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Class 11 Physics
Chapter 12 – Thermodynamics
1. THERMODYNAMICS
It deals with the study of interactions between heat and other forms of energy.
Thermodynamic System:
A collection of large numbers of molecules of matter (solid, liquid or gas) that
are arranged in a manner such that these possess particular values of pressure,
volume and temperature forms a thermodynamic system.
The parameters like pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy, etc.,
which determine the state or condition of a system are termed thermodynamic
state variables.
In thermodynamics, we consider the thermodynamic systems as a whole and
learn the intera ction of heat and energy during the change of one
thermodynamic state to another.
1.1 Thermal Equilibrium
The term ‘equilibrium’ in thermodynamics refers to the state when all the
macroscopic variables expressing the system ( P, V, T , m ass etc.,) do not
change with time.
● Two systems when in contact with each other are said to be in thermal
equilibrium when their temperatures become the same.
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● Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when the thermodynamics
systems A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third
thermodynamic system C, then the systems A and B are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
1.2 Heat, Work and Internal Energy
Internal Energy refers to the energy possessed by any system because of its
molecular kinetic energy and molecular potential energy. Both these
Classenergies
12 pass are considered withClass 12 of mass frame.
respect to center Class 11
Internal energy is dependent entirely on the state and thus, it is a state
variable. In the case of real gases, internal energy is onl y by virtue of their
molecular motion whereas for ideal gases, it is mathematically given by
nfRT
More Grades
U
Class 10 2
where,
n is the number of moles
f is the degree of freedom
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temperature in kelvin
Internal Energy can be altered either by providing heat energy or by
your exams.
performing some work.
Heat Energy refers to the energy transformed to or from the system due to
the difference in temperatures by conduction, convection or radiation.
The energy that gets transferred from one system to another by force
moving its point of application in its own direction is termed work.
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Mathematically, work done by the system is given by

W Fdx Ps Adx Pd V
where Ps is the pressure of the system on the piston.
This work done by the system is positive when the system is expanding and
it is negative when the system is contracting.
● Work and heat are path functions while internal energy is a state
function.
● Heat and work are two different terminologies even though they might
look similar.
1.3 Important Thermodynamics Terms

State Variables: P, V, T, moles
State variables can be extensive or intensive.
Equation of State : The equation that relates the pressure (P) , the volume
(V) and absolute temperature (T) of a gas is known as the equation of
state.
PV constant(Boyle’s Law)
V
constant (Charles’ Law)
T
PV nRT
Thermodynamic Process: A thermodynamic process happens when a few
changes occur in the state of a thermodynamic system, i.e., the

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thermodynamic parameters of the system get altered with time.

Thermodynamic process can be isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric or isochoric.
Quasi Static Process: A thermodynamic process that is infinitely slow is
termed qu asi-static process.
● In a quasi static process, the system undergoes change with slow speed
such that at every instant, the system is in both thermal and mechanical
equilibrium with the surroundings.
● Quasi -static process is an ideal process. We generally consider all the
processes to be quasi static unless mentioned differently.
CBSE (2023-24) Indicator P -V Diagram: A graph between pressure and volume of a gas
under thermodynamic operation is known as a P -V diagram.
Academic year 2023-24 ENGLISH Unlimited access till !nal school exam
School Full course for CBSE students

With respect to the diagram;
a Isobaric
b Isothermal
Maths English d Science
c Adiabatic
Isochoric
Also, the are a under the P -V diagram provides us the work done by a gas.
1.4 First Law of Thermodynamics

Suppose that
Q Heat supplied to the system by the surroundings
₹38,500 (9% O#) W Work done by the system on the surroundings
U Change in internal energy of the system.
₹35,000 per year First law of thermodynamics suggests that energy can neither be created
nor be destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form to another.
Mathematically,
EMI starts from ₹2,916.67 per month
Q U W
Sign Conventions:
● When heat gets supplied to the system, then Q is taken positive and
when heat gets withdrawn from the system, Q is negative .
Class XI Physics
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Access Class 11 Physics Chapter 12 – Thermodynamics in 30
Minutes
1. THERMODYNAMICS
It deals with the study of interactions between heat and other forms of
energy.
Thermodynamic System:
A collection of large numbers of molecules of matter (solid, liquid or gas)
that are arranged in a manner such that these possess particular values of
pressure, volume and temperature forms a thermodynamic system.
The parameters like pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy, etc.,

which determine the state or condition of a system are termed
thermodynamic state variables.
In thermodynamics, we consider the thermodynamic systems as a whole

and learn the interaction of heat and energy during the change of one
thermodynamic state to another.
1.1 Thermal Equilibrium ● When a gas expands, work done by the gas is taken positivewhereas
when a gas contracts, work is taken negative.
The term ‘equilibrium’ in thermodynamics refers to the state when all the
● U is taken positive when temperature increases while U is taken
negative when temperature decreases.
macroscopic variables expressing the system

considered. Hence ( V , T , mass etc.,) do
It is to be noted here that we always take work done by the system. In
chemistry, work done on the system is
perspective to the first law of thermodynamics in chemistry.
P,is another
there
not change with time. where

Mathematically, this can be expressed as
Q W U
Q and U have the same meanings but W stands for the work
Two systems when1.5 in contact with each other are said to be in

done on the system.
Application of the First of Law of Thermodynamics
thermal equilibriumdifferentwhen
thermodynamic their temperatures become the same.
Here, we observe how the first law of thermodynamics is applied to
processes.
1.5.1 Isothermal Process
Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when the

Description: A thermodynamic process in which the temperature remains
constant.
Condition: The walls of the container should be perfectly conductive to
thermodynamics systems A and or expansionB

mustare
be slow inseparately in thermal
allow free exchange of heat between the gas and its surroundings.
The process of compression order to provide
time for exchange of heat.
equilibrium with a Equation

third thermodynamic system C, then the systems
Both these conditions are considered perfectly ideal.
of State: T Constant or P Constant
v
Indicator Diagram:
A and B are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
1.2 Heat, Work and Internal Energy

Internal Energy refers toSlope
the energy possessed by any system because of
P
of PV at any point is equal to .
V
Change in internal energy, U0 (Temperature remains constant)
its molecular kinetic energy
W
and molecular potential energy. Both these
Work done is given by
P dV
v2
energies are considered with respect to the center of mass frame.

v1
Internal energy is dependent entirely on the state and thus, it is a state

variable. In the case of real gases, internal energy is only by virtue of their
molecular motion whereas for ideal gases, it is mathematically given by
nfRT
U=
:
nfRT
U= 2
where,
n is the number of moles

f is the degree of freedom
R is the universal gas constant
T is the temperature in kelvin
Internal Energy can be altered either by providing heat energy or by
performing some work.
Heat Energy refers to the energy transformed to or from the system due
to the di#erence in temperatures by conduction, convection or radiation.
The energy that gets transferred from one system to another by force
moving its point of application in its own direction is termed work.
v2
nRT
W dV [Using PV nRT]
v1 V
v2
W nRT ln
v1
First Law of Thermodynamics:
Q U W
Mathematically, work donenRTby v the system is given by

v2
ln Q
1
Remarks: All the heat supplied is utilized entirely to do work against
W = ∫ Fdx = ∫ Ps Adx = ∫ PdV

external surroundings. When heat is supplied, then the gas expands
whereas when heat is withdrawn, then the gas contracts.
Practical Examples:
Melting of ice at 0C .
Boiling of HO 2
at 100 C.
where P s is the pressure1.5.2

of the
Adiabatic system on the piston.
Process
Description : A thermodynamic process in which there is no heat
This work done by the system iswallspositive when the non system is expanding
exchange with surroundings.
Conditions : The of the container should be perfectly -
conducting in order to prevent any exchange of heat between the gas and
and it is negative when the system

of compression or is contracting.
its surroundings.
The process expansion must be rapid so that there is no
time for the exchange of hea t.
Work and heat areEquation

path functions while internal energy is a state
These conditions are ideal conditions and are difficult to achieve.
of State:
r
PV constant
function.
r1
TV constant
r
PT constant 1r
Heat and work are two di#erent terminologies even though they
Indicator Diagram
might look similar.
1.3 Important Thermodynamics Terms

State Variables: P, V , T , moles

State variables can be extensive or intensive.
Equation of State: The equation that relates the pressure (P) , the volume
(V ) and absolute temperature (T ) of a gas is known as the equation of
state.
:
PV = constant (Boyle’s Law)
V
= constant (Charles’ Law)
T
⇒ PV = nRT
Thermodynamic Process: A thermodynamic process happens when a few
changes occur in the state of a thermodynamic system, i.e., the
thermodynamic parameters of the system get altered with time.
Thermodynamic process can be isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric or
isochoric.
Quasi Static Process: A thermodynamic process that is in!nitely slow is
termed quasi-static process.
In a quasi static process, the system undergoes change with slow
speed such that at every instant, the system is in both thermal and
mechanical equilibrium with the surroundings.
Quasi-static process is an ideal process. We generally consider all the
processes to be quasi static unless P
mentioned di#erently.
Slope of adiabatic curve r
Indicator P-V Diagram: A Ascurve.

graph between
the adiabatic curve ispressure and volume of a gas
V
given in the graph, steeper than the isothermal
Change in internal energy,
under thermodynamic operationU

nfR T nR T T
2 r 1 is known
PV PV
r 1
. as a P-V diagram.
21 2 2 1 1
Work done by the gas when it adiabatically expands from V12to V is

given by
v2
dV
W
v
Vr
1
v2
dV
W constant
v1
Vr
PV r constant
constant
P
Vr
v2
V r1
W constant
1r v1
constant 1 1
W
1 r V21r 1 Vr 1
With respect to the diagram; Also, it is known that
P V P V constant
rr
1 1 2 2
a → Isobaric (ConstantW Pressure)

1 PV
1 r V
PV
V
2
r 1
21
2 1 1
r 1
b → Isothermal (Constant W
1 rTemperature)
P V P V nR T T
First Law of Thermodynamics

r 1
2 2 1 1 12
c → Adiabatic (Q= Constant)

Q U W
Substituting the values
We get Q0 , as expected
d → Isochoric (Constant Volume)

Remarks: When gas expands adiabatically, then its temp decreases and
vice versa.
Practical Examples:
Also, the area under the Spontaneous

P-V diagram bursting of a cycle tube.provides us the work done by a gas.
Propagation of sound waves in the form of compression and rarefaction.
1.4 First Law of Thermodynamics

Suppose that
∆Q = Heat supplied to the system by the surroundings
∆W = Work done by the system on the surroundings
∆U = Change in internal energy of the system.
First law of thermodynamics suggests that energy can neither be created
:
nor be destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form to another.
Thus, !rst law of thermodynamics states that the total amount of heat
supplied to the system by the surroundings will be equal to the sum of the
Work done by the system on the surroundings and the change in internal
energy of the system.
Mathematically,
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
Sign Conventions:
When heat gets supplied to the system, then ∆Q is taken positive

and when heat gets withdrawn from the system, ∆Q is taken
negative.
When a gas expands, work done by the gas is taken positive whereas
when a gas contracts, work is taken negative.
∆U is taken positive when temperature increases while ∆U is taken
1.5.3 Isochoric Process
negative when temperature decreases.

