating - People are forcibly thrown to ground. Many cry and
shake with fear. Most buildings are totally damaged. Bridges and
elevated concrete structures are toppled or destroyed. Numerous
utility posts, towers and monument are tilted, toppled or broken.
Water sewer pipes are bent, twisted or broken. Landslides and
IX
liquefaction with lateral spreadings and sandboils are widespread.
the ground is distorted into undulations. Trees are shaken very
violently with some toppled or broken. Boulders are commonly
thrown out. River water splashes violently or slops over dikes and
banks.

Completely Devastating - Practically all man-made structures are

destroyed. Massive landslides and liquefaction, large scale
X subsidence and uplift of land forms and many ground fissures are
observed. Changes in river courses and destructive seiches in large
lakes occur. Many trees are toppled, broken and uprooted.

The intensity of an earthquake is determined by observing the effects of the

earthquake in different places. Houses, buildings, and other structures are inspected.
People are interviewed about what they saw (the cabinet fell over), how they felt (I was
frightened), or what they did (I ran out of the house).

Now, do the following thought exercise. Suppose an earthquake occurred in

Luzon. Would the intensity be the same all over the Philippines? Before you tackle this
question, try answering the following first:

A) When an earthquake occurs, where would shaking be greater? Near the

epicenter or away from the epicenter?

B) Where would damage be more? Near the epicenter or away from the
epicenter?

C) Based on your answers to Questions A and B, where would the intensity be

higher? Near the epicenter or away from the epicenter?

Another way of describing the strength of an earthquake is by magnitude. Recall

that as rocks bend along a fault, energy is stored little by little. When the rocks suddenly
snap, the stored energy is released.

The released energy can be calculated by scientists and is called the magnitude
of the earthquake. Obviously, the greater the magnitude, the stronger the earthquake.
To distinguish the two, intensity is expressed using Roman numerals (I, II, III) while
magnitude uses Hindu-Arabic numerals (2, 3, 4).

118
 Earthquakes with a magnitude of 2 may or may not be felt. Those that are felt by
most people have a magnitude of 4. Magnitude 6 quakes can lead to a lot of damage in
highly populated areas.

Earthquakes with a magnitude of 7 can cause severe damage. A magnitude 8 or

9 quake results in widespread destruction, especially near the epicenter. Luckily, only
one or two occur every year.

Do You Live Near an Active Fault?

An active fault is one that has moved in the past and is expected to move again.
Put in another way, an active fault has generated earthquakes before and is capable of
causing more in the future.

Scientists use different ways to find out if a fault is active. One is by checking the
country’s historical records. Historians always write about destructive events such as
earthquakes.

Another is by studying the vibrations, past and present, that come from faults.
Still another way is by observing the surroundings. For example, a fault may cross a
road and because of that, the road is displaced.

Or a fault may cut across a stream and the stream channel is then shifted. Or a
fault may slice through mountains and form cliffs. This is not to say that anyone can spot
an active fault. Scientists need a lot of training to do that.

But along some faults, the effects may be dramatic. Suppose a house was built
on a fault. As the ground shifts little by little, parts of the house will be affected. The floor
will crack, doors will not close, and the roof may start to leak.

Obviously, it is important to know the location of active faults. As far as possible,

no important structures should be built near or on them. PHIVOLCS has a map that
shows the active faults in the Philippines (Figure 14).

(In the map, the lines with triangles are trenches, another source of earthquakes.
Trenches will be discussed in Grade 10.)

Study the map and find out where you live. Is there an active fault passing by
your town, province, or region? If so, are you and your family prepared for the
occurrence of an earthquake?

119
Figure 14. Active Faults and Trenches

120
Earthquakes and Tsunamis

In March 2011, a powerful earthquake took place in the Pacific Ocean near
Japan. Afterward, a tsunami hit Japan. Twenty thousand people were killed. More than a
million houses and buildings were damaged or destroyed.

In December 2004, a strong earthquake occurred in the Indian Ocean near

Indonesia. A tsunami soon followed. More than 200,000 people were confirmed dead.
Many of them came from Indonesia, Thailand, India, and Sri Lanka.

In 1976, an earthquake took place in the Moro Gulf in Mindanao. Later on, a
tsunami hit nearby coastal areas. Thousands of people were killed. Many more were
declared missing.

What is the connection between earthquakes and tsunamis?

Activity 5. Tsunami!

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. explain how tsunamis are generated; and

2. infer why tsunamis do not always occur even when there is an earthquake

Materials Needed:
flat basin or laundry tub (batya)
water
rectangular piece of plastic panel or plywood
rock

Procedure:

1. Put water in the container. Place the rock in the water at one end of the container
(Figure 15).

121
 Figure 15. Setup for the tsunami activity

2. At the other end of the container, put the plastic panel flat at the bottom of the
container (Figure 16, left).

3. You will need some help: a person to watch the surface of the water, and another
to watch the level of water by the rock. Things will happen quickly, so make sure
your assistants are alert.

4. Hold the corners of the plastic panel with your thumbs and fingertips. Wait for the
water to stop moving. Using only your fingertips, jerk the edge of the plastic
board upward (Figure 16, right).

Figure 16. (Left) The plastic panel placed flat at the bottom of the container.
(Right) Wait for the water to stop moving, then suddenly jerk the edge of the plastic panel
upward (see white arrow).

Q10. What was formed in the water by the sudden push of the plastic panel?

Q11. How was the water level by the rock affected by the wave?

Q12. What does the water represent? How about the rock?

Q13. What does the plastic panel represent?

122
 Faults are found not only on land but also under the sea. When a fault at the
bottom of the sea suddenly moves, the water above it can be affected. A sudden push
from an underwater fault can produce a wave called a tsunami.

Unlike a wave that is formed by the wind, a tsunami is so much more powerful.
Wind waves are just sea-surface waves. In comparison, a tsunami involves the whole
depth of the sea, from the seafloor to the surface.

Far from the shore, a tsunami is low, maybe just a meter high. But it travels at the
speed of a jet plane. When the tsunami reaches the shore, it slows down but it grows in
height.

A tsunami is very destructive because the force of the whole ocean is behind it.
This is the reason why whole towns and cities are totally devastated after a tsunami
attack.

So, how are earthquakes related to tsunamis?

When a fault suddenly moves an earthquake is felt. But if
an underwater fault suddenly moves, and earthquake is
felt followed by a tsunami.

Thus, when you are near the sea and you feel a
strong earthquake, treat that as a warning signal. Run to
the highest place you can find, or if you have a vehicle,
evacuate inland.

Not every fault movement beneath the sea will produce a tsunami. Those faults
that move in a horizontal direction or sideways will not result in a tsunami. The fault has
to move in the vertical sense. In the activity, a sudden upward push triggered the wave.

What’s Inside the Earth?

We often think of earthquakes as something harmful and the reason is obvious.

But earthquakes help scientists figure out what is inside the Earth. How? As you know
by now, when a fault suddenly moves, an earthquake is generated.

he shaking starts from the focus and

spreads out. You can get an idea of how this
happens by throwing a pebble into a pond. See
the ripples that move out in circles? The vibrations
from the focus are something like that.

The vibrations are more

properly called seismic waves. As seismic waves
travel through the body of the Earth, they behave
in different ways, depending on what they
encounter along way (Figure 17).

For example, as seismic waves travel

deeper into the crust, they speed up. That means

Figure 17. The behavior of seismic wave

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that at depth the rocks are denser. In the upper part of the mantle, the waves slow down.
That means that at depth the rocks are denser. In the upper part of the mantle, the
waves slow down. That means the rocks there are partially molten.

As the waves reach the core, one kind of seismic wave (s-waves) disappears.
That means that the outer core is liquid. At certain depths, the waves are reflected and
refracted (bent). That means the Earth must be layered.

Thus, earthquake waves give us a picture of the Earth’s interior, the way an
“ultrasound” provides an image of a baby inside the womb. This is why scientists know a
bit about the interior of our home planet, even if no one has gone deep into the Earth
yet.

Module 1: Earthquakes and Faults Pre/Post-test

Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answers on the
answer sheet.

1. Which of the following statements best describe what a fault is?

a. A crack along rock layers
b. A break in the earth’s crust
c. A fracture in the rocks of the Earth’s crust
d. all of these
2. How does movements along faultline generates earthquake?
a. When rocks along faultline stuck together.
b. When rocks along faultline suddenly slips.
c. When rocks along faultline stays in equilibrium
d. When rocks along faultline experiences friction.
3. How is epicenter differ from focus in terms of location?
a. focus is directly below the epicenter
b. focus is directly above the epicenter
c. focus is in the P wave shadow zone
d. epicenter is in the S wave shadow zone
4. Point A, where slip initiated during the earthquake, is called the ________.
a. dip
b. epicenter
c. focus
d. scarp
5. Point B is called the earthquake ________.
a. dip
b. epicenter
c. focus
d. scarp

6. Which of the following differentiates intensity of an earthquake from its magnitude?

1. Magnitude measures the energy released by the earthquake while intensity
measures the damage done by the earthquake
2. Magnitude is expressed in Hindu-Arabic numerals while intensity is expressed
in roman numerals
3. Magnitude uses PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)
a. 1, 2, 3 b. 1 and 2 only c. 1 and 3 only d. 1
only

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7. How do faults produce earthquake?
a. Energy from inside the Earth makes the ground move, once friction is
overcome, a fault slips producing earthquake.
b. Magma and lava causes the ground to spread producing faults.
c. Molten rock materials accumulate and go out along the fault producing
earthquake. d. Tectonic plates collide forming volcanoes and causing earthquakes.
8. All are ways to find out if a fault is active. Which is not a method of spotting an active
fault?
a. checking historical backgrounds
b. observing the surroundings
c. studying vibrations
d. interviewing survivors
9. Which movement, along an underwater fault line, would most likely produce a
tsunami?
a. sideward c. horizontal
b. vertical d. none of the above
10. Study the map and find out where you live. If so, are you and your family prepared
for the occurrence of earthquake? Explain. (Legend: Solid line – fault line, triangle –
trench)

References and Links

Tarbuck, E.J., & Lutgens, F.K. (1999). Earth, An Introduction to Physical Geology (6th
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/ http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/
http://www.geerassociation.org/GEER_Post%20EQ%20Reports/Duzce_1999/kaynas
li1.htm

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 Unit 2
MODULE

2 UNDERSTANDING
TYPHOONS

This module discusses the following

lessons:
What is a Typhoon?
Philippine Area of Responsibility
 Activity 1. Plotting the PAR
Under What Conditions do Tropical Cyclones Form?
 Activity 2. Tracking a tropical cyclone
 Activity 3. Dissecting a tropical cyclone

What are you expected to learn

5. explain how typhoons develop;

6. infer why the Philippines is prone to typhoons;

7. explain how landmasses and bodies of water affect typhoons;

8. trace the path of typhoons that enter the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR) using
a map and tracking data;

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Overview

Every year the Philippines is hit by typhoons. No part of the country is spared. All
provinces have been visited by a typhoon at one time or another. In recent years, the
Philippines had been overwhelmed by powerful tropical cyclones.

Who could forget the terrible flood brought by Tropical Storm Ondoy in 2009? Or
the people swept out to sea during Tropical Storm Sendong in 2011? Or the poor
community of New Bataan buried in mud spawned by Typhoon Pablo in 2012?

According to the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical

Services Administration (PAGASA), about 20 tropical cyclones enter the Philippine Area
of Responsibility each year. We have to be knowledgeable about tropical cyclones if we
want to prevent the loss of more lives.

Why is the Philippines prone to typhoons?

What conditions favor the formation of typhoons?

What is a Typhoon?

We all know what a typhoon is. Or more accurately, we know what to expect
when a typhoon comes. We get a lot of rain and strong winds. Now, you may not have
noticed it but the winds in a typhoon move in a certain direction. They go around a
central area. Take a look at Figure 1.

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 Figure 1. A supertyphoon as seen from high above the
Earth; at the center is the “eye” of the supertyphoon.
Image by: NASA Earth Observatory

The picture shows a supertyphoon as viewed from up above the Earth. A

typhoon looks the same, only smaller. See the clouds in a spiral arrangement? They are
being blown by winds in a counter-clockwise direction. In a supertyphoon, the wind
speed is greater than 200 kilometers per hour (kph).

If the wind speed is less, from 119 to 200 kph, then it is called a typhoon. If the
wind speed is between 65 and 118 kph, it is called a tropical storm. And when the wind
speed is between 35 to 64 kph, it is a tropical depression.

Tropical depression, tropical storm, typhoon, and supertyphoon are categories of

tropical cyclones (Table 1). In simple terms, a tropical cyclone is a system of
thunderstorms that are moving around a center. As the winds intensify or weaken, the
category is upgraded or downgraded accordingly.

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 Table 1. Tropical Cyclone Categories
Maximum Wind Speed
Category
kilometers per hour (kph)
Tropical Depression 64
Tropical Storm 118
Typhoon 200
Supertyphoon greater than 200

The term typhoon is used only in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean. In
the northeastern part of the Pacific Ocean and in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean,
the equivalent term is hurricane. Thus, a hurricane on one side of the Pacific Ocean will
be called a typhoon if it crosses into the other side.

In the Philippines, we use the same word for all categories of tropical cyclones.
We call it bagyo whether it is a tropical depression, a tropical storm or a typhoon.

Philippine Area of Responsibility

When a weather disturbance enters the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR),

the weather bureau begins to monitor it. Do you know where the PAR is? Do the
following activity to find out.

Activity 1
Plotting the PAR

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. read map,

2. given the latitude and longitude of a tropical cyclone, tell if it has entered the
Philippine Area of Responsibility, and

3. explain what is meant when a typhoon has entered the Philippine Area of
Responsibility.
Materials Needed:
map of the Philippines and vicinity
pencil

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Procedure:

1. Plot the following points on the map below (Figure 2).

Points Latitude, Longitude

a. 5°N, 115°E

b. 15°N, 115°E

c. 21°N, 120°E

d. 25°N, 120°E

e. 25°N, 135°E

f. 5°N, 135°E

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Figure 2. Map of the Philippines and vicinity

2. Connect the plotted points. The region within is the Philippine Area of
Responsibility or PAR. It is the job of PAGASA to monitor all tropical cyclones
that enter this area.

Q1. If a typhoon is located at 15°N, 138°E, is it within the PAR?

Q2. How about if the typhoon is at 19°N, 117°E, is it inside the PAR?

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Under What Conditions do Tropical Cyclones Form?

Shown below are the tracks (paths) of four tropical cyclones that entered the
PAR in the past years. The tracks were plotted by PAGASA. Study the maps and
answer the following questions.

Figure 3. Tracks (paths) of selected tropical cyclones

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 Where did the tropical cyclones form? On land or in the ocean?

What can you say about the temperature of the bodies of water in the vicinity of
the Philippines? Is the water warm or cold?

In what direction did the tropical cyclones move?

Which part of the Philippines was hit by the four tropical cyclones?

In the case of Agaton, Yoyong, and Huaning, where did they die out? Near land
or in the middle of the ocean?

Tropical cyclones need water vapor in order to form. Most oceans provide water
vapor. But those oceans near the equator provide much water vapor than those located
at the higher latitudes.

Tropical cyclones require warm ocean waters to be able to develop. According to

scientists, the temperature of ocean water must be 26.5°C or greater. The warm water
heats up the air above it. The warm air then rises. The rising warm air results in a low-
pressure area. Air in the surroundings will then move toward the area to replace the
rising warm air.

Now, there is water vapor in the rising warm air. The water vapor soon
condenses and heat is given off. The heat makes the air rise even more, and air in the
surroundings will keep coming in. The air starts to spin, and a tropical cyclone is born.

From the maps, you can see that tropical cyclones generally move in a
northwest direction. The reason is because there are large-scale winds that push the
tropical cyclones in that direction. This is similar to the way a whirlpool (uli-uli or ipo-ipo
in filipino)is carried along by a flowing stream.

As you can observe, all four tropical cyclones struck the northern part of the
Philippines. Now you know why the southern part of the Philippines is often untouched
by tropical cyclones. Where do you think should a tropical cyclone form so it would hit
the Mindanao area?

Three of the tropical cyclones mentioned above weakened and died out near
land. Agaton dissipated in Luzon, Yoyong in Taiwan, and Huaning near Mainland
China. This means that when tropical cyclones reach land, they die out because they
are cut off from the warm ocean waters that keep them going.

Now you know where tropical cyclones start to form, why they form there, and
in what direction they generally move. Can you now explain why the Philippines is
prone to typhoons?

In the following activity, you will try your hand in tracking a tropical cyclone as it
enters and leaves the PAR.

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 Activity 2
Tracking a tropical cyclone

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. determine if your location is in the path of a tropical cyclone, given the

latitude and longitude position and

2. explain why PAGASA regularly monitors when a tropical cyclone is within

PAR.

Materials Needed:
map of the Philippines and vicinity (from Activity 1)
tracking data
pencil

Procedure:

1. Use the latitude and longitude (coordinate system) in the table below to track the
location of Sendong. Plot each lat-long pair on the map with the PAR.

Date: 13-19 DEC 2011

Tropical Storm Sendong (International name: Washi)
Month/Day/Time Latitude Longitude
(°N) (°E)
12/13/06 6.00 145.10
12/13/12 6.40 143.30
12/14/18 6.00 141.70
12/14/00 5.90 140.60
12/14/06 6.20 139.00
12/14/12 6.70 137.70
12/14/18 7.00 136.30
12/15/00 7.20 134.30
12/15/00 7.20 134.30
12/15/06 7.60 132.30
12/15/12 7.70 130.80
12/15/18 7.50 129.10
12/16/00 7.40 128.10
12/16/06 8.00 126.80
12/16/12 8.40 125.50

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 12/16/18 8.50 123.80
12/17/00 9.10 122.40
12/17/06 9.20 121.50
12/17/12 9.60 120.40
12/17/18 10.20 119.00
12/18/00 10.90 117.60
12/18/06 10.30 115.70
12/18/12 9.90 114.60
12/18/18 9.60 113.90
12/19/00 9.10 112.90
12/19/06 9.70 111.90
12/19/12 10.50 110.70
Tracking data are from http://weather.unisys.com/hurricane/w_pacific/2011H/index.php
Q3. Where did Sendong form?

Q4. When did Sendong enter the PAR?

Q5. When did Sendong leave the PAR?

Q6. In what direction did Sendong move?

Sendong started out in the Pacific as an area of low pressure. Because it was
just a low-pressure area, it was not given a name. Then it intensified into a tropical
depression. Again it was not yet given a name because it was still outside the PAR.

When it finally entered the PAR, it had already strengthened into a tropical storm.
Since it was within the PAR by then, PAGASA gave it a name—Sendong— from its
prepared list. Internationally, the tropical storm was called Washi.

Sendong brought hours of torrential rains to Mindanao. Some places received

more than 200 mm of rain. Because of the excess rain, flash floods and landslides took
place. Nearly a thousand people were killed, many in the cities of Cagayan de Oro and
Iligan. Damage to houses, roads, and bridges reached up to 2 billion pesos.

After the Sendong disaster, who would have thought that another tropical cyclone
would again hit Mindanao the following year. Tropical cyclone Pablo (international name,
Bopha) was so strong it was categorized as a supertyphoon. Clearly, we need to learn
about tropical cyclones in order to survive.

135
Inside Tropical Cyclones

One thing about tropical cyclones that we should watch out for are the strong
winds. Let us now take a peek inside a tropical cyclone and find out in which part would
we experience strong winds.

Activity 3
Dissecting a tropical cyclone

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. explain what two weather factors tell weathermen that a certain location is
at the eye of a tropical cyclone; and

2. put in simple words the statement “calm before the storm.”

Materials Needed:
weather data (air pressure and wind speed)

Procedure:

1. Figure 1 consists of two illustrations. The top one shows a tropical cyclone as seen at
an angle. White rain bands move around the center or “eye”. The bottom
illustration shows a cross-section of a tropical cyclone. It is like slicing it in half
and looking at it from the side.

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 Figure 4. (Top) View of a tropical cyclone at an angle.

(Bottom) Cross-section of a typhoon.

Q7. Location A is within the eye of the tropical cyclone. B, C and D are locations far
from the eye of the tropical cyclone. The air pressure at the different locations
are:

Location A B C D
Air pressure*
930 960 980 990
in millibars (mb)
*Air pressure refers to the weight of air over a certain area.

Compare the air pressures at A, B, C and D. What do you notice?

Q8. Location E is within the eye of the tropical cyclone. Location F is within the clouds
surrounding the eye. The clouds at F make up the eyewall. The wind speed at
the two locations are:

Location E F

Wind speed (km/hour) 10 200

Compare the wind speed within the eye and at the eyewall. What can you say?

137
 As you have learned from the activity, the lowest air pressure is at the eye of a
tropical cyclone. In fact, all tropical cyclones have low air pressure at the center. This is
the reason why the air in the surroundings move toward the eye. Recall in Grade 7 that
air moves toward low-pressure areas.

You also learned that at the eye of a tropical cyclone, wind speed is low. Thus, it
is called “area of calm”. But in the dense clouds surrounding the eye, at the eyewall
itself, the wind speed is great. When newspapers report that a tropical cyclone has
sustained winds of 200 km/hour, for instance, they are referring to the winds at the
eyewall.

When the eye of a tropical cyclone passes over a certain place, it is the winds at
the eyewall that brings a lot of damage. As it approaches, one side of the eyewall brings
strong winds blowing in one direction. Then comes the eye with its somewhat calm
weather. As it leaves, the other side of the eyewall brings strong winds again, but this
time in the opposite direction.

Are You Prepared?

When a tropical cyclone enters the PAR and it is on its way toward land, warning
signals are issued. The following signals are used by PAGASA to warn people about the
approaching weather disturbance. Do you know what the signals mean?

PUBLIC STORM WARNING SIGNALS (PSWS)

PSWS # 1

What it means
A tropical cyclone will affect the locality
Winds of 30-60 kph may be expected in at least 36 hours or irregular
rains may be expected within 36 hours

The following may happen

Twigs and branches of small trees are broken
Some banana plants are tilted or downed
Some houses of very light materials partially unroofed
Rice crops suffer significant damage in its flowering stage

138
 What to do
Watch out for big waves
Listen to severe weather bulletin issued by PAGASA

PSWS # 2

What it means
A tropical cyclone will affect the locality
Winds of greater than 60 kph up to 100 kph may be expected in at least 24 hours

The following may happen

Large number of nipa and cogon houses may be partially or totally unroofed
Some old galvanized iron roof may be peeled off
Winds may bring light to moderate damage to exposed communities
Some coconut trees may be tilted while few are broken
Few big trees may be uprooted
Many banana plants may be downed
Rice and corn may be adversely affected

What to do
Avoid riding in small seacraft
Those who travel by sea and air should avoid unnecessary risks
Postpone outdoor activities of children

PSWS # 3

What it means
A tropical cyclone will affect locality
Winds of greater than 100 kph to 185 kph may be expected in at least 18 hours
The following may happen
Many coconut trees broken or destroyed
Almost all banana plants downed and a large number of trees uprooted
Rice and corn crops suffer heavy losses
Majority of all nipa and cogon houses uprooted or destroyed; considerable damage to
structures of light to medium construction
Widespread disruption of electrical power and communication services
Moderate to heavy damage experienced in agricultural and indistrial sectors

What to do
Avoid riding in any seacraft
Seek shelter in strong buildings
Evacuate from low-lying areas
Stay away from coasts and river banks

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 PSWS # 4
What it means
A very intense typhoon will affect locality
very strong winds of more than 185 kph maybe expected in at least 12 hours

The following may happen

Coconut plantation may suffer extensive damage
Many large trees maybe uprooted
Rice and corn plantation may suffer severe losses
Most residential and institutional buildings of mixed construction maybe severely
damaged
Electrical power distribution and communication services maybe severely
disrupted
Damage to affected communities ca be very heavy

What to do
All travels and outdoor activities should be cancelled
Evacuation to safer shelters should have been completed by now
The locality is very likely to be hit directly by the eye of the typhoon.

To be fully prepared for tropical cyclones, you should also put together an
emergency kit which includes the following: drinking water, canned goods, can opener,
radio, flashlight, extra batteries, clothes, blanket, and first aid kit. You never know when
you will need it. You must learn how to rely on yourself. In times of disaster, it may take
a while before help arrives.

Module 2. Post-test
Direction: Write what is asked in the questions provided.

1. Which of the following is the correct sequence that explains how typhoon develop?
1. Water vapor from rising warm air condenses, releasing heat to the surrounding
2. Warm rising air over the ocean creating a low pressure area
3. Warm moist air from the surroundings replaces warm rising air
4. Heat released makes warm air rise higher, causing the air to spin
a. 1, 2,3, 4 b. 2, 3, 1, 4 c. 4, 3, 2, 1 d. 4, 2, 1, 3

2. The Philippine is prone to typhoons because________________

a. it is located at the polar region
b. it is surrounded by oceans
c. the temperature over the land is high
d. all are correct

3. Explain how landmasses and bodies of water affect typhoons;

References and Links

140
Tarbuck, E.J., & Lutgens, F.K. (2004). Earth Science (10th ed.). First Lok Yang Road,
Singapore: Pearson Education (Asia) Pte Ltd.

http://www.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/

http://www.ready.gov/hurricanes

http://www.noaawatch.gov/themes/tropical.php

http://weather.unisys.com/hurricane/w_pacific/2011H/index.php

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_Storm_Washi

http://people.cas.sc.edu/carbone/modules/mods4car/tropcycl/index.html

This module discusses the following

lessons:
Activity 1. What happens when a comet or an asteroid hits Earth?

What are you expected to learn

9. compare and contrast comets, meteors, and asteroids;

10. predict the appearance of comets based on recorded data of previous

appearances; and

11. explain the regular occurrence of meteor shower

141
 Unit 2
MODULE

3 COMETS, ASTEROIDS,
AND METEORS

Overview

Recent advances in space technology have allowed scientists coming from

different background like physics, chemistry, biology, and geology to collaborate on
studying Near-Earth Objects (NEO) like comets and asteroids. With more powerful
telescopes and space probes, the study of comets and asteroids provides more clues
about the origins of our solar system. Over the past three years, amateur and
professional astronomers have discovered several NEO’s that came close to Earth, the
most recent asteroid being Asteroid 2012 DA14. It made a very close approach to Earth
as it orbited the Sun on February 16, 2012 (Philippine Time). On the morning of
February 16, 2012, an asteroid entered Earth’s atmosphere and exploded over Lake
Chebarkul in Russia hurting about 1,000 people in the process. These two events
triggered superstitions, fears, and doomsday prophecies held by different cultures. But
do these things have scientific basis?

Has Earth ever been hit by a comet or an asteroid?

If yes, how have such impacts affected Earth?
How often does a comet or an asteroid hit Earth?

142
Activity 1
What happens when a comet or an asteroid hits
Earth?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. describe how impact craters are formed when a comet or asteroid hits
Earth based on a simulation; and

2. present observations on simulating a comet or asteroid impact using

drawings.

Materials Needed:

1 rectangular container (aluminum tray or plastic)

1 pebble (1-4 cm in diameter)
colored flour/colored starch
pencil

Procedure:

1. Fill the rectangular tray with colored flour about 3-4 centimeters deep.

2. Place the tray on top of a table (or arm rest of a chair).

3. Throw a pebble to hit the flour in the tray. Do this about four times, hitting different
parts of the flour in the tray.

4. On the space below, draw the shape of the “crater” made by the pebble on the
colored flour as:

a. viewed from the top. b. viewed from the side

143
 Top view of pebble crater Side view of the pebble crater

4. Compare the shape of the pebble’s “crater” with the impact crater photo shown
below.

Meteor Crater near Winslow, Arizona, USA

(Permission obtained from the Center for Science Education,
UC Berkeley Space Sciences Laboratory)

144
Q1. What do you notice about the shape of your pebble’s crater and the impact crater
shown in the photo?

Q2. What do you think happened to the plants and animals living in the area where
the comet or asteroid crashed?
________________________________________________________________
___
Comets and asteroids are referred to be astronomers as Near-Earth Objects
(NEO). Comets are icy bodies or objects while asteroids are rocky fragments.
They are remnants from the formation of our solar system 4.6 billion years ago.
The table below summarizes the similarities and differences between a comet
and an asteroid.

Table 1. Comparison of some characteristics of comets and asteroids

Characteristic Comet Asteroid

Origin Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud Main Asteroid Belt
Shape Varied/Irregular Varied/Irregular
Size range of diameter 1-10 (nucleus only) 1 – 100++
(kilometer)
Chemical composition Ice (frozen water); frozen Silicates (olivine and
gases (ammonia, methane, pyroxene), iron, nickel
and carbon dioxide); other
organic compounds
(Carboncontaining
compounds)

Orbit Highly elliptical More rounded

Orbital period (years) 75 to 100,000++ 1-100

Q3. Which is most likely to make a more frequent “visitor” of Earth: comet or
asteroid? Why do you think so?

As you can see in the table, comets and asteroids have irregular shapes and
varied sizes. They both reflect light from the Sun at varying amounts depending on the
size and composition. The presence of more silicates allows a comet or asteroid to
reflect light. Silicates are minerals that contain the elements silicon, oxygen, and at least
one metal. If an asteroid has smaller amounts of silicates relative to its other
components, it would be more difficult to see it even with a telescope because only a
small area of the asteroid can reflect light thus it may appear smaller than what it really
is when viewed.

Comet and asteroid both orbit the Sun and move relatively slow when viewed
from Earth. This means, you can see a comet for up to a year in the night sky (or even
during the morning if the comet is bright enough). Their major difference is their origin or
where they came from in space. Comets usually come from the Oort Clouds which is

145
beyond our Solar System, and a few from Kuiper Belt which is just beyond Neptune’s
orbit. Long-period comets come from the Oort Cloud, while shortperiod comets come
from Kuiper Belt. Comet Halley, the most famous comet of the 20 th century is the only
known short-period comet. It takes 75-79 years for Comet Halley to orbit the Sun. We
see it in the sky every time it makes its nearest approach to the Sun. All other comets
that have been identified are classified as long-period comets and takes 200 to hundred
millions of years to complete their orbit around the Sun. Asteroids, on the other hand,
originate from the Main Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter. This belt is theorized by
scientists to be remnants of a planet that did not completely form.

Uranus

Sun
Neptune Saturn

Kuiper Belt

Oort Cloud

The orbit of an asteroid is more rounded and less elliptical than the orbit of a
comet. In February 2013, Asteroid 2012 DA14 made a very close approach to Earth as it
orbited the Sun. Distance in space is measured in light years and this Asteroid was just
0.4 light year away from Earth; the closest that any asteroid has ever been close to
Earth. In December 2012, during the midst of the dooms day prophecies, Asteroid
Toutatis also made a near approach to Earth but not as close as Asteroid 2012 DA14.

