INTRODUCTION TO Electrical

Machines
ECEE-3020
3-2-0

Ethiopian Defence university, college of

Engineering
 Course Description
Aim: To introduce students to the principles of electro-
mechanical energy conversion, construction,
operating principle, and performance of electrical
machines.
Description:
Transformers, Principles of electromechanical
energy conversion, DC machines(DC machines
fundamentals, DC motors and generators),
Synchronous machines (Synchronous generators and
motors) induction motors.
2
 General Content
 Transformers
 Principles of Electromechanical Energy
Conversion
 DC Generators
 DC Motors
 Alternators
 Synchronous Motors
 Poly phase Induction Motors

3
 Text Books
1. Dr. P.S Bimbra, “Electrical Machinery”. Delhi, Khana, 1997.
2. Fitzgerald, A,E “Electrical machinery”, 6th edition, Mc
Graw Hill, 2021.

Reference Books
1. Chapman, “ Electrical Machinery Fundamentals”, 6th
REVISED edition, McGraw-Hill , 2021b
2. Umans, S .’’ Fitzgerald and Kingsley’s Electric
Machinery’’,7th edition Mc Graw-Hill education, 2013.

4
 Prerequisites
The prerequisite knowledge required to successfully
attend this course is:
• ECNG-2010 or ECNG-2212

5
 Lecture-1
Single-Phase Transformer

6
 Introduction
A transformer is a static machine (device) that transfer electrical
energy from one circuit to another electrical circuit through
the medium of magnetic field and with out a change in
frequency.

A transformer is a static device, which is used to raising or

lowering the voltage of an AC supply with a corresponding
increase or decrease in current .

7
 Cont…

 Transformers can operate in the frequency range starting from a

few hertz up to several megahertz.

 Power ratings vary from a few milli watts to several hundreds of

megawatts.

Can be used for:

 Step-Up or Step down voltage.

 Impedance matching: for maximum power transfer.
 Isolation: Provides an electric isolation between two circuits
(absence of physical connection).
8
 Cont…
 In brief,
 The transformer action is based on the laws of electro
magnetic induction.
 There is no electrical connection b/n the primary and
secondary.AC power is transferred from primary to secondary
through magnetic flux. Where the two electric circuits are in
mutual inductive influence of each other.
 There is no change in frequency i.e out put power has the same
frequency as the input power.
 Unlike in rotating machines, there is no energy conversion.
The losses that occur in a transformer are,
a) Core losses-eddy current and hysteresis losses.
b) Copper losses-in the resistance of the windings.

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 Types of transformer
Classification on the basis of construction :
a) core type transformer
b) Shell type transformer
Classification on the basis of winding used :
a) Single phase transformer
b) Three phase transformer
c) Auto transformer
Classification on the basis of cooling employed:
a) Natural air blast cooled: transformers that use voltages
below 25,000 volts.
b) Oil immersed self cooled: small and medium-sized
distribution transformers.
c) Oil immersed water cooled: high voltage transmission
lines.
10
 Cont…
Classification on the basis of use:
a) Power transformers
b) Distribution transformers
c) Instrument transformers
d) Auto transformers

11
 Construction
Common constructional aspects
Core construction, Winding arrangements, Cooling aspects
Core construction: Broadly classified into core type
and shell type.
a) In a core type construction the winding surrounds the core.
Windings are wrapped around two sides of a laminated
square core.
b) In a shell type on the other hand the core surrounds the
winding. Windings are wrapped around the center leg of a
laminated core.
 In all types the core is constructed of transformer sheet steel
laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path
with a minimum of air gap included.
 Still with high silicon content, sometimes heat treated to
produce high permeability and low hysteresis loss. 12
Cont…

14
 Cont…
Main Constructional Parts of Transformer
1. Primary Winding: Which produces magnetic flux
when it is connected to electrical source.
2. Magnetic Core: The magnetic flux produced by the
primary winding, that will pass through this low
reluctance path linked with secondary winding and
create a closed magnetic circuit.
3. Secondary Winding: The flux, produced by primary
winding, passes through the core, will link with the
secondary winding. This winding also wounds on
the same core and gives the desired output of the
transformer.
15
 Cont…
Winding arrangements:
• If the secondary voltage is less than that of the
primary the transformer is called a step down
transformer.
• If the secondary voltage is more than, it is a step up
transformer.
• A step down transformer can be made a step up
transformer by making the low voltage winding its
primary.
• Hence it may be more appropriate to designate the
windings as High Voltage (HV) and Low Voltage
(LV) windings.
• The winding with more number of turns will be a
HV winding. 16
 Cont…
Transformer coils can be broadly classified in to
concentric coils and sandwiched coils.
Concentric coils are very common with core type
transformers while sandwiched coils are common with
shell type transformers.
The HV and LV windings are split into no. of sections,
Where HV winding lies between two LV windings
In sandwich coils leakage can be controlled