Description: A thermodynamic process in which the volume remains
constant.
Condition: A gas being heated or cooled ins ide a rigid container.
Equation of State:
P
V constant or constant
T
It is to be noted here that we always take work done by the system. In
Indicator Diagram:
chemistry, work done on the system is considered. Hence there is another

perspective to the !rst law of thermodynamics in chemistry.
Mathematically, this canChange
be
U
nfRexpressed
in internal energy is given by
T nR T T as 21
2 r1
PV PV nR T
U 2 2 1 1
∆Q − ∆W = ∆U r 1 r 1
Work done is given by W0 since the gas does not expand.
where ∆Q and ∆U have the same meanings but W stands for the work
First Law of thermodynamics
Q U W
nfR T
done on the system.
Q
2
Remarks: As we have learnt that when heat is supplied to any process, its
temperature increases according to relation:
Q nC T
1.5 Application of the First ofnT Law of Thermodynamics

Q
C
Now, this C is dependent on external conditions for gases.
Here, we observe how the Here, !rst

it is referredlaw
to as of
nT
Q
thermodynamics
i.e., Molar heat capacity at constant
v
is applied to
volume.
di#erent thermodynamicMathematically,
processes.
fR
it can be derived as
Cv
2
1.5.1 Isothermal Process Class XI Physics www.vedantu.com 7
Description: A thermodynamic process in which the temperature remains

constant.
Condition: The walls of the container should be perfectly conductive to
allow free exchange of heat between the gas and its surroundings.
The process of compression or expansion must be slow in order to provide

time for exchange of heat.
:
Both these conditions are considered perfectly ideal.
Equation of State: T = Constant or Pv = Constant

Indicator Diagram:
Slope of P − V at any point is equal to − PV .

Change in internal energy, ∆U = 0 (Temperature remains constant)
v2
W = ∫ Pg dV
v1 1.5.4 Isobaric Process
Description: A thermodynamic process in which the pressure remains
v2 constant.
⇒ W = ∫ ( nRT )dV Using$PV = nRT $

Condition: When in a container, the piston can move freely and it is not
connected by any agent.
V Equation of State:
V
v1 P constantor
T
constant
⇒ W = nRT ln( v21 )

Indicator Diagram:
v
First Law of Thermodynamics:

Change in internal energy, U
nfR T
is the same as always.
Q = ∆U + W
2
W PdV P V
⇒ Q = nRT ln( v21 )

v (since pressure is constant)
W PV 2 PV nR T
Q U W
nfR T
Remarks: All the heat supplied fR
is utilized entirely to do work against
Q
2
+nR T
Q R T
external surroundings. When
Remarks: Just heat
2
like C , we is supplied,
may define molar heat capacity then
V at constant the gas expands
Q
whereas when heat is withdrawn, then the gas contracts.
pressure as C . P
nT P
Mathematically, it can be derived as:
fR
CR
P
2
Practical Examples: Replacing
fR
2
by C V , we get C PV C R , which is known as Mayer’s
∘
Melting of ice at 0 C .
relation.
∘ Class XI Physics www.vedantu.com 8
Boiling of H 2 O at 100 C .
1.5.2 Adiabatic Process

Description: A thermodynamic process in which there is no heat exchange
with surroundings.
Conditions: The walls of the container should be perfectly non-conducting

in order to prevent any exchange of heat between the gas and its
surroundings.
:
The process of compression or expansion must be rapid so that there is no
time for the exchange of heat.
These conditions are ideal conditions and are di$cult to achieve.
Equation of State:
P V r = constant
⇒ T V r−1 = constant
r
⇒ PT 1−r = constant
Indicator Diagram
Notes:
● Just like molar specific heat at constant pressure and molar specific heat
at constant volume, we may define molar specific heat for any process.
For example:
Slope of adiabatic curve = −r PV

C0adiabatic
C isothermal
Basically, gases do not possess unique specific heats though we have
As given in the graph, the adiabatic curve is steeper than the isothermal
C PVand C mainly.
Specific Heat at Constant Volume: It refers to the amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of 1g of a gas through 1C , when its
curve. Change in internal energy, volume is kept constant. It is denoted by c V .

Specific Heat at Constant Pressure : It refers to the amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of 1g of a gas through 1C keeping its
nfR∆T nR(T −T )
2 pressure P V −P V
1 constant. It is denoted
∆U = 2
= r−1
= 2 2by c P . 1 1
.
● Here, it is to be noted that C PV, C refer to molar heat capacity while
r−1
c PV, c refer to specific heat capacity.
Work done by the gas when it adiabatically expands from V1 to V2 is

● C V Mc V and C P Mc P where M stands for the molar mass of any
sample.
C C R
given by
PV
cc PV
MM
1.5.5 Melting Process
v2 In any case, the first law is always applicable.
dV
W =∫
During the melting process,
Internal energy, Q mL f , as studied earlier and where L f is the latent
Vr heat of fusion.
v1 Work done, W0 .
(In the change of state from solid to liquid, we do not consider any
v2 expan sion or contraction as it is very small)
With respect to the first law of thermodynamics,
dV U Q W
⇒ W = constant ∫ r U mL
V Remark: f
The heat provided during melting is utilized in increasing the
v1 internal energy of any substance.
∵ P V = constant
r 1.5.6 Boiling Process
During the boiling process,
⇒ P = constant
Internal energy, Q mL V , where L V is the latent heat of vaporization.
Vr Class XI Physics www.vedantu.com 9
v2
V −r+1
⇒ W = constant × [ ]
1 − r v1
⇒W = constant
1−r
[ 1
− 1
]
V2r−1 V1r−1
Also, it is known that
P1 V1r = P2 V2r = constant
[ r−1 − r−1 ]
1 P2 V2 P1 V1
⇒W =
1 − r V2 V1
⇒W = =
:
P2 V2 −P1 V1 nR(T1 −T2 )
⇒W = 1−r
= r−1

Q = ∆U + W
Substituting the values
We get Q = 0 , as expected
Remarks: When gas expands adiabatically, then its temp decreases and
vice versa.
Practical Examples:
Propagation of sound waves in the form of compression and rarefaction.
Spontaneous bursting of a cycle tube.
Work done, W P V21–V .
(Pressure is constant during boiling and it is equal to atmospheric pressure)
1.5.3 Isochoric Process U Q W With respect to the first law of thermodynamics,
Description: A thermodynamic process in which the volume remains

U mL P V V f 2 1
1.5.7 Cyclic Process
constant.
A cyclic process refers to the process wherein the system returns to its
initial stage after undergoing a series of changes.
Example Indicator Diagram
Condition: A gas being heated or cooled inside a rigid container.

P
Equation of State: V = constant or = constant
Here, change in internal energy,
Work done, W Area under the loop. T
U mL V 0 .
Indicator Diagram: QW according to the first law of thermodynamics.

Also, W is positive when the cycle is clockwise whereas it is negative
when the cyclic is anti -clockwise.
1.6 Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics

● The first law does not provide the direction in which the change can
occur.
● The first law provides no idea on the extent of change.
● The first law of thermodynamics provides no information about the
source of heat. i.e., whether it is a hot or a cold body.
1.7 Heat Engines

Heat engine is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical energy.
Key Elements
● A source of heat at higher temperature
● A working substance
● A sink of heat at lower temperature
Working
● The working substance follows a cycle consisting of several processes.
Change in internal energy is given by
nfR∆T nR(T2 −T1 )
∆U = =
Class XI Physics

www.vedantu.com 10
2 r−1
P V2 −P1 V1
⇒ ∆U = 2 r−1 = nR∆T
r−1
Work done is given by W = 0 since the gas does not expand.
First Law of thermodynamics
Q = ∆U + W
nfR∆T
⇒ Q =
2
Remarks: As we have learnt that when heat is supplied to any process, its
temperature increases according to relation:
Q = nC∆T
Q
⇒C=
:
Q
⇒C= n∆T

Now, this C is dependent on external conditions for gases.
∆Q ∣
Here, it is referred to as i.e., Molar heat capacity at constant
n∆T ∣v
volume.
Mathematically, it can be derived as
fR
Cv =
2
1.5.4 Isobaric Process
Description: A thermodynamic process in which the pressure remains
constant. ● In some processes, it absorbs a total amount of heat Q from the source
at temperature T . 1
1
● In some other processes, it rejects a total amount of heat Q to the sink

Condition: When in a container, the T . piston can move freely and it is not
2
at a lower temperature 2
● The work done by the system in a cycle gets transferred to the
connected by any agent.

environment with the help of an arrangement .
Schematic Diagram
Equation of State:
V
P = constant or = constant
T Since energy is always conserved,
Q12 W Q
Indicator Diagram: Thermal Efficiency of a heat engine refers to the ratio of net work done per
cycle by the engine to the total amount of heat absorbed per cycle by the
working substance from the source. It is represented by . Mathematically,
(Image Will Be Updated Soon)
W
Q1
Substituting for Q1 , we get nfR∆T
Change in internal energy, ∆U 1
Q2
Q1
= 2
is the same as always.
Ideally, engines must have efficiency 1.
Remarks: The mechanism of conversion of heat into work varies for various
heat engines:
W = ∫ PdV = P∆V ● The system which gets heated by an external furnace similar to a steam
engine. These engines are called external combustion engines.
● The system wherein heat is produced by burning the fuel inside the
(since pressure is constant)

main body of the engine. These engines are called internal combustion
engines.
⇒ W = P V2 − PV = nR∆T 1.8 Refrigerator and Heat Pumps

A refrigerator or heat pump is a device utilized for cooling things.
Key Elements