Another stark difference between a comet and an asteroid is their chemical

composition. Comets are icy objects while asteroids are rocky fragments. Sometimes,
comets may contain other elements like sodium or argon, which is specific to a comet.
Through further studies, scientists learned that Comet HaleBopp’s contained Argon
which was believed to explain the very bright appearance of the comet in 1997.
Scientists also discovered a faint sodium tail, a third type of comet tail to add to the well-

146
known dust and plasma (or ion) tails. On the other hand, an asteroid is mostly composed
of rock (silicates) and metals (iron and nickel being the usual metals referred to).

Permission obtained from the Center for Science

Education (CSE), UC Berkeley Space Sciences

The composition of a comet is important in helping scientists understand how

Earth has liquid water, which in turn made the planet livable. During Earth’s formation,
scientists theorized that the planet must have been too hot to have liquid water on its
surface. By studying comets’ orbits and the chemical composition of materials found in
impact craters found all over Earth, soil and ice samples collected from drilling down
Earth’s crust and marine layers, scientists theorized that the early impact of comets on
Earth brought liquid water to the planet.

The chemical composition of an asteroid is important in providing clues for

scientists to discover more about the chemical composition of Earth and the other
planets in the Solar System, as well as how life on Earth was affected by impacts in the
past. It is the scientists’ belief that Earth, other planets, and asteroids are essentially
similar in composition. In fact, asteroids are also called minor planets or planetoids.
Asteroids are mostly composed of metals like iron and nickel; the same metals that are
theorized to make up Earth’s core.

147
 Asteroid Eros – Permission obtained
from the CSE, UC Berkeley Space
Sciences Laboratory

The discovery of high contents of iridium in oceanic sedimentary layers in

different parts of the world such as Italy, Denmark, and New Zealand during the late
1970’s led geologists, Luis and Walter Alvarez to propose the Alvarez Hypothesis in
1980. Iridium is a metal belonging to the Platinum family. It is very rarely found in
Earth’s crust, but more abundant in the mantle and core. It is also abundant in our solar
system. They proposed that an asteroid with approximately 10 kilometers in diameter
made impact with Earth 65 million years ago. They thought that the impact caused
materials to be thrown up in air, thus blocking sunlight, and brought about a period of
winter long enough to cause a mass extinction of plants and animals, including the
dinosaurs. Further, this event ended the Cretaceous Period and ushered in the Tertiary
Period.

If you want to learn more about the Impact Theory, visit:

http://hoopermuseum.earthsci.carleton.ca/saleem/meteor.htm

Comets and asteroids orbit the Sun, but it is theorized by scientists that other
planets in our solar system can influence and alter the orbital path of these NEO’s, thus
they come crashing towards Earth. By studying the orbits of known NEO’s, scientists
have calculated the orbital periods that indicate when these objects will make their
closest approach to Earth as they orbit Sun, or predict the likelihood of a collision with
Earth. While asteroid and comets have collided with Earth in the past, the frequency is
very much longer than a human lifetime, so there is no need for worry.

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Activity 2
Meteoroid, meteor, and meteorite: How are they
related?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. describe the changes that happens to a fragment from a comet or asteroid

as it enters Earth’s atmosphere;

2. represent the relationship between a meteoroid, meteor, and meteorite

using a diagram; and

3. explain how meteoroid, meteor, and meteorite are related.

Procedure:

Read the selection below and answer the questions as you go along.

Q1. What is a meteor?

Q2. What is a meteoroid?

Q3. From what celestial (space) objects can a meteoroid come from?

A meteoroid can be as small as a grain of sand or as big as a boulder. When it

enters Earth’s atmosphere, the air in front of the meteoroid heats up, causing
materials to burn up. From Earth, these glowing materials appear as a streak of
light or a fast-moving bright object that appears to have a tail just like a comet.

149
What differentiates the two when we see them in the sky is that a comet moves
slowly and appears in the sky for a longer time. A meteor moves swiftly and
seems to fall on the ground. It “shoots” from a point in the sky, making people
think that it is a shooting or falling star. Also, a comet is difficult to see with the
unaided eye because it is farther from Earth compared to a meteoroid entering
Earth’s atmosphere. Sometimes, a comet can be bright enough to be seen by the
unaided eye, but this is rare, just like in the case of Comet Hale-Bopp.

Q4. What causes a meteor?

Q5. How can you differentiate a meteor from a comet when viewed from Earth?

A meteoroid usually all burns up when it enters Earth’s atmosphere. But when a
fragment from the meteoroid survives and makes it to the ground, this space rock
fragment is now called a meteorite. So if you heard from the news on radio or
television or read the news from newspapers about a meteorite exploding over
Russia in February 2013, their use of the word meteorite is inaccurate. Instead, a
meteoroid exploded over Russia. The space rock fragments they collected on the
ground is the meteorite.

Q6. Show where a meteoroid, meteor, and meteorite are most likely to be found in the
diagram below. Use the following symbols for each:  meteor;  meteoroid; and
 meteorite.

Outer Space

Atmosphere (Earth)

Crust

Note: Dimensions are not drawn to scale.

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Q7. How are a meteor, meteoroid, and a meteorite related?

Earlier, we mentioned that a meteoroid can come from comets. Comets orbit
the Sun and leave fragments on their orbit as they continue their journey around the
Sun. These fragments continue to orbit the Sun just like their parent comets. When
Earth orbits the Sun and passes through the orbit of a comet where these comet
fragments are found, we observe many streaks of light from Earth which is called a
meteor shower. During a meteor shower, meteors seem to originate from only one
point in the sky because the meteoroids are traveling in parallel paths with the same
velocity. The meteor shower is named after the constellation where they seem to
originate from, but this does not mean that the meteoroids come from the associated
constellation. Remember: a meteor and a meteor shower are light phenomena;
they are not stars.

The number of meteors that can be seen during a meteor shower vary. It
starts with the appearance of a few meteors per hour, increasing in frequency until it
reaches its peak of 1-2 meteors per minute, and then declines. The table below
shows some of the more famous annual meteor showers and the month when they
reach their peak. The dates in the peak month vary and astronomers make forecasts
of the peak days (usually lasting for three days) every year.

Table 2. Some Examples of Famous Annual Meteor Showers

Month Source of Name of the Constellation
meteoroid Meteor Shower (where the meteor shower
seem to come from)
August Comet Swift-Tuttle Perseid Perseus
October Comet 21P/ Draconid Draco
Giacobini-Zinner
October Comet Halley Orionid Orion
November Comet Tempel- Leonid Leo
Tuttle
November Comet Encke Taurid Taurus
December Asteroid 3200 Geminid Gemini
Phaethon
Note: There is no need to memorize the names of these comets and asteroids.

Usually, the meteoroids that cause meteor showers come from comets, but
they may also come from an asteroid like in the case of the Geminids. Earth passes
through Asteroid3200 Phaethon’s orbit where some fragments from the asteroid are
found. Once these fragments enter Earth’s atmosphere, they burn up as well.
Meteoroids from comets appear fuzzy because of the ice particles while those from
asteroids are clearer and distinct because they do not have these ice particles.

151
Q8. What is a meteor shower?

Q9. Why does a meteor shower occur?

Q10. Why does it seem that meteors during a meteor shower appear to come from only
one point in the sky?

___________________________________________________________________

From the reading activity, you learned how a meteoroid, a meteor, and a
meteorite are related. It is a visual treat to see a meteor at night; more so if you get to
see a meteor shower. How much and how well you can see meteors in the sky
depend on several factors: air pollution; light pollution; the time of day; weather
conditions; size of the meteoroids among; source of the meteoroid (comet versus
asteroid); and the chemical composition of the meteoroid itself. It is harder to see
them in cities where there are many artificial light sources and where there the air
tend to be more polluted causing a smog or haze to block the light coming from
meteors). Meteor showers are easier to observe at night especially between midnight
up to around an hour before dawn.

Meteorites are of importance to scientists in studying the occurrence of different

elements and compounds on Earth. This information is in turn important in studying our
mineral resources which is an important industry in any country. Generally, there are
three types: stony, stony-iron, and iron meteorites. In the Philippines, there are only
five meteorites that have been accepted internationally. The table below enumerates
these meteorites.

Table 3. Five Meteorites Found in the Philippines (Internationally Validated)

Meteorite Year of Place Type Chemical Composition
Discovery Discovered
Pampanga 1859 Pampanga Stony Iron-Nickel (7-11%); Ferrous
sulfide (FeS); Magnesium iron
silicate (a.k.a. olivine or
(Mg,Fe)2SiO4); Calcium-Aluminum
intrusions (Ca-Al); pyroxene or
XY(Si,Al)2O6 (X can be calcium,
sodium, iron+2 and magnesium and
more rarely zinc, manganese and
lithium; Y represents smaller-sized
ions like chromium, aluminium,
iron+3, magnesium, manganese,
scandium, titanium, vanadium and
iron+2).
Paitan 1910 Paitan, Stony Iron; Magnesium iron silicate
Ilocos (a.k.a. olivine or (Mg,Fe)2SiO4);
pyroxene
Calivo 1916 Western Stony Not yet determined
Visayas

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Pantar 1938 Central Stony Iron; Magnesium iron silicate
Mindanao meteorite (a.k.a. olivine or (Mg,Fe)2SiO4);
pyroxene
Bondoc 1956 Southern Stony- Metallic iron-nickel; silicates
Tagalog iron (olivine and pyroxene)

The elements and compounds enumerated in the table show that meteorites are
very rich in mineral resources. Impact craters caused by a comet or asteroid did not only
bring with them minerals from space but also caused the Earth rocks found in these
areas to change in chemical composition. The presence of these meteorites and impact
craters hold much potential for the mining industry aside from being objects of scientific
scrutiny.
1. Choose at least three superstitions (one from the Philippines, and the rest from other
countries).

2. Discuss each superstition with the group to answer the question: Do superstitions
about comets and asteroids have scientific basis? Why or why not?

3. List down as many scientific evidence to support the group’s answer to the question.
The group may go back to the library to research for more evidence in books or
online resources.

4. Propose doable actions that the group can do to promote a more scientific attitude
towards comets, asteroids, and meteors to their fellow students or to family
members. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------

Group ______________ Date _____________________

Members ___________________________________________________________

Do superstitions about comets and asteroids have scientific basis? Why?

Answer:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Scientific facts/evidence to support the group’s answer:

153
Proposed actions to promote a more scientific understanding of comets, asteroids, and
meteors:

Celestial visitors like comets, asteroids, and meteors have always captured the
imagination of ancient civilizations. They have been thought of as bad omens or
signs of great change or challenge such as ushering disasters and wars. But with
new scientific processes and tools, as well as greater access to scientific
information, these celestial visitors have gained the appreciation and interest of
many people, scientists and non-scientists included, all over the world.
Module3. Pre/Post-test
Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. ______ are icy bodies or objects, usually come from the Oort Cloud which is beyond
our Solar System.
a. Comets b. Asteroids c. Planets
2. These are rocky fragments, mostly composed of metals like iron and nickel?
a. Planets b. Comets c. Asteroids
3. ______ usually all burns up when it enters Earth’s atmosphere.
a. Meteoroid b. Meteors c. Meteorite
4. A space fragment from the meteoroid survives and makes it to the ground is called
______.
a. Meteoride b. Meteorite c. Meteors
5. Many steaks of light from Earth happen when earth orbits the sun and passes
through the orbit of a comet where these comet fragments are found?
a. Meteor shower b. Meteoride c. Meteorite
Key to corrections
1. A 2. C 3. A 4. A 5. A

To learn more about the origins of superstitions about comets, asteroids, and
meteors, visit:
http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/segwayed/lessons/cometstale/frame_history.html

References and Links:

American Meteor Society. (2013). Meteor FAQs. Retrieved from

http://www.amsmeteors.org/meteor-showers/meteor-faq/#1

Bely, P. Y., Christian, C., & Roy, J. R. (2010). A question and answer guide to astronomy.
United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

154
Canadian Space Agency. (2004). Module 5: Comets, meteors, and asteroids. Retrieved from
http://www.asc-
csa.gc.ca/eng/educators/resources/astronomy/module5/content.asp#5

Dr. Ken Hooper Virtual Natural History Museum Ottawa-Carleton Geoscience Centre. (n.d.).
Impact theory. Retrieved from
http://hoopermuseum.earthsci.carleton.ca/saleem/meteor.htm

Jones, T. & Stofan, E. (2008). Planetology: Unlocking the secrets of the solar system.
U. S. A.: National Geographic Society.

Lawrence Hall of Science. (2013). Hands-on universe program: Cosmic cataclysms.

Retrieved from http://www.globalsystemsscience.org/studentbooks/acc/ch1

Lunar and Planetary Institute. (2012). About comets. Retrieved from

http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/explore/comets/background/

Mihos, C. (1997-2006). Asteroids. Retrieved from http://burro.astr.cwru.edu/stu/asteroid.html

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2004). Asteroid 4179 Toutatis. Retrieved
from http://echo.jpl.nasa.gov/asteroids/4179_Toutatis/toutatis.html

Notkin, G. (2005-2013). Types of meteorites and classification. Retrieved from

http://geology.com/meteorites/meteorite-types-and-classification.shtml

Phillips, T. (2012). Big asteroid tumbles harmlessly pass earth. Retrieved from
http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2012/12dec_toutatis/

Plait, P. (2002). Meteors, meteoroids, and meteorites: Oh my! The impact of meteors and
asteroids. Bad Astronomy. U. S. A.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The Meteoritical Society. (2002-2012). Meteorites from the Philippines. Retrieved from Meteoritical
Bulletin Database http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meteor/metbull.php

University of California Regents. (2000). The comet’s tale: Characteristics. Retrieved from
http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/segwayed/lessons/cometstale/frame_characteristics.html

University of California Regents. (2000). The comet’s tale: Orbits. Retrieved from
http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/segwayed/lessons/cometstale/frame_orbits.html

University of California Regents. (2000).

Asteroihttp://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/segwayed/lessons/cometstale/glossary/glossary_6th_n
ew/ asteroid.html

155
UNIT 3
Matter

156
This module discusses the following lessons :
MODULE 1. The Particle Nature of Matter
Activity 1. Which is matter, which is not ?
Activity 2.What is matter made of ?
Activity 3. Are the properties of matter moving?
Activity 4.What changes take place when water is left in an open
container? In
a closed container?
Activity 5.What changes take place when water is heated or cooled?
Activity 6.What changes take place when ice turns into liquid water?
What you are expected to learn
After going through this module ,you should be able to:
1.explain the properties of solids,liquids,and gases based on the particle
nature of matter;
2.explain the physical changes in terms of the arrangement and motion
of atoms and molecules.

157
 Unit 3
MODULE

1 THE PARTICLE NATURE

OF MATTER
Overview

In Grade 7, you recognized that there is a wide variety of materials and

these materials combine in many ways and through different processes. With this
diversity of materials, you learned that chemists came up with several ways of
classifying them—heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures, elements and
compounds, metals and non-metals, and acids and bases.

In Activity 1, you will use what you have learned in previous grade levels
to differentiate matter from those which are not matter. In the second and third
activities, you will look at situations that support the idea that matter is made up
of tiny particles, which you cannot observe with your unaided eyes. This
fundamental idea will enable you to learn that the properties of matter are a result
of the arrangement of particles it is made of. In Activities 4 to 6, you will use and
apply the particle model of matter to explain the following changes in matter:
liquid to gas, gas to liquid, solid to liquid, and liquid to solid.

.
At the end of Module 1, you will be able to answer the
following key questions

What is matter made of? How does the particle model of

matter explain some observed properties and Changes?

158
Activity 1
Which is matter, which is not?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able

to:

1. describe common properties of matter;

2. distinguish properties of matter from those of non-matter; and
3. demonstrate the skill of measuring mass.

Materials Needed:

1 teaspoon sugar in a plastic cup or small beaker

½ cup tapwater
1 piece, stone or small rock
1 piece, ball (basketball, volleyball, or small beach ball)
3 pieces of leaves (from any plant or tree)
5 small wide-mouthed bottles or cups or 150-mL or 200-mL beakers
1 weighing scale commonly used in the market
1 small air pump
Procedure:
Is this matter?
1. Among the materials listed below which do you think is classified as matter?
Put a check ( ) under the appropriate column in Table1.Write the reason to
explain your answer for each sample. Write your answer in the last column.
Table 1.Identifying which is matter
Is the sample
matter?
Sample Reason for your answer
Not
Yes No
sure
sugar granules
water
stone
air inside ball
leaves
smoke
heat
light

159
Q1. What similarities do you observe among the first five given samples? Write
these common characteristics.

Q2. Does each sample have a measurable mass? Prove your answer by
demonstrating how you measure the mass of each sample. Record the
mass you got for each sample.

Q3. Do you think that each sample occupies space? Write the reason(s) for your
answer.

Q4. How about smoke? Does it have mass? Does it occupy space? Explain your
answer.

Q5. Do you think that heat and light have mass? Do they occupy space? Explain
your answer.

Based on your observations, you have just described some characteristics of

matter. As you were observing each sample of matter in Activity 1, you were
focusing on particular characteristics. These characteristics that describe a
sample of matter are called properties. Matter can have different properties. You
measured the mass of each sample of matter using a balance or a weighing
scale. The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter the object
has. You observed that the mass of each sample of matter in Activity 1 is
different from the mass of the other

Based on your observations, you have just described some characteristics

of matter. As you were observing each sample of matter in Activity 1, you were
focusing on particular characteristics. These characteristics that describe a
sample of matter are called properties. Matter can have different properties. You
measured the mass of each sample of matter using a balance or a weighing
scale. The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter the object
has. You observed that the mass of each sample of matter in Activity 1 is
different from the mass of the other samples. You also found out that each
sample of matter occupies space. The measure of the space occupied by an
object is called volume. All matter have mass and volume. There are other
properties of matter such as hardness, texture, color, flexibility, malleability, and
electrical conductivity which vary from one sample to another.

Recall that in Grade 7, you studied other properties of matter. You

performed activities to find out some common properties of solutions. You
investigated how fast sugar and salt dissolve in water. You compared the boiling
point of a substance (distilled water) with that of a mixture (sea water).

160
 Now that you can correctly describe matter based on the properties you have
observed, it is important that you know what matter is made of. What makes up matter?
If you hammer the stone you used in Activity 1 into much smaller pieces, what would
you get? If you turn the sugar into very fine powder, what would result? Ice, liquid
water, and steam are all the same substance, which is water, yet you can observe that
they look different from each other? How can this be explained? These questions can
be answered in the next activity.

Now that you can correctly describe matter based on the properties you
have observed, it is important that you know what matter is made of. What
makes up matter? If you hammer the stone you used in Activity 1 into much
smaller pieces, what would you get? If you turn the sugar into very fine powder,
what would result? Ice, liquid water, and steam are all the same substance,
which is water, yet you can observe that they look different from each other?
How can this be explained? These questions can be answered in the next
activity.

Activity 2
What is matter made of?
Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. infer from given situations or observable events what matter is made

of; and
2. explain how these observed situations or events give evidence that
matter is made up of tiny particles.
Materials Needed:

½ cup refined sugar

1 cup distilled or clean tap water Clean all
1 litre petbottles from softdrinks glassware &
1 measuring cup (1 cup capacity) TAKE containers very
1 piece transparent bottle (can hold one cup of CARE! well since you
water) will be tasting
the mixture.
1 dropper
1 stirrer (plastic coffee stirrer or stirring rod)
1 food coloring(blue, green or red)

161
Procedure:
Is this matter
1. Using clean and dry pet bottles,pour ,sugar until the 20 mL mark of the
calibrated pet bottles..
.
2. Transfer the measured sugar into a 250-Ml transparent bottle.

3. Measure 50 mL of distilled or clean tap water using the calibrated pet

bottles..

4. Add the 50 mL water to the sugar and mix thoroughly until all the sugar
dissolves. Taste the resulting solution. (CAUTION: Do not taste anything
unless specifically told to do so by your teacher)

Q1. What is the taste of the resulting mixture?

Q2. Think about sugar and water as made up of tiny particles. Give your
reason(s) for the observations you made in Q1. You may draw illustrations
to further explain your reason(s).

5. Transfer the sugar mixture into a calibrated container.

Q3. What is the volume of the sugar and water mixture?

Q4. Is the volume of the resulting sugar mixture equal, more than or less than
the sum (20 mL sugar + 50 mL water) of the volumes of the unmixed sugar
and water?

Q5. Think about sugar and water as made up of tiny particles. Discuss and give
your reason(s) for the observations you made in Q3. You may draw
illustrations to further explain your reason(s).

6. Pour one cup of tap water into a transparent glass bottle.

7. Add one small drop of food coloring slowly along the side of the transparent
bottle.

Q6. Describe what you observe after adding the food coloring.

8. Set aside the bottle with food coloring in a locker or corner of your room
without disturbing the setup. Describe the appearance of the contents of the
bottle after one day. Compare it with the appearance when you left the
bottle the previous day.

Q7. What happens to the food coloring dropped in the bottle containing water?
Write your observations in your notebook.

162
Q8. Think about food coloring and water as made up of particles. and give your
reason(s) for the observations you made in Q6.
You may draw illustrations to further explain your reason(s).
_______________________________________________________________

Studying about what matter is made of involves dealing with very small
“particles” beyond what your eyes can see. In fact, the ancient Greek
philosophers proposed ideas about what matter was made of. Almost 2,500
years ago, Leucippus and his disciple, Democritus believed that nature
consisted of two things, “atoms and the void that surrounds them” (Knieram,
1995-2013). They believed that “atoms are physically, but not geometrically,
indivisible.” For Democritus, atoms are indestructible and completely full, so
there is no empty space. Both Leucippus and Democritus had the idea that
there are many different kinds of atoms and each of them had specific shape
and size and that all atoms move randomly around in space. However they did
not give an explanation for the motion of atoms. (Knieram, 1995-2013).

Democritus believed that any piece of matter can be divided and

subdivided into very small particles but that this process ended at some point
when a piece was reached that could not be further divided. He called this
particle, atomos, a Greek word which means indivisible particle. Democritus’
ideas about the atom were later challenged by other Greek philosophers, most
strongly by Aristotle.

The idea of the atom was not further explored until a little over two
centuries ago when John Dalton presented concrete evidence that all matter is
made of very small particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest particle of an
element that has all the properties of the element. Today, we know that although
atoms are very small, they are not indivisible as Democritus thought, rather they
consist of still smaller particles, Democritus was right in one aspect of his belief,
that is, atoms are the smallest particles of which substances are made. In Grade
7, you learned about elements. Atoms of most elements have the ability to
combine with other atoms. Different elements have different properties because
the combining atoms are different and the way the atoms are joined together are
different. In Module 2 of this quarter, you will learn about how the model of the
atom evolved until the present time. You will also learn that an atom is made of
even smaller parts.

A molecule is a particle consisting of two or more atoms combined

together in a specific arrangement. It is an electrically neutral particle. It is the
smallest particle of an element or compound that can exist independently. For
example, a molecule of water consists of an oxygen atom combined with two
hydrogen atoms. Atoms of the same element can also combine to form a
molecule. For example, oxygen in the air consist of oxygen molecules which are
made up of two oxygen atoms.

163
 Atoms are too small to observe. These particles cannot be seen under the
high-powered light microscopes used in school laboratories. The size of an atom
is measured in angstroms. One angstrom is a unit of length equal to one ten
millionth of a millimetre.

The best light microscope can magnify an image only about 1,500 times.
Electron microscopes create a highly magnified image of up to 1 million times.
The scanning tunneling microscope (STM) allows scientists to view and scan the
surface of very small particles like atoms. It can magnify an image 10 million
times. The STM creates a profile of the surface of an atom and then a computer-
generated model or contour map is produced. So, only a model of the surface of
an atom is generated by a computer when a scanning tunnelling microscope is
used. The picture of atoms generated is unlike the picture we take with our
cameras.

In Activity 2, when you mixed sugar and water and tasted the resulting
solution, it tasted sweet because sugar is still present, though you cannot see the
sugar anymore. The volume of the mixture is less than the sum of the volumes
of the unmixed sugar and water. Why is this so? The water is made of tiny
particles, molecules, with spaces between them. Sugar is also made up of
molecules bigger than the molecules of water. The water molecules could fit in
the spaces between the sugar molecules or vise versa.

A good analogy to consider related to matter being composed of tiny

particles is the pointillist style of painting. The images in a pointillist painting
appear continuous but if one looks closely, the images are actually made of small
dots. Pointillism is a method of painting using dots to come up with various
effects. The dots are placed singly, in rows, or randomly. These dots can also be
in groups or they can be overlapping. They can be either uniform or varied in size
in the same painting. Matter is similarly assembled, with atoms of different
elements combining in various ways to give a tremendous variety of substances.

164
 Photo courtesy of Maria
Laura V. Ginoy

Figure 1(a). Continuous

image of a pointillist Figure 1(b). Blown- up
i
m
In Figure 1(a), the image of Dolores F. Hernandez, founding Director of a
the Science Education Center, now University of the Philippines National Institute g
for Science and Mathematics Education Development was done through e
pointillist painting. The image appears continuous. In Figure 1(b), a portion of the
o
painting (boxed in Figure 1a) is blown up to show that the continuous image f
actually consists of dots. The lightness and darkness of the pigments give
volume to the image in order to show smoothness. Similarly, matter, which a
appears to be continuous like the image in Figure 1(a) is made up of very small
p
particles that cannot be seen with the unaided eye.
a
i
n
t
i
n
g

In the next activity, you will observe a situation to infer that particles of
matter are moving and there
In the next are you
activity, spaces
will between
observe them.
a situation to infer that particles of
matter are moving and there are spaces between them.

165
Activity 3

Are the particles of matter moving? What is between

them?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able

to:

1. infer from observations that particles of matter move; and

2. represent through a drawing/illustration what is between particles of
matter.

Materials Needed:

2 cups tap water

1 piece, 30 mL plastic syringe (without the needle)
1 piece, wide-mouthed transparent bottle (200 or 250 mL capacity)
1 piece, narrow-mouthed transparent bottle (100 mL capacity)
1 plastic or glass dinner plate
½ cup rock salt (not iodized salt) or ½ cup sand
food coloring (blue, green, or red)

Procedure:
Is
1. Pull the plunger of the syringe until it reaches the 30 mL mark of the syringe.

2. Press your thumb on the tip of the plunger and use your other thumb to
push the plunger once.

Q1. Can you push the plunger all the way through the syringe while your thumb
presses on the tip of the plunger? Why or why not?

Q2. What do you feel as you push the plunger?

3. This time, push the plunger of the syringe all the way to the end of the
syringe.
Suck water from the cup or container up to the 30-mL level of the syringe.
Cover tightly the tip of the syringe with your thumb.

Q3. What do you feel as you push the plunger?

Q4. Compare what you felt when you pushed the plunger with the air and with
the water?

166
Q5. Explain what you observe. You may represent your comparison by drawing
an illustration of the syringe and the particles of air and another illustration
of the syringe and the particles of water.

4. Pour 1/2 cup of tap water into one transparent glass bottles.

5. Pour the 1/2 cup of tap water in step #4 into another bottle or beaker.
Observe carefully the flow of water.

Q6. Did water take the shape of the container?

6. This time, pour the water just on the flat surface of a dinner plate.

Q7. What do you observe? Write all your observations.

7. Examine a single piece of bottle cap. Put it inside the bottle. Observe
carefully what happens as you transfer it by tilting the bottle into the dinner
plate.

Q8. What do you observe? Write all your observations.

8. Pour ½ cup of rock salt or sand into the narrow-mouthed bottle. Observe
carefully what happens to rock salt as you pour it into the bottle and when
all of it has been transferred.

Q9. Did rock salt or sand take the shape of the bottle? Did the particles of rock
salt change in shape?

Particle Models of the Three States of Matter

From Activity 3, you observed that you could slightly push the plunger of
the syringe with air in it. You felt the springiness of the air inside the syringe
which gives a hint about the distance between the particles of air. In other words,
air, being a gas, can be compressed because there are large spaces between
the particles so the particles can be made to come closer to each other.
However, you were not able to push the plunger of the syringe with water in it.
You felt the resistance of the water to being compressed. The plunger could not
be pushed because water is not as compressible as air. The particles of liquid
water are closer to each other and it is difficult to push them even closer to each
other.

167
There are other properties that you will learn in Grades 9 to 12 that will be useful
for distinguishing among the states of matter. In general, the three states of
matter differ because of the arrangement and motion of the particles in each
state.

So far, based on Activities 1 to 3 and your teacher’s explanation, you

learned that matter is anything that has mass and volume and you now have a
better
“picture” or view of how the particles are arranged in the three states of matter:
solid, liquid, and gas.

• Matter is made up of tiny particles.

• Particles of matter are moving all the time.

• These particles have spaces between them.

• The particles of matter attract each other.

These ideas are some of the features of what scientists call the particle model of
matter.

In Activity 4, you will explain the changes taking place when liquid water is
In Activity 4, you will explain the changes taking place when liquid water is
left in an open and in a closed container using the particle model of matter.
left in an open and in a closed container using the particle model of matter.

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. describe what happens to water when it is left in an open container

for some time;

2. represent through drawings/illustrations what happens to the particles

of water when it is left in an open container;

3. describe what happens to water when it is left in a closed container

for some time.

Materials Needed:

1 cup tap water

3 pieces saucer or 2 pieces shallow transparent plastic container with
covers
1 piece teaspoon

168
Procedure:
Is this matter?
1. Pour 1 teaspoon of tap water into the saucer. This is container No.1. You
can write “No. 1” on a piece of paper and place it under the saucer. Cover
container No.1 and set it aside.

2. Pour 1 teaspoon of tap water into the second saucer. This is container No.
2. (note: Do not cover container No. 2. )

3. Put container No. 2 beside container No. 1 in an area of your house where
these can be kept overnight.

4. Observe what happens. Answer the following questions and write your
answers in your notebook.

Q1. Describe what happened to the water in container No. 1.

Q2. Describe what happened to the water in container No. 2. Compare the
volume of water left in container Nos. 1 and 2.

Q3. Where do you think the water go? Describe and draw this process. Label
the parts of your drawing. You can use “call outs” in your drawing.

Q4. Would anything happen differently if you heated container No. 2? Explain
your answer.

Changes between a Liquid and a Gas

In Activity 4, you observed that the volume of water from an open

container decreased after leaving it overnight. In fact, nothing of the 1/2
tablespoon of water was left on the watch glass. How do we explain this? Based
on the particle model of matter, particles are always in motion. Note that the
particles mentioned in this case are the molecules of water. These molecules
have kinetic energies that differ from each other. Some particles are moving
faster than others and therefore have higher kinetic energy and some are moving
slower. So, even at room temperature, some molecules of water have enough
kinetic energy to overcome the attraction of neighboring molecules and escape
from the surface of the liquid and eventually move into the air. To break away
from the surface of the liquid, the molecules must have at least some minimum
kinetic energy. The process by which the molecules on the surface of a liquid
break away and change into gas is called evaporation. Usually, it is described
as the process where a liquid is changed into a gas.

169
 As evaporation takes place, the water molecules which did not escape
and were left in the liquid have a lower average kinetic energy than the
molecules that escaped. The effect of this is the decrease in the temperature of
the liquid water. Evaporation is a cooling process.