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 Cont…
3. Cooling: cooling of the transformer becomes more and more
difficult. As the rating increases better cooling techniques are
needed.
Classification on the basis of cooling employed:
i. Oil Filled Self-Cooled Type: uses small and medium-sized
distribution transformers.
ii. Oil Filled Water Cooled Type: is usually implemented on
transformers that are used in high voltage transmission lines.
iii. Air Blast Type: is used for transformers that use voltages below
25,000 volts.
Other important parts:
Container for assembled core and windings
Suitable medium for insulating the core and its windings from its
container
 Suitable bushings (either of porcelain, oil-filled or capacitor type)
for insulating and bringing out the terminals of windings from the
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tank.
 Principle of Operation
The main principle of operation of a transformer is
mutual inductance between two circuits which is
linked by a common magnetic flux.
A basic transformer consists of two coils that are
electrically separate and inductive, but are
magnetically linked through a path of reluctance.
“The principle of mutual induction states that when two
coils are inductively coupled and if the current in a
coil change uniformly, then the emf induced in the
other coils. This emf can drive a current when a
closed path is provide to it.”
This emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux
linkages. 19
When an alternating voltage is applied to
the primary:
• an alternating flux is set up in the core
this changing magnetic flux links both
windings through the soft iron core
• Hence magnetic flux linked with the
secondary coil changes.
• Which induces e.m.f. E1 and E2 in the
primary and secondary.
• Depending up on the number of turns
of the primary (N1) and secondary (N2),
an alternating emf E2 is causes a
secondary current
I2.consquently,terminal voltage V2 will
appear across the load.
 If N2 ˃ N1,then V2˃ V1 Step-Up transformer
 If N2 ˂ N1,thenV2˂ V1,Step-Down transformer . 20
 Cont…
φ = Nϕ

Where, e is the induced emf in volt and φ is the flux

linkages in Weber turn (Nϕ).

21
 Cont…
The change in the flux linkage can be
 Coil may be static and unmoving but the flux linking
the same may change with time.
 Flux lines may be constant and not changing in time
but the coil may move in space linking different
value of flux with time.
 Both the above may take place. The flux lines may
change in time with coil moving in space.
Instantaneous emf

The peak value

Rms value 22
 Cont…
Polarity of the emf is obtained by the application of
Lenz's law.
Lenz's law states that the reaction to the change in the
flux linkages would be such as to oppose the cause.
The emf if permitted to drive a current would produce a
counter mmf to oppose this changing flux linkage.
The same mutual flux links the secondary winding.
The induced emf in the secondary can be

Which yields the voltage ratio as,

The voltages E1 and E2 are obtained by the same mutual
flux and hence they are in phase. 23
 Cont…
The polarity of a transformer is indicated by dot marks
If N1< N2 the transformer is called a step up transformer
If N1>N2 the transformer is called a step down
transformer

24
 Emf equation of a transformer
Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to
the primary, the sinusoidal flux φ produced by the primary can be
represented as: φ = φm sinωt
The instantaneous e.m.f. e1 induced in the primary is

It is clear from the above equation that maximum value of induced e.m.f. in the
primary is
Em1=2π f N1 φm
The r.m.s. value Em1of the primary e.m.f. is

e.m.f. E1 induced in the primary lags behind the flux φ by 90°. Likewise, e.m.f. E2
induced in the secondary lags behind flux φ by 90°.
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 Cont…
The voltage, current and number of turns related as:

If an impedance of ZL is connected across the secondary,

The input impedance under such conditions is

Transformer thus acts as an impedance converter.

The transformer can be interposed in between a source and a
load to match the impedance.

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 Equivalent Circuit of a transformer
• Is simply a circuit representation of the equations, use full to
describe the behavior and performance of the electrical
device.