Q = ∆U + W
nfR∆T
⇒ Q = +nR∆T
2
⇒ Q = [ 2 + R] ∆T
fR
Remarks: Just like CV , we may de!ne molar heat capacity at constant

Q ∣
pressure as CP = n∆T ∣P
.
Mathematically, it can be derived as:
fR
CP = 2
+ R
fR
Replacing 2 by CV , we get CP + CV = R, which known as Mayer’s
:
Relation.
Notes:
Just like molar speci!c heat at constant pressure and molar speci!c
heat at constant volume, we may de!ne molar speci!c heat for any
process.
For example:
Cadiabatic = 0
Cisothermal = ∞
Basically, gases do●not A workingpossess unique speci!c heats though we have
● A cold reservoir at temperature T 2
substance
● A hot reservoir at temperat ure T
CP and CV mainly.
1
Working
● The working substance follows a cycle consisting of several processes .
● A sudden expansion of the gas from high to low pressure cools it and
Speci!c Heat at Constant Volume:
converts it into a vapor -liquid mixture.
● Absorption by the Ittherefers
cold fluid of heat from to the amount of heat
region to be cooled
converts it into vapor.
needed to raise the● The temperature of 1g of a gas through 1∘ C , when

vapor gets heated up due to external work done on the working
substance.
● The heat gets released by the vapor to the surroundings bringing it to
its volume is keptSchematic

constant. It is denoted
the initial stat e and completing the cycle.
Diagram by cV .
Speci!c Heat at Constant Pressure: It refers to the amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of 1g of a gas through 1∘ C keeping
its pressure constant.
Q W Q It is denoted by cP .
21
Coefficient of performance of refrigerator () refers to the ratio of quantity of
heat removed per cycle from contents of the refrigerator Q 2 to the energy
Here, it is to be noted that CP , CV refer to molar heat capacity

spent per cycle (W) to remove this heat. Mathematically,
Q2
W
while cP , cV refer to speci!c heat capacity.
Substituting for W , we get
Q2
CV = M cV and CP = M cP where M stands for molar mass of

QQ12
Ideally, heat pumps must have .
any sample.
1.9 Second Law of Thermodynamics
There are a lot of ways in which this law can be stated.
Even though all the statements are the same with respect to their contents, the
−Ctwo
CPfollowing V are the most significant.
R
⇒ cP − cV = M
= M
1.5.5 Melting Process

In any case, the !rst law is always applicable.
During the melting process,
Internal energy, Q = mL f , as studied earlier and where L f is the latent
heat of fusion.
Work done, W = 0.
(In the change of state from solid to liquid, we do not consider any
expansion or contraction as it is very small)
With respect to the !rst law of thermodynamics,
∆U = Q − W
⇒ ∆U = mL f
Remark: The heat provided during melting is utilized in increasing the
:
internal energy of any substance.
1.5.6 Boiling Process

During the boiling process,
Internal energy, Q = mL V , where L V is the latent heat of vaporization.
Work done, W = P [V2 V1 ].
(Pressure is constant during boiling and it is equal to atmospheric
pressure)
With respect to the !rstKelvin
law Planck of thermodynamics,
Statement: No process is possible whose sole result is the
absorption of heat from a reservoir and the complete conversion of the heat
∆U = Q − W into work.
Clausius Statement: No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer
of heat from a colder object to a hotter o bject.
⇒ ∆U = mL f − P (V2 − V1 ) Significance: 100% efficiency in heat engines or infinite CoP in refrigerators

is not possible.
1.10 Reversible and Irreversible Process

Reversible Process: A thermodynamic process taking a system from initial
1.5.7 Cyclic Process state i to final state f is considered reversible if the process can be reversed
back such that both the system and the surroundings return to their original
A cyclic process refers to the process wherein the system returns to its
states with no other change anywhere else in the universe.
Conditions for reversibility:
1. Process must proceed at an extremely slow rate, i.e., process is quasi
initial stage after undergoing a series of change.

static so that the system is in equilibrium with surroundings at every
stage.
2. The system must be free from dissipative forces like friction,
inelasticity , viscosity, etc.
Examples: No process can be considered perfectly reversible though a slow
Example Indicator Diagram expansion of an ideal gas is approximately reversible.

Irreversible Process: A process that does not satisfy any of the conditions of
a reversible process is known as an irreversible process.
Causes:
● Spontaneous process
● Presence of friction, viscosity and other dissipative forces
Significance of Reversibility:
● Major concern of thermodynamics is the efficiency with which the heat
is converted into mechanical energy.
● Second law of thermodynamics opts out the possibility of a perfect heat
engine with 100% efficiency.
● It is found that heat engines based on idealized reversible processes
attain the highest possible efficiency.
2.11 Carnot Engine

Sadi Carnot devised an ideal cycle of operation for a heat engine termed the
Carnot cycle.
The engine used for realizing this ideal cycle is known as the Carnot heat
engine.
Here, change in internal energy, ∆U = mL V = 0.

Construction
Work done, W = Area under the loop.

⇒ Q = W according to the !rst law of thermodynamics.

Also, W is positive when the cycle is clockwise whereas it is negative when
the cyclic is anti-clockwise.
1.6 Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics
The !rst law does not provide the direction in which the change can
occur.
The !rst law provides no idea on the extent of change.
The !rst law of thermodynamics provides no information about the
source of heat. i.e., whether it is a hot or a cold body.
1.7 Heat Engines

Heat engine is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical
:
energy.
Key Elements
A source of heat at higher temperature

A working substance
A sink of heat at lower temperature
Working The essential sections of an ideal heat engine or Carnot heat engine are shown
in the diagram below.
The working substance follows a cycle consisting of several

processes.
i. Source of heat: The source is maintained at a fixed higher temperature
In some processes, supposed

it absorbs a total amount
T , from which the working substance takes heat. The source is
1
to possess infinite thermal capacity and as such any amount of
of heat Q1 from the
heat can be taken from it without altering its temperature.
source at temperature T1 . of heat can be emitted by the working substance.
ii. Sink of heat: The sink is maintained at a fixed lower temperature
which any amount
T , to
It
2
In some other processes, itwhenrejects ais emitted

total to it. amount of heat Q
2 to the
has also infinite thermal capacity and as such its temperature remains
constant at T , even 2
any amount of heat
iii. Workin g substance: A perfect gas plays the role of a working
sink at a lower temperature . This cylinder is fixed with a

substance. It is contained in a cylinder with non -conducting sides but
having a perfectly conducting T2-base.
perfectly non -conducting and frictionless piston.
The work done by the stand or system

pad on which the in a cancycle
be positioned.gets
It providestransferred to the
Apart from these essential parts, there is also a perfectly insulating
cylinder
complete isolation to the working substance from the surroundings so
environment withWorkithe help of an arrangement.

that the gas can undergo adiabatic changes.
ng
The Carnot cycle consists of the following four stages:

Schematic Diagram 1. Isothermal expansion
2. Adiabatic expansion
3. Isothermal compression
4. Adiabatic compression
The cycle is carried out by making use of the Carnot engine as detailed below:

Since energy is always conserved,
Q1 = W + Q2
Thermal E$ciency of a heat engine refers to the ratio of net work done per
cycle by the engine to the total amount of heat absorbed per cycle by the
working substance from the source. It is represented by η .
Mathematically,
W
η= Q1

Substituting for Q1 , we get
Q2
⇒η=1− Q1

Ideally, engines must have e$ciency η = 1.
:
Remarks: The mechanism of conversion of heat into work varies for
various heat engines:
The system which gets heated by an external furnace similar to a

steam engine. These engines are called external combustion
engines.
The system wherein heat is produced by burning the fuel inside the
main body of the engine. These engines are called internal
combustion engines.
1.8 Refrigerator and Heat

and T bePumps
Consider one gram mole of an ideal gas enclosed in the cylinder. Let V , P
the initial volume, pressure and temperature of the gas respectively.
1
1 1
The initial state of the gas is demonstrated by point A in the above P -V

A refrigerator or heat pump is a device utilized
diagram. We may assume that all the four processes are quasi
for cooling things.
-static and non -
dissipative in nature, which are the two conditions for reversibility.
Steps
1. Isothermal Expansion :
Key Elements
The cylinder is positioned on the source and the gas is allowed to
expand from A(V11, P ) to B(V22, P ) by the slow outward motion of the
piston . As the base is perfectly conducting, the process is isothermal.
Now,
U01 ;
A cold reservoir at temperature

Q W RT ln
V
V
1
T2
Area ABMKA
1 1
2
A working substance where,

Q Heat absorbed by gas in this process
1
W Work done by gas in this process
A hot reservoir at temperature T1

1
2. Adiabatic Expansion :
The cylinder is now removed from the source and is positioned on the
perfectly insulating pad. The gas is allowed to expand further from
Working
B(P2, V2) to C(P ,3 V 3) . As the gas is thermally insulated from all sides,
the process is adiabatic.
Here,
Q02 ;
R T 21 T
The working substance U W
follows
r1 a cycle consisting of several
Area BCNMB 22
processes. Class XI Physics www.vedantu.com 15
A sudden expansion of the gas from high to low pressure cools it and
converts it into a vapor-liquid mixture.
Absorption by the cold %uid of heat from the region to be cooled
converts it into vapor.
The vapor gets heated up due to external work done on the working
substance.
The heat gets released by the vapor to the surroundings bringing it
to the initial state and completing the cycle.
Schematic Diagram
:
Q2 + W = Q1
Coe$cient of performance of refrigerator (β) refers to the ratio of
quantity of heat removed per cycle from contents of the refrigerator (Q2 )
to the energy spent per cycle (W) to remove this heat. Mathematically,
3. Isothermal Compression:
The cylinder is now removed from the insulating pad and is positioned
Q2
β= W

on the sink at a temperature T2 . The piston is moved slowly so that the
gas is compressed until the pressure is P4 and the volume is V4 .
Here,
Substituting for W , we get

W Q
U03
RT 2 ln
V4
Area CDLNC
3 3
V3
Q2
⇒β= Q1 −Q2
where,
Q 3 Heat absorbed in this porcess
W3 Work done by gas in this process
Ideally, heat pumps must have

4. Adiabatic β = ∞.
Compression:
The cylinder is again positioned on the insulating pad such that the
process remains adiabatic. Here, the gas is further compressed to its
initial pressure and volume. i.e., P11 and V .
1.9 Second Law of Thermodynamics Here,

Q04 ;
There are a lot of ways in Wwhich r1 this law can be stated.