You can feel this cooling effect yourself when you apply acetone on your
nails or rubbing alcohol on your arms. Acetone and rubbing alcohol are volatile
liquids. They readily evaporate. As they evaporate, the molecules get heat
energy from your body leaving you with a cool sensation.

It is important to remember that the evaporation of a liquid in a closed

container is different from evaporation from an open container. In a closed
container, no particles can escape into the air outside the cover of the container.
In Activity 4, you may have observed that droplets of water formed under the
watch glass which covered the second watch glass with water. So, evaporation
still happens in a covered container. Some of the molecules of water on the
surface of the liquid escape and go into the gaseous state. These molecules may
then collide with the inner surface of the cover and as more and more of these
molecules do so, some may stay on the cover, accumulate and form droplets.
This process where a gas is changed into a liquid is called condensation. It is
the reverse of evaporation.

In a closed container, the molecules of water continue to evaporate and

condense, but there is no net change in the number of molecules in the liquid or
in the gas phase. Molecules of water that previously evaporated are condensing,
but other water molecules are evaporating.

There are many other examples of condensation that you may have
observed. Condensation is responsible for ground-level fog that we see on some
cold days or along the highway leading to Baguio, for your eye glasses fogging
up when you go from an air conditioned room or vehicle to the outdoors on a hot
day, and for the water that collects on the outside of your glass of cold drink.

In the next activity, you will represent your ideas through a written description,
a cartoon, or simply an illustration and explain the changes taking place when water is
heated or cooled using the particle model of matter.

170
 In the next activity, you will represent your ideas through a written
description, a cartoon, or simply an illustration and explain the changes taking
place when water is heated or cooled using the particle model of matter.

Activity 5
What changes take place when water is heated or
cooled?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. describe what happens to water when it is heated;

2. describe what happens to water when it is cooled;

3. represent through drawings/illustrations what happens to the particles

of water when it is heated and then cooled; and

Materials Needed:

100 mL tap water (or ½ cup tap water)

1 piece calibrated empty can,200mL or 250 mL
1 piece saucer
1 piece tripod
1 piece wire gauze (without the asbestos)
1 piece alcohol lamp , 1 safety matches
1 marker pen (any color)

Procedure Fig.5 setup for

boiling water
Part A. Boiling Water
Is this matter?
1. Pour 1/2 cup or 100 mL of water intothe empty canand mark the level of
water outside the can.

2. Put the can with water on top of the tripod as shown in Figure 5..
3. Let the water boil using the alcohol lamp .Observe carefully what is
happening to the water.

Q1. Describe what you observe in the water inside the beaker and above
the level of water.

171
4. You may do any of the following: write a description or draw a cartoon or
illustration to
demonstrate how the particles of water behave as
they are heated.

*Add to your skit or cartoon or illustration your answers to Q2 to Q5.

Q2. What do you think is inside the bubbles that form when the water boils?
Where did they come from?

Q3. If you keep the water boiling for more than 10 minutes, what do you think
will happen to the amount of water in the can? Why?

Q4. Where did the water go?

Q5. Can you explain by illustration how the water changes from liquid to gas?
What is happening to the particles of water?

5. After boiling the water for 10 minutes, remove the alcohol lamp and put off
the flame.

Part B. Cooling Water

Is this matter?
1. Using the hot water that has boiled from Part A, cover the can with saucer.

Q6. Describe what you observe in the water inside the can and at the bottom of
the saucer.

You may do any of the following: write a description or draw a cartoon or

illustration to demonstrate how the particles of water behave as they are
heated.

Add to your skit or cartoon or illustration your answers to Q6 to Q9.

Q7. Where does the water at the bottom of the saucer come from?

Q8. Can you explain by illustration how the water changes from gas to liquid?

Q9. Describe what is happening to the particles of water.

172
 In Part A, Activity 5, you observed that after boiling water for some time,
the amount of water inside the beaker decreased. As the water is heated and the
temperature of the water rises, the molecules gain more kinetic energy and they
move faster. More molecules therefore have the energy to overcome the forces
of attraction of the adjacent molecules. These molecules escape to the gaseous
phase. This is evaporation.

This evaporation and formation of gas can happen even below the surface
of the liquid. When this happens bubbles are formed, rise to the surface and
escape into the air. This is the bubbling phenomenon that you see when water
boils.

In Part B, Activity 5 of this module, you observed that as the water began
to cool, droplets formed under the watch glass that covered the beaker
containing hot water. Where did these droplets come from? The molecules that
escape from the liquid and go into the gaseous phase is called vapor and in this
case, water vapor. The water vapor rises and some molecules touch the glass.
The glass is cooler than the boiling water so some of the heat energy of the
vapor molecules are transferred to the glass, in effect, cooling the water vapor.
When a gas is cooled, the motion of the particles slows down. If the particles lose
enough energy, their attraction for each other can overcome their motion and
cause them to associate with one another to become a liquid. This is the liquid
observed under the watch glass in the above activity. This process is called
condensation.

Recall two aspects of the particle model of matter: particles are moving all
the time and there are forces that act between the particles. These principles can
explain at the sub-microscopic level what you observed in Part B, Activity 5. Not
all of the water changed from liquid to water vapor. There was still liquid water
left in the beaker. Some of the molecules do not have the energy to overcome
the forces of attraction of the neighboring molecules. In addition, some of the
molecules of water that escaped to the vapor phase, hit the molecules on the
surface of the liquid and if they do not have sufficient energy, the attraction of
molecules on the surface cause them to stay and join the liquid phase.

In Activity
In Activity 6, you6, you will draw
will draw a model
a model andand explain
explain thethe changes
changes taking
taking place
place when ice is changed to liquid water using the particle
when ice is changed to liquid water using the particle model of matter. model of
matter.

173
Activity 6
What changes take place when ice turns into liquid
water?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. represent through drawings or cartoons what happens to the particles

of ice when it turns to liquid; and

2. explain the processes taking place using the particle model of matter.

Materials Needed:

2 pieces ice cubes

1 piece, saucer

Procedure:
Is this matter?
1. Put one piece of ice cube on small saucer.

2. Observe what happens to the ice cube after 2 minutes.

3. You may do any of the following: write a description or draw a cartoon or

illustration to show how the particles of water behave as ice changes to a
liquid.

Q1. Explain what is happening to the particles of water in ice as it turns to liquid
using the particle model of matter.

Q2. Explain what will happen to the liquid on the saucer if it is transferred into a
small container and left inside the freezer after a few hours or overnight?

174
Changes between a Solid and a Gas

In Activity 6, you observed that after about 15 to 20 minutes, the ice (solid
water) on the watch glass or saucer turned into liquid water. The ice cube, which
was taken from the freezer is at a lower temperature than the surrounding room
temperature. Some of the heat energy of the surroundings is transferred to the
water molecules in the ice. This increases the kinetic energy of the molecules
and as the heat transfer continues, the particles gain more and more kinetic
energy. The molecules vibrate faster and faster and at some point have enough
energy to overcome the forces that hold them in their fixed places in the solid.
Since the molecules vibrate so fast, they break away from their fixed positions.
The arrangement of the water molecules in ice gradually becomes disorganized
and the solid where the molecules are in fixed positions turns to liquid where the
molecules are more free to move. This transformation process in which a solid is
changed to a liquid is called melting.

On the other hand, when you put liquid water inside a freezer, the cooling
system of the refrigerator removes heat energy from the water molecules as a
result of which they have less kinetic energy and move more slowly. As more and
more heat is removed and as the molecules move more slowly, the forces of
attraction between the molecules cause the molecules to be aligned. As this
removal of heat continues, the molecules lose so much energy that they are not
able to move from place to place but only able to vibrate in place. In time, the
liquid water becomes solid water, which is ice. Freezing is the process in which a
liquid is changed to a solid.

Note that liquid water that freezes is still water. Similarly, ice that melts is
still water. This is why after melting an ice cube, you can freeze the liquid water
back to ice. In other words, the same molecules of water are involved when these
changes occur.

In Activities 1 to 6, you have learned the four basic aspects of the particle
model of matter. These are: (1) matter is made up of very small particles; (2)
matter is made up of particles that are constantly moving; (3) there is empty
space between the particles; and (4) there are forces that act between the
particles. Using this model, you were able to infer that the arrangement and
motion of the particles of matter, as well as the attraction between them change
when they change from one state to another. However, the same particles of
matter are involved when these changes happen. The particle model of matter
can explain the following phase changes: evaporation, boiling, condensation,
melting, and freezing. These can be seen in the diagram below.

175
Post test
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer.
1.What idea about matter explains molecular theory?
a. Matter exist in three phases. c. Molecules of matter are always
moving.
b.Matter is made up of small particles. d.Matter cannot occupy space filled up
by another object.
2. Among the given samples which is NOT matter?
a. light b.smoke c. stone d.water
3. During evaporation,the water molecules evaporate only from the _______ of
the liquid.
a. bottom b. middle c. side d. Surface
4. When a solid changed directly into a gas without passing a liquid phase,the
process is ________
a.condensation b. solidification c.sublimation d. Evaporation
5. What characteristic describes a sample of matter?
a. difference b. measurement c.properties d. Similarities

176
References and Links

Annenberg Foundation (2012). Workshop session 2: The particle nature of

matter: Solids, liquids, and gases. In Essential Science for
Teachers:Physical Science.Retrieved
fromhttp://www.learner.org/courses/essential/physicalsci/support/ps_session
2.p df

Brady, J.E.,& Senese, F. (2004). Chemistry: Matter and its changes (4thed.).
River Street Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Frank, D. V., Jones, T.G., Little, J.G., Miaoulis, B., Miller, S., & Pasachoff, J.M.
(2008) California focus on physical science. Boston, Massachusetts:
Pearson Prentice Hall.

Knierim, T. (1995-2013). Leucippus and Democritus [Abdera, 460 - 370 BC].

Retrieved from http://www.thebigview.com/greeks/democritus.html.

The ekShiksha Team, Affordable Solutions Lab (ASL), Indian Institute of

Technology, Bombay, India (n.d.). Matter in our surroundings. Retrieved from
http://www.it.iitb.ac.in/ekshiksha/eContent-Show.do?documentId=88

The NSTA Learning Center, ACS-NSTA Web Seminars.(2012, May). Matter –

solids, liquids, and gases: Introducing a free online resource for middle
school chemistry. Retrieved from
http://learningcenter.nsta.org/products/symposia_seminars/ACS/webseminar
10. aspx

The NSTA Learning Center, ACS-NSTA Web Seminars.(2012,July).Changes of

state: evaporation, condensation, freezing, and melting - Introducing a free
online resource for middle school chemistry. Retrieved from
http://learningcenter.nsta.org/products/symposia_seminars/ACS/webseminar
11. aspx

Whitten, K.W., Davis, R.E., Peck, M.L., Stanley, G.G. (2004). General chemistry
(7thed.). Belmont, California: Brooks/Cole—Thomson Learning, Inc.

Wilbraham, A.C., Staley, D. D., Matta, M.S., & Waterman, E.L. (2007).Chemistry:
Teacher’s edition for California. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice
Hall.

United Kingdom. Department for Children, Schools & Families (2008).Using

models, science study guide. Retrieved
fromhttp://www.iteach.ac.uk/Lick.aspx?fileticket=wc0DUlOOxMQ%3D&tabi
d=1006&mid=7745

United States Department of Education, Louisiana States. (n.d.) Particle nature of

matter activity sheet. Retrieved from http:

177
MODULE 2. ATOMS : INSIDE OUT

Activity 1. ‘’ Charge” it to experience !

Activity 2. The big difference
Activity 3. Small but terrible
Activity 4. What’s in a number ?
Periodic table of elements

What you are expected to learn

After going through this module ,you should be able to:

1. Determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in a particular

atom

178
 Unit 3
MODULE

2 ATOMS: INSIDE OUT

Overview

In module 1, you learned that matter is made up of atoms which are too
small to see with the unaided eye or even with the use of the ordinary light
microscope. When the idea of the atom was conceived by the ancient Greek
philosophers, they thought the atom is indivisible, that it has no parts.

Scientists have proven, however, that the atom is composed of even

smaller particles. From experiments conducted in the latter part of the 19 th
century to the early half of the 20th century, scientists collected evidence that
atoms are composed of three types of particles, namely, (1) protons, (2)
electrons and (3) neutrons. These components of the atom are collectively
referred to as subatomic particles. truly exciting! Who knows, you might join
this group of scientists and make more discoveries about the atom. Inspiring and
challenging, perhaps?

Tostarted,
To get you get you started,
prepare prepare
yourself yourself
to turn to turn
the atoms the out!
inside
atom inside out!

Figure 1. Fundamental Particles of atom

179
 What makes up an atom? How do the components differ from
each other? How are these components arranged inside the
atom? How is an atom different from an ion

In the earlier grades, you learned about magnets. A magnet has two ends,
two poles, the north and the south. Put the north ends of two magnets next to
each other and the magnets move apart. How about putting the two south ends
next to each other? Yes, the same observation would be made as when both
north ends are next to each other. How about when you place the north and
south ends next to each other, what will happen? They attract each other. These
observations indicate that like ends or poles repel, unlike ends or poles attract.

. Electric charges (or simply charges), are either positive charge or negative
charge.Like charges repel or push away each other and unlike charges attract or
pull toward each other. Keep this kind of behavior in mind, as you do the first
activity.

Activity 1
“Charge” it to experience!

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. observe that objects may attract or repel each

other,
infer that objects may carry positive and negative charges,

2. deduce that neutral objects contain positive and negative charges

Materials Needed:

1meterstick or any meter-long stick,

2 balloons
1 meter long string
2 chairs or any stand for the stick ,glass from a picture frame
cloth (flannel or silk cloth)

180
Procedure:

1. Inflate the two balloons. Tie each using a length of string. Place the meter-
long stick across two chairs. Suspend the two balloons so that they hang
freely about two inches apart.

2. With each hand holding one balloon, rub the balloons simultaneously
against your hair several times. Let go of the balloons. Observe.

Q1. What happened with the balloons?

Q2. Did the balloons acquire the same charge or different charges? What made
you say so?

3. Rub the piece of glass with a silk cloth. Bring the piece of glass between the
two balloons. Observe.

Q3. What happened with the balloons?

Q4. Does the glass have a different or same charge as the balloon? What made
you say so?

From the activity above, you have “experienced” that objects, even they
seem to be neutral, can carry “charges”. In fact, you were able to charge the
objects by rubbing them against another object; just like when you rubbed the
balloons onto your hair. You can infer that after you have rubbed the balloons,
they acquired a charge since they pushed away each other. You can even say
that the balloons acquired the same charge. They have indeed! The balloon, or
synthetic rubber, the material the balloon is made of, acquire negative charges
when rubbed. Have you experienced the same with your hair after brushing it?
Did you observe some unusual behaviour, too? Was it a “hair-raising”
experience? Why do you think this happened?

How about the rubbed glass? What charges do you think the glass carried
after it was rubbed with the cloth? Yes, the glass was positively-charged since
the negatively-charged balloons were attracted towards the glass. From here,
you can infer that objects are electrically neutral, or simply, neutral, but they
carry electrical charges.

But where do all these charges come from? In module 1, you have
learned that all matter, including the objects that you used in Activity 1, are made
up of atoms. Atoms, of which all objects are made, are electrical in nature. Atoms
contain particles with positive and negative charges. The proton carries a positive
charge (+1). The electron carries a negative charge (-1). Atoms, in their most
stable state are neutral with an equal number of protons and electrons. So, let us

181
say an atom has 5 electrons, how many protons does this atom have? How
about if the atom has 64 protons, how many electrons does this atom have?

The other particle in atoms is the neutron which does not carry any charge
or is neutral; as you may have guessed from the name it was given. Consider an
atom which has six protons, six electrons and six neutrons, is the atom
electrically neutral? If instead the atom has six protons, six electrons and eight
neutrons, is it still neutral? Does the number of neutrons affect the charge of the
atom? With the charges of the three subatomic particles in mind, what could be
the reason that among the three subatomic particles, it was the neutron which
took the longest time to be discovered? In fact, it was detected 30 years after the
electron and the proton were discovered.

One of their properties is their masses.

Table 1. Summary of some properties of the 3 main sub-atomic particles

Subatomic
Location in the
particle Charge Mass, grams
Atom
(symbol)

Electrons (e-) -1 9.109 x 10-28 Outside nucleus

Protons (p+) +1 1.672 x 10-24 Nucleus

Nucleus
Neutrons (n0) 0 1.675 x 10-24

In the next activity, you will compare the masses of the

subatomic particles and determine which among them contributes the
most to the overall mass of an atom.

182
Activity 2
The big difference

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. compare the masses of the subatomic particles using different ways of

visual representation
2. infer which subatomic particle contributes to the mass of the atom

Materials Needed:

1 pencil/pen
1 box crayons or colored pencils

Procedure:

1. Refer to the masses of the subatomic particles in Table 2. Arrange the

subatomic particles in increasing mass.

Q1. Which subatomic particle is the lightest?

Q2. Which subatomic particle is the heaviest?

Q3. Which subatomic particles have almost the same mass?

2. Show a comparison of the masses of the three subatomic particles using a

bar graph. Refer to Figure 2 in the next page, assuming that the first bar
represents the mass of the proton; draw the bars to represent the masses of
the neutron and the electron. Take note that the masses are expressed in
the -28 exponent.

3. This time, using a pie chart, show the proportion of the masses of the
subatomic particles for an atom composed of only 1 proton, 1 neutron and 1
electron.

4. A seesaw can show a comparison

between two masses of an object. A
seesaw goes up and down depending
on the mass it carries on each side.

Q4. How does the mass of the neutron

compare with the mass of the proton?
Using circles to represent the particles
show the comparison by drawing a seesaw with the particles on it.

183
Q5. How many electrons should be placed on one side of the seesaw to balance
it if the other side has 1 proton on it, like the one shown below? Write the
number on the space provided in the illustration below.

_____ e- 1p+

5. Take a look again at the different visual representations you have made.

Q6. Which subatomic particle/s make/s up most of the mass of the atom?

In the activity above, you have visually compared the masses of the three
subatomic particles. You have “seen” that protons and neutrons are “massive
indeed”. Electrons are very much lighter than the protons and neutrons, to the
point that its mass does not significantly contribute to the mass of the entire
atom. In effect, the mass of the electron is negligible.

The massive part of the atom, then, comes from the masses of the protons
and neutrons. Collectively, the protons and neutrons are called nucleons. The
nucleons, tightly packed together, form the nucleus in the center of the atom.
Thus, most of the mass of the atom is contained in its nucleus.

In the succeeding activities, you will learn more about the nucleus
and how it was discovered.

184
 18000

16720

16000

14000

12000

gra
ms 10000
)
ma
28

ss
(x1
0 8000

6000

4000

2000

0
proton neutron electron

Figure 2. Masses (expressed in x10-28 grams) of the subatomic particles

185
Activity 3
Small but terrible

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. simulate and describe Thomson’s model of the atom

2. simulate and describe Rutherford’s model of the atom
3. deduce that scientific models may change over time

Part A
Materials Needed:

1 Box containing a marble and a regularly shaped object fixed in place

Procedure:

1. Get the activity box from your teacher. Write the box number on your
worksheet. Inside the box are the “mystery object” which is fixed in place
and one marble. Without opening the box, guess the shape, size and
location of the mystery object.

Q1. What is the shape of your “mystery object”?

Q2. What is the size of the “mystery object”? Draw a picture of the “mystery
object” showing its size relative to the box.

Q3. Where is it located in the box? Draw a picture of the “mystery object”
showing its location within the box.

Q4. How were you able to infer the shape, size and location of the “mystery
object” in the box?

2. Open the box and check how close you are in guessing the size, shape and
location of the “mystery object”.

Q5. How close was your guess? If given the chance to guess another “mystery
object”, will you change your strategy? If yes, what changes will these be?

3. With the permission from your teacher, you may again try to guess another
“mystery object”.

186
 How was your experience in Part A? Perhaps, you had felt the same
excitement as what our scientists felt when they are trying to determine what was
inside the atom, its structure. The excitement comes from guessing about
something that is unseen, much like guessing what is inside a box that you
received as gift on your birthday! The scientists had to look for ways to find out
what the eyes cannot see, similar with what you did in Part A.

When the idea of the atom was first proposed by the ancient Greeks, they
thought it was a particle with no parts. However, towards the 19th century, J.J.
Thomson was able to discover that atoms have negatively-charged particles,
which he called electrons. It led him to
propose a new model for the atom, which he
called the plum pudding model. Thomson
proposed that the negatively-charged
electrons were embedded in a kind of cloud
or soup of positive charge, as shown in the
figure on the right. Since plums and puddings
are not commonly known in the Philippines, it
may work better for you that we use the other
name for the model, the raisin bread model.

In science, models, based on

observations from
experiments are tested further, sometimes by other scientists, to determine their
validity. A group of scientists composed of Ernest Rutherford, Johannes "Hans"
WilhelmGeiger and Ernest Marsden tested Thomson’s model by bombarding a
very thin sheet of gold foil with positively-charged alpha particles. Their
experiment is referred to as the alpha particle scattering experiment. In the
next parts of the activity, you will simulate parts of the experiment that the group
of Rutherford did.

Part B

Materials Needed:

one piece of 25 centavo coin

paper (any small piece will do)
1 smooth clean table, counter or
floor

187
Procedure:

1. Tear 20, very small pieces of paper, the size of mongo beans.

2. Scatter the pieces in a circle on the floor, about one foot in diameter.
Imagine these to be the electrons in the Thomson’s raisin bread model of
the atom.

3. As forcefully as you can, slide the coin to hit the circle of paper pieces.
Imagine the coin to be the high speed alpha particle in Rutherford’s
experiment.

Q1. What do you observe? What happened to the coin?

4. If you repeat what you did with the coin and the paper pieces many times,
do you think you will make the same observation as you did above about
what happens to the coin?

Using a setup similar to the figure below, Rutherford and his coworkers
expected all of the alpha particles to travel undeflected through the atoms of gold
like the coin in the above activity. They observed that most of the alpha particles
did go through the gold foil undeflected. But what surprised them was that there
were a few alpha (α) particles that practically bounced back towards the source
and some that were deflected at smaller angles. Rutherford was reported to have
exclaimed, “It was as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a sheet of tissue paper and it
came back to hit you.”

Recall what happened in Part A. How did you manage to know some
information about the mystery object? Perhaps, you guessed by the way the
marble is “bumping” the mystery object. You may even had a guess on where the
mystery object is possibly located within the box. Perhaps, this guess also came
from the “non-bumping” of the marble to anything except the sides of the box.
Similarly, the way the alpha particles “bumped”, or did not “bump”, the particles in

188
the atoms of the gold foil led Rutherford’s team to propose another model for the
atom, the nuclear model. In the raisin bread model, where the electrons with
very small mass were scattered in a cloud of positive charge, there was no
region within the atom where there would be an appreciable net concentration of
charge that would cause the alpha particles to be deflected. To account for the
few deflections and the rare occasions of very large deflections, Rutherford, in
1911, suggested a different structure of the atom where all the positive charge
and nearly all the mass of the atom were concentrated in a very tiny region called
the nucleus at the center of the atom. The rest of the atom, where the tiny
electrons with very small mass moved, was largely empty space through which
the alpha particles could travel undeflected.

This modelreplacedthe one proposed by Thomson and is the model that

we hold to this time, with respect to the placement of the nucleus in the atom. In
Part C, you will simulate the alpha particle scattering by the gold foil in
Rutherford’s experiment using his model of the atom.

Part C

Material Needed:

1pencil

Procedure:

1. Refer to Figure 3 in the next page. Using this schematic representation of

the atoms of the gold foil, draw the path of the positively-charged alpha
particles as they move through the atoms.

Q1. What happens to a positively-charged alpha particle that comes near the
positively-charged nucleus?

Q2. What happens when the positively-charged alpha particle directly hits the
positively-charged nucleus?

2. The representation of the gold foil that has been given to you is not quite to
scale. The nucleus is very tiny compared to the size of the atom. The ratio
of the size of the nucleus to that of the atom is 1:100,000. If the nucleus
were about 1 mm in diameter, the atom would have a diameter of 100
meters, which is about the height of 30-story building.

Q3. Imagining this relative size of the nucleus compared to the atom, would
there be many more or fewer alpha particles that would pass through the
gold foil undeflected compared to the number in your schematic
representation?

189
Q4. What do you think are the chances of the alpha particle directly hitting the
nucleus?

Figure 3. Schematic representation of the atoms of a gold foil

The nuclear model of the atom proposed by Rutherford in 1912 is still the
picture of the atom that we hold today. Observations made afterward in
experiments concerning the atom support the model.

The other puzzle about the atom concerns the electrons. Imagine again
the atom as 100 meters in diameter, the nucleus, around one millimetre in
diameter at the center and the electrons are in this vast space around the
nucleus. Where in this vast space are the electrons? Are they moving? How do
they move? How fast do they move?

190
 One of the models of the electrons in atoms is the planetary model where
the electrons were thought to move in orbits around the nucleus similar to the
way planets like the earth move around the sun. This has since been found to be
incorrect. The behavior of electrons in the space around the nucleus is not simple
to describe. What we do know, however, are the following: (1) The electron
although it is negatively charged does not collapse into the positively charged
nucleus; (2) There is attraction between the nucleus and the electron, evidence
of which is that energy is required to remove an electron from the atom.

Notwithstanding the complex behavior of electrons in atoms, we continue

to use a model of electronic structure (or the way electrons are “arranged” in the
atom) to help us understand and study the way atoms combine to form the
millions of compounds discovered to date.

So far, you have learned about the three subatomic particles — protons,
electrons and neutrons — and how they are arranged in the currently accepted
model of the atom. Among these subatomic particles, it is the number of protons
that identify the atoms of an element. All atoms of an element contain the same
number of protons in their nuclei. This number is the element’s atomic number.

In the next activity, you will refer to the periodic table in

determining the atomic number. Notice that no two elements have the
same atomic number.

Activity 4
What’s in a number?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. locate the atomic number in a periodic table,

2. identify the subatomic particles associated with mass number,
3. determine the number of neutrons from the mass number,
4. define an isotope,
5. interpret shorthand notations for isotopes and atoms,
6. infer that ions are formed from the removal or addition of electron/s,
7. evaluate the overall electrical charge of an atom, and
8. make an inventory of subatomic particles of a given element.

191
Materials Needed:

paper pen/pencil
Periodic Table

Procedure:

1. Refer to the periodic table at the end of this module. Locate the atomic
number.

Q1. What is the element with an atomic number of 15?

Q2. How many protons does the atom of this element have?

Q3. How many protons are there in an atom of aluminum?

Q4. Which element has the smallest number of protons in its atom?

2. While the number of protons is the same with atoms of a particular element,
the number of neutrons may vary. Atoms having the same number of
protons but different number of neutrons are referred as isotopes. The
isotopes are identified through their mass number which is the sum of the
number of protons and the number of neutrons in an atom. A shorthand
notation for isotope includes the element’s symbol and mass number, for
instance, Ca-40.

Consider two isotopes of carbon, C-12 and C-13.

Q5. How many protons are there in the C-12 isotope? How about the number of
neutrons?

Q6. How many protons are there in the C-13 isotope? How about the number of
neutrons?

3. Atomic mass is the mass of an atom of a particular element. It is the

average of the mass numbers of the naturally occurring isotopes of the
element multiplied with their respective abundance. You will not compute for
atomic mass. However, you have to know, at least, where to find it in the
periodic table.

Refer to the periodic table at the end of this module.

Q7. What is the atomic mass of magnesium (Mg)? How about for potassium
(K)?

192
 4. The figure below shows another shorthand notation. Information on the
subatomic particles may be derived from this shorthand. The base is the
element’s symbol. The left subscript denotes the atomic number, therefore
the number of protons may be known. The superscript at the left denotes
the mass number whern the number of neutrons may be derived. On the
other hand, the superscript at the right denotes the charge wherein the
number of electrons may be determined. When there is no superscript at
the right, it means that the charge is zero (0).
7Li +1
3

Atoms may gain charges, as you have experienced in Activity 1. This

happens when electrons are lost or gained by the atom. When this happens,
the atom becomes an ion.

Consider the lithium ion shown in the notation above.

Q8. How many protons are there in the lithium ion?

Q9. How many neutrons are there in this lithium ion?

Q10. How many electrons are there in the lithium ion?

5. Table 3. Complete the table below.

Isotope Element Name # of p+ # of e- # of n0 Charge

B-6 Boron 5 1 0
N-14 Nitrogen 7 0
Fluorine 9 10 -1
Neon 10 10
Mg-24 12 10
Al-27 +3
Si-28 14
S-32 0
K-35 +1

6. Using any reference, write the shorthand notation showing mass number
and atomic number for all the naturally occurring isotopes of iron.

In the next module, you will learn more about the atomic structure in
relation to the periodic table. You will notice that a pattern emerges from the way
the atoms are arranged in the table. Hopefully, this module sparked your interest
and you are excited to know more about the atom.

193
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

194
References

Brady, J.E.,& Senese, F. (2004). Chemistry: Matter and its changes (4th ed.).
River Street Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Bucat, R.B. (Ed.). (1984). Elements of chemistry: Earth, air, fire and water, Vol. 2.
Canberra City, A.C.T., Australia.

Elvins, C., Jones, D., Lukins, N., Miskin, J., Ross, B., & Sanders, R. (1990).
Chemistry one: Materials, chemistry in everyday life. Port Melbourne,
Australia: Heinemann Educational Australia.

Hill, J.W. & Kolb, D.K. (1998). Chemistry for changing times (8th ed.).Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Philippines. Department of Education. (2004).Chemistry: Science and

technology textbook for 3rd year. (Revised ed.). Quezon City: Author.

Silberberg, M.S. (2007). Principles of General Chemistry. McGraw-Hill: New York

Link

Interactive Simulations: http://phet.colorado.edu/

Post test
Direction: Match the term in column A to the phrase that describes it in column
B. Write the letter of your answer on the space provided.
Column A Column B
________1.ion a. particle in the nucleus with no charge
b. small but dense core of the atom
________2.neutron c. positively charged particles in the
nucleus
________3.proton d.energy states in which the electrons of an
________4.shells atom can exist
________5.electron e .negatively charged particle outside the
nucleus of an atom
________6.isotopes f .number of protons and electrons in the
nucleus
________7.nucleus g .proton, neutron,electron
________ 8. atomic number h .element having the same atomic number
but
________ 9. Mass number different atomic mass
________10.subatomic particle i. lost or gained of electrons by the atom
j. the sum of protons and neutrons
k. this is formed when atoms combined

195
 MODULE 3. PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Activity 1. Tracking the path and constructing the periodic table

Activity 2.Trace the development of the periodic table from
observations based on similarities in properties of element

Activity 3. Use the periodic table to predict the chemical behaviour

of an element.
What you are expected to learn

196
After going through this module ,you should be able to:

1. Trace the development of the periodic table from observations based on

similarities
In properties of elements.
2. Use the periodic table to predict the chemical behaviour of an element.
3. Understand and acquire skills learned in this module for both boys and
girls.