Ideal Transformers
i. no winding resistance Induced voltages equal applied
voltages
ii. no leakage flux i.e., the same flux links both the windings
Fluxes produced by the primary and secondary currents are
confined within the core.
iii. no iron losses (i.e., eddy current and hysteresis losses) in
the core
iv. The core has infinite permeability:- Reluctance of the core
is zero,Negligible current is required to establish magnetic
flux
• ideal transformer cannot be physically realized. 27
 Cont…
Consider an ideal transformer on no load i.e., secondary
is open-circuited:
 Under such conditions, the primary is simply a coil
of pure inductance.
 When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the
primary, it draws a small magnetizing current Im
which lags behind the applied voltage by 90°.
 This alternating current Im produces an alternating
flux φ which is proportional to and in phase with it.
 The alternating flux φ links both the windings and
induces self-induced e.m.f. E1 in the primary and
mutual-induced e.m.f. E2 in the secondary. 28
 The primary e.m.f. E1 is, at every instant, equal to and
in opposition to V1 180° out of phase with it. (Lenz’s
law) it is also known as counter emf or back emf. Both
e.m.f.s E1 and E2 are in phase and lag behind flux φ by
90° .
 their magnitudes depend upon the rate of change of flux
and number of turns.

29
 Cont…
The equivalent circuit and vector diagram of an ideal
transformer.
I1

v1 E1 E2

V1 – supply voltage ; I1- noload input current ;

V2- output voltgae; I2- output current
Im- magnetising current;
E1-self induced emf ; E2- mutually induced emf
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 Cont…

For ideal transformer

Both windings of an ideal transformer have the same
power factor.
The output power of an ideal transformer equals to its
1   2  
input power; to be expected since assumed no loss.
N1 N 2
Pout  V2 I 2 cos   V1 I1 cos   V1 I1 cos   Pin
N 2 N1

Similarly, for reactive and apparent powers:

Qout  V2 I 2 sin   V1I1 sin   Qin and Sout  V2 I 2  V1I1  Sin
When a load is connected to the secondary I2 will flow and provided
mmf I2N2, this immediately make I1 to flow in the primary mmf
I1N1. i.e I1N1 = I2N2 31
 Practical Transformer
A practical transformer the assumptions made for ideal transformers
is not valid. The practical transformer has
(i) windings have resistances
(ii) not all windings link the same flux, magnetic leakage, giving
rise to leakage reactance
(iii) permeability is not infinity, core loss/ iron losses occur

There is voltage drop in R1 and X1 so that primary e.m.f. E1 is

less than the applied voltage V1. Similarly, there is voltage drop in
R2 and X 2 so that secondary terminal voltage V2 is less than the
secondary e.m.f. E2.

32
 Practical transformer on no load
The primary will draw a small current I0 to supply (i) the iron
losses and (ii) a very small amount of copper loss in the primary.
Hence the primary no load current I0 is not 90° behind the applied
voltage V1 but lags it by an angle φ0 < 90°
No load input power, Wo = V1 I0 cos φ0
The component Iw in phase with the applied voltage V1. This is
known as active or working or iron loss component and supplies
the iron loss and a very small primary copper loss.
Iw = I0 cos φ0
The component Im lagging behind V1 by 90° and is known as
magnetizing component,which produces the mutual flux φ in the
core. Im = Io sinφo clearly, Io is phasor sum of Im and Iw,

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 Practical transformer on load

When the secondary is loaded, the secondary current I2 is set up, the
secondary current setup its own mmf(=N2I2) and hence its own flux
φ2 which is in opposition the main flux φ which is due to I0. the
secondary amper-turns N2I2 are known as demagnetizing amper-
turns. The opposing secondary flux φ2 weakness the primary flux φ
momentarly,hence primary back emf E1 tends to reduce this slight
change can increase the difference b/n the applied voltage and the
induced emf in the primary .the demagnetizing ( amperturn) effect
of the secondary thus nearly neutralized by the increase in the
primary amperturn.