R T T 12
U Area DAKLD 44
Analysis:
Even though all the statements

W W W W W are the same with respect to their
Total work done by the engine per cycle is derived as:
1 2 3 4
contents, the following two are the most signi!cant.

W W W 13
VV
W RT ln RT ln 12
24
VV
13
V2
Kelvin Planck Statement: No processVV is possible whose sole result is the

Q11 Total heat abosrbed RT ln
1
Q Total heat released RT ln 4
absorption of heat fromClearly,

a itreservoir and the complete conversion of the
22
V 3
is seen that for a heat engine,

W Q Q Area under ABCDA
heat into work.

12
Clausius Statement: No process is possible whose sole result is the

transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter object.

Signi!cance: 100 e$ciency in heat engines or in!nite CoP in refrigerators
is not possible.
1.10 Reversible and Irreversible Process

Reversible Process: A thermodynamic process taking a system from initial
state i to !nal state f is considered reversible if the process can be
reversed back such that both the system and the surroundings return to
their original states with no other change anywhere else in the universe.
Conditions for reversibility:
1. Process must proceed at an extremely slow rate, i.e., process is

quasi-static so that the system is in equilibrium with surroundings at
every stage.
2. The system must be free from dissipative forces like friction,
inelasticity, viscosity, etc.
Examples: No process can be considered perfectly reversible though a
:
slow expansion of an ideal gas is approximately reversible.
Irreversible Process: A process that does not satisfy any of the conditions
of a reversible process is known as an irreversible process.
Efficiency of Carnot Engine
Causes: Mathematically, efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by

WQ
1 2
QQ11
Spontaneous process
Now, considering all the adiabatic processes, we have
TV 1
r 1
T V and T V
2 2 TV 3
r 1
1 1
r 1
2
r 1
4
VV
Presence of friction,VV viscosity and other dissipative forces
23
14
Clearly,
QT
11
QT
Signi!cance of Reversibility:1 TT
22
2
Carnot
1
Division
Major concern of thermodynamics

●
●
Carnot
1 only when T 0 K or T
Carnot , is
whichthe
21
e$ciency
is dependent only on source temperature and sink temperature.
is not possible to with which the
heat is converted into● If T mechanical energy.
achieve.
T 0 , heat cannot be converted
21 to mechanical energy
unless there is an equal difference between the temperature of the
Second law of thermodynamics opts out the possibility of a perfect

source as well as the sink .
1.12 Carnot Theorem
heat engine with 100 e$ciency.

Statement
a) Working between two given temperatures, T of hot reservoir (the
1
source) and T of the cold reservoir (the sink), no engine can have
It is found that heat engines basedengine is noton idealized reversible processes

2
efficiency more than that of the Carnot engine.
b) The efficiency of the Carnot dependent on the nature of
the working substance.
attain the highestProofpossible e$ciency.

Step - 1: Consider a reversible engine R and an irreversible e ngine I working
2.11 Carnot Engine

between the source (hot reservoir at T1 ) and sink (cold reservoir at T2 ).
Sadi Carnot devised an ideal cycle of operation for a heat engine termed
the Carnot cycle.
The engine used for realizing this ideal cycle is known as the Carnot heat
engine.
Construction
The essential sections of an ideal heat engine or Carnot heat engine are
shown in the diagram below.
i. Source of heat: The source is maintained at a !xed higher

temperature T1 , from which the working substance takes heat. The
source is supposed to possess in!nite thermal capacity and as such
any amount of heat can be taken from it without altering its
temperature.
ii. Sink of heat: The sink is maintained at a !xed lower temperature T2 ,
:
to which any amount of heat can be emitted by the working
substance. It also has in!nite thermal capacity and as such its
temperature remains constant at T , even when any amount of
Step - 2: Pair up two engines in such a manner that I act like heat engine and
Step - 3: Suppose that the engine I absorbs Q heat2from the source; deliver a
R acts like a refrigerator.
1
heat is emitted toworkit.

1 1
W and release the balance QW to the sink in a single cycle.
1
iii. Working substance: A perfect gas plays the role of a working

substance. It is contained in a cylinder with non-conducting sides but
having a perfectlyfromconducting-base. This
done on it. cylinder is !xed with a
Step - 4: Setup R such that it returns the same heat to the source, taking Q 2
the sink and requiring a work W Q Q to be 12

Step - 5: Suppose i.e., When R were to act as an engine, it would
perfectly non-conducting and frictionless piston.

RI
give less work output than that of I .
1 1
WW for a given Q and Q W Q W 1 11
Step - 6: In totality, the I -R system extracts heat
Apart from these essential
r W Q W
11 W parts,
W and delivers there
11
the same amount isof also
work in a a perfectly insulating
single cycle without any change in source or anywhere else. This contradicts
stand or pad on which theqqcylinder can be positioned. It provides

the second law of thermodynamics. (Kelvin - Planck statement)
Clearly, the assumption is incorrect.
1R
A similar argument can be set up for the second statement of the Carnot
complete isolation to QT the working substance from the surroundings

theorem, i.e., Carnot efficiency is independent of the working substance.
Thus, will always hold true for any workin g substance used in a
11
so that the gas canCarnotundergo adiabatic changes.

QT 22
engine.
2. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

In this topic, we would discuss the behavior of gases and how different state
Working variables like P, V, T, moles, U are connected with each other.
2.1 Molecular Nature of Matter

The Carnot cycle consists ofconstituents
smallest theoffollowing four
elements. All the atoms of an element are stages:
Similar to the atomic theory given by Delton, atoms are treated as the
identical
while atoms of different elements are different.
In solids: Atoms are tightly packed; interatomic spacing is of the order of
o
1. Isothermal expansion
A ; interatomic force of attraction is strong.
2. Adiabatic expansion
3. Isothermal compression
4. Adiabatic compression
The cycle is carried out by making use of the Carnot engine as detailed
below:
Consider one gram mole of an ideal gas enclosed in the cylinder. Let V1 ,
P1 and T1 be the initial volume, pressure and temperature of the gas
respectively. The initial state of the gas is demonstrated by point A in the
above P-V diagram. We may assume that all the four processes are quasi-
static and non-dissipative in nature, which are the two conditions for
reversibility.
Steps
1. Isothermal Expansion:
The cylinder is positioned on the source and the gas is allowed to expand
:
from A(V1 , P 1 ) to B(V2 , P 2 ) by slow outward motion of piston. As the
In liquids: Atoms are not as tightly packed as in solids; interatomic
base is perfectly conducting,

spacing is of the
the order process
relatively weaker.
o
of 2A ; the interatomicisforce
isothermal.
of attraction is
Now,
In Gases: Atoms are free to move anywhere; interatomic spacing is of the
o
order of 10 A; interatomic forces are much weaker in gases than both in
solids and liquids.
∆U 1 = 0 ; In this chapter, we would be concentrating more o n gases.
⇒ Q1 = W1 = RT1 ln( V21 )

V
2.2.1 Ideal Gas
Ideal gas refers to a gas that strictly obeys all the gas laws (such as
Boyle’s law, Charles’ law, Gay Lussac’s law, etc.).
Characteristics
= Area ABMKA ● The size of the molecule of an ideal gas is considered to be zero.

● There would be no force of attraction or repulsion amongst the
where,
molecules of an ideal gas.
2.2.2 Real Gas
Q1 → Heat absorbed by gasin this process

All gases are considered as real gases.
All real gases showcase the ideal gas behavior at low pressures and high
temperatures, when they cannot be liquified.
W1 → Work done by gas in this process 2.2.3 Ideal Gas Laws

Avogadro Hypothesis : This hypothesis suggests that Equal volumes of
all gas under identical conditions of pressure and temperature would
contain an equal number of molecules.
2. Adiabatic Expansion: PV nRT Perfect Gas Equation : Perfect gas equation is given by
where,
The cylinder is now removed from

Gas constant the
n Number of moles
r Universal Nk source and is positioned on the
AB
N Avogadro number
perfectly insulating pad. The gas is allowed to expand further from

A
k Boltzmann constant
B
R 8.314 J/mol K
B(P2 , V2 ) to C(P3 , V3 ).constant,

As itsthe pressuregas
Mathematically,
is thermally
varies inversely insulated from all sides,
Boyle’s Law: When the temperature of a provided mass of gas is kept
with the volume of gas.
the process is adiabatic.

PV constant
Here,
Q2 = 0;
R(T2 −T1 )
⇒ ∆U 2 = W2 = r−1
= Area BCNMB
3. Isothermal Compression:
The cylinder is now removed from the insulating pad and is positioned on
the sink at a temperature T2 . The piston is moved slowly so that the gas is
compressed until the pressure is P 4 and the volume is V4 .
Here,
∆U 3 = 0
W3 = Q3 = RT2 ln( V43 ) =
V
−Area CDLNC
where,
Q3 = Heat absorbed in this process
W3
= Work done by gas in this process
4. Adiabatic Compression:
The cylinder is again positioned on the insulating pad such that the
process remains adiabatic. Here, the gas is further compressed to its initial
:
Pof1 the and
pressure and volume. i.e.,volume
Mathematically,
directly .
Charles Law : When pressure o f a provided mass is kept constant,
gas varies V
1 with the temperature of the gas.
Here, VT
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures: The total pressure of a mixture of
ideal gases is considered as the sum of partial pressures exerted by the
Q 4 = 0; individual gases in that mixture. Mathematically,

P–V n n n ... RT 1 2 3
RT
R(T1 −T2 ) P n1 n2 n3 ...
W4 = ∆U 4 = =
V
P P12 P ......
r−1 where P1
n 1RT
is the partial pressure related with the gas having n 1
V
−Area DAKLD moles.