197
 Unit 3
MODULE

Overview
3 PERIODIC TABLE OF
ELEMENTS

Scientists have always searched for patterns, regularities and symmetries

in nature. If a pattern can be discovered, information and data can be arranged
and organized in ways that will make it more understandable, meaningful, and
useful. An excellent example of this is the periodic table. In Grade 7, you learned
about the periodic table. The elements, the building blocks of matter, are listed in
that table. In Module 2, you learned that the atoms that make up these elements
are identified by their atomic number. In this module, you will learn that elements
were arranged in the periodic table in rows and columns according to increasing
atomic numbers. This arrangement was based on properties of elements which
were found to be repeated regularly through the elements arranged according to
increasing atomic number. The properties were recurring periodically, hence,
patterns in the properties are observed. You will recognize this incredible feature
of the periodic table in this module, as you explore its full potential as a source of
information about the elements. You might even find it like a road map as you
journey in your chemistry class. It would be helpful to keep it handy all the time.

How did the Periodic Table develop? What information about

elements can be obtained from this organizing tool?

The periodic table was developed as a result of years of painstaking work by

different scientists. Its present form was a result of meticulous and thorough
study by scientists.

The first activity provides you an experience similar to those of the early
scientists who developed the periodic table.

198
Activity 1
Tracking the path and constructing the periodic
table

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able

to:

1. trace the development of the periodic table; and

2. describe how the elements are arranged in the periodic table.

Materials Needed:

1 whole manila
paper
1 pencil or pen
1 ruler
1 masking or adhesive tapes
element cards provided by the teacher (3 cm x 5 cm)

Procedure:

Part A

1. Element cards are given to learner. The element’s properties and the
compounds it can form are listed in each card.. Notice that the cards are
arranged in increasing atomic mass. While keeping the order of increasing
atomic mass, put the elements with similar properties in the same column.

Q1. How many groups of elements were formed?

Q2. What criteria did you use to choose which group an element belongs to?

Q3. Are there any exception/s to these trends? If so, which elements break the
trend? Why did your group arrange these elements the way you did?

Q4. Are there any gaps in your arrangement? Where are they? What do you
think these gaps might mean?

The development of the Periodic table could be traced back in 1817 to the
work of Johann Dobereiner, a German chemist who formed the triads of
elements with similar properties like the triad of calcium, barium and strontium. In

199
1863, John Newlands, an English chemist proposed the Law of Octaves. He
based his classification of elements on the fact that similar properties could be
noted for every eight element when they are arranged in order of increasing
atomic masses. Around
1869 two scientists determined a way to put the elements in order. Lothar Meyer
and Dmitri Mendeleev both came up with periodic tables that showed how
elements should be grouped. It is interesting to note that these two scientists did
not personally know each other, yet they came up with the same conclusions.
Both scientists were teachers living and working in different places. Meyer lived
and worked in Germany while Mendeleev in Russia. Both
arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass while putting in groups
those with
similar properties. Both of them also left blank spaces in their tables, believing
that these spaces would be filled later with elements yet to be discovered.

. Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Mendeleev

Part B

1. Using the table of elements you have created in Part A, place in that table the
additional element cards that your teacher will give you.

Q5. How did your table of elements change each time you added new
elements?

Q6. How is the table of elements you prepared similar to the modern periodic
table? How is it different?

Q7. How do you explain the fact that tellurium comes before iodine in the
modern periodic table, though it has a higher atomic mass than iodine?

Q8. Mendeleev predicted the existence of gallium and germanium because of

the gaps in his table. Why do you think Mendeleev did not predict the
existence of the noble gases?

Q9. Refer to the modern periodic table. Suppose 2 new elements were
discovered with the atomic numbers 120 and 121. Where in the Periodic
table do you think you would place these new elements?

200
Q10. Suppose a new element X is known. It forms a compound with chlorine,
and the formula of this compound is XCl4. What group or family do you
think this element would belong?

In the activity above, you had the experience of how the organization of
the elements in one table was truly a herculean task. As more information was
gathered about existing and newly discovered elements, irregularities were
observed. Some newly identified elements had properties that did not match
those of the groups already included in the periodic table. To fit into the right
groups, the positions of a few elements had to be rearranged. There were even
elements that had to be placed in the table as a new group. The table was thus
revised.

Later, in 1914, Henry Moseley, an English physicist observed that the

order of the X-ray frequencies emitted by elements follows the ordering of the
elements by atomic number. This observation led to the development of the
modern periodic law which states that the properties of elements vary
periodically with atomic number. Recall what you learned in Module 2 that atomic
number is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. The atomic
number is a common characteristic of all atoms of an element.

The modern periodic table organizes elements in such a way that

information about the elements and their compounds are easily revealed. The
vertical columns of the periodic table, called groups, identify the principal
families of
elements. Some
families have their
special names.
Refer to the figure
on the right, Group
1 is named as the
alkali metals,
Group 2 as the
alkaline earth
metals, Group 17
as the halogens
and Group 18 as
the noble gases.
Groups 13 to 16
are named based
on the first element found in their families. Thus Group 16 is called the Oxygen
Group. The horizontal rows or periods are numbered from the top to bottom. For
example, the elements lithium (Li) across neon (Ne) form Period 2.There are 7
horizontal rows or periods in the periodic table.

201
 The elements are grouped into blocks or series in the periodic table. In the
later grades, you will learn how elements were grouped in blocks. Refer to the
figure above, Group 3 to Group 12 constitutes one block wherein elements in this
block are referred as the transition elements. The lanthanides and actinides
are specialseries of elements but are also part of the transition block; they are
also called the inner transition elements. Elements from the taller columns
(groups 1, 2, and 13 through 18) are called the representative elements or main
groups of the periodic table.
This arrangement allows us to study systematically the way properties
vary with the element’s position in the table. Similarities and differences among
the elements are easier to understand and remember.

Recall what
you learned in Grade
7. We can use the
periodic table to
identify the known
elements as
metals, nonmetals,
and semimetals
or metalloids, as
shown in the figure
on the right.
A stair step
line separates metals and nonmetals.The majority of the elements on the
left side of the table are metals. The nonmetals are confined to the right side of
the table. Moreover, you have learned in Grade 7 that the elements along the
stair step line are the semimetals. Semimetalshave the appearance and some
properties of a metal but behave like a nonmetal in certain instances. The seven
elements commonly regarded as semimetals are boron, silicon, germanium,
arsenic, antimony, tellurium, and polonium. Boron, although not resembling a
metal in appearance, is included because it resembles silicon. Silicon,
germanium, and antimony, act as semiconductors, which are important in solid-
state electronic circuits. Semiconductors are insulators at lower temperatures,
but become conductors at higher temperatures.

The physical properties of metals include luster, malleability, ductility, and

conductivity. Metals vary in reactivity. The most reactive metals will react even
with cold water while the least will not react even with acid. The ease and speed
with which a metal reacts with another substance is called its reactivity.

The reactivity of metals can cause deterioration of materials. The gradual

wearing away of a metal due to interaction with other substances is called
corrosion. In Grade 7, you have seen what happens to metals when exposed to
acids. You have seen that iron corrodes when exposed to commercial acetic acid
(or vinegar) for a long period of time.

202
 In the next activity, you will observe more of these chemical reactions
involving a stronger acid this time. Bear in mind that some acids such as
hydrochloric acid (or muriatic acid) which you will use in this activity can cause
serious burns. Be responsible and handle it safely. Moreover, you will notice that
the reactivity of some commonly used metals with an acid differ among metals.
This reaction also causes harmful effects. Find out practical methods to prevent
this damaging type of reaction.

Activity 2

Metal… Metal: How reactive are you?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. compare the relative reactivity of metals in acid solution

2. find ways of preventing corrosion due to the reactivity of metals

Materials Needed:

a piece of copper wire - 4 cm. long

a strip of aluminum – 4 x 1 cm. (Don’t use the glossy
aluminum) a strip of zinc metal – 4 x 1 cm.
an iron nail – 1 inch long
40 mL (10 – 12 % HCl) commercially sold muriatic acid
4 clean glass bottles of the same size (gerber or sandwich spread bottles will
do)
10 mL glass graduated cylinder
sand paper or steel wool

Procedure:

1. Get 4 clean glass bottles

and using 10 mL Muriatic acid is
Calibrated , corrosive to skin. If
10
bbottlebottles mL of any acid accidentally
muriatic acid into TAKE
spills on you, wash
each bottle. CARE! the affected area
with tap water.
Notify your teacher.
2. Prepare the iron nail,
copper wire, strips of
aluminum and zinc metals. Clean these metal samples by rubbing them with
sand paper or steel wool.

203
 3. Place the iron nail in one glass bottle containing muriatic acid (HCl) and
observe.

4. Place a white sheet of paper behind the bottle. This will make it easier to
observe any reaction to happen.

5. Observe for 3 minutes. Record all observed changes in the table below.

Table 1. Data for Activity 2

Observable Reactions with Muriatic Acid

Metal (Check and describe the metal observed )
Violent Slow No Reaction
iron
copper
aluminum
zinc

6. Repeat procedure numbers 3 to 5 using each of the remaining metals.

Compare the results.

Q1. Which of these metals – Fe, Cu, Al and Zn – reacts with muriatic
acid? Which did not react with muriatic acid?

7. Arrange the metals in the order of their decreasing reactivity.

8. A reaction does not always happen between a metal and a compound. In

this case, the reaction of metals with acid, like HCl, produces bubbles of
hydrogen and a colorless solution of the metal chloride. There is an existing
definite order of reactivity existing among metals and hydrogen according to
their ability to displace one another. This arrangement is called the metal
reactivity series or activity series of metals. The activity series is an
arrangement of metals according to decreasing order of reactivity, as shown
below.

204
 Table 2. The Activity Series of Metals

Element Symbol Group No.

Potassium K 1 Most reactive
Sodium Na 1
Lithium Li 1
Calcium Ca 2
Magnesium Mg 2
Aluminum Al 3
Zinc Zn Transition metal
Decreasing
Iron Fe Transition metal
chemical
Tin Sn 4 reactivity
Lead Pb 4
[Hydrogen] H Non-metal
Copper Cu Transition metal
Silver Ag Transition metal
Gold Au Transition metal
Platinum Pt Transition metal Least reactive

Q2. What is the position (with respect to hydrogen) in the activity series of the
metals that reacted or unreacted with muriatic acid (HCl) in the activity?

9. Locate the positions in the periodic table of the following elements from the
activity series (these are members of the representative block): potassium
(K), sodium (Na), lithium (Li), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and aluminum
(Al).

Q3. Potassium, sodium, lithium are metals belonging to Group 1. In this group,
how does reactivity vary – increasing or decreasing from top to bottom in
the periodic table?

Q4. Does the relative reactivity of calcium and magnesium follow this trend?

Q5. Sodium, magnesium and aluminum belong to Period 2. Does reactivity

increase or decrease from left to right among elements in a period.

10. From your answer in Q3-Q5, make a generalization of the variation of the
reactivity of metals for those belonging to a group and for those belonging to
a period.

11. Refer to the table, Activity Series of Metals(for question no. 6).

Q6. Which will be more reactive in the following pairs of metal in every case?

205
 a. Mg or Na with HCl
b. Ag or Al with HCl
c. Fe or Zn with CuSO4

12. Think about the changes that you have observed around you, particularly
those involving metals. You may also try to recall what you have done in
Grade 7 when you placed an iron nail in a container of acetic acid.

Q7. What harmful change/s is/are brought about when a metal reacts or mixes
with acids?

Q8. What are some ways of preventing corrosion of metals?

In the activity above, you have learned that the metals react differently
with other substances. However, a general trend emerges as seen in the Activity
Series, and evident in the periodic table as well. Refer to the periodic table, you
will notice that the reactions get more vigorous as you go down the group and
tend to decrease across a period. Therefore, with the help of the periodic table
you may be able to predict the reactivities of metals.

With respect to position in the periodic table

of the representative elements, metallic character
increases from top to bottom and decreases from
left to right; while nonmetallic character decreases
from top to bottom and increases from left to right,
as seen in the figure on the right.

Metallic property relates to how easy it is for an atom to lose an electron. On

the other hand, nonmetallic property relates to how easy it is for an atom to gain
an electron. Why do metals tend to lose electrons while nonmetals tend to gain
electrons? In Module 2, you learned that the behavior of electrons is complicated
to describe. However, we use a model of electronic structure which presents a
picture where electrons occupy regions around the nucleus called electron
shells. These are also called energy levels because each electron shell
corresponds to a particular energy. Each electron shell can hold only a certain
number of electrons. The way the electrons of an atom are distributed in the
various energy levels or electron shells is called electronic configuration.

The lowest energy level is the one nearest to the nucleus. This is the
energy level that electrons occupy first. It can accommodate a maximum of 2
electrons. If there are more than 2 electrons, they occupy the succeeding higher
energy levels. The highest energy level that an electron occupies is referred to as
the outermost shell or valence shell. The electrons in the valence shells are
calledvalence electrons. These electrons are the ones involved in chemical

206
reactions. The chemical properties of an element depend on the number of
valence electrons.

The reactivity of metals is related to the ease with which they lose
electrons in their valence shell. In Module 2 you learned that when an atom loses
electrons, a cation is formed. In the next grade level, you will learn that some
nonmetals, on the other hand, tend to gain electrons thus forming anions. The
formation of ions among the elements results in the formation of many different
compounds. In later levels, you will learn that some elements, instead of losing or
gaining electrons, tend to share electrons with other atoms to form compounds.
In all cases, it is the valence electrons which participate in the formation of these
compounds.

207
PERIODIC TABLE of ELEMENTS

208
209
210
References

Elvins, C., Jones, D., Lukins, N., Miskin, J., Ross, B., & Sanders, R.
(1991).Chemistry one: Materials, chemistry in everyday life. Port Melbourne,
Australia: Heinemann Educational Australia.

Philippines. Department of Education, Culture and Sports.(1991). Science and

technology textbook for 3rd year.(1sted.). IMC, Quezon City.

Mendoza, E.E. &Religioso, T.F. (1997).Chemistry.Phoenix Publishing House,

Inc. Quezon City.

The American Chemical Society (1988).Chemistry in the

community.Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque, Iowa.

Links

2008 Chemical Heritage Foundation.

hhtp://www.gofoster.com/downloads/twe/chap06.pdf.

http://www.google.com.ph/search?q=Mark+Buchanan+Periodic+Table

Pre-test / Post test

Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.Write the letter on your
answersheet.
1.The modern periodic table shows elements arranged according to the ____
a. order of increasing atomic number. c. symbols
b. order of increasing atomic mass. d.electronic configuration
2.Who first arranged the elements in the periodic table ?
a. Dalton c. Mendeleev
b.Edison d. Dobereiner
3.What is the first element in the periodic table ?
a. Helium c. Iron
b. Hydrogen d. Oxygen
4.Which of these metals will NOT react with muriatic acid ?
a. Al c. Fe
b. Cu d. Zn
5. A particle consisting of two or more atoms combined together in a specific
arrangement .
a. atom c.molecule
b.compound d.mixture

211
UNIT 4
Living Things and Their
Environment

Suggested time allotment: 7 to 8 hours

212
 Unit 4
MO DULE

1 BIODIVERSITY
Overview

From Grades 3 to 7 you have studied some of the different organisms and
their easily observable characteristics. You learned about those organisms that
you find just around you and other places in the country. You were taught that
organisms form the biotic component of an ecosystem. You were introduced to
the cells that differ in plants and animals. In addition, you learned about
organisms other than plants and animals. Some of these consist only of a single
cell while others have many. You may also have a chance to look at organisms
that are so small and can be seen only with the microscope.

This module will introduce you to the concept of biodiversity, specifically

the variety of organisms living on Earth. This will discuss how they are classified
and named. It will also show the similarities and differences of these organisms.
It will describe the different groups to which these organisms belong. It will let
you discover uses of some not just as food but also in medicine, agriculture,
industries and the ecosystems where they are present. In addition, you will know
about the harmful effects of some to other organisms.

The module will further show you the advantages of high biodiversity over
low biodiversity. It will also help you recognize the value of biodiversity in your
community. Most importantly, this hopes to encourage you to start or continue
protecting and conserving your community’s biodiversity for future generations.

Why is biodiversity important?

What human activities help protect and conserve rare and
economically important species?
What human activities destroy or endanger the existence of rare
and economically important species?

213
Levels of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is coined from the words, biological diversity. Usually,

scientists would refer to three levels of biodiversity namely: different kinds of
organisms (species diversity), genetic information that organisms contain
(genetic diversity) and different kinds of places where organisms live and the
interconnections that bind these organisms together (ecosystem diversity). If
you recall, you have learned about ecosystem diversity in the lower grades. You
will know more about genetic diversity in Grade 9.

Species diversity consists of the large number and all different kinds,
shapes, colors and sizes of organisms that inhabit the Earth. It includes the
smallest and the simplest bacterium (pl. bacteria) to the complex, bigger, brightly
colored flower or fish. Add to this the carabao, the tallest acacia, the biggest
elephant and a human like you. These organisms are found in various places
from the soil, to the rivers, oceans, forests, salty or hot places, in short in every
corner of the Earth. Some of them even live in your body. At present, more than
a million organisms have been identified and named while many more are being
discovered every year. Just recently, foreign and local researchers have found
that diversity of reptiles and amphibians in the Northern Philippines is even
greater than what has been known and identified.

Ecosystem Diversity

Species Diversity

214
 Genetic Diversity

If there are a lot more of the organisms in the world than you can count,
how will you be able to know about them? Does an organism you see in your
place, for example, have the same name in another place? Do organisms have
to be classified? Why? Try the following activity below.

FACE TO FACE ENCOUNTER –

(STUDENT AND TEACHER)

Activity 1
What’s in a name?
Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. give the names of organisms as they are known in your

community ; and
2. recognize the need to have a system of classifying and
naming organisms.

215
Materials Needed:
●pictures of the
following organisms:
shark,dove,periwinkle,g
reen
algae,hibiscus,mayana,
luyang
dilaw,lagundi,sambong
● pencil or ballpen
●sheet of paper

Procedure:
1.Get pictures of organisms from your teacher.

2. Discuss how each of these organisms is called in your community. If you

know other names by which an organism is called in another place, include
them. Write these on your paper.

3. Be ready to your output to your teacher.

Q1. Do you think these organisms have the same or different names in other
places?

Q2. What can you say about your knowledge on the organism ?

Domain

Kingdom

Phylum

Class

Order

Family

Genus

Species

FIG. 1CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS

216
 For organisms to be studied and information about them shared to those
who need it, scientists grouped them into meaningful classifications. The
different groups are ranked from the largest to the smallest groups. Large
groups include many organisms with few similarities. Small groups include few
organisms having more similarities. Organisms which have more similarities
would then, be closely related than those which have less similarities. These
classifications or categories consist of the domain, kingdom, phylum, class,
order, family, genus and species.
The domain is the largest category into which organisms have been
classified. This is followed by the kingdom category subdivided into various
phyla (sing. phylum). A phylum consists of different classes, each class with
several orders, an order with different families. Families consist of several
genera (sing. genus) and each genus comprises the smallest group of various
species.

A species is a group of similar organisms and capable of reproducing

their own kind. This means only members of the same species can mate and
produce fertile offspring. The dog, waling-waling (an orchid), milkfish (local
name, bangus), rice plant and humans like you are examples of a species.

With the information available about organisms from the early studies to
the present, scientists came up with the three-domain system of classification.
Before, organisms were only grouped into eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
Remember in your previous year, you knew about the nucleus in cells that
contain DNA in chromosomes having a role in heredity. In eukaryotes, these
materials are enclosed in a membrane while in prokaryotes they are not. Most
prokaryotes are tiny and unicellular, thus, are referred to as microorganisms. A
lot of eukaryotes are multicellular, thus, are larger in size because of the greater
number of cells their bodies contain.

Recently, prokaryotes have been divided into two domains, namely:

Archaea and Bacteria. The eukaryote group was retained and now consists the
third domain (Eukarya) that includes protists, fungi, plants and animals. Table 1
shows an example of how organisms are classified.

217
 Table 1. Sample classification of organism
Domesticated
Category Dog Bangus Wolf Lion
Cat
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia
Animal
ia
Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata Chordata Chord
ata
Class Mammalia Mammalia Actinopterygii Mammalia Mamm
alia
Order Carnivora Carnivora Gonorynchiformis Carnivora Carniv
ora
Felidae Canidae Chanidae Canidae Felida
Family e
Felis Canis Chanos Canis Panthe
Genus ra
Species catus familiaris chanos lupus leo

Q3. Which organisms in Table 1 are similar up to the Order category?

Q4. Which organisms are most closely related? Why do you say so?

Q5. Can a dog and a wolf produce fertile offspring? Explain your answer.

Recall in Activity 1 that local and common names created

confusion. So, organisms also need be to given names for easier filing of
information and reference by people. How are organisms named?

Q6. Examine the row for species in Table 1. What have you noticed?

For any organism identified, a Scientific Name is given. In this

way, every scientist and other people from different places would use the
same name for the same organism. This is what you see in the species
row for each of the organisms. You must have observed that a scientific
name consist of two names.

Q7. What does the first one refer to in the table? What about the second
name?

This way of naming organisms is referred to as the binomial

system of classification. Also take note that scientific names are in the
Latin language and are italicized.

You should know, however, that researchers may differ in

classifying organisms. It is important to bear in my mind that with further

218
researches and discoveries this system of classification may change as
more information are gathered about organisms found all over the Earth.

Early studies of organisms resulted to only the two-kingdom

classification system. Later, with the invention of the microscope and with
more evidences gathered about different forms of life, various scientists
proposed three, to four, then, five and later to six or even eight-kingdom
classification. Here, the six-kingdom classification will be used namely:
Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protist, Fungi, Plant, and Animal kingdoms.

Archaea Domain: Kingdom Archaebacteria

Organisms that belong to this kingdom are all microscopic. They

live in various places, some even in the most severe environments.
Methanogens, halophiles and thermophiles are examples of
archaebacteria.

Do you know that methanogens can survive in places where there

is no oxygen? Some members of this group inhabit digestive tracts of
animals and ponds where animal, human and domestic wastes are
treated (Figure 1). Methanogens are also present on bottoms of lakes,
swamps and rice fields. An important characteristic of this group is they
produce methane gas. If you live near rice paddies and swamps the
bubbles that pop at the water surface is methane.

(a) (b)
(Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City:
Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.243.)

Figure 1. Examples of methanogens. (a) Methanobacterium ruminatum,from

cow stomach undergoing division, and (b) Methanospirillum hungatei, from
waste treatment ponds (bar scale = 1 um). The symbol um means micrometer.
1 um is equal to 0.001 m.

Methane is utilized as biogas, a cheap alternative source of

energy. There are already communities and industries which obtain
energy for their lighting and cooking fuel needs from the biogas
technology.

219
 If you live in areas which make salt, have you observed the orange
or yellow color in salt ponds? This is due to the presence of halophiles.
These archaebacteria are adapted to very salty environments. Examples
are Haloccocus dombrowski and Halobacterium salinarum.

Q8. Read about the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake of Utah,
USA. What do these have in common?

Figure 2 below are examples of thermophiles. This group of

archaebacteria can live in places with high temperature. These areas
include volcanic hot springs with temperatures from 80 to 110 OC. They
also inhabit the small deep sea openings where hot water with
temperatures higher than 25 oC come out. Thermophiles turn hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) released from these openings to food for other organisms
and in turn are provided essential nutrients by the former.

(Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II.

Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.242).

Figure 2. Electron micrographs of thermophiles (a)

Pyrodictium occcultum and b) Pyrococcus furiosus (bar
scale = 10u m). 10 um = 0.01 mm.

Some members of archaebacteria also survive in extremely acidic

and extremely cold environments.

220
Bacteria Domain: Kingdom Eubacteria

Members of eubacteria are unicellular and microscopic. They are

referred to as the true bacteria and are usually called the “bacteria” group.
Their cell walls are made of peptidoglycan, a carbohydrate.

Q9. What comes into your mind when you hear the word bacteria?

Bacteria consist of a very diverse group. They have varied shapes

(Figure 3). They can be found in almost all kinds of places, in soil, water
and air. Some are present in raw or spoiled food; others live in or on other
organisms including your body. You must have known that they also
cause disease and harm to other organisms. But most importantly,
bacteria have a variety of uses for the environment and for humans.

(Adapted from:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City:
Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.246).

Figure 3. Basic shapes of bacteria.

Q10. Study Figure 3. Describe cocci, bacilli, and spirilla.

Bacteria are classified according to shape as shown in Figure 3.

Also notice that cocci (sing. coccus), are differently arranged. They can
form pairs (diplococcus), chains (streptococcus), or clusters
(staphylococcus). Bacilli can also occur in chains (streptobacillus).

Most of the time, you probably think of diseases when bacteria

which you refer to as “germs” in the early grades is mentioned.

Are you aware that when your oil glands swell and result to
pimples, they are infected with the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes? A
lot of human diseases are caused by bacteria. Tuberculosis, one common
disease in the Philippines, is caused by bacterium Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.

221
 Have you heard about the rise of leptospirosis cases in the recently
flooded areas in a number of places in the country? Leptospirosis is a
bacterial infection due to exposure to the spirochete bacterium, Leptospira
interrogans. These bacteria are present in the urine and tissues of
cattle,pigs, horses, dogs, rats, and wild animals. It has been found out that
the largest number of leptospira bacteria are in the urine of rats. Anybody
can be infected through contact with water, soil, food and vegetables that
are contaminated with urine of these animals. The bacteria enter the body
through cuts in the skin or surfaces of the eyes or nose. It is important for
you to know that the disease is preventable and treatable with antibiotics.

Q11. Can you think of ways by which you can avoid leptospirosis?

Bacteria also cause diseases in animals. Bacillus anthracis is

responsible for the disease called anthrax. The bacterium is found in the
soil and can survive for many years. The disease affects animals like cows
and carabaos but can be transmitted to humans. Skin anthrax occurs in
the Philippines through contact with animal tissues or their products.
Inhalation and intestinal anthrax caused by inhaling spores and eating of
contaminated or undercooked meat, respectively, are more deadly. It is
strongly advised to refrain from eating meat of dead animals suspected to
have died of anthrax. In the early 2000’s there was a worldwide threat of
using anthrax spores to kill people in what is termed as “biological”
warfare.

Q12. Who do you think are the people who are likely to be infected with
anthrax?

Antiobiotics are substances that kill or inhibit disease-causing

bacteria. Do you know that certain bacteria are used to produce
antibiotics? Streptomycin, an antibiotic used to treat tuberculosis and
certain types of pneumonia is made by Streptomyces griseus.
Streptomyces venezuelae on the other hand produces chloramphenicol
used in killing bacteria that cause typhoid fever and skin infections.

Escherichia coli is naturally found in the large intestine of humans.

It feeds on partially digested food moving from the stomach to the small
intestines. These bacteria meanwhile provide the much needed vitamin
B12 that otherwise the human body cannot produce. E. coli however, once
present in other areas in the body can produce poisons causing diarrhea
or kidney damage and even death.

Do you know that many of these bacteria are also involved in

making some of the foods or drink you like?

Some bacteria convert cheap materials into useful products such as

food. Examples are Lactobacilli bulgaricus and Streptococcus

222
 thermophilus of the lactic acid bacteria group. These are specifically
involved in making sour milk or yogurt. Yogurt is made by adding a culture
of Lactobacillus bulgaricus present in the starter to skimmed milk powder.
Lactase in the bacteria changes the milk sugar into lactic acid. When this
occurs, proteins in milk curdle which gives yogurt its semi-liquid texture.

Be familiar with these bacteria by performing the next activity.

TAKE HOME
TASK

Activity 2
How do bacteria in yogurt look like?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. identify bacteria present in fermented food or drink;

2. describe pictures of bacteria presented below; and
3. explain the use of bacteria in food or drink making.

Materials Needed:
Pictures of Lactobacilli bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus

Procedure:
1.Look at the pictures presented on figure 4 and 5

Figure 4.Lactobacilli bulgaricus Figure 5.Streptococcus thermophilus

.
Q13. Describe what you see from the pictures ?

223
Q14. Which are Lactobacillus bacteria in yogurt? Which are Streptoccus
bacteria?

Q15. What are your reasons for saying so?

Have you heard about “oil-eating” bacteria? Some members of eubacteria

are able to break down or remove pollutants through the process of
bioremediation.
Scientists at University of the Philippines-Diliman’s Molecular Microbiology
Laboratory have identified a number of bacteria which can help solve the
problem of oil spills in oceans and seas through this technology. These are
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumanii, Paenibacillus
thiaminolyticus, Bordetella bronchiseptica and Lysinibacillus sphaericus.

Another group of bacteria (Figure 4), the cyanobacteria are plantlike

because they have chlorophyll-containing cells. Most of them are single-celled,
some form filaments, while others form spores. Cyanobacteria grow in ditches,
esteros, or in moist places like gardens and sidewalls where light is present. In
Northern Luzon people eat raw Tab-tab (Nostoc) as salad. Spirulina cells are rich
in protein, thus, have been grown to produce Single Cell Protein (SCP). It is used
as swine and cattle feed and is also recommended as food for humans.

(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II.

Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation.
p.249).

Figure 4. Examples of cyanobacteria are (a) (b) Microcoleus, (c)

Oscillatoria, (d) Nostoc,and (e) Spirulina.

224
 Anabaena azollae, another cyanobacterium is important in agriculture. It
converts nitrogen in air into compounds usable by plants for growth and
development. The same is being done by the Rhizobium group of bacteria. They
are present in the root nodules of legumes.

Q18. What is the advantage of planting legumes together with other crops?

Certain bacteria, like Bacillus thuringiensis, have been developed into a

microbial pesticide. It is used to control pests and insects carrying
diseasecausing organisms.

Protists

Earlier you are introduced to protists. Are they prokaryotes or eukaryotes?

What can you remember from Grade 7 about algae? How were they classified?

Members of Kingdom Protista come from unrelated ancestors. This

grouping is referred to by biologists as an artificial grouping. The inclusion of the
large number of unicellular organisms under this kingdom is just for convenience.

Protists differ in size, movement and method of obtaining energy. Though

most protists are microscopic, some can grow to as high as several meters.

In terms of method in obtaining energy, protists are classified into three

groups. Phototrophs produce their own food. Heterotrophs feed on other
organisms. This group is also divided into a group with no permanent part for
movement, those with cilia, and those with limited movement. Others which are
nonmotile and form spores belong to the sporozoan group. Members of this
group are all parasitic.

Phototrophs are like plants in that they have chlorophyll. This group
includes the algae, dinoflagellates, and euglenoids.

Algae may be green, golden, brown or red. The chlorophyll in green algae
is not masked in contrast to the other members of the group. The carbohydrate
that green algae produce is stored as starch. They grow on wet, humid rocks or
bark of trees, in non-flowing canals, in seas, freshwater bodies and even polluted
waterways. Green algae differ in size and shape. Some are unicellular; others
form colonies, sheets, filaments, tubes and ribbons (Figure 5). Some green algae
are edible. The marine green alga Caulerpa lentillifera is eaten fresh as salad.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

225
 (Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City:
Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.255).