The current I'2 represents the primary current to neutralize the

demagnetizing effect of secondary current I2. Now I'2 = K I2 and is
antiphase with I2. I0 is the no-load current of the transformer. The
phasor sum of I'2 and I0 gives the total primary current I1. 34
 Cont…
The total primary current I1 must meet two requirements .
(a) It must supply the no-load current I0 to meet the iron losses in
the transformer and to provide flux in the core.
(b) It must supply a current I'2 to counteract the demagnetizing
effect of secondary current I2. The magnitude of I'2 will be such
that:

The total primary current I1 will be the phasor sum of I'2 and I0 i.e.,

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 Equivalent circuit of a transformer
• The equivalent circuit of the actual transformer can be seen to
be equivalent to an ideal transformer plus external
impedances.
• By referring all quantities to the primary or secondary, the
ideal transformer can be moved out to the right or left,
respectively, of the equivalent circuit.

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 Voltage and impedance Transformation Ratio (K)

The constant K is called voltage

transformation ratio.
 If N2˃N1 i.e K˃1,then transformer is
called step-up
 If N2˂N1 i.e K˂1,then transformer is
known as step-down

For an ideal transformer;,

(i) E1 = V1 and E2 = V2, as there is no voltage drop in the
windings.

(ii) there are no losses. Therefore, volt-amperes input to the

primary are equal to the output volt-amperes i.e.

37
 Consider a transformer having impedance Z2/ZL in the
secondary:

 Impedance ratio (Z2/Z1) is equal to the square of voltage

transformation ratio. In other words, an impedance Z2 in
secondary becomes Z2/K2 when transferred to primary.
Likewise, an impedance Z1 in the primary becomes K2 Z1
when transferred to the secondary.
 The power supplied by the primary & secondary circuit is
Pin  V1 I1 cos 1
Pout  V2 I 2 cos  2
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Referred quantities

39
Con…

Equivalent circuit referred to primary

Equivalent circuit referred to secondary.

40
 Cont…
Steps in the development
of the transformer
equivalent circuit.
The circuit shown at d is
called the equivalent-T
circuit for a transformer,
in which the secondary
quantities are referred to
the primary.
Specifically for d,
2 2
 N1   N1 
X l2    X l2 
R2    R2
 N2   N2 

N1
V2  V2
N2 41
 Phasor Diagram
Transformer on No-load (I2=0): Once Iϕ is known, the
drop that takes place in the primary resistance and
series reactance can be obtained which when added
to E1 gives uniquely the position of V1 which
satisfies all other parameters.

42
 Cont…
Transformer on load: The position of the E2 vector is
known from the flux phasor.
Magnitude of I2 and the load power factor angle θ2 are
assumed to be known. But the angle θ2 is defined
with respect to the terminal voltage V2 and not E2.
The equivalent primary current I’2 is added vectorially
to Iϕ to yield I1.
I1(R1 +jx11) is added to E1 to yield V1.

43
 Cont…
Example 1: A single phase transformer has 400 primary
and 1200 secondary turns. If the primary winding be
connected to 220 V, 50 Hz supply, calculate
i. The secondary voltage
ii. The primary current if the secondary current is 12 A
Solution
i. V1 N1 N2 1200
  V2  V1 V2   220  660 V
V2 N2 N1 400

ii. I 2  N1  I1  N 2 I 2 I1 
1200
12  36 A
I1 N2 N1 400

44
 Cont…
Example 2: A 30KVA 2400/120-V, 50-Hz transformer
has a high voltage winding resistance of 0.1Ω and a
leakage reactance of 0.22 Ω; and the low voltage
winding resistance of 0.035 Ω and a leakage
reactance of 0.012 Ω. Find the equivalent winding
resistance, reactance and impedance referred to the i.
High voltage side and ii. Low voltage side
Solution i.
2
 N1 
2
 N1 
R01  R1  R2  R1    R2 
X 01  X 1  X 2  X 1    X2
 N2   N2 
 0.1  0.035(20) 2  14.1  0.22  0.012(20) 2  5.02

Z 01  R012  X 012  14.12  5.022  15

45
 Cont…
ii. 2
 N2 
R02  R2  R1  R2    R1
 N1 
 0.035  0.1(1/ 20) 2  0.03525

2
 N2 
X 02  X 2  X 1  X 2    X1
 N1 
 0.012  0.22(1/ 20) 2  0.01255

Z 02  R02 2  X 02 2  0.035252  0.012552  0.0374

2
 N2 
(or Z 02    01
Z  (1/ 20) 2
15  0.0375)
 N1 
46
47