Deviation of Real Gas from Ideal Gas
Analysis:
Total work done by the engine per cycle is derived as:
W = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4
⇒ W = W1 + W3
⇒ W = RT1 ln( V21 ) + RT2 ln( V43 )
V V
Q1 = Total heat absorbed = RT1 ln

( V21 )
V
Q2 = Total heat released = −RT2 ln

( V43 )
V
Clearly, it is seen that for a heat engine,

W = Q1 − Q2 = Area under ABCDA
E$ciency of Carnot Engine
Mathematically, e$ciency of a Carnot engine is given by
W Q2
η= Q1
=1− Q1
Now, considering all the adiabatic processes, we have
T1 V2r−1 = T2 V3r−1 and T1 V1r−1 = T2 V4r−1
V V
⇒ V21 = V34
Clearly,
Q1 T1
⇒ Q2
= T2
T2
⇒ ηCarnot = 1 − T1
Division
ηCarnot is dependent only on source temperature and sink

temperature.
ηCarnot = 1 only when T2 = 0 K or T1 = ∞, which is not possible
:
to achieve.
If T2 = T1 ⇒ η = 0, heat cannot be converted to mechanical
energy unless there is equal di#erence between the temperature of
source as well as 2.3sink.
Kinetic Theory Postulates
a) A gas consists of a very large number of molecules (of the order of
23
Avogadro’s number, 10 ), which are perfect elastic spheres. For a
given gas, they are identical in all respects but for different gases, they
1.12 Carnot Theorem

are different.
b) The mol ecules of a gas are in a state of incessant random motion. They
move in all directions with different speeds, (of the order of 500 m/s)
Statement and obey Newton’s laws of motion.

c) The size of the gas molecules is very small as compared to the dis tance
o
between them. If the typical size of molecule is 2A , average distance
o
between the molecules is 20 A . Thus, the volume occupied by the
a. Working between two given temperatures, T1 of hot reservoir (the

molecules is negligible when compared to the volume of the gas.
d) The molecules do not exert any force of attraction or repulsion on each
other except during collision.
source) and T2 of cold

the vesselreservoir (the sink),
e) The collisions of the molecules with themselves and with the walls of
are perfectly elastic. Also, that momentum no engine can have
and the kinetic
energy of the molecules are conserved during collisions through their
e$ciency more thanf) Therethat of the

individual velocities change.
is no concentration Carnot
of the molecules engine.
at any point
container i.e., molecular density is uniform throughout the gas.
inside the
b. The e$ciency of the Carnot engine

straight distance is not betweendependent
g) A molecule moves along a straight l ine between two successive
collisions and the average covered two on the nature
successive collisions is termed the mean free path of the molecules.
of the working substance.

h) The collisions are almost instantaneous, i.e., the time of collision of two
molecules is negligible as compared to the time interval between two
successive collisions.
Proof Class XI Physics www.vedantu.com 21
Step - 1: Consider a reversible engine R and an irreversible engine I

working between the source (hot reservoir at T1 ) and sink (cold reservoir
at T2 ).
Step - 2: Pair up two engines in such a manner that I act like a heat engine
and R acts like a refrigerator.
Step - 3: Suppose that the engine I absorbs Q1 heat from the source;
1
deliver a work W and release the balance Q1 − W 1 to the sink in a
single cycle.
Step - 4: Setup R such that it returns the same heat to the source, taking
Q2 from the sink and requiring a work W = Q1 − Q2 to be done on it.
Step - 5: Suppose η R < η I i.e., When R were to act as an engine, it would
give less work output than that of I .
⇒ W < W 1 for a given Q1 and Q1 − W > Q1 − W 1
Step - 6: In totality, the I-R system extracts heat
(r1 − W) − (Q1 − W 1 ) = W 1 − W and delivers the same amount of
work in a single cycle without any
2.4 Pressure of an Ideal Gas andchange
its expression in source or anywhere else. This
Pressure exerted by the gas is because of continuous bombardment of gas
contradicts the second Expression:

law of thermodynamics. (Kelvin - Planck
molecules against the walls of the container.
Suppose that a gas is enclosed in a cube of side1. Consider the axes to be

parallel to the sides of the cube, as shown in figure. A molecule with velocity
v , v , v hits the planar wall parallel to yz plane of area Al 2 . As the
:
2
v x , vy , vz hits the planar wall parallel to yz plane of area Al . As the
statement) collision is elastic, the molecule rebounds with the same velocity; its y and z
components of velocity do not change in the collision but the x-component
Clearly, the assumption vq, v1, v > change is incorrect.

reverses with respect to its sign. That is, the velocity after collision is
. The q
R in momentum
x y z of the molecule is given by
mvx mvx 2mvx . Considering the principle of conservation of
momentum, the momentum imparted to the wall in the collision 2mv x .
A similar argument can be set up for the second statement of the Carnot
To calculate the force (and pressure) on the wall, we are to calculate
momentum imparted to the wall per unit time, whe n it is within the distance
vtx from the wall. That is, the total number of molecules within the volume
theorem, i.e., Carnot e$ciency is independent of the working substance.

Av x t which can hit the wall in time
1
T is Av x tn ; where n is the
2
Q1 T1 number of molecules per unit volume. Clearly, the total momentum
Thus, Q = T will always hold true for any working substance used in a
transferred to the wall by these molecules in time
Q 2mv xx
1
nAv t
t is given by
2 2 2
Carnot engine.
Q
The force on the wall refers to the rat e of momentum transfer and pressure
t
refers to the force per unit area:
Q
P nmv 2x
2. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

At
In fact, all molecules in a gas do not have the same velocity; there is a
distribution in velocities. The above equation therefore, stands for pressure
In this topic, we would discuss the behavior of gases and how the di#erent
due to the group of molecules with speed v x in the x direction and n stands
for the number density of that group of molecules. The total pressure is
obtained by summing over the contribution due to all groups:
state variables like P, V , T , moles, U are connected with each other.

P nmv x2
where v is the average of v . 2
x
2
x
Now the gas is isotropic, i.e., there is no preferred direction of velocity of the
molecules in the vessel. Clearly, by symmetry,
2.1 Molecular Nature of Matter Class XI Physics www.vedantu.com 22
Similar to the atomic theory given by Delton, atoms are treated as the
smallest constituents of elements. All the atoms of an element are
identical while atoms of di#erent elements are di#erent.
In solids: Atoms are tightly packed; interatomic spacing is of the order of
o
A ; interatomic force of attraction is strong.
In liquids: Atoms are not as tightly packed as in solids; interatomic spacing
o
is of the order of 2A ; interatomic force of attraction is relatively weaker.
In Gases: Atoms are free to move anywhere; interatomic spacing is of the
o
order of 10A ; interatomic forces are much weaker in gases than both in
solids and liquids.
In this chapter, we would be concentrating more on gases.

2.2.1 Ideal Gas
Ideal gas refers to a gas that strictly obeys all the gas laws (such as Boyle’s
law, Charles’ law, Gay Lussac’s law, etc.).
Characteristics
The size of the molecule of an ideal gas is considered to be zero.

There would be no force of attraction or repulsion amongst the
11
molecules of an ideal gas.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
v v v v v v
x y v z x y z
33
2
Where, v is the speed and v denotes the mean of the squared speed. Thus,
1
P nmv 2
3
2.2.2 Real Gas P
1
3
mnv 2
1 M 2
3 V
v
1 2
3
v
M Total mass of gas molecules

V Total volume of gas molecules
:
V Total volume of gas molecules
All gases are considered Total
asdensityreal gases.
of the gas molecules
2.4.1 Relation between Pressure and KE of Gas Molecules

All real gases showcase the ideal
It is known that P gas
1 M
3 V
v
1
3
behavior
v 22
at low pressures and high
temperatures, when theyPEcannot be liqui!ed.
Clearly,
2
, where E is the mean kinetic energy of gas molecules
3
Thus, pressure exerted by an ideal gas is numerically equal to two third
of mean kinetic energy of gas molecules.
2.2.3 Ideal Gas Laws 2.4.2 Average KE per molecule of the Gas
It is known that
Avogadro Hypothesis: This Pv hypothesis suggests that Equal volumes of all
1M
3V
2
gas under identical conditions PV

1
3
Mv of pressure and temperature would contain
2
Relating this with the Ideal gas equation;
an equal number of molecules.

nRT
1
3
Mv 2
1
Perfect Gas Equation: Perfect 3 gas equation is given by
2
nRT Nmv
3nRT 1 2
mv
PV = nRT 2N
Also, N nN
3RT 1
2
3
A
where,
2
mv k T R Nk BB
2N 2 2 A
n = Number of moles
r = Universal Gas constant = NA kB

NA = Avogadro number
kB = Boltzmann constant
R = 8.314 J/mol K
Boyle’s Law: When the temperature of a provided mass of gas is kept
constant, its pressure varies inversely with the volume of gas.
Mathematically,
PV = constant
Charles Law: When pressure of a provided mass is kept constant, volume
of the gas varies directly with the temperature of the gas. Mathematically,
V ∝ T
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures: The total pressure of a mixture of ideal
gases is considered as the sum of partial pressures exerted by the
individual gases in that mixture. Mathematically,
PV = (n1 + n2 + n3 +. . . ) RT
RT
⇒ P = (n1 + n2 + n3 +. . . )
V
⇒ P = P1 + P2 +. . . . . .
n1 RT
where P 1 = is the partial pressure related with the gas having n1
V
moles. Clearly, the average kinetic energy of translation per molecule of the gas
3
is kTB .
2
Deviation of Real Gas from IdealofGas

2.5 Kinetic Interpretation Temperature
From the above expressions, it can easily be seen that kinetic energy of one
molecule is only dependent upon its temperature. Clearly, kinetic energy
would cease when the temperature of the gas molecule becomes absolute
zero.
Thus, absolute zero of a temperature is defined as the temperature at which
the root mean square velocity of the gas molecule reduces to zero.
2.6 Derivation of Gas Laws from Kinetic Theory

:
2.6.1 Boyle’s Law
2
It is known that PV NK
3
where K is the average kinetic energy of translation per gas molecule at
constant temperature.
K is constant for a provided mass of the gas. N is also constant. Thus,
PV constant for a pro vided mass of gas at constant temperature, which
is known as the Boyle’s Law.
2.6.2 Charles’ Law

2
3
For a provided mass of gas, N is constant.
3
As K kB T K T and thus, PV T , which is nothing but Charles'
2
law.
2.6.3 Constant Volume Law
2.3 Kinetic Theory Postulates

2
3
As K
3
kB T K T
2
a. A gas consists of a very large number
Clearly, PV T
ofbutmolecules
Now, when V is constant, PT
, which is nothing the constant (of the order of
volume law.
Avogadro’s number, 1023 ), which are perfect elastic spheres. For a

given gas, they are identical in all respects but for di#erent gases,
they are di#erent.
b. The molecules of a gas are in a state of incessant random motion.
They move in all directions with di#erent speeds, (of the order of
500 m/s ) and obey Newton’s laws of motion.
c. The size of the gas molecules is very small as compared to the
o
distance between them. If typical size of molecule is 2A , average
o
distance between the molecules is ≥ 20A . Thus, the volume
occupied by the molecules is negligible when compared to the
volume of the gas.
d. The molecules do not exert any force of attraction or repulsion on
each other except during collision.
e. The collisions of the molecules with themselves and with the walls of
the vessel are perfectly elastic. Also, that momentum and the kinetic
energy of the molecules are conserved during collisions even though
their individual velocities change.
f. There is no concentration of the molecules at any point inside the
container i.e., molecular density is uniform throughout the gas.
g. A molecule moves along a straight line between two successive
collisions and the average straight distance covered between two
2.6.4 Ideal Gas Equation
successive collisions
SinceisPV termed
2
3
NK and K
3
2
k Tthe mean free path of the molecules.
B
h. The collisions are almost instantaneous, i.e., the time of collision of

23
PV N k T or PV Nk T B B
32
which is nothing but the ideal gas equation.
two molecules is negligible

2.6.5 Avogadro’s Lawas compared to the time interval
Consider two gases 1 and 2. We may write:
between two successive collisions.