Figure 5. Examples of green algae (a) Chlorella, (b) Draparnaldia,

(c) colonial Pediastrum, and (d) filamentous Spirogyra

Golden algae (Figure 6) cells also contain chlorophyll but is masked by

yellow pigments. Members of this group are mostly microscopic. They store food
in the form of leucosin oil or chrysolaminarin.

(
S
o
u
r
c
e
:

Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Scie nce and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City:
Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.256).

Figure 6. Diversity in shape of diatoms, a golden algae.

In one of your trips to the seashore, did you notice something like one of
those shown in Figure 7? If your answer is yes, you have seen brown algae!
Most members of this group are marine so you can see them just lying around on
the beach. Brown pigments mask their chlorophyll.

Laminaria

(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.).

Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.257).

Figure 7. Some common brown algae found in the marine waters

of the Philippines

226
 Brown algae are the largest of the algae species. Giant kelps, a member
of this group can grow to more than 30 meters in length. This group of algae
store carbohydrate in the form of laminarin.

Do you know that brown algae have something to do with your favorite
ice cream or toothpaste? Some members of the group contain alginic acid used
as an ingredient in making these two, including candy and cream cosmetics.

Leaflike and bubblelike structures called bladders are present in brown

algae. They float near the water surface where light is present.

Q19. What is the importance of bladders in brown algae?

Have you heard eaten gozo? Eucheuma muricatum (Figure 8) or kanot-

kanot, another name for gozo, is a member of the red algae group. The group
differs from the rest of the algae by storing food in the form of floridean starch.
As their name suggests, red pigments mask their chlorophyll.

Eucheuma muricatum Gracilaria salicornia

(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook
(Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.257).
Figure 8. Examples of red algae.

Red algae can change color depending on whether they are exposed or
hidden from light. When they are exposed to light, they are bright green in color.
If they grow without much light, they are colored red. Members of the group
consist of both microscopic and large multicellular organisms. Most of them are
found in marine waters.

There are species in the group that help form coral reefs because of their
ability to produce calcium carbonate. Economically, E. muricatum is useful being
a source of agar and carageenan. If you are fond of eating gulaman, note that it
comes from agar. Eucheuma farming has become a source of livelihood in
certain areas in Central Visayas and Mindanao. Likewise, Gracilaria salicornia
(Figure 8) is an agar source and edible too.

227
Q20. Why is light important to algae?

Most members of dinoflagellates live in oceans and seas. They are mostly
unicellular. Some occur as single organisms, while others form colonies. An
important dinoflagellate to know is Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum
(Figure 9). They are the ones that cause “red tide” when present in large
numbers. During red tide, people should not eat clams and mussels in the
affected areas. This is because these organisms might have fed on the
dinoflagelates which produce toxins and cause paralysis of the diaphragm that
can lead to death.

(Adapted from:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009).

Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City:
Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.255).
Figure 9. Pyrodinium bahamense var.
compressum,
the red-tide causing dinoflagellate.

Q21. What is the danger of eating clams when red tide occurs?

The euglenoids are microscopic and unicellular.

Euglena belongs to this group. It lives in freshwater bodies.
Organisms of this group have a whiplike flagellum for
movement. Some euglenoids have chlorophyll.

Euglena has an interesting characteristic of getting

food. When light is available to, it makes food utilizing
chlorophyll. In the absence of light, it absorbs nutrients from
dead organic matter.

Heterotrophs with no permanent structure for

movement include the radiolarians, foraminiferans and
amoeba (Figure 10). They move by means of the
pseudopods or pseudopodia. Notice the extensions at the
sides of these organisms. These temporary extensions are
formed when changes in the cytoplasmic concentration occur
within the cell. This change causes the cell membrane to
contract and enable the organism to make a creeping
movement. Pseudopods may form as they are needed.

Q22. Compare pseudopods of foraminiferans, radiolarians and amoeba.

228
 pseudopodia

amoeba
foraminiferans radiolaria
n

(Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev.
ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.259).

Figure10. Examples of heterotrophs using pseudopodia for movement.

Entamoeba histolytica is a harmful species of amoeba living in freshwater

bodies. If present in underground water, it can contaminate drinking water. Once
this happens, the gastrointestinal tract is infected causing amoebiasis. If the
protist invades the intestinal lining it leads to amoebic dysentery. Proper
sanitation must be practiced to ensure clean and safe drinking water.

Another heterotroph, the paramecium, moves using the cilia attached to parts
or all over its body. The ciliate group are free-living and present in both fresh
and salt water. They also use the cilia to get food. Other examples are the
Didinium and Vorticella.

Slime and water molds are motile in a certain stage in their life cycles.
Thus, they are considered to be heterotrophs with limited movements. Slime
molds are usually the colored yellow, orange, or whitish growths that you may
see on damp rotting logs. They feed on bacteria and decaying plant material in
the same manner as an amoeba does. Water molds are white cottony growths
on dead fish or plant parts that you might see floating in water. Certain species of
water molds are parasitic on corn, grapes cabbage and many other important
crops.

Members of the sporozoan group as mentioned earlier cannot move on

their own. They may be free-living and parasitic. Some like four species of
Plasmodium are harmful for they cause malaria, a serious disease in humans.
This malaria-causing sporozoan is transmitted to humans by Anopheles
mosquito. In the Philippines malaria is still constantly present in certain areas.

Another group of heterotrophs include the flagellates. They are unicellular

and they use one or many of their threadlike flagella to move. Some of them exist
as single organisms though others form colonies. There are parasitic and free-
living flagellates. Two important species to study are Giardia lamblia and
Trypanosoma gambiense (Figure 11a) because they affect humans. G. lamblia
cause severe diarrhea, while T. Gambiense is responsible for Gambian sleeping
sickness.

229
 Trichonympha (Figure 11b) is beneficial to other organisms. It lives in the
intestine of termites. Since termites cannot digest the wood that they eat,
Trichonympha do it for them. Termites in turn give them a home and food to eat.

Trypanosoma Trichonympha
(a) (b)
(Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II.
Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.259).

Figure11. (a) Harmful and (b) beneficial flagellates

Q23. Give at least five uses of protists.

Fungi

You must have seen the orange colored growth on spoiled corn, the gray to
black or white spots on a three-day old bread left in a warm and humid or moist
place. Or the kabuti, that your father gathered from the woods and yeast used in
making bread. All these are fungi.

You first encountered the eukaryotic fungi in Grade 7. You have also
learned that they have no chlorophyll thus, cannot produce their own food.Some
are parasites, because they survive by living on a host organism. Others feed on
decaying matter and are called saprophytes.Fungi also have cell walls but are
made up of chitin.

Fungi undergo asexual reproduction by forming buds and many spores.

Actually, the black thing you see in fungi are spores in large numbers. These
spores are abundant in the environment as they are carried easily by wind,
water, animals, or humans. When spores land in areas suitable for their growth,
new fungus develops.

Fungal bodies consist of hyphae with rootlike rhizoids that attach them to
the substrate on which they grow. Hyphae absorb and provide nutrients to the
fungi by extending downward into the substrate. Fungi also reproduce sexually
when male and female hyphae join together.

230
 Fruiting structures extend upward where spores are produced. Fungi are
classified according to the kind of fruiting structures they form (Figure12). In
bread mold Rhizopus, spores are produced in the sporangium.

(Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City:
Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.264).

Figure 12. Differences in the fruiting structures of three groups of fungi.

(a) occurs in bread mold, (b) in yeasts and (c) in mushrooms.

Q24. Where are spores of yeasts produced? How are yeast spores called?

Q25. Where are mushroom spores produced?

Q26. What is the advantage of the large numbers of spores produced by fungi?

Examples of fungi used as food are Volvariella sp. and Pleurotus sajor-
caju (oyster mushroom). Others utilized in soy sauce making include the yeast,
Saccharomyces rouxii and the mold, Aspergillus oryzae.Yeast is an ingredient in
making bread.

Fungi are involved in decomposing organic materials. Decomposition is

made faster using Trichoderma harzianum.An important mold to mention is
Penicillium notatum. It is used in making penicillin, a drug that kills disease-
causing bacteria.

Some fungal species however, can be harmful to other organisms and

humans. The mold Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxin, a poisonous
substance. If large amounts of aflatoxin in moldy corn, garlic or peanuts are
ingested, both poultry and humans can be poisoned. The parasitic fungi
Trichophyton mentagrophytes and T. rubrum, cause athlete’s foot. T. rubrum
can also cause ringworm.

Q27. From what you know and have observed about fungi, in what conditions do
they grow?

231
The Plant Kingdom

Recall what you know about plant cells. Do they have chloroplasts? What
are their cell walls made of?

You knew earlier that plants belong to the eukaryote group. They are
multicellular and because they have chlorophyll, they can make their own food.
Plants consist of two big groups: those which do not have tissues to transport
water and food (nonvascular) and those that have this transport system
(vascular).

Nonvascular Plants

Have you noticed green patches attached to stones or cement walls

especially during the rainy season or in moist, wet and shady areas?

Liverworts, mosses and hornworts (Figure 13) are nonvascular plants.

They are attached to the places where they live by means of their root-like
rhizoids. These rhizoids absorb water and nutrients instead of true roots. They
also do not have true stems and leaves so they grow very close to damp
grounds, stone walls or tree trunks.

Photos courtesy of Addie A. Saliva

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 13. Example of nonvascular plants (a) liverworts, (b) mosses, and (c)
hornworts.

Q28. How do liverworts, mosses and hornworts differ in appearance?

When nonvascular plants mature, they also form different reproductive

structures. Liverworts develop “umbrella-like” structures that produce eggs and
sperms. Notice in Figure 13b the capsules at the tip of thin stalks in mosses.
These capsules contain the spores. In hornworts, you see them as thin “thorn-
like” structures.

232
 Nonvascular plants may seem very small but they play an important role in
the environment. They provide oxygen to many organisms. Their “carpetlike”
growth covering large areas in hilly grounds prevent erosion and increase the
capacity of soil to hold water. Dried Sphagnumor peat moss is used to wrap
plants and breakable items during transport. Gardeners use them to retain more
water in the soil for important crops. Old, dead sphagnum form thick deposits
called peat, which is used as fuel in some places.

Q29. Why do you think nonvascular plants cannot grow very large or tall?

Vascular Plants

From studying water-dwelling organisms, you will now deal with ferns
which thrive on land with true roots, stems and leaves. Ferns also reproduce by
spores. More than 900 species of ferns can be found in moist, shaded and
mountainous areas in the country. They exhibit diversity in size from a few
millimeters to about 12 meters. Some ferns still inhabit freshwaters (Figure 14b),
while others grow on tree trunks. The Anabaena cyanobacteriumyou studied
earlier are present in the underside of azolla, a water fern.

Q30. Examine Figure 14a. Can you explain how it earned its name?
Have you heard of tree ferns (Figure 14c)?At first glance, you
may think it is a tree with a sturdy trunk. You should know that they
are not strong as woody plants.

Photo by: Alvin J. Encarnacion Photo courtesy of Michael Anthony B. Mantala

Giant fern, Angiopteris sp. Salvinia sp.

(a)
(b)

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 Figure 14. Examples of
Philippine ferns (a) Giant
fern, (b) water fern and (c)
tree fern.

o
Photo by: Karina Luth Discaya
Cyathea sp.(tree fern)
(c)

Q31. How will Azolla help rice if they are grown together in fields?

With the fern’s ability to make food, they too provide other organisms with
food and oxygen. You are also familiar with the use of ferns as plant decoration.
Some Philippine handicrafts are made from fern fibers like nito.

Q32. Give other uses of ferns in your locality.

Gymnosperms

Seed plants consist of those which bear seeds contained in cones and
those inside a protective layer of tissue. Plants whose seeds are borne in cones
(Figure 15a) are called gymnosperms. Examples of gymnosperms are the
conifers, cycads, ginkgoes, and gnetophytes. Many conifers like pine trees grow
in cold countries and in elevated places in warmer climates. They are woody
trees and have tough needle-like leaves.

234
 Photo by Rodolfo S. Treyes

(Source: Philippines. Department of Education. (2009).

Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City:
Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.264).
(a) (b)

Figure 15. (a) Benguet pine cones and (b) a Ginkgobiloba tree growing in Tokyo, Japan.

Q33. Where in the Philippines would pine trees likely grow?

Cycads are short, palm-like plant growing in tropical and subtropical

areas. In the Philippines they are seen in well-landscaped hotels and parks.
Gnetopytes are represented by Welwitschia which can be found in Namibia,
Southwestern Africa.
Gymnosperms are sources of quality wood for making plywood and
furniture. They also supply pulp to paper-producing factories. Other species
provide resin, used in making perfumes and varnishes. Pine cones are
popular Christmas decoration items.

Q34. How would uncontrolled cutting of pine trees, for example, affect the forest
ecosystem?

Angiosperms

You are most familiar with members this group as you may have
played with their flowers even at an early age. In the earlier grades, you have
learned how varied they are in terms of parts and habitat. You also studied
about what parts are involved in reproduction and ways by which they
reproduce. They are also called flowering plants since flowers, as well as
fruits, are involved in their reproduction and development.

235
 Angiosperms can be classified according to their lifespan. Annuals live
for a year or one growing season and die like rice and corn. Biennials
develop roots, stems and leaves during the first year, produce seeds on the
second year, then die. Perennials live for many years, usually producing
woody stems like tsitsirika, bamboo, and trees.

Leaves of angiosperms also differ in their arrangement in the stem.

Study Figure 16.

Coffea arabica (coffee) Allium sativum (garlic) Anacardium occidentale (cashew)

(Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.).
Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.276).

Figure 16. Differences in arrangement of leaves in plant stems

Q35. Which plant leaves are arranged alternately, radially and opposite each
other?
Flowering plants are also classified as to the number of cotyledons present in
their seeds. Monocotyledons or monocots have only one cotyledon present,
while dicotyledons or dicots have two. Coconut and grasses are examples of
monocots. Gumamela and mango are dicots. Other differences among the two
are exhibited in characteristics of some of their parts as shown in Figure 17.

236
 (Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev.
ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.276).

Figure 17. Characteristics of monocots and dicots

Q36. In terms of leaf venation, is santan a dicot or a monocot?

Q37. How about bamboo?

Recall the structure of the flower you studied in Grade 7. Angiosperms

can also be differentiated by means of their flower parts. A flower may have both
petals and sepals or may have sepals or petals only. Others have stamens,
petals and sepals attached to the ovary. Some have their petals separated,

237
others are united. You can observe several flowers from different plants and you
may see other differences or similarities among them.

Importance of Angiosperms

Look around you. Think of what you have eaten or what you have used
earlier. Were there any from this group of plants mentioned that you have eaten,
or in any way used?

Angiosperms of importance worth mentioning are Filipinos’ staple food:

rice for most of us, corn in some areas; vegetables like camote tops, malunggay,
cabbage, carrots, saluyot and squash.

Q38. Make a list of the uses of coconut that you know.

Many of our agricultural products, both fresh and processed are exported.
Examples are banana from Davao, mango from Guimaras, coffee from various
provinces, pineapple from Bukidnon and tobacco from provinces in Northern
Luzon. Furniture made from rattan are also sold to various countries abroad.
Sugar cane from different provinces is also another grown for export.

Many angiosperms have been developed to prevent and cure some

diseases. Lagundi, sambong, ampalaya, and banaba to name a few are now
commercially available for specific ailments.

Q39. Describe how birds, butterflies and spiders benefit from members of the
angiosperms.

Q40. What is the greatest contribution of plants to living things on Earth?

Harmful Plants

Some plants can be harmful to animals, humans, and even to other plants.
Care must be taken that cows and other livestock should not graze in areas
where sorghum grow. It is known to cause cyanide poisoning in livestock as
young leaves contain a poisonous substance.

Jatropha curcas (tuba-tuba/tubang bakod) is popular due to its being an

alternative source of bio-fuel. Although known to have medicinal properties, its
seed is poisonous. The fruits which are usually eaten by children cause stomach
pain, burning sensation in the throat and vomiting. Manihot esculenta (cassava) if
boiled with its bark on it can be poisonous. The bark contains hydrocyanic acid. It
is advised that during cooking, the pot cover should be removed for the
cyanogas to escape. A word of caution: do not eat any part of a plant which you
are not familiar with.

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 Echinochloa crus-galli (dawa-dawa) and Digitaria sanguinalis (saka-saka)
are weeds which are alternative hosts to abaca and corn mosaic viruses.

Q41. What harm can weeds do to crops if they grow together?

The Animal Kingdom

What can you remember about the characteristics of animal cells? How do
animals differ in size, shape or habitat? How do they respond to their
environment?

Animals differ in size and shape. In Grade 7, you learned that small ones
have few cells while big ones can have up to trillions! Some animals can live
inside other animals. Others are found in fresh or marine waters and some in
every habitat on land. They reproduce either sexually or asexually.

Despite their differences, animals share basic characteristics. By now you

must have known that this group are eukaryotic and multicellular. Some get
nourishment from other animals, others eat plants while others feed on protists.
You knew that animal cells have no cell walls. But they have cells involved in
movement though some species are nonmotile. Animals also have cells that
transmit messages throughout their body.

Q42. In your observation, how are animals distinguished from the other groups
as to their reaction to stimuli?

Animals consist of two major groups, the invertebrates and vertebrates.

Invertebrates lack backbone which is present in vertebrates. In this section, you
will discover the diverse characteristics, uses and roles in the environment of
nine in about thirty five animal phyla.

Sponges

Sponges, the simplest animals, belong to Phylum Porifera. They live in

shallow and deep oceans. The young of sponges are motile, while adults are
attached to solid materials like rocks. The body of a hard sponge is supported by
a “skeleton” called spicules, made of either glasslike silica or calcium carbonate.
A network of protein fibers supports soft sponges. This is the one used for
bathing and washing.

239
 (Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II.
Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.285).

Figure 18. Structure of a sponge showing how water and food and waste
materials move in and out of its body, respectively.

Water and food enter through the pores into the sponge body (Figure 18).
Food is brought to the collar cells with the beating of flagella. Waste water and
materials go out of the sponge through the osculum.

Cnidarians

Members of Phylum Cnidaria consist of animals whose tentacles

contain stinging cells called nematocysts. These poison-filled structures are
used for defense and to capture their prey or food. Once released, this can
be painful and even fatal like an attack by jellyfishes.

Corals form colonies of various colors and secrete a hard skeleton. These
accumulate to form coral reefs which are of great importance as they are one of
the world’s most productive ecosystems. A coral reef is where fishes and other
marine organisms breed. At present however, coral reefs are destroyed by
pollution from oil spills and dynamite fishing. Add to these the silt and sediments
that flow down from the mountains because of farming, mining and logging
activities.

Hydra represents freshwater cnidarians. Other marine cnidarians are

shown in Figure 19.

240
(Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional
Materials Development Corporation. p.287).

Figure19. Variety in marine cnidarians.

Q43. Which cnidarians are attached? Which are free-swimming?

Flatworms

The flatworm group belongs to Phylum Platyheminthes (in Greek platys

means flat, helmins means worm). As their name suggests, they are flat and
ribbonlike organisms. Flatworms are found in freshwater, in wet places and
marine waters. They include the free-living or nonparasitic worms, the parasitic
flukes, and the tapeworm group. Planaria is an example of a free-living flatworm.
It lives in moist surfaces, under rocks in ponds, rivers and even aquariums.
Flukes are parasites that live in other animals including humans.

Tapeworms are also parasitic flatworms like flukes without a digestive

system. It can have fish, cows and pigs as hosts. Humans can be infected with
tapeworms if they eat uncooked fish, beef or pork.

Q44. Why do you think parasitic flatworms do not have a digestive system?

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Roundworms

Roundworms are members of Phylum Nematoda. Compared to flatworms,

roundworms also known as nematodes have long, cylindrical and slender bodies.
Some roundworms are free-living while others are parasites of animals and
plants. The free-living ones are important as they are decomposers in the soil in
both marine and freshwaters. A lot of them are found in decaying organic matter.
Parasitic roundworms can be found in moist tissues of plants and animals.
Heartworms for example can infect dogs and cats. Humans can be infected with
parasitic roundworms such as trichina worms, hookworms and the more common
pinworms and Ascaris (Figure 20) afflicting children.

(Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City:
Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.288).
Figure 20. A male and female Ascaris with its internal parts shown. Digested
food is taken in the mouth and exit in the anus.

Q45. Study Figure 20. How many openings does an Ascaris body have?

Segmented Worms

The third group of worms among the animal phyla belongs to Phylum
Annelida. Also known as annelids, these animals are characterized by a
segmented or repeated body parts. This makes them move easily and with
flexibility. Annelids are mostly found crawling in moist soil or swimming in sea
and freshwaters. Examples of annelids are earthworms, polychaetes and

242
leeches. Most polychaetes are marine living in tubes attached to rocks or sand.
They get floating food through the feathery gills. Sandworms are examples of
polychaetes.

Annelids have nervous, circulatory, digestive and excretory systems. Each

segment contains most of the internal structures of these systems. Gas
exchange only occurs by diffusion through their skin. This is why earthworms
need to be in moist places like under rocks or stay buried in the soil. As they
feed and burrow through the soil, they get nutrients and eliminate wastes
(castings) through the anus. In this way they aerate the soil and the castings
serve as fertilizer.

Leeches are blood-sucking annelids. They have suckers in both ends of

their bodies that are also used to attach themselves to their hosts. They secrete
an anticlotting chemical that has been used in medicine.

Mollusks

Mollusks (Phylum Mollusca) are soft-bodied invertebrates with most of

them covered by a shell. They have complex respiratory, reproductive,
circulatory, digestive and excretory systems functioning together for their
survival. The mollusk’s body has three parts: a muscular foot for locomotion, a
mantle that produces the shell, and the visceral mass that contains their
internal organs. Mollusks consist of three classes: the Gastropods, Bivalves
and Cephalopods.

Q46. Study Figure 21. How would you describe univalves? bivalves?

(Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook

(Rev. ed.). Pasig City:Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p. 291.)

Figure 21. Examples of mollusks

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 Gastropods, also called univalves, as you have observed, has only one
shell. They are mostly marine with freshwater and terrestrial members. Those
living in seas have gills for breathing and those on land use the lining of their
mantle as lungs. Sea and land slugs, as well as nudibranchs are examples of
gastropods.

You may be most familiar with the bivalves as you see them on your
dining table more often. These molluscs as you have observed consist of two
shells attached to each other. Some bivalves are attached to rocks while others
remain in the sand or mud. They use their mantle cavity to feed by trapping
suspended particles in water and for gas exchange. Mussels, oysters, and clams
are bivalves.

The cephalopod group include the squid and cuttlefish with internal
skeleton. The chambered nautilus has external skeleton while the octopus is
shell-less. All cephalopods are described as the most active molluscs, moving
very fast using arms and tentacles in catching prey.

Q47. Into which group would you classify halaan? the giant African
snail?Tridacna (taklobo)?

Many mollusk species are utilized as food like tahong (mussels), talaba
(oyster), halaan (clam), scallops, and kuhol or suso to name some. Other
species are made into decorative items.

Golden kuhol, however, has become a pest to rice and other crops. They
eat a lot of plant leaves and reproduce rapidly. The giant African snail Achatina
fulica was found to be an intermediate host to a rat lungworm that causes
meningitis.

Echinoderms

You can be fascinated by the star-shaped sea star or the spine–studded

sea urchin and the appearance of the sand dollar. Along with the brittle star and
the sea cucumber, they belong to Phylum Echinodermata. All echinoderms are
found in a marine environment. Sea lily, another echinoderm, is rooted in the
sand at the bottom of the sea, while sea cucumber burrows in mud of deep or
shallow waters.

Parts of most echinoderms radiate from the center of the body. They also
have spines which are extensions made of hard calcium. Under the skin, these
form an internal skeleton called the endoskeleton.

Sea stars have the ability to regenerate. A cut arm can easily regrow into a
new sea star.

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 Unique to echinoderms is the presence of the water-filled tubes that
spread out to form the tube feet (Figure 22). Tube feet are used for getting food,
moving around and gas exchange.

(Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II.

Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p. 294.)

Figure 22. Sea star showing (a) arms radiating from the center of the body, (b)
spines, and (c) tube feet.

Echinoderm species which are edible include the sea urchin and sea
cucumber. Holothuria edulis, a sea cucumber, is dried and used as ingredient
for chopsuey and soups.

Remember the role of coral reefs in the environment? Sea urchins are
important to coral reefs because they consume algae that otherwise overgrow
and can kill the corals. In contrast, the sea star, crown of thorns, are predators
of coral polyps posing a threat to the existence of the reefs.

Arthropods

Have you observed what grasshoppers, spiders, crabs and centipedes

have in common? If you take a look at each of these you will notice that they
have jointed legs. These animals belong to Phylum Arthropoda. The group is
considered the most successful of all animal phyla as they are present in
almost all types of habitats. There are arthropods that walk or crawl, some can
fly, while others swim in salty and freshwaters.

Recall in Grade 6, you learned that arthropods have an exoskeleton.

This is made of chitin and varies from thin and flexible to thick and hard
exoskeletons. These animals grow a new skeleton many times in their life to

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give way to growth, specifically, increase in size through the process of
molting.

Q48. How do arthropods differ from echinoderms?

Q49. What could be the function of the exoskeleton in arthropods?

Arthropods are grouped based on the type of exoskeleton, the number of

body sections and the kind of appendages like mouth parts present.
Appendages may be used for avoiding predators, getting food, walking or
swimming. Crustaceans form one group of arthropods which includes water
fleas, crabs, shrimps, lobsters and barnacles. They have hard exoskeletons and
have mandible to bite and grind food. All crustaceans live in water with the
exception of the pill bug.
You see it in the soil as the small creature that rolls into a tiny ball when
disturbed. Aquatic crustaceans have gills for breathing. Many crustaceans are
food to humans. The small ones are eaten by fishes and even whales.

Arachnids have two body sections, most with four pairs of legs and
mouthparts called chelicerae and pedipalps. They use book lungs to respire.
Spiders with thin and flexible exoskeleton are the largest members of the group.
Mites and ticks are parasitic arachnids. They cause itching to some mammals,
including humans. Scorpions have a poisonous sting. The horsehoe crab, a
close relative of arachnids, is considered the oldest living arthropod.

Millepedes and centipedes, close relatives of insects have long,

wormlike segmented bodies. They have a pair of antenna and each segment
bear a pair or two legs. These animals live in the soil, under rocks or rotting logs
and leaves. Millipedes have two pairs of legs per segment and roll up when
disturbed. They feed on decaying matter. Centipedes have a pair of legs in a
segment. They have venomcontaining claws and feed on earthworms, even
other arthropods and small animals.

Insects form the largest group among arthropods. They have three body
sections, three pairs of legs, a pair of antenna and one to two pairs of wings.
Insects are more adapted for flying and have tracheal tubes for respiration. They
are present in great numbers in all kinds of environments except in marine
waters. Exoskeleton of insects as that of a fly is thin. Insects are also successful
animals because they reproduce rapidly. Dragonflies, grasshoppers, aphids, and
butterfies are some examples of insects.

Q50. Which arthropod group has no antenna?

Q51. How do legs of insects and arachnids differ?

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 An important insect that you should learn about is the mosquito. A species
of this group, Aedes aegypti pose a danger to people of all ages. It carries and
transmits through its bite the virus that causes dengue

The following activity will describe how this species reproduce and teach you
how to control dengue.

TAKE HOME
TASK

Activity 3
What can you do to prevent dengue?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. describe and classify Aedes aegypti;

2. discuss the life cycle of A. aegypti;
3. identify breeding places of A. aegypti;
4. explain the role of A. aegypti in spreading dengue; and
5. suggest ways of preventing dengue.

Materials Needed:

sheet of paper
illustration of life cycle of Aedes aegypti

Procedure:

1. Study the different stages in the life cycle of Aedes aegypti below.

247
Q52. How does the adult of this mosquito look?

Q53. Describe the breeding place of A. aegypti.

Q54. In which places in your home, school or surroundings can this mosquito
breed? Name at least 5.

Have you heard about “kiti-kiti”? These are the larvae or wrigglers.

Q55. What do you think will happen to a larva that is removed from water?

Q6. Based on your study of the life cycle of Aedes aegypti, how important is
water to the mosquito?

2. Review your answers to Q54.

Q57. What can you do to stop the reproduction of the dengue virus-carrying
mosquito? Name at least 5.

Q58. Into what group of arthropods would you classify the mosquito and why?

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Chordates

Animals belonging to Phylum Chordata have four characteristics that are

present in any of the stages in their life cycle. These are the notochord, the
dorsal hollow nerve cord, gill slits and a post-anal tail. In many chordates,
the notochord later becomes the backbone. Humans being a member of the
chordate group have the notochord, tail and gill slits only in the embryo stage.

However, there are lower chordates that do not have a backbone.

Examples are the tunicates and lancelets. The adult tunicates have only the gill
slits present but the larva stages have all the four features. Tunicates attach to
solid materials like rocks or coral reefs. They are filter feeders, taking in food
particles suspended in water.

Lancelets have the four chordate characteristics present in the adult stage.
They live in the sandy ocean bottom. They are also suspension feeders.
Lancelets move in a fishlike motion using the muscles on both sides of their
body.

Vertebrates

Most vertebrates are sea and land dwellers forming the large group of
chordates. The vertebrates’ notochord is replaced by the backbone or the
vertebral column (vertebra, plu. vertebrae)). The nerve cord is enclosed by the
projections of the vertebrae. The protected nerve cord enlarges at the anterior
end to develop into the brain. The tail can be the bone and muscle that animals
use for swimming in aquatic species. For some vertebrates, the gill slits remain
till the adult stage. In others, these are modified into structures for gas exchange.

Fishes

Fishes are vertebrates found in salty, fresh, cold or even hot water. Most
have scales for protection, paired fins for movement and gills for gas exchange.
Fishes may lay eggs to reproduce or give birth to live young. They are cold
bloodied because their body temperature changes when environment
temperature changes. Certain fishes do not have true teeth or may be jawless as
compared to the others.

Jawless fishes belong to Class Agnatha. Examples are the lampreys and
hag fish. Lampreys, being parasites, have tooth-like structures in their mouth that

249
can attach to bodies of other fishes and feed on their tissues and blood. The
hagfish is wormlike and use a toothlike tongue to eat dead organisms.

Cartilaginous fishes include the rays, skates and sharks. They have a
skeleton made of the soft, flexible protein material called cartilage. Most
cartilaginous fishes are covered with a tough, sandpaperlike skin due to the
presence of toothlike scales. Skates and rays have winglike fins and move in a
gliding motion through the water. Some of them eat floating planktons while
others feed on invertebrates at the bottom of seas and oceans.

Sharks may feed on small fishes or on floating algae. The whale shark
(Rincodon typus), the largest fish, and locally known as butanding is found in
marine waters of Cebu, Sorsogon and Dumaguete.

The diverse groups of bony fishes belong to Class Osteichthyes. These

are the fishes that have an endoskeleton made of hard, calcium material called
bone. Bony fishes are more familiar to you like bangus (milkfish), tuna, goldfish,
and tilapia. The non-familiar lungfish breathes through the lungs in addition to
having gills also for respiration. Eels are wormlike fishes. Figure 23 shows some
of the members of the bony fishes.

250
 (Adapted from:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and
Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials
Development Corporation. p. 301.)

Figure 23. Examples of unique bony fishes

Q59. Compare the skeleton of the shark and the tilapia.

As food of humans and other animals, you will learn more about the role of
fishes in food chains and food webs which you will study in the next module.

Amphibians

Amphibia means “double life” from which amphibians got their name.This
refers to animals that live part in water and part on land. Most lay small, shell-
less eggs surrounded by jellylike substance in moist places or in water. These
hatch into tadpoles with gills and tails. They lose the tail to develop lungs as well
as legs and move to land but close to water or damp habitats. They also have
moist skin to help the lungs for gas exchange while in dry land. Amphibians are
divided into three groups, the caecilians, salamanders, and frog and toads.
Ceacilians live in water or bury themselves in moist soil. Salamanders live in
forest floors under rocks and decaying logs.

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 Both frogs and toads jump. Some frogs can leap and attach to tree trunks
and branches. Toads are terrestrial and can even survive in hot places or desert.
Frogs have smooth skin while toads have rough or warty skin. Frogs and toads
eat worms, insects or small animals.

(a)

(b) (c)

(d)

(Adapted from:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City:
Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p. 302.)

Figure 24. Amphibians include (a) the mud puppy, (b) a tree frog, (c)
caecilian, and (d) toad

Q60.Refer to Figure 24. Which amphibian(s) is/are tail-less?

Q61. Which of them do not have legs?

Reptiles

Reptiles are animals that exhibit more adaptations for living on land. They
lay eggs with shells to protect them from drying. They also have smooth or rough
scales for protection from loss of body water.

Lizards and snakes have smooth scales. Examples of lizards are the
house lizard, gecko (tuko), monitor lizard (bayawak), chamleleon and horned
toad. Snakes are legless and have flexible jaws to enable them to swallow their
prey whole. A common snake species is the reticulated python seen in zoos.
Poisonous species include the cobra and the rattle snake. Snakes however,
avoid people and do not attack unless provoked or hurt.

Crocodiles and alligators are also reptiles. They are predators of fish,
deers, small cows or carabaos, and even attack humans. Alligators live in
freshwater and are only found in North and South America. Crocodiles live in
fresh and salty waters in tropical and subtropical regions. In the Philippines, two

252
species are present, the endemic Crocodylus mindorensis (Philippine Crocodile)
and the saltwater Crocodylus porosus. The Philippine crocodile is considered a
critically endangered crocodile species in the world.

Bodies of turtles and tortoises are enclosed in a shell. The head, legs
and tail are pulled inside this shell as protection from predators. Tortoises live on
land while turtles live mostly in water. Pawikan (marine turtles) live in the sea and
females come to shore only to lay eggs. There are species of marine turtles
which are at present in danger of extinction.

Birds

If reptiles are adapted to land life, most birds are adapted to fly.
Characteristics of birds that enable them to fly include: presence of wings and
feathers, large flight muscles in the breast bone and reduced weight. Birds weigh
less because their bones are light and hollow filled with air. Birds also have eggs
with shells and the legs are covered with scales. Their body temperature remains
the same despite varying environmental temperature due to the insulation
provided by feathers.

Birds have bills or beaks (Figure 25), and in coordination with the type of
wings and feet they have, are adapted to where they live and the kind of food
they eat.

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(Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City:
Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p. 305.)

Figure 25 Different beaks of birds.

Q62. Examine the beak of the Philippine eagle. If it is for cutting, what do you
think does this bird eat?

Examples of birds that do not fly are the kiwi, penguin and ostrich.

Q63. Compare the legs of amphibians and reptiles with birds that you are
familiar with.

You often eat chicken during meals or even merienda. Or maybe balut
and salted eggs from ducks are your favourites! Snakes and big animals also
prey on smaller birds. You enjoy the relaxing chirping or singing of some birds
and their varied colors. Although certain birds feed on rice or corn grains, they
have a role in dispersing seeds to various places, resulting to perpetuation of
many plant species.

The Philippine Eagle, which is found only in our country, has been
declared as a critically endangered species. It means that there is a possibility
that the species will disappear or be lost. The main reason is the loss of their
habitat-- the forests -- due to logging and their conversion to farmlands.

Q64. If you live somewhere in eastern Luzon, Samar, Leyte or Mindanao where
the Philippine
eagles specifically live, suggest ways to protect their habitat.

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Mammals

Mammals differ from other animals because they have mammary glands
that produce milk to nourish their young and most have hair or fur. They breathe
in air, have four-chambered hearts and are warm-bloodied. Most of them also
give birth to live young and care for them.

The first group of mammals, called monotremes, lay eggs similar to

those of birds. The spiny anteater (echidnas) living in Australia, New Zealand
and New Guinea as well as the duck-billed platypus are monotremes (Figure 26).

(Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and

Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials
Development Corporation. p. 306).

Figure 26. Examples of Monotremes.

Marsupials or the pouched mammals also give birth to live young. After
birth, the young are kept inside pouches and are nourished with the milk from the
mammary glands within these pouches. Some marsupials are found in Central
and South America. The opossum lives only in North America. Others, such as
the more familiar koalas, kangaroos and wombats and flying phalangers, are
found in Australia and New Zealand.

The eutherians comprise the largest group of mammals. Known as the

placental mammals, they bear fully developed young inside the mother’s uterus.
These young are attached to the placenta through which they receive
nourishment until they are born. After birth, they continue to be cared for and
nourished by milk from the mammary glands. Table 2 presents the different
groups of placental mammals and their representatives.

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 Table 2 Placental Mammals

Order Characteristics Examples

Insectivora insect-eating shrews, moles
Chiroptera flying bats
Rodentia gnawing rats, mice, squirrels
Lagomorpha rodentlike rabbits, hares
Edentata toothless armadillos
Cetacea aquatic whales, dolphins
Sirenia aquatic dugong, manatee
Proboscidea trunk-nosed elephants
Carnivora flesh-eating dogs, cats, bears, seals,
walruses
Ungulata hoofed foot horses, zebras, rhinoceros,
giraffes, carabaos, goats,
pigs
Primates large brain lemurs, monkeys, apes,
relative to body humans
size
(Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II. Textbook (Rev. ed.).
Pasig City:Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p. 307.)

Q65. Which of the eutherians live in water?

Q66. In your observation, how do humans differ from other primates?

Primates are the most highly developed of all animals. They are able to
walk erect, with fingers and toes adapted to grasp or hang on branches and
hold things or manipulate food. They also have a high degree of intelligence.
Primates exhibit social behavior like living in organized groups or communities.
They take care of orphaned individuals or even fight with competing groups.
Scientists would like to believe that the care given by females to their young
contribute to their ability to survive.

Q67. What characteristics differentiate mammals from other animals?

Mammals are present in various places, from the very cold to the
warmest regions and in salt waters. Many live among humans. Mammals have
become an important part of ecosystems. In grasslands, zebras eat plants and
in turn are killed and eaten by lions. In forests, bats eat insects and compete
with monkeys for fruits. Seeds are then spread for plants to grow in other areas.
Wastes of these mammals serve as fertilizers to plants. In human communities,
rats carry bacteria and dogs virus that cause diseases. In farmlands, carabaos
work for people, while cows, sheep and goats provide meat and milk. Rats
destroy crops and compete with humans for rice grains. In whatever way, good
or bad, mammals affect the ecosystems where they live.

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 You have just gone through all the different groups of organisms on Earth
known to science at present. You have learned about their similarities and
differences. The discussions and activities also showed how they are useful to
one another and the whole ecosystem or how some harm others.

Low and High Biodiversity

In the earlier grades you learned that among different ecosystems, the
rainforest has the highest biodiversity. This means that it has the greatest
number of species living in it. Rainforests have a high rainfall, thus, have lots of
plants in them. This condition provides shelter, water and food to many species
that can survive drought or disasters as well as competition with other species.
This results to a stable ecosystem with lesser rate of species loss. Tropical
rainforests are located in places near the equator, while temperate rainforests
are found in the temperate regions.

Q68. Based on the discussion above, how will you describe an ecosystem with
low biodiversity?

TAKE HOME
TASK

Activity 4
What is the importance of biodiversity to ecosystems?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. differentiate low from high biodiversity;

2. give advantages of high over low biodiversity;
3. identify ecosystems with low and high biodiversity; and
4. predict what will happen to an ecosystem with low biodiversity.

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Materials Needed:

photos of different ecosystems

pencil/ballpen

Procedure:

1. Get photos of various ecosystems from your teacher.

2. Together with your groupmates, identify which of them have high or low
biodiversity.

Q69. Which ecosystem/s have high biodiversity? low biodiversity?

3. Study the photo below.

Photo by MD Sebastian

Figure 27. A banana plantation.

Q70. Does it have a high or low biodiversity?

Q71. What will happen if a pest will attack banana plants?

Q72. What will happen if a strong typhoon comes and heavy flooding occurs?

Q73. How will this affect the helpers and owner of the plantation?

4. Examine the photo below.

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 (Source:Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology II.
Textbook (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation. p.
339).

Figure 28. A coral reef ecosystem.

Q74. What biotic components are present in this ecosystem?

Q75. Describe some relationships and interactions that occur among these biotic
components.

Q76. Predict the effect of the presence of many crown of thorns sea star to the
ecosystem and its biotic components.

Q77. Why is high biodiversity advantageous over low biodiversity?

Q78. What is the importance of biodiversity to ecosystems?

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 The North Pole and certain deserts are examples of ecosystems with low
biodiversity.

Q79. Give other examples of familiar ecosystems with low biodiversity.

Protecting and Conserving Biodiversity

You have seen that organisms in an ecosystem are interdependent upon

each other for survival and harmonious existence. This interdependence
among them demonstrates the importance of biodiversity to an ecosystem.You
must know however, that as more species are discovered every year, others
previously known and identified have decreased in number or have
disappeared. A good way to remember the causes of species decline is
through the acronym HIPPO*:

H - Habitat destruction
I - Invasion of introduced species
P - Population increase
P - Pollution
O - Overcollection/overharvesting of resources

Think of the biodiversity in your community at present. What would it

look like in the future?

* Threats to Biodiversity. Retrieved from http://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog030/node/394

In the following activity, you are going to make a list of conditions that
you want to see in your world in the future. Prioritize them, suggest ways and
take action to make them happen.

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 TAKE HOME
TASK

Activity 5
I create the future1

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. Make a personal vision for the future in relation to biodiversity;

2. Analyze the different ways that government, groups, and individuals

are doing in order to arrive at the envisioned future; and

3. Take personal action towards conserving biodiversity.

Materials Needed:

copies of “Priority Pyramid” worksheet and “Making it Happen” handout

for each learner
pencil or ballpen
notebook or sheet of paper for the “future
log”
Procedure:

Part I. My Future World

1. You are going to make a list of conditions that the world want to see you in
the future, and then, suggest ways and take action to make it happen.
Ask yourself this question: What do I want the future to be? What things
or conditions do I want to see in the world, say, 50 years from now? Make
a list of at least five such conditions.

Q80. What conditions do you want to see the future world?

1
Adapted from Illinois Biodiversity Basics, a biodiversity education program of the Illinois
Department of Natural Resources, Chicago Wilderness, and the World Wildlife Fund

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 2. Get a copy of the “Priority Pyramid” from your teacher. Complete this
pyramid with the conditions that you want the future world to have,
ranking them from the most important to the least. Write what for you is
the most important condition at the topmost box of the pyramid, the next
two conditions on the next level, and so on.

3. Explain how and why you chose your top three conditions.

Now create a pyramid that will represent your priorities for the future.

Q81. Why are there similarities and differences in having priorities in life?

Q82. How do you feel about the final pyramid you presented?

Q83. How do you feel about the process you went through to come up with
your personal pyramid?

Part II. Making it Happen

Q84. Will your dreams for the future come true by simply thinking about others
priorities in life?

1. Look at the different blocks (conditions) on your pyramid. Are you aware of
anything that you or other people are already doing to ensure that these
will happen in the future?

Q85. Do you know of any ongoing programs, initiatives and legislations

related to these priorities?

Q86. What government agencies, organizations, groups and individuals are

responsible for or are working on the conservation of biodiversity, either
locally or on a global scale?

2. Obtain a copy of the “Making it Happen” handout from your teacher. Read
about each of the projects and choose those that you think are making or will
make significant contributions to meeting the top three priorities in your
pyramid. For the project that you will choose, write a sentence to describe
ways to achieve the identified priority.
Part III. I Can Make a Difference!

Q87. What can you do to create a positive future?

1. Keep a “future log” for a week. Your log should list in bullet form, all your
activities, behaviors, speech and thoughts for each day. At the end of
each day, think about and write down how each bullet item affects the
world around you, either positively or negatively, and what
consequences it could have for the future.

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 2. Each day, add ways that you can do more to help preserve the earth’s
biodiversity.

Q88. What changes in your daily actions can you carry out to contribute to
conserving biodiversity?

Remember that the biodiversity found in your community, are what you
need to live and survive. As students, start right by taking seriously your learning
and understanding of your community’s biodiversity, the organisms’ importance
to and interactions with each other. Use them wisely and conserve biodiversity.
It is only when you understand all of these will you realize that you cannot afford
to lose any of these, for all of you and your future, will be affected. “ACT NOW,
NO ONE CAN DO THIS FOR YOU NOR FOR US!”

In the next module, you will be introduced to more ways by which these
organisms affect and interact with each other as well as with the environment
they live in.
Module 1. Biodiversity Post-test

I. Multiple Choice: Read each item carefully and choose the best answer.
Write the letter of your choice in your answer sheet.

1. Recently a liger, hybrid of lion and tiger was created. Tiger and Lion
belong to two different species but to the same genus. The offspring of
Panthera leoand Panthera tigris , the liger is however infertile. Which best
describes the concept of species?
a. Species is hard to distinguish from other species.
b. Species reproduce fertile offspring of their own kind.
c. Species are capable of hybridization with other species.
d. Species normally interbreed with other species in nature.

2. There are three levels of biodiversity: Genetic, Species and Ecosystem

Biodiversity. Which set of organisms is the best example to explain
genetic diversity?
a. dog, wolf, lion
b. chihuahua, beagle, rottweiler
c. monkeys, dragonflies, eagles
d. Homo sapiens, Homo habilis, Homo erectus

3. What is the largest classification or category of organism?

a. class b. domain c. order d. kingdom
4. The current taxonomic system has six kingdoms. Of the six kingdoms
a. four are eukaryotes, two are prokaryotes.
b. three are unicellular ,three are multicellular
c. Four are macroscopic, two are microscopic
d. one is autotroph, five are heterotrophs.

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5. Study the pair of animals below. Which of statements correctly describe a
given pair of organisms?

1st Pair 2nd Pair 3rd Pair 4th Pair

a. 1st Pair: Both have mammary glands but belong to different class.
b. 2nd Pair: Both have wings, antennae and legs but belong to different
class.
c. 3rd Pair : Both have exoskeleton and belong to the same phylum.
d. 4th Pair: Both have more than 3 pairs of legs and belong to the same
phylum.
6. Which pair of taxonomic level and its example is is correct?
a. Domain: Archae; Species: mammalia
b. Family: Felidae; Species: Felis
c. Kingdom: Plantae ; Phylum: Chordata
d. Class: Carnivora ; Genus: Animalia
7. In a Forensic Investigation class, Cardo observed an organism that cannot
move. As he examined its tissue under the compound microscope he
noticed the presence cell wall, nucleus and chloroplasts in the cells.
Cardo believed that the organism belongs to Domain eukarya. Do you
agree with him?
a. Yes, it’s a plant
b. No, it’s a protist.
c. No, it’s an algae.
d. Yes, it’s a bacteria
8. Which of the following comparisons between a monocot and a dicot is
correct?
a. Monocot: netted veins ; dicot: parallel veins
b. Monocot : one cotyledon; dicot : two cotyledon
c. Monocot: multiple of 4 or 5 flower plan; Dicot: multiple of 3 flower plan
d. Monocot: scattered vascular bundle; dicot: ring vascular bundle
9. Why is biodiversity important?
a. It allows for ecosystems to adjust to disturbances like extreme fires and
floods.
b. It is an important part of ecological services that make life livable on
earth.
c. It includes everything from cleaning water absorbing chemical and
providing an oxygen to breathe.
d. all of the above.
10. In which ecosystem will humans best survive ?
a. Ecosystem W: big human population, less species of other
organisms.
b. Ecosystem X: small human population, less species of other
organisms.
c. Ecosystem Y: big human population, more species of other
organisms.

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 d. Ecosystem Z: small human population, more species of other
organisms.

References and Links

Bailey, R. (2013). Three domain system. Retrieved from

http://biology.aout.com/od/evolution/a/99041708a.htm

Reece, J.B., Taylor, M.R., Simon, E.J., & Dickey, J.L. (2012). Campbell biology:
Concepts and connections (7th ed.). Singapore: Pearson Education.

Karser, G.E. (2011). Classification: The three domain system. Retrieved from
http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit1/3domain/3domain.html.

Miller, K. R., & Levine, L. (2006). Prentice Hall biology. Upper Saddle River,
NJ:Pearson.

Strauss, E., & Lisowski, M. (1998). Biology: The web of life (Teacher’s ed.). Reading,
MA: Scott Foresman-Addison Wesley.

Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology IItextbook. (Rev.

ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development Corporation.

Microbe Wiki. (n.d.). Methanospirillum hungatei. Retrieved from

http://mirobewik.kenyon.edu/index/.php/Methanospirillum_hungatei

Slime molds: Kingdom Protista. (n.d). Retrieved from

http://waynesword.palomar.edu/slime1.htm

Wikipedia. (2013). Giant tube worms. Retrieved from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_tube_worm

http://www.allatsea.net/caribbean/sea-urchins-who-needs-them/

https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog030/node/394 - United States

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 Suggested time allotment 4 to 5 hours

Unit 4
MODULE

2 INTERACTIONS

Overview

In Module 1, you have learned about the diversity of organisms. Based on

the body structures and functions, organisms are classified using the hierarchical
taxonomic system (i.e. domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus,
and species). Scientists use this system of classification to organize information
and to understand why living things exist the way they do in a particular
environment. Also, this helps us understand the role of each organism in the
environment.

All these organisms need energy to sustain life. Every activity that
organisms do in ecosystems—breathing, moving, running, burrowing, growing—
requires energy.

The flow of energy is the most important factor that controls what kinds of
organisms live in an ecosystem. In this module you will learn how organisms
obtain energy. This includes the discussion on how producers and consumers
make possible the flow of energy through ecosystems through food chains and
food webs. Students will then discover how the reduction in the amount of
available energy limits the number of steps that can occur in a food chain.
Students will then identify the role of bacteria in the cycling of some important
elements or substances such as water, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen.

How does energy become transferred from one organism

to another?

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 In Grade 7, you have learned that plants, some kinds of bacteria, and
algae are capable of converting energy from the Sun into chemical energy and
store it as chemical energy known as food. These organisms are called
producers. The process is called photosynthesis; it uses water, carbon dioxide,
and sunlight.

Most plants make much more food each day than they need. Plants
may convert excess glucose into starch. Starch may then be stored in other
parts of the plants such as roots and fruits.

The stored energy is transferred to other organisms for their survival.

When people and other organisms eat plants, chemical energy from food
substances is transferred to their bodies. Energy moves from one trophic level
to another. This means that energy flows from one organism to another in the
ecosystem. Organisms that consume food for their energy supply are called
consumers.

Q1. What raw materials from the environment are needed in the process of
photosynthesis?

TAKE HOME
TASK

Activity 1
How do you identify the components of a food chain in an ecosystem?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. distinguish between producers and consumers.

2. analyze the transfer of energy from one organism to another.
3. construct a food chain in a given ecosystem.

Materials Needed:

an article about “Monfort Bat Cave”

Activity sheet

267
Procedure:

1. Read an article about “Monfort Bat Cave.”

2. Read the following questions, and write your answer on the space provided.

The Island of Samal, part of Davao del Norte Province, is off the coast of
Mindanao.In this island is the Monfort Bat Cave which is approximately 245 feet
(75 meters) long and has five entrances. Bats cover 75 percent of its ceilings and
walls. An estimated 1.8 million bats, the largest known population of Geoffroy’s
rousette fruit bats in the world, are overloading Monfort Bat Cave on the
Philippines’ Samal Island.

Geoffroy’s rousette fruit bats feed on fruit and nectar. Their role as pollinators
and seed dispersers is essential in sustaining Philippine forests, including such
important commercial fruits as durian. Each bat consumes 1½ to 3 times its body
weight nightly in fruit and nectar. This colony could consume 550 tons (500,000
kilograms) of nectar from durian and other trees, pollinating an incredible number
of flowers.

Worldwide, cave-dwelling bats are in alarming decline due to human disturbance

and destruction of their cave roosts. In some areas, including Samal Island, bats
are captured and eaten by humans. Col onies like the one in Monfort Bat Cave
are now rare and in urgent need of protection. Their loss would endanger the
health of forests and human economies.

The bat’s colony should be able to survive natural predators – crows, rats, 10-foot
(3-meter) pythons and occasional monitor lizards – just as bat populations do
elsewhere. Untamed dogs and cats, however, also seem to do bat hunting at
Monfort Bat Cave.

© Bat Conservation International, www.batcon.org. Used with permission.

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Q2. What are the organisms found in the surrounding area of Monfort Bat Cave?
List them down in the table below.

Table 1. Organisms found in Monfort Bat Cave

Plants Animals

Q3. What group/s of organisms are considered as producers?

Q4. What part of the durian trees and other trees served as food for the bats?

Q5. The population of cave-dwelling bats is declining because they are being
eaten by other organisms. What are these organisms that feed on bats?

Q6. Among the organisms that feed on bats, are there organisms that possibly
feed on the predators of bats? ___ Yes ___ No

3. Divide the organisms into the following categories as shown in the table
below:

Table 2. Categories of organisms living in the Monfort Bat Cave

Producers 1st Order Consumer 2 nd Order Consumer

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 4. Based on Table 2, construct a food chain with at least 3 organisms
representing the producer, 1st order consumer and 2nd order consumer.

Q7. You have just analyzed the transfer of energy by categorizing the
organisms according to their trophic level. In your own words, describe a food
chain.

Food chains may be interconnected to form a food web. For example,

one kind of food may be eaten by several consumers. Or several foods may be
eaten by one consumer. A simplified food web in a Philippine forest is shown in
Figure 2.

Figure 2. Interconnected food chains comprise this simplified food web in a

forest. Many organisms, including the decomposers, such as bacteria and
fungi are not shown in this food web.

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 Figure 3 shows a simplified food web in a marine environment.
Microscopic algae serve as the producers which are eaten by
zooplankton. Zooplankton, in turn, are eaten by small fish and other
marine organisms.

Figure 3. Simplified food web in the sea illustrates the interconnected

feeding relationship between sea organisms.

The food web in Figure 4 includes a third group of organisms.

Besides the producers and the consumers, the food web shows the
decomposers consisting of bacteria and fungi. Decomposers act on dead
organisms and change these to simple nutrients which plants can use
again.

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Figure 4. The flow of food in this food web is from producers to consumers to
decomposers.

Q8. Without decomposers, will producers and consumers stay alive? Why?

Q9. Without producers, will consumers stay alive? Why?

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 TAKE HOME
TASK

Activity 2
Making food webs

Think of the food your family ate for supper last night. Make a food web
based on your meal. Remember, your food web must have producers,
consumers, and decomposers.

Q10. To which group of organisms do you belong?

Q11. Which trophic level do you occupy?

Food Pyramid

When organisms eat, they take in matter as well as energy into their
bodies. For example, when you eat chicken, the flesh of the chicken containing
nutrients and energy enters your body. You use the nutrients and energy to build
muscles and other parts of your body and to perform various activities.

The transfer of matter expressed as biomass and energy in food from one
trophic level to another are not one hundred percent used. Biomass is the total
mass of organisms in a food chain or a food web. Not all plants or animals at
one level are eaten by organisms at the next level. Some parts of plants or
animals are not edible, for example, wood, peel of some fruits, some seeds,
shells, and bones. In addition, much of the energy is lost as heat. Only about
10% of biomass and energy are transferred to the next level. This relationship
between producers and consumers can be demonstrated through a biomass
pyramid and an energy pyramid (Figure 5). In the case of the marine
environment, the source of energy in the food chains is also the Sun.

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Figure 5. The idealized pyramids of biomass and energy show losses at each trophic
level.

What do these pyramids demonstrate? A large amount of producers at

the base of the pyramid will be needed to support only a few of the consumers at
the top. The largest amount of biomass and energy are at the base of the

274
pyramid. A decrease or loss occurs at each succeeding level. As shown in Figure
5, 10 000 kg of plankton that photosynthesize are needed to support only 1 000
kg of plankton that do not photosynthesize. Planktons that photosynthesize are
producers used as food by the planktons that do not photosynthesize, the
primary consumers. In turn, 1 000 kg of the primary consumers would support
only 100 kg of small fish, which in turn would sustain only 10 kg of lapu-lapu. At
the highest level are humans. Note that 10 kg of lapu-lapu would sustain only 1
kg of the biomass of humans. Due to the loss of biomass at each level, 10 000 kg
of plankton at the base of the pyramid would support only 1 kg of humans who
are the top consumers.

In an energy pyramid the base of the pyramid is reduced and only 10%
moves to the next level. This loss goes on at every level until only 0.01% reaches
the top consumers.

Consider the food web in Figure 5. A food web can also fit into an energy
pyramid. It shows the flow of food through different organisms living in an area.

Construct an energy pyramid based on the food web. Include only the
producers and the consumers. Exclude the decomposers for a while.

Q12. Which group of organisms has the greatest biomass? Which has the
greatest energy?

Q13. Which group of organisms has the least biomass? Which has the least
energy?

Q14. What happens to the amount of biomass from the bottom to the top of the
pyramid?

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 TAKE HOME
TASK

Activity 3
Meat eaters vs. plant eaters

What can you infer from the biomass pyramids below?

1. Study the following pyramid of biomass.

Q15. How much biomass of humans can 5 000 kg of corn support?

2. This time, study the following pyramid of biomass.

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Figure 7. Pyramid of biomass

Q16. How much biomass of chicken can 5 000 kg of corn support?

Q17. How much biomass of humans can the chickens support?

Q18. Which is more efficient in converting biomass of producers to biomass of

consumers – a meat eater or a plant eater? Give your explanation.

Cycling of Materials in the Ecosystem

Materials in the ecosystem cycle constantly. This cycling of materials

includes the oxygen-carbon dioxide cycle, the water cycle, and the nitrogen
cycle.

The Oxygen-Carbon Dioxide Cycle

Organisms use and produce gases in photosynthesis and respiration.

These gases flow through organisms and the environment in a cyclic process
called the oxygen-carbon dioxide cycle (Figure8). The oxygen-carbon dioxide
cycle shows the interdependence among organisms for these important gases.

When plants photosynthesize, they use carbon dioxide and produce

oxygen. Oxygen produced by plants in photosynthesis is used by animals when
they respire; animals in turn produce carbon dioxide. Like animals, plants also
carry out the process of respiration. During respiration, plants use oxygen and
produce carbon dioxide.

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 Animals take in oxygen from the atmosphere and give off carbon dioxide
during respiration. This occurs day and night. Plants, however, give off oxygen
and take in carbon dioxide when they photosynthesize during the day. At night,
when plants are in darkness and cannot photosynthesize, they “breathe” just like
animals. They take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide.

Notice that plants and animals depend on each other for these important
gases. Plants produce oxygen needed by animals. In turn, animals produce
carbon dioxide needed by plants.

Figure 8. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are continuously availed of by plants and
animals through the oxygen-carbon dioxide cycle.

Q19. What gas do plants produce that animals use?

Q20. What gas do animals produce that plants use?

The Water Cycle

Water circulates around the environment – the oceans, land, air and living
organisms. The cycling process involves evaporation, transpiration,
condensation, and precipitation. When solar energy warms the Earth’s surface,
water evaporates from the oceans, rivers, lakes and land. The escape of water
through leaf pores (transpiration) adds water vapor to the atmosphere. Upon
cooling at higher altitude, water vapor condenses and forms clouds. Eventually,
precipitation occurs in the form of rain or snow. On land, plant roots absorb
water. In tropical rainforests, over 90 percent of the moisture is cycled through
transpiration in plants. Some water seeps downwards and replenishes the

278
ground water. The excess eventually overflows into the oceans and the water
cycle continues.

Figure 9. The Water Cycle.

The Nitrogen Cycle

About 79 percent of the gases in the atmosphere is made up of nitrogen

gas. Organisms use nitrogen to build proteins and nucleic acids. Some bacteria
convert nitrogen to ammonia. This process is called nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen-
fixing bacteria live in soil and are abundant in the nodules of legumes such as
mung beans.

The nitrogen cycle, shown in Figure 10,is a complex process with four
important stages.

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Figure 10. The Nitrogen Cycle.

How do Human Activities Affect the Ecosystem?

Humans are the top consumers in many food pyramids. To increase food
production, they use methods that have an effect on food chains and food webs.
Some of the farming practices are described as follows:

Monoculture. This is the cultivation of a single crop in large areas. Vast

tracts of land are converted to rice farms, sugar farms, and coconut farms.

By limiting the cultivation of different kinds of plants, people also deprive

many animals of their food and home. These animals, some of which feed on
insect pests, move to other places. Only the insect pests that eat the monocrop
remain in the area. If uncontrolled, these pests can totally wipe out the monocrop
in a short time.

Some soil microorganisms depend on specific plants for food. Eliminating

these plants is harmful to the microorganisms. Since microorganisms are
responsible for returning plant nutrients to the soil, the cycling of nutrients for
reuse of the plants is disturbed.

Herbicides and Insecticides. Farmers spray their crops with insecticides

to kill insect pests, and with herbicides to kill weeds. However, the chemicals
also destroy other organisms, including beneficial insects and soil organisms
which help in decay.

280
 Insecticides move up the food pyramid and accumulate in the body of
organisms. The smallest concentration of the chemical is at the base of the
pyramid occupied by producers. The amount increases towards the top. The
greatest concentration is found in the top consumers such as birds, mammals,
and humans.

Many insect pests become resistant to chemicals. This may lead to the
use of increased amounts of pesticide.

Chemical Fertilizers. Monocrops usually require large amounts of

chemical fertilizers. Continuous and uncontrolled use of chemical fertilizers may
increase soil acidity, thus destroying soil structure. Findings show that more
fertilizers are needed for the same amount of yield after years of monoculture.

Fertilizers may run off to rivers, ponds, and lakes. Accumulation of

fertilizers may cause the death of these bodies of water.