22
PV NK;PV
1 1 1 NK
1 2 2 2 2
33
Suppose their pressures, volumes and temperatures are the same, then
P1 P2 ;V1 V2 ;K1 K2
Clearly, NN
12
Thus, equal volumes of all ideal gases existing under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal numbe r of
:
conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal numbe r of
2.4 Pressure of an Ideal Gas and its expression

molecules, which is Avogadro’s Law or hypothesis.
Alternatively, since PV Nk T N
PV
B
kT
Pressure exerted by the gas isP, because
V, and Tare constants, of
N also continuous bombardment of gas
B
Now, when turns out to be constant.
molecules against the walls

The rate of(r) of the container.
2.6.6 Graham’s Law of Diffusion
diffusion of a gas through a porous pot or into another
gas is evaluated by the rms speed of its molecules, i.e.,
rv rms
Expression:
3P 3P 1
However, as v rms r r
Thus, if r and r are the rates of diffusion of two gases of densities
Suppose that a gas is enclosed in a cube of side 1 . Consider the axes to be

12
and respectively, then,
12
r 11
parallel to the sides of the cube, as ofshown inproportional

!gure. A molecule with
r 22
Clearly, the rates of diffusion two gases are inversely to
the square roots of their densities, which is nothing but Graham’s law of
velocity (vx , vy , vz ) hits the planar wall parallel to yz− plane of area
diffusion.
2
2.6.7 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
A (= l ) . As the collision is elastic, the molecule rebounds with the same

velocity; its y and z components of velocity do not change in the collision

but the x-component reverses with respect to its sign. That is, the velocity
after collision is (−vx , vy , vz ) . The change in momentum of the molecule
is given by −mvx − (mvx ) = −2mvx . Considering the principle of
conservation of momentum, the momentum imparted to the wall in the
collision = 2mvx .
To calculate the force (and pressure) on the wall, we are to calculate

momentum imparted to the wall per unit time, when it is within the
distance vx ∆t from the wall. That is, the total number of molecules within
the volume Avx ∆t which can hit the wall in time ∆T is 12 Avx ∆tn ;
where n is the number of molecules per unit volume. Clearly, the total
momentum transferred to the wall by these molecules in time ∆t is given
by
Q = (2mvx ) ( 12 nAvx ∆t)

Q
The force on the wall refers to the rate of momentum transfer and
∆t
pressure refers to the force per unit area:
Q
P= = nmv2x
(A∆t) The kinetic theory of gases talks about the gas pressure as a cause of the
bombardment of the walls of the containing vessel by molecules. In a
mixture of ideal gases, we might therefore expect the total pressure P to
In fact, all molecules in a Pgas do2 Nnot 2 N have the same velocity; there is a
be the sum of the partial pressures P12, P ,.... due to each gas, i.e.,
P P ... 1
K 2
K ... 12
1 2
3V 3V
distribution in velocities. The 2 N above

K ... equation therefore stands for
12
N
P K 12
12
3 V V 12
pressure due to the group gasesof

will bemolecules with speed vx in the x− direction
In equilibrium, the average kinetic energy of the molecules of various
equal, i.e.,
3
and n stands for the number density of that group of molecules. The total
K K K 1k T 2 B
2
Thus,
23
pressure is obtained by summing over the contribution due to all groups:
P n n ... k T n n ... k T
1 2 B 1 2 B
32
NN
Where, n12 ;n
12
,.....
VV
12
This represents the Dalton’s Law of partial pressures which suggests that
:
This represents the Dalton’s Law of partial pressures which suggests that
P = nmv̄ 2x
the resultant pressure exerted by a mixture of gases or vapors which do
not interact in any way is equal to the s um of their individual (i.e.,
partial) pressures.
2
where v̄ x is the average of 2 .
The following figure demonstrates a model explaining kinetic theory of
gases. vIt is constructed
x observationsinonaccordance
experimental
with theory on one hand and real
the other hand.
Now the gas is isotropic, i.e., there is no preferred direction of velocity of

the molecules in the vessel. Clearly, by symmetry,
1
v̄ 2x = v̄ 2y = v̄ 2z = ( ) [v̄ 2x + v̄ 2y + v̄ 2z ]
3
1
= v̄ 2
3

2
Where, v is the speed and v̄ denotes the mean of the squared speed.
Thus,
P = ( 13 ) nmv̄ 2
⇒ P = 13 mnv̄ 2 = 13 ( M V
) v̄ 2 = 13 ρv̄ 2
M = Total mass of gas molecules
V = Total volume of gas molecules
ρ = Total density of the gas molecules
2.4.1 Relation between Pressure and KE of Gas Molecules
1 2 1
It is known that P = 3
(M
V
) v̄ = 3
ρv̄ 2
Clearly,
2
P= 3
E , where E is the mean kinetic energy of gas molecules
Thus, pressure exerted by an ideal gas is numerically equal to two thirds of
mean kinetic energy of gas molecules.
2.4.2 Average KE per molecule of the Gas

It is known that
P = 13 ( M
V
) v̄ 2
⇒ PV = 13 M v̄ 2
Relating this with the Ideal gas equation;
The above piece of information is tempting but false. Even though the
equation in box IV is useful, it does not suggest anything new, since it
results from combining equations in boxes II and III.
nRT = 13 M v̄ 2 2.7 Internal Energy

As already learnt in thermodynamics, internal Energ y of any substance is the
combination of potential energies and kinetic energies of all molecules inside
⇒ nRT = 13 Nmv̄ 2 a provided gas.

● For real gases,
Internal energy P.E of molecules K.E oflecules
mo
⇒ 3nRT
2N
= 12 mv̄ 2 ● For an ideal gas
Internal energy K.E of molecules
Here, potential energy of molecules is zero as considered in kinetic
theory postulates. There is no interaction between the molecules and
Also, N = nNA thus, its interactional energy is zero.
2.8 Degree of Freedom

The number of degrees of freedom of a dynamical system refers to the total
number of co -ordinates or independent quantities required to describe
completely the position and configuration of a system.
Examples:
● A particle traveling in straight line, say along X axis needs only x
coordinate to define itself. It has only one degree of freedom.
● A particle in a plane, needs 2 co-ordinates, hence has 2 degrees of
:
● A particle in a plane, needs 2 co-ordinates, hence has 2 degrees of
3RT 1 2
⇒ 2NA
= 2
mv̄
freedom.
Generally, when
A number of particles in the system
R number of independent relations among the particles
3 N number of degrees of freedom of the system
= k T (∵
2 B
R = N kB ) N 3A–R
2.8.1 Monoatomic Gases
Clearly, the average kinetic energy of translation per molecule of the gas is
The molecules of a monatomic gas (like neon, argon, helium, etc.)
consist only of one atom
A 1; RN 0 3
3
2
kB T . Here, for translational motion, there are 3 degrees of freedom.
2.8.2 Diatomic Gases

The molecules of a diatomic gas consist of two atoms.
A2 ;
2.5 Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature
From the above expressions, it can easily be seen that kinetic energy of
one molecule is only dependent upon its temperature. Clearly, kinetic
energy would cease when the temperature of the gas molecule becomes
absolute zero.
Thus, absolute zero of a temperature is de!ned as the temperature at

which the root mean square velocity of the gas molecule reduces to zero.
2.6 Derivation of Gas Laws from Kinetic Theory

2.6.1 Boyle’s Law
2
It is known that PV = 3
N K̄
where K̄ is the average kinetic energy of translation per gas molecule at
constant temperature.
K̄ is constant for a provided mass of the gas. N is also constant. Thus,

PV = constant for a provided mass of gas at constant temperature,
which is known as the Boyle’s Law.
2.6.2 Charles’ Law

2
It is known that PV =
N K̄
3
3
As K̄ = kB T ⇒ K̄ ∝ T and thus, PV ∝ T , which is nothing but the
If the distance between the two molecules is assumed fixed, then R1 .
2
N5
Here, there are 5 degrees of freedom, which is a combination of 3
translational energies and 2 rotational energies.
Charles’ law.
2.6.3 Constant Volume Law

2
It is known that PV =
N K̄ 3
3
As K̄ = kB T ⇒ K̄ ∝ T
2 When vibrational motion is also considered, then (only at very high
Clearly, PV ∝ T temperatures);
N7 , in which 3 accounts for translational, 2 for rotational and 2 for
vibrational energy.
:
Now, when V is constant,2.8.3
The P ∝of a triatomic
Triatomic Gas
molecules
Case: Linear
T , whichgas consist of threeis nothing but the constant
atoms.
volume law.
Here,
A 3;R 2 N 7
2.6.4 Ideal Gas Equation

Case: Non -Linear
2 3
Since PV = 3
N K̄ and K̄ = kB T
Class XI Physics
2 www.vedantu.com 28
2 3
⇒ PV = N ( kB T ) or PV = N kB T
3 2
which is nothing but the ideal gas equation.
2.6.5 Avogadro’s Law

Consider two gases 1 and 2 . We may write:
2 2
P1 V1 = N K̄ ; P2 V2
3 1 1
= 3
N2 K̄ 2
Suppose their pressures, volumes and temperatures are the same, then
P1 = P2 ; V1 = V2 ; K̄ 1 = K̄ 2
Clearly, N1 = N2
Thus, equal volumes of all ideal gases existing under the same conditions
of temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules, which is
Avogadro’s Law or hypothesis.
PV
Alternatively, since PV = N kB T ⇒ N =
kB T
Now, when P, V , and T are constants, N also turns out to be constant.
2.6.6 Graham’s Law of Di#usion