Fertilizers in the water will cause increased growth of algae and other water
plants. They cover the water’s surface and block the passage of oxygen. Thus,
less oxygen is dissolved in water. Furthermore, when algae and aquatic plants
die, decay microorganisms use oxygen. Dissolved oxygen becomes insufficient,
causing fish and other aquatic animals to die.

Q21. Describe one way by which the following practices may disrupt a food chain
or food web:

1. monoculture
2. use of insecticides
3. use of fertilizers

To conserve the environment, some desirable practices are described

below.

1. Grow a variety of crops instead of only one crop.

2. Use insects to fight other insects. This is known as biological control of

insect pests.

3. Instead of chemical fertilizers, try organic farming using natural fertilizers for
crops. Some natural fertilizers are compost and animal manure.

You may interview a farmer to get his or her opinion on these desirable
practices. Also ask if there are other good practices that the farmer uses in the
farm.

281
Module 2: Post-test in Biodiversity
MULTIPLE CHOICE: Read carefully the items below and write the letter of the
best answer.

For items 1-2 refer to the food chain diagram below.

1. Which can transfer the highest amount of energy?

a. grass b. grasshopper c. mouse d. owl
2. What will happen if the owl is removed from the food chain?
I. The mouse will die.
II. The grasshopper population will decrease rapidly.
III. The mouse population will increase rapidly.
IV. The mouse will eat both grass and grasshopper
a. II and III c. I,III and IV
b. II,III and IV d. all of them

For items 3-4 refer to the diagram of energy food pyramid below.

3. Which group of organisms has the greatest energy?

a. plants b. rats c. snakes d. hawks
4. What happens to the amount of biomass from the bottom to the top of
the pyramid?
a. increases b. decreases c. remains the same d.cannot
be determined

282
5 How much biomass of hawk can a 10,000kg of plants support?
a. 1,000 kg b. 100kg c. 10kg d. 1kg
6. Which is more efficient in converting biomass of producers to biomass
of consumers – a meat eater or a plant eater?
a. meat eater, it is located on top of the energy food pyramid.
b. plant eater, it is located anywhere in the energy food pyramid.
c. meat eater, it is next to the producers in the energy food
pyramid.
d. plant eater, it is next to the producers in the energy food pyramid.
For items 7-8 refer to the Oxygen-Carbon dioxide cycle below.
7. Which is true about the Oxygen-Carbon dioxide cycle?

a. Plants use carbon-dioxide only.

b. Fungi , animals and plants use oxygen.
c. Plants can photosynthesize but cannot respire.
d. Fungi and animals can both photosynthesize and respire.
8. Which is correct about the role of mushroom and earthworm in the
cycle?
a. Mushroom provides oxygen c. Both of them provide
oxygen
b. Earthworm provides carbon dioxide d. Both of them provide
carbon dioxide
9. Which is true about the water cycle?
a. It happens at daytime only.
b. Both plants and animals participate in the cycle.
c. Evaporation occurs at daytime, condensation occurs at night
time.
d. Water cycle is absent in very cold places.
10. How does organic nitrogen become available for plant use?
a. through biological process, by nitrogen-fixing bacteria
b. through chemical process, by lightning
c. both a and b
d. none from the options.

283
References

Campbell, N.A., Reece, J.B., Taylor, M.R., Simon, E.J., & Dickey, J.L. (2012).
Campbell biology: Concepts and connections (7th Ed.). Pearson
Benjamin Cummings, USA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Department of Education, Culture and Sports. Instructional Materials

Corporation. (1990). Science and technology II: Textbook. Quezon City:
Author.

Lantaw - Philippines Outdoor and Travel Photos. (2009). Retrieved from

http://www.lantaw.com/2009/10/samal-monfort-bat-cave.html

Locke, R. (2006). A treasure trove of fruit bats. BATS Magazine, 24(4). Retrieved
from www.batcom.org/pdfs/batsmag/batswinter06.pdf.

University of the Philippines National Institute for Science and Mathematics

Education Development. (n.d.). Nitrogen cycle [Poster]. Quezon City:
Author.

University of the Philippines National Institute for Science and Mathematics

Education Development. (n.d.). Water cycle [Poster]. Quezon City:
Author.

284
 Suggested time allotment 4 to 5 hours

Unit 4
MODULE

3 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Overview

Food plays a central role in the survival of species. Digestion of food is

carried out by the organs and substances of the digestive system. During
digestion, food is broken down to smaller parts -- a fraction of which is made up
of nutrients. These nutrients are circulated to the different parts of the body
through the bloodstream and assimilated by cells.

Almost all animals have a digestive system in which food enters the
mouth, is moved through a long tube, and exits the anus as feces. The food is
broken down into soluble molecules and is moved rhythmically by the smooth
muscle in the walls of the digestive organs.

Different species of organisms have different ways of digesting their food.

In humans, digestion starts in the mouth where food is chewed and broken down
to smaller pieces for easier digestion. This is called mechanical digestion. Initial
chemical digestion starts also in the mouth. This is carried out by enzymes --
molecules that speed up chemical reactions. Enzymes present in saliva such as
amylase helps break down carbohydrates, which are large complex molecules,
into simpler ones that can be used by the body.

After swallowing, the food -- now turned into a bolus -- enters the
esophagus (gullet) and is moved down into the stomach where it mixes with
gastric juices and acids. Other enzymes such as protease and lipase help break
down proteins in the stomach and fats in the small intestine, respectively.
Digestion ends in the small intestine where nutrients are absorbed in the villi and
enter the circulatory system. Wastes that remain after digestion go to the large
intestine where water is also reabsorbed. These wastes, including the water that
was not reabsorbed, are temporarily stored in the rectum before they are
excreted out of the body through the anus.

Digestion in other organisms works similarly. However, there are

specialized structures found in some species that perform special digestive
functions.

285
 This module introduces you to the different organs that make up the
digestive system of animals and how they interact with each other to digest food
and nourish their bodies. Emphasis is given on the human digestive system and
its processes.

How does the digestive system break down food to

nourish the body?

Are these structures in the digestive system of humans the same as those
found in other organisms? Do they serve the same or similar functions?

Figure 1. The human digestive system

286
 The digestive systems of animals and the organs that make them up vary
across species. Some structures like the rumen, crop, and gizzard are found only
in some species. The rumen is common among ruminants that include the goats,
cows, and carabaos. What do you think is the function of this structure? The crop
and gizzard are found in birds and some species of invertebrates like the
grasshoppers and earthworms. What functions do you think do these structures
perform in digestion?

Almost all animals have a tubelike digestive system; one end of the tube
serves as the mouth while the other end serves as the anus. This digestive
system is called a Complete Digestive System. Food enters the mouth, passes
through the long tube, and exits as feces through the anus.

The smooth muscles of the tubelike digestive organs move the food
rhythmically through the system where it is broken down into absorbable forms.
Outside of this tube are attached some accessory organs -- the liver, gall bladder,
and pancreas -- which also help in the digestion of food. Figure 2 shows a
comparison of the digestive systems of different representative species of
animals.

Figure 2. Digestive systems of different representative species of animals.

287
Q4. In what ways are the different digestive systems of animals similar? In what
ways are they different?

The more primitive animals like the Hydra have a ‘digestive system’ with
only one opening (see Figure 3) which is also called an Incomplete Digestive
System. These organisms eat and defecate with their mouth which also
alternates as their anus!

Figure 3. (a) Hollow body of Hydra. The animal takes in food, digests food in its
digestive cavity, and removes wastes through its mouth, (b) is an enlarged part of the
body wall, and (c) the outer part of the wall shows the nematocysts.

Activity 1
A Sweet break!

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. describe the process of mechanical digestion; and

2. explain how the physical breaking down of food helps in its

digestion.

288
Materials Needed:

Two 100 mL clear containers warm water

Warm water
two pieces of candies (hard candies)
mortar and pestle paper towel

Procedure:

1. Fill the two containers with warm water. Make sure that the amount of water
placed in each glass is about the same. Label the glasses A and B.

2. Prepare two pieces of candies. Wrap a piece of candy in a paper towel and
crush it using a mortar and pestle or any hard object like a piece of wood.

3. Place one piece of candy into the glass of warm water labeled A and place
the crushed pieces of candy in the remaining glass of warm water labeled B.

4. Observe how long it takes for the whole candy in Glass A and the crushed
pieces of candy in Glass B to dissolve.

5. Record your observation.

Q5. How does crushing the candy to smaller pieces affect its dissolution?

Q6. What does crushing the candy represent in the process of digestion?

289
 FACE TO FACE ENCOUNTER –
(STUDENT AND TEACHER)

Activity 2
How do enzymes affect digestion?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. explain how enzymes affect digestion; and

2. infer chemical changes in food as it undergoes chemical digestion.

Materials Needed:
a bar of gelatin or 1 tablespoonful of granulated gelatin
10 mL fresh pineapple juice 10
mL bromeliad leaf juice water
measuring cup spoon
100 mL calibrated pet bottles
10 mL calibrated pet bottles
3. droppers , 3 glass markers hot plate

Procedure:

1. Number and label the glasses(1-water, 2-fresh pineapple juice, and

3bromeliad leaf juice).

2. Prepare a bar or one tablespoonful of granulated gelatin in the measuring

cup using 100 mL of boiling water.

3. Stir well with a spoon until the gelatin is dissolved.

4. Place 3 mL of water into glass 1, 3 mL of fresh pineapple juice into glass 2,

and 3 mL of Bromeliad leaf juice into glass 3.

5. Add 10 mL of gelatin mixture to each glass. Shake well to mix thoroughly.

6. Refrigerate the samples overnight.

290
7. On Day 2, check the contents of each glass for solidification of the contents.
Record your observations.

Table 1. Effect of enzymes on digestion

Test Tube Contents C How do the contents of the test tube
Test Tube Contents How do the contents of the test tube
look like on Day 22?
1 Water and gelatin

2 Fresh pineapple juice

and gelatin

3 Bromeliad leaf juice

and gelatin

Food undergoes physical and chemical change as it moves from one part
of the gastrointestinal tract to the other. Digestion makes the nutrients found in
food available to the different parts of the body for the organism’s nourishment
and overall wellness. In Activity 2, an enzyme called bromelain which is present
in fresh pineapple juice and in bromeliad plants is used to demonstrate digestion
of proteins.

Q7. How did bromelain affect the protein in gelatin?

Q8. Which of your observations show this effect?

Q9. There are other kinds of enzymes in your digestive system. How do these
enzymes affect digestion?

Bromelain refers to a group of enzymes from bromeliad plants that break

down proteins. They are proteases. Bromelain is found in both fresh pineapple
and bromeliad leaf juices. This should not come as a surprise because pineapple
is a bromeliad plant.

________________________________________________________________________
__

At certain times of the day, you hear your stomach rumbling. This is the
sound you hear as the gastric juices are churned in an empty stomach. This
indicates that you are already hungry and it is time for you to eat. The stomach
and some glands start to produce gastric juices to prepare your stomach for the
food you will eat. These gastric juices provide an acidic environment in the
stomach. How do these gastric juices affect digestion in the stomach? In Activity
3, you will be introduced to the effect of pH on the digestion of food in the
stomach and the intestine.

291
 FACE TO FACE ENCOUNTER –
(STUDENT AND TEACHER)

Activity 3
How does pH affect enzyme activity?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. describe the process of chemical digestion; and

2. explain how enzymes act as catalyst during digestion.

Materials Needed:
a bar of gelatin or 1 tablespoonful of granulated gelatin
10 mL fresh pineapple juice 10
mL bromeliad leaf juice water
measuring cup spoon
100 mL transparent glass
10 mL transparent glass
3 droppers markers hot plate
1 M HCl
1 M NaOH

Do not get
TAKE
any acid or
CARE! base on your
skin
Procedure:

1. Label the glasses(A – acid, B – base, C – control <water>)

2. Prepare a bar or one tablespoonful of granulated gelatin in the measuring

cup using 100 mL of boiling water.

3. Stir well with a spoon until the gelatin is dissolved.

292
 4. Place 3 mL of pineapple juice into each of the labeled test tubes. Transfer 1
mL each of HCl, NaOH, and water into the corresponding test tubes of
pineapple juice.

5. Transfer 10 mL of gelatin mixture to each glass.

6. Using a spoon, stir the gelatin well until it dissolves completely.

7. Refrigerate the glasses overnight.

8. On day 2, observe the contents of each glasses. Record your observations.

Table 2. Effect of pH on enzyme activity

Test tube Contents How do the contents of the
test tube look like
A Acid added on a gelatin
with pineapple juice
B Base added on gelatine
with pineapple juice
C Water added on gelatine
with pineapple juice
What is chemical digestion? Where does chemical digestion take place in
the human digestive tract?

Q10. What role do the digestive enzymes have in digestion?

Q11. In which glass did you observe the greatest degree of protein digestion?

Q12. In which glass did you observe the least amount of protein digestion?

Q13. How do you explain your results?

Q14. Did your results support your hypothesis? Explain your answer.

Q15. In the human digestive tract, where is protein digested chemically?

Carbohydrates are broken down to simple sugars that are absorbed in the
small intestines; they are circulated to the different parts of the body as they join
the bloodstream. They are used up as sources of energy once they are
assimilated by the cells; those that are circulated into the liver are stored.

Proteins are broken down to their component parts -- also called amino
acids -- in the stomach. This process is aided by acids secreted by the cells that
make up the walls of the stomach and enzymes that are present in the gastric
juice. Like the simple sugars, amino acids are absorbed in the small intestine
through the villi -- the fingerlike structures that line the walls of the small intestines

293
-- and circulated to the different parts of the body. Those that are circulated into
the liver are stored as glycogen.

In the case of fats and lipids, their digestion is completed in the small
intestine where bile secreted from the liver disintegrates them into fatty acids and
glycerol – particles that are circulated to the rest of the body and stored in fatty
tissues.

TAKE HOME
TASK

Activity 4
A journey into the digestive system

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. Infer how the organs of the digestive system work together to carry out
digestion of food and assimilation of nutrients; and

2. explain what happens to food as it gets digested.

Materials Needed:

Picture showing how the digestive system works

294
Procedure:

1. Study the diagram of the digestive system.

2. Take down notes as how the digestive system works.

3. On a separate sheet of paper, answer the following questions.

Q16. What does the picture say about the digestion of food?

Q17. What changes happened to the food as it was moved through the digestive
tract?

295
Diseases of the Digestive System: Prevention, Detection and Treatment

Diseases of the digestive system are disorders of the digestive tract

and its accessory organs. Common digestive diseases include stomach ulcer,
gallstone, liver problems (hepatitis), appendicitis and colon cancer. Some of
the common symptoms include one or more of the following: constipation,
heart burn, diarrhea, bloating, swallowing problems, weight gain or loss and
abdominal pain. Treatment for diseases associated with the digestive system
include: oral medication, open surgery, radiology, and endoscopy and organ
transplant. Regular exercise, eating vegetables and fruits, drinking 8 to 10
glasses of a day and regular visit to the doctor prevent such diseases.

Summary

Digestion starts when food is taken into the mouth. This is called
ingestion. As you chew, you are breaking the food into small pieces as a means
of mechanical breakdown. The pieces mix with saliva before you swallow. Saliva
is a watery liquid made by the salivary glands. It softens and wets the food in the
mouth and also initially starts chemical digestion through enzymes present in it.
Then the food passes through the esophagus. Muscle contractions in the
esophagus help move the food down to the stomach. This process is called
peristalsis (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Peristalsis in the esophagus.

296
 Stomach juices are chemicals made by the body that help digest food.
The stomach is made up of muscles that churn and help mix the food and
break it into even smaller pieces.

The digestive glands in the stomach lining produce acids and

enzymes that digest proteins. A thick mucus layer helps keep the acidic
digestive juice from harming these tissues of the stomach.

Most digested molecules of food, as well as water and minerals, are

absorbed through the small intestine. The walls of the small intestine contain
many folds that are lined up with tiny fingerlike projections called villi. These
villi are in turn covered with even smaller projections called microvilli. These
structures increase the surface area through which nutrients are absorbed.
During absorption, these nutrients pass through the walls of the intestine
and into the bloodstream where they get transported to the different parts of
the body.

The undigested parts of food or those that were not absorbed by the
body are eliminated as feces. This process is called elimination or
defecation. Figure 5 shows how food is changed to soluble forms as it is
moved from one part of the digestive system to another.

Figure 5. The stages of digestion.

297
Module 3. The Digestive System Post-test

Matching Type: Match the organ of the digestive system in column A with its
FUNCTION in column B. Write the letter of your answer.

Column A Column B

1. mouth a. completes chemical digestion

2. stomach b. secretes gastric juices and acids
3. liver c. temporarily stores bile
4. gall bladder d. chew, grinds and tears the food
5. small intestine e. produces bile
f. lubricates digestive tract

MULTIPLE CHOICE: Read carefully the items below and write the letter of the
best answer.
For items 1-2 refer to the figure below of the human digestive system.

1. Where does ingestion occur?

a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4
2. Completely digested foods pass through _____________ because of the
presence of microvilli which increases the surface area of nutrient absorption.
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4
3. Complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins , fats and lipids is made
possible by
a. bile b. enzyme c. gastric juice d. saliva
4. How does excretion occur in organism with incomplete digestive system?
a. through its mouth c. through its mouth and anus
b. through its anus d. through its mouth or anus
5. The common symptom of appendicitis is ___________________________
a. abdominal pain c. bleeding
b. constipation d. swalloing problem

298
References

Beckett, B. & Gallagher, R. (2001). Modular science: Biology. Oxford: Oxford

University Press

Goldsmith, I. (1969). Human anatomy for children. New York: Dover Publications

Guyton, A. (1964). Function of the human body. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders

Ravielli, A. (1963). Wonders of the human body. New York: The Viking Press.

VanCleave, J. (1995). Jan VanCleave’s the human body for every kid: Easy
activities that make learning science fun. New York: John Wiley

Links

Journey of the digestive system

Link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e3O1AdlC8bI

299
 Suggested time allotment: 2 to 3 hours

Unit 4
MODULE

4 NUTRITION AND
WELLNESS
Overview

In the previous module, you have explored how the body obtains the
nutrients it needs to fuel its activities. In addition to providing energy, our diet
must also supply the raw materials needed for building complex molecules the
body needs to grow, maintain itself, and reproduce.

In this module, you will survey the nutritional requirements of our body.
This module will discuss nutrition and consider the choices we make that affect
the proper functioning of the digestive system. This module will also consider
how our diet and lifestyle contribute to the functioning of the human body as a
whole.

What are the nutritional needs of our body?

What happens when the body’s nutritional needs are not
adequately met?

Your body needs food for energy, growth and repair, and as a source of
substances for body processes. Different types of food provide different
nutrients. How do you know if you are getting the right kind and amount of
nutrients from the food that you eat?

300
 TAKE HOME
TASK

Activity 1
Am I eating right?

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1 .make a record of your daily meals, and

2 . determine if your food intake adequately meets nutritional

requirements.

Procedure:

1. Record in a Daily Meal Journal what you eat for three days. Table 1 shows
a sample meal record for one day.

Table 1. Sample daily meal journal

Date Meal Food and Beverage Amount
June 15 Breakfast Rice 1 cup
Tinapa 1 pc
Fried egg 1 pc
Water 1 glass
Snack Pandesal 2 pcs
Water 1 glass
Lunch Rice 1 cup
Ginisang munggo ½ cup
Water 1 glass
Snack Boiled banana 1 pc
Water 1 glass
Dinner Rice 1 cup
Fried galunggong 1 pc
Kamote tops ½ cup
Water 1 glass

301
 2. Interview your barangay health worker on the kind and amount of food that
you should eat to meet your nutritional requirements.

You should have gathered from your interview that you need to eat variety
of foods since no naturally occurring food has all the nutrients your body needs.
The Food and Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI) has developed a food pyramid
for Filipinos, a simple and easy to follow daily eating guide. This guide is useful
in helping people select food that supply all the nutrients for energy and growth.

Figure 1 shows a food pyramid which illustrates the recommended dietary

allowance for teenagers.

Figure 1. The Food Pyramid for teenagers recommends eating a variety of foods to
ensure that all nutrients are provided in proper amount and balance.
Source: Food and Nutrition Research Institute, Department of Science and Technology

Foods that contain the same type of nutrient belong to a food group. Foods
have been divided into five groups – a) rice, rice products, corn, root crops,
bread, noodles; b) fruits and vegetables; d) milk and milk products, eggs, fish,

302
shellfish, meat and poultry, dried beans and nuts; and e) sugar and sweets, fats
and oil. The recommended daily amount for each food group will supply your
body with the nutrients it needs for good health.

3. Compare your entries in your daily meal journal with the recommended daily
amount of servings.

An accurate meal journal tells a lot about your eating patterns. The Daily
Meal Journal below belongs to a fourteen-year old named Conrad. Study his
meal journal and answer the questions that follow.

Daily Meal Journal

Date Meal Food and Beverage Amount

June 15 Breakfast Rice 1 cup

Tuyo 1 pc

Water 1 glass

Snacks Yema 3 pcs

Lunch Rice 1 cup

Fried tilapia ½ cup

Water 1 glass

Dinner Rice 1 cup

Fried chicken 1 pc

Water 1 glass

Q1. Which food group in the Food Pyramid do you observe the greatest number
of servings?

Q2. What did Conrad eat that belong to this food group?

Q3. Which food group/s do you see no servings?

Q4. Based on the Food Pyramid, how many servings from that group should
Conrad have eaten?

Q5. What should Conrad include in his meals to ensure that he gets all the
nutrients indicated in the Food Pyramid?

303
Daily Servings

For each day you should eat six to eight servings from the rice and rice
products group, three servings from the vegetable group, three servings from the
fruit group, one glass from the milk group, and two and a half servings from the
fish and meat group. Only small amounts of sweets, fats, and oils should be
consumed.

The size of a serving is different for different foods. For example, one cup
of rice or 5 pieces of small pandesal is equivalent to one serving of the rice and
rice products group. One piece medium-sized fish or 1/3 cup cooked dried
beans is equivalent to one serving of the fish, meat and beans group. The table
below shows the food groups, recommended intake, and equivalent of one
serving portion of common foods.

Table 2. Food groups and the equivalent of one serving portion of common
foods

Equivalent of one (1) serving portion of

Food groups Recommended intake
common foods

Fat and oils 6-8 teaspoons 1 teaspoon coconut oil (5 grams)

= 1 tablespoon coconut cream
= 1 teaspoon mayonnaise
= 1 teaspoon margarine/butter
= 2 teaspoons peanut butter

1 teaspoon sugar (5 grams)

Sugar/sweets 5-6 teaspoons = 1 teaspoon honey
= 1 teaspoon fruit flavored drink
(powder)
= 2 teaspoons jam/jellies/preserves
= 1/5 glass softdrink/flavored drink
= 2-3 teaspoons fruit flavored drink
(concentrate)
= 1 piece hard candy

1 serving
Fish, shellfish, 2 ½ servings = 1 piece medium size fish
meat & poultry, = 1/3 cup shellfish, shelled
dried beans and = 3 centimeters cube cooked pork/
nuts beef/chicken
= 1/3 cup cooked dried beans/nuts
= ½ cup tofu
= 1 piece tokwa
= 1 slice cheese

Egg 1 piece 1 piece chicken egg

304
 1 serving
Milk and milk 1 glass = 1 glass whole milk
products = 4 tablespoons powdered whole
milk diluted to 1 glass of water = ½
cup evaporated milk diluted to
½ glass of water

1 serving of leafy vegetables

Vegetable 3 servings
= 1 cup raw or ½ cup cooked
1 serving of other vegetables
= ½ cup raw or ½ cup cooked

1 serving of vitamin C rich food = 1

Fruits 3 servings medium sized fruit or 1 slice of a
big fruit
1 serving of other fruits
= 1 medium sized fruit or 1 slice of a
big fruit
1 serving
Rice, rice 6-8 servings = 1 cup rice
products, corn, = 4 slices loaf bread
root crops, bread, = 2 slices puto
= 5 pieces small pandesal
noodles = 1 cup corn
= 2 cups noodle
= 1 cup cooked yellow kamote
Source: http://www.fnri.dost.gov.ph

Fiber

Although fiber cannot be digested and absorbed by the body, it plays an

important role in cleaning the digestive tract. Fiber absorbs water and helps
eliminate the waste products of the body. Fiber may help prevent certain
diseases such as heart disease, cancer and diabetes. Not eating enough fiber
can cause constipation and other intestinal problems. You should have just
enough fiber in your diet as eating too much fiber can cause nutrient to pass
through the system too quickly to be absorbed. Examples of some food that are
rich in fiber are grains, fruits, and vegetables.

Water

Your body is made up of 55 to 60 percent water. Water plays important

roles in important processes such as digestion, elimination of waste products,
and regulation of body temperature. You need to drink about 8 glasses of water
a day to replace the amount you lose through sweat, urine, and respiration.

Food Plate

305
 Another tool in helping you monitor what you eat is the food plate (Figure
2). It is recommended that you should divide your food plate into four parts – the
first part for grains like rice, corn, or bread, the second part for fruits, the third
part for vegetables, and the fourth part for protein like meat or fish. Since
vegetables differ in nutrient content, it is recommended that you eat a variety of
vegetables each day. The most important thing to remember is to fill one-half of
your plate with fruits and vegetables.

Figure 2. The Food Plate is divided into four parts

as a general guide for how much a person should
choose from each food group.

TAKE HOME
TASK

Activity 2
What happens when nutritional needs are not adequately met?

A good diet is important for proper growth and development and for the
prevention of disease. A number of health problems and diseases are caused by
a poor diet.

306
Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. analyze the consequences of an unhealthy diet; and

2. demonstrate understanding of diseases that result from nutrient
deficiency and their prevention and treatment.

Procedure:

1. Using the table below as a guide, research on the sources of

carbohydrates, protein, fats, vitamins and minerals, the functions of these
nutrients, and the health problems that result when the requirement for
these nutrients are not adequately met.

Deficiency signs and

Nutrients Food Sources Functions
symptoms
Carbohydrates

Protein

Fats

Vitamins and
Minerals

2. Present your output to the teacher.

Insufficient intake of nutrients can cause nutrition disorders. These

disorders may cause health problems, especially in children, which may hinder
growth and development.

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 TAKE HOME
TASKS

Activity 3
Using essential concepts in nutrition to planning a menu

Objectives:

After performing this activity, you should be able to:

1. design a three-day menu that reflects balanced meals and provides

the recommended daily allowance to an active teenager; and

2. incorporate local produce in your menu.

Procedure:

1. Design a three-day menu that reflects balanced meals and provides the
recommended daily allowance to an active teenager.

2. Incorporate locally produced food products in your menu.

3. Present your output to the class.

Eating a variety of food increases the probability of getting the necessary

nutrients that your body needs. Getting enough nutrients will result to proper
growth and development and prevention of health problems. Learning how to
meet your nutritional needs by making good food choices will help you become
healthy.

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Module 4. Nutrition and Wellness Post-test

MULTIPLE CHOICE: Read carefully the items below and write the letter of the
best answer.
1. What is located on top of a food pyramid?
a. fats and oils c. milk and milk products
b. rice and rice products d. water/beverages
2. In how many parts is the food plate divided?
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4
3. How many parts of your plate is for fruits and vegetables?
a. ½ b. 1/3 c. ¼ d. 1/8
4. Which is the best liquid for your digestive system?
a. beverages b. juices c. water d. softdrinks
5. Why do fibrous foods help prevent constipation?
a. It is completely digested, absorbs more water and cleanses the
digestive tract.
b. It is completely digested, releases more water and cleanses the
digestive tract.
c. It is not completely digested, absorbs more water and cleanses the
digestive tract.
d. It is not completely digested, releases more water and cleanses the
digestive tract.

References

Daily Nutritional Guide Pyramid for Filipino Children (13-19 years old). Retrieved
from:http://www.fnri.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=
16 76

Philippines. Department of Education. (2009). Science and Technology

IItextbook. (Rev. ed.). Pasig City: Instructional Materials Development
Corporation.

Philippines. Science Education Center. (1971). Plants of the Philippines (2nd ed.).
Quezon City, Philippines: Pundasyon sa Pagpapaunlad ng Kaalaman sa
Pagtuturo ng Agham, Ink.

309
Unit 4: Module

CELLULAR REPRODUCTION
5 AND GENETICS

Overview

When you look at your parents, you can see features that you share with
them, such as the shape of the eye, the presence of dimples, or even the hand
you use when you write. The sharing of features can be explained by heredity,
where traits are passed on from parents to offspring. Yet when you look at your
brothers and sisters, even if you share the same parents, each one of you can be
considered unique based on the combination of traits each possesses. That is
variation, which demonstrates differences among individuals.

Genetics is the study of heredity and variation. It aims to understand how

traits can be passed on to the next generation and how variation arises.

Every living thing undergoes reproduction. The nutrients taken by an

individual will provide for energy for metabolic processes, for growth and
development as well as reproduction. The cellular level of reproduction, in the
form of cell division, provides for the backdrop for the organismal level of
reproduction.

This module will differentiate the two types of cell division, mitosis and
meiosis, as well as correlate heredity with the behavior of the chromosomes in
the cell during meiosis. Investigations are included that will help you understand
the mechanisms of heredity and the expression of traits.

What are the different types of cell division?

How are traits passed on to the next generation?

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The Chromosome

All living things contain what we call the genetic material that serves as
the set of instructions that direct the activities and functions of the cells. These
genetic materials, also known as the deoxyribonucleicacid or DNA, are passed
on from one generation to the next to ensure the continuity of life. In eukaryotic
cells (cells with organelles), the DNA are bound with proteins and are organized
as beads on strings to form chromosomes (Figure 1).

Figure 1.The organization of the DNA as genetic material.

The number of chromosomes in a cell is characteristic of the species to
which it belongs.For example, humans have 46 chromosomes while rice have
12. Table 1 summarizes the chromosome numbers of some common organisms.

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 Table 1. Chromosome numbers of selected organisms.

Organism Chromosome number

Saccharomyces cerevisiae 32
(common yeast)
Caenorhabdites elegans 12
(roundworm)
Drosophila melanogaster 8
(fruit fly)
Canis lupus familiaris (dog) 52

Homo sapiens (man) 46

Arabidopsis thaliana (mouse 10

ear cress)
Oryza sativa (rice) 24

Zea mays (corn) 20

The Cell Cycle

The chromosomes of a cell change form as the cell transitions from one
stage to another in a typical cell cycle. The cell cycle may be divided into two
stages: the interphase where the chromosomes are long and extended and are
also referred to as chromatin, and the cell division phase where the
chromosomes become condensed or thickened (Figure 2).

Figure 2. The cell cycle.

312
 The interphase refers to the period that follows one cell division and
precedes another. During this stage, the cell does not divide; it merely grows.
The chromosome doubles or replicates itself because the DNA molecule
contained in the chromosome produces an exact copy of itself.

The interphase is divided into three substages. The stage from the
formation of a new cell until it begins to replicate its DNA is called the first gap
period or G1, during which time the cell grows initially. This stage is characterized
by protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA) synthesis. RNA, which is synthesized
based on the DNA, is then used to synthesize proteins.

The middle stage of interphase, called the synthesis stage or S, is the

period of DNA synthesis or replication. The chromosomes are duplicated in
preparation for the next cell division. The second gap period or G2, falls between
the S period and the next cell division or M (mitosis or meiosis, see discussion
below) phase. G2 represents a period of rapid cell growth to prepare for cell
division.

During interphase, the nucleus is clearly visible as a distinct membrane

bound organelle. In stained cells, this membrane can be clearly seen under the
light microscope. One or more nucleoli are visible inside the nucleus. On the
other hand, the chromosomes cannot be clearly seen. They appear as an
irregular mass that is grainy in appearance because the DNA they contain is
stretched out thinly in the nucleus. This facilitates the replication of DNA during
the S phase.

Cell Division

Alternating with the interphase is the cell division phase. In eukaryotic

cells, there are two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.

1. Mitosis

This type of cell division produces two identical cells with the same
number of chromosomes. Mitosis is divided into four stages.

STAGE A: Prophase. The nuclear membrane and nucleoli may still be present.
The chromosomes are thicker and shorter because of repeated coiling. At this
stage, each chromosome is made up of two identical sister chromatids as a
consequence of replication of DNA during the S phase. The two chromatids
produced from one chromosome are still attached at one point, called the
centromere. The centromere may divide the chromosome into the shorter arms,
also called the p arms (‘p’ stands for petite in French) and the longer q arms. If
the chromosomes are stained using Giemsa, alternating dark and light regions

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will appear. These are the heterochromatin and euchromatin, respectively.
The heterochromatin is more coiled and dense than the euchromatin (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Parts of the chromosome.

STAGE B: Metaphase.The nuclear membrane has disappeared while the highly

coiled chromosomes align at the metaphase plate, an imaginary plane
equidistant between the cell’s two poles. Spindle fibers are also formed. Each
fiber binds to a protein called the kinetochore at the centromere of each sister
chromatid of the chromosome.

STAGE C:Anaphase.The paired centromeres of each chromosome separate

towards the opposite poles of the cells as they are pulled by the spindle fibers
through their kinetochores. This liberates the sister chromatids. Each chromatid
is now regarded as a full-fledged chromosome and is only made up of one sister
chromatid.

STAGE D: Telophase.The chromosomes are now at the opposite poles of the

spindle. They start to uncoil and become indistinct under the light microscope. A
new nuclear membrane forms around them while the spindle fibers disappear.
There is also cytokinesis or the division of the cytoplasm to form two separate
daughter cells immediately after mitosis.

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 FACE TO FACE ENCOUNTER –
(STUDENT AND TEACHER)

Activity 1
Observing mitosis

Objectives:

After you have performed this activity, you should be able to:

1. identify the different stages of mitosis in plant and animal cells; and

2. differentiate plant and animal mitoses.

Materials:

Prepared slides of onion root tip and white fish blastula

Compound microscope

Procedure:

1. Examine the onion root tip and white fish blastula slides under the
microscope. Based on the descriptions provided in the previous section,
identify and draw from each slide the following: interphase, prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cells do not divide at the same
time. Therefore, you will find cells at different stages of mitosis. With the
LPO, locate and study the cells at these stages, then switch to the HPO to
study the chromosomes in detail.

2. Locate the centrioles at opposite sides of a mitotic cell. These form star-like
structures called asters at the poles of the spindles.

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Q1. Where can you find these centrioles, in plant cells or animal cells?

3. Detect the presence of cleavage furrows in the mitotic cell of the white fish
blastula. Cleavage furrows grow inward in the cell membrane until the cell is
divided into two.

Q2. Do you also find a cleavage furrow in mitotic plant cells?

_____________________________________________________

2. Meiosis

The number of chromosomes normally remains the same within the

species. It does not double or triple for every generation. This suggests that a
different kind of cell division must take place in an individual. This kind of cell
division is called meiosis, from a Greek word which means “to make smaller.”
Meiosis reduces the chromosome number in half. It takes place in plants and
animals whenever gametes, or sex cells, are formed through the process called
gametogenesis.

Meiosis is a special type of cell division where the cell undergoes two
rounds of cell division to produce four daughter cells, each with half the
chromosome number as the original parent cell and with a unique set of genetic
material as a result of exchange of chromosome segments during the process of
crossing over.

The first round of meiotic division, also known as meiosis I, consists of

four stages: prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophaseI. Prophase I
of meiosis I, unlike its counterpart in mitosis, is more elaborate and should be
understood well in order to grasp the mechanisms of heredity.

STAGE A: Prophase I. Meiosis starts with this stage and includes the following
substages:

Leptotene. Each chromosome is made up of two long threads of sister

chromatids as a result of replication during the S phase of the cell cycle.

Zygotene. The chromosomes begin to pair off. Pairs of chromosomes are called
homologous chromosomes, and this pairing process is exact.

316
Pachytene. The chromosomes contract due to repeated coiling. Crossing over
takes place during this stage where a segment of a sister chromatid of one
chromosome is exchanged with the same segment of the sister chromatid of the
homologous chromosome through the formation of a cross-linkage of the
segments called a chiasma (Figure 4). After crossing over, the sister chromatids
of each chromosome may no longer be identical with each other based on the
genetic material they contain.

Figure 4. Crossing over of homologous chromosomes during meiosis I.

Diplotene. The chromosomes begin to uncoil.

Diakinesis. The paired chromosomes disperse in the nucleus.

STAGE B: MetaphaseI.The paired chromosomes arrange themselves along the

equatorial plate.

STAGE C: Anaphase I.Spindle fibers form and attach to the centromeres of the
chromosomes. The homologous chromosomes separate from each other
completely and start their movement toward the poles of the cells as they are
pulled by the spindle fibers. As the centromere of each chromosome does not
divide, the sister chromatids remain together.

STAGE D: Telophase I.This is the stage when the chromosomes reach their
respective poles. Cytokinesis follows and two daughter cells are formed. Each
cell now has only half the chromosome number because only one chromosome
from each pair goes to the daughter cell. This is called the haploid condition, in
contrast to the diploid condition at the beginning of meiosis I where each
chromosome pair is intact. Telophase I is followed by interphase II.

317
 Note that each chromosome still has two sister chromatids; it is therefore
necessary for the cells to undergo another round of division.

The second meiotic division, also known as meiosis II, is mitotic in nature
and consists of the following stages: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II
and telophase II; these stages are identical with the mitotic stages. The results
are four cells, two from each daughter cell from meiosis I, with one half the
diploid chromosome number and with only one sister chromatid for each
chromosome.

Figure 5 shows the different stages of meiosis in the squash anther.

Figure 5. Stages of meiosis in the squash anther.

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_________________________________________________

TAKE HOME
TASK

Activity 2
Comparing mitosis and meiosis

Objective:

By the end of the activity, you should be able to differentiate mitosis from
meiosis.

Procedure:

Complete the table below.

Mitosis Meiosis

Number of daughter cells produced

Number of chromosomes is halved.

(Yes/No)

Pairing of homologous chromosomes take

place. (Yes/No)

The daughter cells produced are always

identical in terms of genetic material.
(Yes/No)

_____________________________________________________

Role of Meiosis in Gametogenesis

Gametes such as eggs and sperms unite during fertilization, forming a

diploid zygote. The zygote has one set of chromosomes from the male parent
and another set from the female parent. In humans, both father and mother
contribute 23 chromosomes each through their gametes. Thus, the zygote has
46 chromosomes. The zygote divides many times. This produces a new diploid
multicellular organism.

319
 Sperm cells are produced in the testes of male animals. Meiosis produces
four cells which are very small but of similar size. These cells become
spermatozoa (singular form is spermatozoon) or sperms. The nucleus is found
in the head of the sperm; mitochondria are found at the midpiece that connects
the head to the tail. These mitochondria provide the energy for the movement of
the sperm’s tail.

In female animals, egg cells are produced in the ovary. When a cell in the
ovary undergoes meiosis, new cells which differ in size are produced. After
meiosis I, two cells – one big and one small – are produced. Meiosis II produces
one big and one small cell from the first big cell. The small cell produced from
meiosis I may or may not divide. If it does, two small cells are produced. The big
cell becomes the egg cell; the small cells disintegrate. The egg cell contains a lot
of stored food which is used by the growing embryo at the start of its
development. In fertilization, the tiny sperm cell only contributes its genetic
material found in the head. Figure 6 summarizes the formation of gametes.

Figure 6. Gametogenesis in the testis and ovary of animals.

When Something Goes Wrong During Meiosis

Meiosis may not always proceed normally. Accidents sometimes happen. These
accidents may affect the functioning of the spindle fibers or the movement of one
or more chromosomes. In humans, some accidents have been known to cause
abnormal conditions. For example, when chromosomes in a pair fail to separate
from each other during Meiosis I, the resulting gamete acquires both members of

320
a pair of chromosomes. If this involves chromosome pair 21, for example, and
one of the gametes contains two copies of the chromosome, then the individual
produced will have 47 chromosomes in his or her cells (with three copies of
chromosome 21). This condition is known as Down’s syndrome, named after
Dr. Langdon Down who first studied the condition. The extra chromosome 21 will
lead to an imbalance of genetic material in the cell. People with this condition
suffer from variable degrees of mental retardation, sterility, and increased risk
beyond the age of 40 of Alzheimer’s disease, which affects the functioning of the
brain. Down’s syndrome is usually associated with pregnancy in women above
35 years of age.

Sometimes, a piece of chromosome breaks off and gets lost. The effects
of this accident depend on the particular genetic material lost. For example, when
a part of chromosome 5 is lost, the afflicted individual will have a face that is
round, moonlike, cries feebly and is mentally and physically retarded. This
condition is called Cri du chatsyndrome; cri du chat is French for cat’s cry,
which is the sound a baby with this condition makes when he/she cries.

Several drugs may cause breaks or other abnormalities in the chromosomes.

Chlorpromazine (a popular tranquilizer), diphenhydramine (an antihistamine),
and lysergic acid diethylamide or LSD (a hallucinogen) are some drugs known to
cause breaks in the chromosomes.

Mendelian Genetics

How is the behavior of the chromosomes during meiosis related to

heredity? In order to answer this question, we must first look back at the
experiments of Gregor Mendel. The results of his garden experiments laid down
the foundations of Modern Genetics.
Mendel’s Discovery of the Principles of Heredity

Gregor Mendel was an Augustinian monk in a monastery in Brünn,

AustriaHungarian Empire (now Brno, Czech Republic). He was interested in
investigating how individual traits were inherited. He wanted to find out whether
both parents contributed equally to the traits of the offspring. He also wanted to
know if the traits present in the offspring were produced by the blending of the
traits of the parents.

Mendel chose the garden pea (Pisum sativum) for his experiments. Before
he started his experiments, Mendel first produced pure-breeding plants. Mendel
allowed his pea plants to self-pollinate for many generations until all the offspring
had the same features as the parents, generation after generation.

When he has pure-breeding plants, Mendel began cross-pollinating peas

with contrasting traits. The pure-breeding peas constituted the parental or
P1generation. All offspring of these crosses resembled one another. For

321
example, when he crossed pea plants that produced round seeds with pea plants
that produced wrinkled seeds, all the offspring had round seeds.

The offspring of the parental cross are called the first filial (F1)
generation. In Mendel’s experiments, the F1 generation are also called hybrids
because they resulted from a cross between two pure-breeding plants with
contrasting traits (for example, pea plants with round seeds crossed with pea
plants with wrinkled seeds). Table 2 shows the seven pure-breeding crosses that
he made based on seven characters of the plant and the resulting traits of the F 1
generation.
Table2. Results of Mendel’s crosses between pure-breeding pea plants

First Filial (F 1)
Characters Studied Par ents
Generation
Seed shape Round Wrinkled Round

Seed color Green Yellow Yellow

Seed coat color Colored White Colored

Pod shape Inflated Constricted Inflated

Pod color Green Yellow Green

Flower position Axial Terminal Axial

Stem length Long Short Long

When the plants from the F1 generation were crossed with each other or self
pollinated, the offspring (F2 or second filial generation) were of two types.

For example, Mendel counted 5,474 round seeds and 1,850 wrinkled
seeds in the F2 generation. Note that the round seeds were about three times as
many as the wrinkled seeds. The ratio of round seeds to wrinkled seeds was
2.96:1 or nearly 3:1. Moreover, the wrinkled seed type did not asppear in the F1
generation. Table 3 summarizes the results on Mendel’s second set of
experiments.

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 Table 3. Results of Mendel’s crosses between hybrid plants

Characters F2 Generation Produced by Observed

Hybrid
Studied Self-Pollinating F1 Hybrids Ratio
Seed shape Round Round Wrinkled 2.96:1

Seed color Yellow Green Yellow 3.01:1

Seed coat color Colored Colored White 3.15:1

Pod shape Inflated Inflated Constricted 2.95:1

Pod color Green Green Yellow 2.82:1

Flower position Axial Axial Terminal 3.14:1

Stem length Long Long Short 2.84:1

Based on the results of his experiments, Mendel hypothesized that there

was a factor in the plants which controlled the appearance of a trait. These
factors are what we call genes today.

Since two alternative expressions of a trait (e.g., round or wrinkled seed)

were possible, he hypothesized that traits were controlled by a pair of genes,
now called alleles. Mendel’s first hypothesis was: in each organism, there is a
pair of factors which controls the appearance of a particular trait.

Mendel noted that for each trait he studied, there is one trait that
dominates the other. Based on the results for the F 1 generation, the trait for
round seeds is the dominant trait. The trait of wrinkled seeds, which did not
appear in the F1 generation, is called the recessive trait. Its appearance was
either prevented or hidden by the dominant trait. This is now known as the
principle of dominance: The dominant trait dominates or prevents the
expression of the recessive trait. Today, dominant and recessive traits are
represented by a capital and a small letter, respectively. A dominant trait like
round seed, for example, is represented by letter R and a recessive trait like
wrinkled seed is represented by a small letter r. Since genes occur in pairs, a
pure-breeding round-seed plant is symbolized as RR and pure-breeding
wrinkled-seed pea plant as rr. Table 4 shows the dominant and recessive traits of
peas studied by Mendel.

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Table 4. Dominant and recessive traits in Pisum sativum (Garden Pea)

Characters Studied Dominant Trait Recessive Trait

Seed shape Round Wrinkled

Seed color Yellow Green

Seed coat color Colored White

Pod shape Inflated Constricted

Pod color Green Yellow

Flower position Axial Terminal

Stem length Long Short

Law of Segregation

Before Mendel’s time, it was believed that all traits become mixed when they are
transmitted from generation to generation, as red and blue paints mix to give a
violet color. However, when Mendel crossed pure-breeding pea plants, the pea
plants did not produce offspring with blended or intermediate traits.

In Mendel’s experiments, the pure-breeding parent plants had two identical

genes for a trait: round seed = RR, wrinkled seed = rr. Mendel hypothesized that:
The pair of genes segregate or separate from each other during gamete
formation. This is now known as the Law of Segregation.

Genes and Gametes

Following Mendel’s reasoning, a pure-breed, round-seeded parent plant has an

allelic combination or genotype of RR while a pure-breed, wrinkled-seeded
parent plant has a genotype of rr. Individuals that are pure-breeding for a
particular character therefore have identical alleles. These individuals have a
homozygous genotype. For seed shape, a homozygous dominant individual will
produce round seeds while a homozygous recessive individual will produce
wrinkled seeds.

Mendel’s law of segregation states that the genes of a pair, for example
RR, separate during gamete formation. One gene goes to one gamete, while the
other gene goes to another gamete. Since the genes of this pair are alike, all the
gametes produced by this homozygous parent will be alike. All have gene R. The
same is true for the other parent. All its gametes will have gene r. (See Figure 7.)

324
Figure 7. Gamete formation of pure-breeding round- and wrinkled
seed-bearing pea plants.

Now recall what we have learned in meiosis. During anaphase I of meiosis

I, the chromosome pairs separate and move to opposite poles. Now remember
that a trait is governed by a pair of alleles. Each allele is found in a chromosome
of a chromosome pair. In other words, the chromosomes serve as vehicles for
these alleles. So when these chromosomes segregate during anaphase I, the
alleles they carry also segregate. This becomes the chromosomal basis of
Mendel’s first law (see Figure 8).

325
 Figure 8. Chromosomal basis of Mendel’s Law of Segregation.

At fertilization, when the gametes formed during gametogenesis by RR and

rr plants unite, all the zygotes will have the genotype Rr (Figure 9). Thus, all the
F1 plants will have a genotype of Rr. An individual with contrasting alleles (a
dominant and a recessive allele) for a particular character is said to have a
heterozygous genotype. However, Rr individuals will still produce round seeds
because of the presence of the dominant allele R. These will be just as round as
all the seeds produced by the RR parents. The expression of the genotype of an
individual for a particular character is referred to as its phenotype.

326
 Figure 9. The result of crossing pure-breeding round and wrinkled seeds.

Knowing the Genotype

When you observe a pea plant, you can easily see the plant’s yellow pods
or its axial flower. By simply looking at the plant, you can immediately tell a
plant’s phenotype. However, you cannot always tell its genotype. For instance, a
plant with wrinkled seeds certainly has a rr genotype. But what about a plant with
the dominant trait, round seed? Its genotype could either be RR or Rr. There is,
however, a way of knowing whether the plant is homozygous or heterozygous for
a given character. Mendel applied two techniques in determining the genotype of
a pea plant. These are self-fertilization and testcross techniques.

1. Self-fertilization Technique

When self-fertilized, homozygotes always produce pure-breeding plants.

Thus, round-seeded peas will breed only round-seeded peas. What about
heterozygotes? Look at Table 3 again. Heterozygous round F1 peas produce
round and wrinkled seeds in the ratio three round seeds to one wrinkled seed.
This ratio (3:1) is called a phenotypic ratio.
Self-fertilization enables us to determine whether an individual is
homozygous or heterozygous for a given trait by observing the phenotype(s) of
its offspring. Homozygotes are pure-breeding. Heterozygotes produce two kinds
of offspring; three out of four offspring show the dominant trait and one out of
four excessive the recessive trait.

327
2. Testcross Technique

Testcross involves a cross between the recessive parental type (rr in our
sample cross) and the individual with the dominant trait but with unknown
genotype. You will observe in Figure 10 that homozygote dominants, when
crossed with recessives, produce only one kind of offspring and all exhibit the
dominant trait. Heterozygotes, on the other hand, when crossed with recessives,
produce two kinds of offspring. About one-half of the offspring show the dominant
trait while the other half exhibits the recessive trait.

Figure 10.Testcross technique.

Probability

Chance plays a role in the inheritance of a trait. During fertilization, the

union of a male gamete with gene R and a female gamete with gene r, for
instance, happens by chance. During meiosis, the assortment of the different
chromosomes also occurs by chance. Activity 3 illustrates the role of chance in
the inheritance of a trait.

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 TAKE HOME
TASK

Activity 3
Tossing coins and probability

Objective:

After performing this activity, you should be able to predict the outcomes of
crosses based on the principle of probability.

Materials:

2 coins, a piece of paper, and a pencil or pen

Procedure:

1. On a piece of paper, make a chart similar to the one given below.

Head (H) Tail (h)

Total
Percentage
Ratio of the
combinations
2. Toss a coin. If a head comes up, mark column 1; if a tail, then mark column 2.
Make 50 tosses of the coin.

3. Get the total number of times each face of the coin appears. Calculate the
percentage of the appearance of each face. To compute the percentage:

(total / 50) x 100 %

Q1. What is the ratio of heads to tails?

4. Let us assume that the coin represents the genotype of a parent, and each
face is an allele, with the head as the dominant allele (H) and the tail as the
recessive allele (h).
5.
Q2. What is the ratio of the gametes of this parent with heterozygous genotype?

329
6. On the same piece of paper, make a chart similar to the one given below.

Head-Head Head-Tail Tail-Tail (hh)

(HH) (Hh)
Total
Percentage
Ratio of the combinations

7. Toss the two coins together. If a head-head combination appears, mark

column 1; if head-tail, mark column 2; and if tail-tail, mark column 3. Make 50
tosses of the coins.

8. Get the total number of times each combination appears. Calculate the
percentage of the appearance of each combination. To compute the
percentage:

(total / 50) x 100 %

Q3. What is the ratio of a head-head, head-tail, and tail-tail combination when
you make 50 tosses?

Q4. If you toss the same coins in 100,000 times, would you approximately get
the same ratio?

Q5. Let the head (H) represent a dominant gene and the tail (h), a recessive
gene. Compare the ratio you obtained in this activity with the one obtained
by Mendel in his monohybrid F2 generation peas (see Table 3). Are they
approximately similar?

_____________________________________________________

Diagramming a Cross

Mendel’s crosses can be recorded in a chart called a Punnett square.

The Punnett square helps us to predict the outcome of a given cross. It allows us
to determine the possible combinations of genes in a cross.

The use of the Punnett square can be best illustrated by solving an actual
problem, like determining the expected result when two hybrid round-seeded
peas are crossed. From previous discussions, you know that the expected
phenotypic ratio from this cross is 3:1. This time, we will determine the expected
genotype of the offspring.

330
 Figure 11 diagrams the steps in making a Punnett square. From the
finished square, you can tell the genotypes of the offspring in the given cross.

Look at Figure 11. How many kinds of genotypes are possible in this
cross? What are these genotypes?

Since a zygote with a genotype Rr is shown twice in the Punnett square in

Figure 11, the chance or probability that a zygote will have an Rr genotype is two
out of four (2/4 or 50%). One out of four (1/4 or 25%) will have a genotype of RR
while one out of four will have a genotype of rr. Therefore, the genotypic ratio in
the given cross is one RR (homozygous round seed) to two Rr (heterozygous
round seed) to one rr (homozygous wrinkled seed). The genotypic ratio is simply
written as 1:2:1. This 1:2:1 ratio is what you should have obtained as your ratio in
Activity 3.

Fig
ure 11. Punnett square method to solve a hybrid cross.

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Activity 4
Comparing genotypic and phenotypic ratios for a typical Mendelian trait

Objective:

After performing this activity, you should be able to solve for the
phenotypic and genotypic ratios of any given cross.

Procedure:

Let D = dominant allele and d = recessive allele, while DD, Dd, and dd
represent the homozygous dominant, heterozygous dominant, and homozygous
recessive genotypes, respectively. For each type of cross, determine the
genotypic and phenotypic ratios, respectively. The first cross was already done
for you.

Cross Genotypic Ratio Phenotypic Ratio

1. DD x DD 100% DD 100% dominant
2. DD x Dd
3. DD x dd
4. Dd x Dd
5. Dd x dd
6. dd x dd

This table summarizes the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of typical

Mendelian traits. Knowing the Mendelian genotypic and phenotypic ratios can
make solving genetic problems easier.
_____________________________________________________

Cross with Two Factors (Dihybrid Cross)

Mendel also studied the inheritance of two pairs of factors in an individual.

A cross between individuals that involve two heterozygous pairs of genes is
called a dihybrid cross.

Mendel crossed a plant with genotype RRYY (round, yellow seeds) and a
plant with genotype rryy (wrinkled, green seeds). The F1 peas exhibited the
dominant traits for the heterozygous genotype RrYy. Assuming Mendel’s Law of
Segregation, each pair will segregate during the formation of gametes. Each
gamete will therefore receive one allele from each pair. If the pairs of alleles are
found on different chromosomes, then each dihybrid will produce four different
types of gametes with ¼ probability each (Figure 12).

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 Round, yellow seeds

RrYy

RY Ry rY ry

¼ ¼ ¼ ¼

Figure 12. Gametes produced by a dihybrid genotype.

Self-fertilization of F1 peas produced four phenotypes. The phenotypes

with a ratio 9:3:3:1 are as follows:

9 (round, yellow seed)

3 (round, green seed)
3 (wrinkled, yellow seed)
1 (wrinkled, green seed)

Can you show, using a Punnett square, how this phenotype is obtained?

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 FACE TO FACE ENCOUNTER –
(STUDENT AND TEACHER)

Activity 5
Filling up the Punnett square for a dihybrid cross

Objective:

At the end of this activity, you should be able to use a Punett square when
solving for dihybrid crosses.

Procedure:

Given the cross RrYy x RrYy, copy and fill up the Punnett square below.
Base your answers to the given questions on the completed diagram.

Q1. What are the male gametes? female gametes?

Q2. What proportion of the offspring will have the following phenotype: RY, Ry,
rY, and ry?

Q3. How many kinds of genotypes will the offspring have?

Q4. What is the probability that an individual will have a genotype of RRyy?
RrYy? Rryy? RRYY?

_____________________________________________________

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Law of Independent Assortment

From the results obtained from his hybrid crosses, Mendel formulated his
last hypothesis: The distribution or assortment of one pair of factors is
independent of the distribution of the other pair.

The law of independent assortment explains why traits are inherited

independent of each other. The law applies to factors (or genes) that are found
on separate chromosomes. Since they are found on separate chromosomes, the
segregation of one pair of factors is not affected by the segregation of the other
pair. Therefore, their distribution in the resulting gametes will be at random
(Figure 13).

Figure 13. Chromosomal basis of Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment.

The Birth of the Science of Genetics

Mendel published his experimental results and analysis in 1866. However,

biologists of that time paid little attention to them. Nobody tried to repeat
Mendel’s experiments or to apply the techniques he used to study the different
traits in other organisms. For many years, Mendel’s results remained unnoticed.
However, these results were rediscovered independently in 1900 by three
scientists, namely: Karl Correns, Hugo de Vries, and Erich Tschermark von
Seysenegg. Only then did the scientific world come to know and benefit from
Mendel’s findings.

This rediscovery marked the beginning of the analytical study of heredity.

It also gave birth to genetics as a new science, founded on Mendel’s findings.
Genetics also includes the study of genes and chromosomes and their properties
and behavior in cells, individuals, and the population.
______________________________________________________________

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Module 5. Cellular Reproduction and Genetics Post-test

For items 1-2 refer to the cell cycle diagram below.

1. Which represents the G1 phase of the cell cycle?

a. A b. B c. C d. D
2.In which stage does DNA synthesis occur?
a. A b. B c. C d. D

For items 3-4 refer to the figure of mitosis below.

3. Which is the first stage mitosis?

a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4
4. Where do sister chromatids separate?
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4

5. Which is the correct comparison between mitosis and meiosis?

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 a. mitosis : 2 haploid cells; meiosis: 4 haploid cells
b. mitosis: divides once; meiosis: divides twice
c. mitosis: with crossing over; meiosis: without crossing over.
d. miitosis: unique daughter cells; meiosis: identical daughter cells

6. Which of the following is both the function of mitosis and meiosis?

a. asexual reproduction c. both a and b
b. sexual reproduction d. none from the given options
7. Which equation explains the significance of meiosis in maintaining the
chromosome number of organism?
a. n + n = 2n c. 2n + n = 3n
b. 2n+ 2n = 2n d. n+ n = n

Read and understand the problem below and answer questions 8-9.

A homozygous tall pea plant (TT) is crossed with a homozygous

short pea plant (tt).

8. What percent of the offspring will be tall?

a.25% b. 50% c. 75% d. 100%
9. What is the resulting phenotypic ratio of the cross?
a. 1:0 b. 2:2 c. 3:1 d.none from the options
10. What is the reason behind the result in Mendel's F2 generation, if one out of
four plants had white flowers?
a. one parent is homozygous dominant
b. both parents were heterozygous purple
c. one parent was homozygous recessive
d. both parents were heterozygous white

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References and Links

Brooker, R.J. (2008). Genetics: analysis and principles (3rd ed). Irwin/McGraw-
Hill.

Klug, W. S., M. R. Cummings, and C. A. Spencer. (2007). Essentials of genetics

(6th ed). New Jersey, USA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Lewis, R. (1999). Humangenetics: conceptsandapplications (3rd ed).

WCB/McGraw-Hill.

Philippines. Department of Education. (2004). Biology:

nd
Science and technology textbook for 2 year. (Revised ed.).
Quezon City: Author.

Ramirez, D.A., Mendioro, M.S. and Laude, R.P. (2010). Lecturenotesingenetics

(9th ed). San Pablo, Philippines: 7 Lakes Printing Press.

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Module 4. Electricity Post-test
Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it on your answer sheet.
6. A German physicist who named the unit, ohms (Ω) for resistance (R).
B. Galileo B. George Simon Ohm C. Isaac Newton
7. When does short circuit happen?
8. What happens to the total resistance of the circuit when more and more appliances
are connected to one outlet?
9. What happens to the total current?

10. Overloading a circuit can start a fire. Explain.

Answer key
1. B
2. Short circuit happens when the circuit offers little or no resistance to the flow of
charges. This results in a large amount of current in the circuit.
3. Resistance decreases as more appliances are connected to one outlet.
4. The total current increases.
5. Overloading the circuit can make the wires hot setting combustible materials on
fire.

Module 5 Sounds Post-test

Directions: Choose the correct answer inside the box below. Write the answers on a
sheet of paper.

Frequency longitudinal wave

Crest wavelength
Reverberation Echo
trough
8. A type of wave that moves parallel to the motion of material or the particles of the
medium?
9. The lowest part of a transverse wave is called_______.
10. The highest part of the transverse wave is called_______.
11. _______ is the distance from one compression to the next or between two
successive compressions in a longitudinal wave.
12. _______ is the number of compressions passing by a certain point in 1 second.
13. _______ is an example of a reflected sound.
14. _______ refers to the multiple reflections or echoes in a certain place.

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Answer Key
1.longitudinal wave 3. Crest 5. Frequency 7. Reverberation
2. trough 4. Wavelength 6. Echo

Module 6. Colors of light Post-test

Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.
4. This dimensionless quantity is represented by the symbol n and is an indicator of the
optical density of a material. What is this?
b. Speed of light b. index of refraction c. angle of refraction
5. ________ is the bending of light when it travels from one medium to another of
different optical densities?
b. Reflection b. Dispersion c. Refraction
6. The sluggishness of the atoms of a medium to maintain the absorbed energy before
reemitting is called__________.
b. Optical density b. wavelength c. index of refraction

Key to Correction
1. B 2. C 3. A

Module3. Pre/Post-test
Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.
6. ______ are icy bodies or objects, usually come from the Oort Cloud which is beyond
our Solar System.
b. Comets b. Asteroids c. Planets
7. These are rocky fragments, mostly composed of metals like iron and nickel?
b. Planets b. Comets c. Asteroids
8. ______ usually all burns up when it enters Earth’s atmosphere.
b. Meteoroid b. Meteors c. Meteorite
9. A space fragment from the meteoroid survives and makes it to the ground is called
______.
b. Meteoride b. Meteorite c. Meteors
10. Many steaks of light from Earth happen when earth orbits the sun and passes
through the orbit of a comet where these comet fragments are found?
b. Meteor shower b. Meteoride c. Meteorite
Key to corrections
2. A 2. C 3. A 4. A 5. A

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