The rate (r) of di#usion of
Here,
a gas through a porous pot or into another gas
is evaluated by the rms speed
A 3;R 2 N 6
of its
Here again, vibrational energy ismolecules,
ignored. i.e.,
2.8.4 Polyatomic Gas
r ∝ vrms
A polyatomic gas has 3 translational and 3 rotational degrees of
freedom. Apart from them, when there are V vibrational modes, then
there would be an additional 2V vibrational degrees of freedom. Thus,
total degrees of freedom is given by
−−
− −−
− N 3 3 2V 6 2V
However, as vrms =√ ρ ⇒r∝√ ρ ⇒r∝

3P 3P
2.9 Law of Equipartition of Energy
Statement: For any dynamical system in thermal equilibrium, the total
energy is distributed equally amongst all the degrees of freedom, and the
1
√ρ

energy associated with each molecule per degree of freedom is equal to
1
kT
B , where k B is Boltzmann constant and
T is the temperature of the
Thus, if r 1 and r 2 are the rates of di#usion of two gases of densities

2
system.
kT
Application: Uf B
, where f total degrees of freedom.
ρ1 and ρ2 respectively, then, 2

This law is very helpful in computing the total internal e nergy of any system,
be it monoatomic, diatomic or any polyatomic. Once the internal energy is
known, we can easily predict C vP and C for such systems.
r1 ρ1 Remark: In case vibrational motion is also there in any system, say for a
r2 = ρ2
diatomic mole cule, then there must be energy due to vibration as well, given
by
2
1 dy 1 2
Ev m ky
2 dt 2
where,
:
where,
Clearly, the rates of di#usion of two gases are inversely proportional to

dy
Vibrational velocity
dt
2
ky
the square roots of theirNow, densities, which is nothing but Graham’s law of
Energy due to configuration
2
according to the law of equipartition,
1
di#usion.
Energy per degree of freedom kT . B
2
2.6.7 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

The kinetic theory of gases talks about the gas pressure as a cause of the
bombardment of the walls of the containing vessel by molecules. In a
mixture of ideal gases, we might therefore expect the total pressure P to
be the sum of the partial pressures (P 1 , P 2 , . . . . ) due to each gas, i.e.,
2 N1
P = P1 + P2 +. . . = 3 V1
K̄ 1
2 N2
+ 3 V2
K̄ 2 +. . .
2 N1
( K̄ 2 +. . . )
N2
⇒P = K̄ 1 +
3 V1 V2
In equilibrium, the average kinetic energy of the molecules of various
gases will be equal, i.e.,
3
K̄ 1 = K̄ 2 = K̄ = kB T
2
Thus,
2 3
⇒P = (n1 + n2 +. . . ) ( kB T )
3 2
= (n1 + n2 +. . . ) kB T
11
TE kB T kB T kB T is the total energy for one complete vibrational
22
N1 N2 mode.
Where, n1 = ; n2 = , . . . . .
2.10 Specific Heat Capacity
V1 V2 With the information from the law of equipartition, we can predict the heat
capacity of various gases.
2.10.1 Monoatomic Gas
This represents Dalton's Law ofof apartial pressures which suggests that the
Here, degrees of freedom 3
Average energy molecule at temperature T is given by
1
E 3 k T
resultant pressure exertedEnergyby a mixture of gases or vapors which do not
B
2
for one mole EN A
3
interact in any way is equal U
2to the sum of their individual (i.e., partial)
3
k N T BA
U RT
pressures.
2
In thermodynamics, we have learnt that
QU
CV [ W0 for constant V ]
TTV
The following !gure demonstrates a model explaining kinetic theory of

3R
C V
2
C5 5R
gases. It is constructed in accordance with theory on one hand and real

C P
and r P
C3 2 V

experimental observations on the other hand.
When there is no vibration;
Degrees of freedom 5
5
Average energy for one mole RT
2
U5
:
U5
CR
V
T2
7R
CP
2
C7P
r
C5V
The above piece of information is tempting but false. Even though the
equation in box IV is useful, it does not suggest anything new, since it
results from combining equations in boxes II and III.
2.7 Internal Energy

As already learnt in thermodynamics, internal Energy of any substance is
the combination of potential energies and kinetic energies of all molecules
inside a provided gas.
For real gases,

Internal energy
= P.E of molecules
+ K.E of molecules

For an ideal gas

Internal energy = K.E of molecules

Here, potential energy of molecules is zero as considered in kinetic
theory postulates. There is no interaction between the molecules
and thus, its interactional energy is zero.
On the other hand, when vibration is present;
There is only one mode of vibration between 2 molecules.
2.8 Degree of Freedom Clearly, the degrees of freedom

U
7
RT
7.
The number of degrees of freedom of a dynamical system refers to the

CV
7R
2
9R
total number of co-ordinates or independent quantities required to
CP
9
2
r
describe completely the position and con!guration of a system.

7
2.10.3 Polyatomic Gases

Here, the degrees of freedom
3 for translational;
Examples: 3 for rotational;

2V for vibrational
N 6 2V
Where, V Number of vibrational modes
RT
A particle traveling inC
a(3 straight
U
V)R V
(6 2V)K
2 line, say along the X− axis needs
only the x coordinate 4Vto de!ne itself. It has only one degree of
C (4 V)R P
r
3V
freedom. 2.10.4 Specific heat capacity of solids

● In solids, there is very little difference between heat capacity at
A particle in a plane needs 2 Ccoordinates,
constant pressure or at constant volume. Thus, we do not
differentiate between and C for solids.
PV
hence has 2 degrees of
QU
freedom. C
TT
(As solids hardly expand)
Now, in solids, the atoms are arranged in array structures and they
are not free to move independently like the atoms in gases. Clearly,
the atoms in solids do not possess any translational or rotational
:
Generally, when degree of freedom.
A = number of particles in the system

R = number of independent relations among the particles

N = number of degrees of freedom of the system
⇒ N = 3AR
2.8.1 Monoatomic Gases
The molecules of a monatomic gas (like neon, argon, helium, etc.) consist
only of one atom
A = 1; R = 0 ⇒ N = 3
Here, for translational motion, there are 3 degrees of freedom.

The molecules of a diatomic gas consist of two atoms.
A = 2 ;
If the distance between the two molecules is assumed !xed, then R = 1.
⇒ N = 5
Here, there are 5 degrees of freedom, which is a combination of 3
translational energies and 2 rotational energies.
When vibrational motion ismutually

also considered, then (only at very high
However, the molecules do possess vibrational motion along the 3
perpendicular directions.
Thus, for 1 mole of a solid, there are N number of atoms and the A
temperatures);
1
energy associated with every molecule 3 2 k T 3k T . BB
2
U 3RT for one mole
N = 7 , in which 3 accountsC for QU
TT
translational,
3R 2 for rotational and 2 for
The above equation is known as the law of Dulong and Petit.
vibrational energy.
●
● At low temperatures, the vibrational mode might not be that active
and thus, heat capacity is low at low temperatures for solids.
2.8.3 Triatomic Gas

The molecules of a triatomic gas consist of three atoms.
Case: Linear 2.10.5 Specific heat capacity of Water
Consider water like a solid.
Water has three atoms, 2 of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
The total degrees of freedom for every atom 3 2 6.
Thus, the total degrees of freedom for every water molecule 3 2 18.
1
18 R T
QU 2
C
T T T
C 9R
2.11 Maxwell Law of Distribution of Molecules
Assumptions of Maxwell Distribution
● Molecules of all velocities b etween 0 to are present.
● Velocity of one molecule continuously changes, though the fraction of
molecules in one range of velocities is constant.
Result
3
mV 2
M 2
N 4 N V 2e 2k BT
2 k BT
Where,
:
Where,
Here, Class XI Physics www.vedantu.com 32
A = 3; R = 2 ⇒⇒ N = 7
Case: Non-Linear
Here,
A = 3; R = 2 ⇒ N = 6
Here again, vibrational energy is ignored.
2.8.4 Polyatomic Gas

A polyatomic gas has 3 translational and 3 rotational degrees of freedom.
Apart from them, when there are V vibrational modes, then there would
be an additional 2V vibrational degrees of freedom. Thus, total degrees of
freedom is given by
N = 3 + 3 + 2V = 6 + 2V
2.9 Law of Equipartition of Energy
Statement: For any dynamical system in thermal equilibrium, the total
energy is distributed equally
dN
amongst all the degrees of freedom, and the
N
energy associated with dVeach

change inmolecule per degree of freedom is equal to
dV
speed
dN Total number of molecules with speeds
between V and V+dV
1
kB T , where kB is Boltzmann constant and T is temperature of the
2
system.
( B2 ), where f = total degrees of freedom.

With respect to this, we define three types of speeds for molecules of gas.
k T
Application: U =f
1
1
1 2
Vrms V 22 2 V dN(V)
N
3RT
Vrms
M
Where, M Molecular mass of gas
This law is very helpful in Similarly,
computing 1 8RT
the total internal energy of any
V V VdN
system, be it monoatomic,However,
diatomic ordNany polyatomic. Once the internal
av
NM
V is velocity at which
MP
0.
dV
energy is known, we can easily

Physically, V
predict Cv and CP for such systems.
refers to the velocity possessed by the maximum
number of molecules.
MP
Remarks: Vrms Vav VMP
Remark: In case vibrational motion is also there in any system, say for a
2.12 Mean Free Path
The path traversed by a molecule between two successive collisions with
another molecule is termed the free path. Mathematically,
diatomic molecule, then there must be energy due to vibration as well,

l
Total distance travelled by a molecule
Number of collisions it makes with other molecules
given by Expression:

Mean Free Path
2
2
v = m + k
:
2
m( dt ) +
1 dy 1
Ev = 2 2
ky 2
where,
dy
dt
= Vibrational velocity
ky 2
2
= Energy due to con!guration
Now, according to the law of equipartition,
1
Energy per degree of freedom = kB T .
2
1 1
⇒ TE = 2
kB T + 2
kB T = kB T is the total energy for one complete
vibrational mode.
2.10 Speci!c Heat Capacity

With the information from the law of equipartition, we can predict the
heat capacity of various gases.
2.10.1 Monoatomic Gas

Here, degrees of freedom = 3
Average energy of a molecule at temperature T is given by
1
E = 3 ( kB T )
2
Energy for one mole = E × NA
3
⇒U = 2
(kB NA ) T Consider spherical molecules of a gas of diameter
molecule with the average speed
d . Concentrate on a single
v . It would suffer collision with any
3
⇒U =
molecule that comes within a distance d between the centers. In a time t , it
2
RT sweeps a volume d2 v t , wherein any other molecule would collide
with it (as shown in figure). If n is the number of molecules per unit volume,
In thermodynamics, we have learnt that

the molecule suffers n d2 v t collisions in time t . Therefore, the rate
of collisions is n d2 v or the time between two successive collisions is on
the average.
∆Q ∣
= ∆U $ ∵ W = 0$forconstant$V $
1
CV = ∆T ∣V
∆T
n v d2
The average distance betwe en two successive collisions, termed the mean free
path 1 is given by
3R 1v
1
⇒ CV = nd 2
2
In this derivation, we considered the other molecules to be at rest. But in fact,
all molecules are moving and the collision rate is computed by the average
relative velocity of the molecules. Clearly, we need to replace v by
⇒ CP = 2 and r = CPV = 53
5R C vr in the above expression for a more exact treatment as follows:
1
1
2n d 2
Result
2.10.2 Diatomic Gases 1 2n d

1
2
Remark: Mean free path is dependent inversely on the number density and
When there is no vibration;
size of a molecule.
Degrees of freedom = 5

5
= RT
:
5
Average energy for one mole = 2 RT
∆U 5
⇒ CV = = R
∆T 2
⇒ CP = 7R2
CP 7
⇒r= =
CV 5
On the other hand, when vibration is present;
There is only one mode of vibration between 2 molecules.
Clearly, the degrees of freedom = 7.
⇒ U = 72 RT
⇒ CV = 7R 2
9R
⇒ CP = 2
⇒ r = 97
2.10.3 Polyatomic Gases
Here, the degrees of freedom
= 3 for translational;
= 3 for rotational;
= 2V for vibrational
⇒ N = 6 + 2V
2.13 Brownian Motion
The irregular movement of suspended particles like tiny dust particles or
pollen grains in a liquid is termed Brow nian motion.
Where, V = Number of vibrational modes

⇒ U = (6 + 2V )K RT2

⇒ CV = (3 + V )R
⇒ CP = (4 + V )R
⇒ r = 4+V
3+V
2.10.4 Speci!c heat capacity of solids
In solids, there is very little di#erence between heat capacity at

constant pressure or at constant volume. Thus, we do not
di#erentiate between CP and CV for solids.
∆Q ∆U
⇒C= ∆T
= ∆T

(As solids hardly expand)
Now, in solids, the atoms are arranged in array structures and they
:
are not free to move independently like the atoms in gases. Clearly,
degree of freedom.
However, the molecules do possess vibrational motion along the 3

mutually perpendicular directions.
Thus, for 1 mole of a solid, there are NA number of atoms and the
1
energy associated with every molecule = 3 [2 × 2
kB T ] = 3kB T .
⇒ U = 3RT for one mole
∆Q ∆U
⇒C= ∆T
= ∆T
= 3R
The above equation is known as the law of Dulong and Petit.

At low temperatures, the vibrational mode might not be that active
and thus, heat capacity is low at low temperatures for solids.
2.10.5 Speci!c heat capacity of Water

Consider water like a solid.
Water has three atoms, 2 of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
The total degrees of freedom for every atom = 3 × 2 = 6.
Thus, the total degrees of freedom for every water molecule
= 3 × 2 = 18 .
∆Q (18× 12 R∆T)
∆U
⇒C= =
∆T ∆T
= ∆T
⇒ C = 9R
2.11 Maxwell Law of Distribution of Molecules
Assumptions of Maxwell Distribution
Molecules of all velocities between 0 to ∞ are present.

Velocity of one molecule continuously changes, though the fraction
of molecules in one range of velocities is constant.
:
Result
3 2
) V e
mV
2 2 − 2kBT
N= 4πN( 2πM
kB T

Where,
N = dN
dV

dV = change in speed
dN
= Total number of molecules with speeds between V and V+dV
With respect to this, we de!ne three types of speeds for molecules of gas.
Vrms = (V )
¯2 2
1
1
=[ ∫ V 2 dN(V )]
2
N

−3RT
−−−
⇒ Vrms =√ M
Where, M = Molecular mass of gas
Similarly,
−−−−−
1 8RT
Vav = V¯ = ∫ V dN = √
N πM
dN
However, VMP is the velocity at which dV = 0 .
Physically, VMP refers to the velocity possessed by the maximum
number of molecules.
Remarks: Vrms > Vav > VMP
2.12 Mean Free Path

The path traversed by a molecule between two successive collisions with
:
another molecule is termed the free path. Mathematically,
¯l
Total distance travelled by a molecule
= Number of collisions it makes with other molecules
Expression:
Mean Free Path
Consider spherical molecules of a gas of diameter d. Concentrate on a

single molecule with the average speed < v >. It would su#er collision
with any molecule that comes within a distance d between the centers. In
2
a time period ∆t , it sweeps a volume πd < v > ∆t , wherein any other
molecule would collide with it (as shown in !gure). If n is the number of
2
molecules per unit volume, the molecule su#ers nπd < v > ∆t
2
collisions in time ∆t . Therefore, the rate of collisions is nπd < v > or
the time between two successive collisions is on the average.
1
⇒τ =
(nπ<v>d 2 )
The average distance between two successive collisions, termed the mean
free path 1̄ is given by
1
1̄ =< v > τ =
(nπd 2 )
In this derivation, we considered the other molecules to be at rest. But in

fact, all molecules are moving and the collision rate is computed by the
average relative velocity of the molecules. Clearly, we need to replace
< v > by < vr > in the above expression for a more exact treatment as
follows:
1
⇒ 1̄ =
(√ 2nπd 2 )
Result
1
1̄ =
(√ 2nπd 2 )
:
Remark: Mean free path is dependent inversely on the number density
and size of a molecule.
2.13 Brownian Motion

The irregular movement of suspended particles like tiny dust particles or
pollen grains in a liquid is termed Brownian motion.
Class 11 Physics Revision Notes for Chapter 12 - Thermodynamics
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Thermodynamics Class 11 Physics Notes
According to the CBSE syllabus, Class 11 Physics Revision Notes for the
subject Thermodynamics is prepared. It consists of all the signi!cant
theories, along with their explanations. Thermodynamics is related to a
very important chapter in physics.
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Thermodynamics.
The preparation of this subject is taken care of by our experts. All the
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Class 11 Physics Chapter 12 Notes

Let’s discuss the Laws of Thermodynamics.
The laws of thermodynamics can be said as important physical quantities.
They are just like energy, and temperature. Also, Entropy is the physical
quantity that describes thermodynamic systems at thermal equilibrium.
There Are Four Laws of Thermodynamics, Such As:
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

:
Zeroth law of thermodynamics explains the two systems that are in
thermal equilibrium with the third system (the third system is not a part of
the two systems) are in equilibrium with one another.

The !rst law of thermodynamics says that when we apply the law of
conservation of energy to a system, then the energy transfer in that
system occurs away or nearby the system with the help of heat and work.
From this law, we can manipulate the relationship between the change in
the internal energy of the system, the work is done by the system, and
heat supplied to the system.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
From the Second Law of thermodynamics, we obtain that it is impossible
to !nd a system in which the absorption of heat from the reservoir is the
total conversion of heat into work.
Third Law Of Thermodynamics
According to the Third Law of thermodynamics, the system holds
minimum energy at an absolute zero temperature.
Notes Of Chapter Thermodynamics Class 11 Physics
Sub-topics of Class 11 Physics Chapter 12 Thermodynamics
I. Introduction to thermodynamics
II. Thermal equilibrium
III. Heat, internal energy, and work
IV. Zeroth law of Thermodynamics
V. Speci!c heat capacity
VI. The !rst law of thermodynamics
VII. The equation of state and Thermodynamic state variables
VIII. Heat engines
IX. Refrigerators and heat pumps
X. Thermodynamic processes
XI. The second law of thermodynamics
XII. Carnot Engine
XIII. Reversible and irreversible processes
:
CBSE Class 11 Physics Notes Chapter 12 Thermodynamics
What Do You Mean by Enthalpy?

According to thermodynamics, the measurement of energy is known as
enthalpy. The total content of the heat of a system signi!es the quantity of
enthalpy. Enthalpy is the sum of the internal energy of the system and the
product of volume and pressure.
Mathematically, H = E + PV
H = Enthalpy
E = Internal energy
P = Pressure of the system
V = Volume of the system
Download CBSE Class 11 Physics Notes Thermodynamics PDF
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for Class 11 NCERT Notes PDF !les from our website. The link is speci!ed
below.
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CLASS 11 PHYSICS REVISION NOTES
Chapter 3 - Motion in a Straight Line
Chapter 4 - Motion in a Plane
Chapter 5 - Law of Motion
Chapter 6 - Work, Energy and Power

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Chapter 10 - Mechanical Properties of Fluids
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Mathematically, work done by the system is given by

1.3 Important Thermodynamics Terms

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thermodynamic parameters of the system get altered with time.

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1.4 First Law of Thermodynamics

The parameters like pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy, etc.,

In thermodynamics, we consider the thermodynamic systems as a whole

macroscopic variables expressing the system

not change with time. where

Two systems when1.5 in contact with each other are said to be in

Application of the First of Law of Thermodynamics

Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when the

thermodynamics systems A and or expansionB

equilibrium with a Equation

A and B are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

1.2 Heat, Work and Internal Energy

energies are considered with respect to the center of mass frame.

Class XI Physics www.vedantu.com 4

Internal energy is dependent entirely on the state and thus, it is a state

n is the number of moles

Mathematically, work donenRTby v the system is given by

Remarks: All the heat supplied is utilized entirely to do work against

W = ∫ Fdx = ∫ Ps Adx = ∫ PdV

where P s is the pressure1.5.2

and it is negative when the system

Work and heat areEquation

might look similar.

1.3 Important Thermodynamics Terms

State Variables: P, V , T , moles

Indicator P-V Diagram: A Ascurve.

under thermodynamic operationU

Work done by the gas when it adiabatically expands from V12to V is

a → Isobaric (ConstantW Pressure)

First Law of Thermodynamics

c → Adiabatic (Q= Constant)

d → Isochoric (Constant Volume)