Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering (ME 3024) Module 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (ME 3024)

MODULE 3
SYLLABUS
CO3
M3.01 Explain the construction and working principle of 4 Understanding
single-phase transformer
M3.02 Describe the working of special purpose transformer 4 Understanding
M3.03 Summarize different methods of electric heating used 4 Understanding
for industrial applications
M3.04 Illustrate the working of induction and arc furnaces 2 Understanding
Contents:
Single phase transformers - working principle -classification based on core- emf equation -
transformation ratio
Special purpose transformers- auto transformer- working- welding transformer –
construction - working
Electric heating-Basic principle -modes of heat transfer- methods of electric heating -
induction heating-dielectric heating (principle of operation only).
Electric furnaces- working- induction and arc furnaces-applications

Transformers

✓ The transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one
electrical circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic
field and without a change in the frequency.
✓ The electric circuit which receives energy from the supply mains is called primary
winding and the other circuit which delivers electric energy to the load is called the
secondary winding.
✓ It basically changes the level of voltages from one value to the other at constant
frequency.
✓ A transformer in its simplest form will consist of a rectangular laminated magnetic
structure on which two coils of different number of turns are wound called core

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✓ The winding to which a.c voltage is impressed is called the primary of the transformer
and the winding across which the load is connected is called the secondary of the
transformer.

Principle of Operation:

✓ A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

✓ When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux ø is set
up in the core.
✓ This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f.s E1 and E2 in them
according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
✓ The e.m.f. E1 is termed as primary e.m.f. and e.m.f. E2 is termed as secondary e.m.f.
✓ Magnitudes of E2 and E1 depend upon the number of turns on the secondary and
primary respectively.
✓ If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we get a step-up transformer.
✓ If N2 < N1, then E2 < E1 (or V2 < V1) and we get a step-down transformer.
✓ If load is connected across the secondary winding, the secondary e.m.f. E2 will cause
a current I2 to flow through the load.
EMF Equation:

Alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the primary. The sinusoidal flux ø

produced by the primary can be represented as
Φ = ϕm sin ωt
The instantaneous e.m.f. e1 induced in the primary is
𝑑𝜑 𝑑
e1 = - N1 = -N1 𝑑𝑡(ϕm sin ωt) = -N1ω ϕm cos ωt = - 2πf N1ϕm sin (ωt -90°)
𝑑𝑡

Maximum value of induced emf in the primary is

Em1 =2 πf N1ϕm
𝐸𝑚1 2 πf 𝑁1 ∅𝑚
The rms value of E1 of primary is = = 4.44 f N1ϕm
√2 √2

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Similarly, The rems value of E2 of secondary is 4.44 f N2ϕm

Voltage Transformation Ratio

We know,

E1 = 4.44 f N1ϕm

E2 = 4.44 f N2ϕm

Dividing these equations we get

𝑬𝟐 𝑵
= 𝑵𝟐 = K. This is called voltage transformation ratio
𝑬𝟏 𝟏

Classification of Transformers based on the core

Depending upon the manner in which the primary and secondary are wound on the core,
transformers are of two types viz.,
(i) core-type transformer and
(ii) (ii) shell-type transformer.
(i) Core-type transformer.
In a core-type transformer, half of the primary winding and half of the secondary
winding are placed round each limb as shown in Figure. This reduces the leakage
flux. It is a usual practice to place the low-voltage winding below the high-voltage
winding for mechanical considerations.

(ii) Shell-type transformer. This method of construction involves the use of a double
magnetic circuit. Both the windings are placed round the central limb the other
two limbs acting simply as a low-reluctance flux path.
The choice of type (whether core or shell) will not greatly affect the efficiency of
the transformer. The core type is generally more suitable for high voltage and

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small output while the shell-type is generally more suitable for low voltage and
high output.

SPECIAL PURPOSE TRANSFORMERS

1. Welding Transformers
Construction of welding transformer:

1. Welding transformer is a step-down transformer.

2. It has a magnetic core with primary winding which is thin and has large number of turns on
one arm.
3. A secondary winding with less number of turns and high cross-sectional area on the other
arm.
4. Due to this type of windings in primary and secondary it behaves as step down
transformer.
5. So we get less voltage and high current from the secondary winding output. This is
the construction of ac welding transformer.
6.A dc welding transformer also has same type of winding the only difference is that we
connect a rectifier(which converts ac to dc) at the secondary to get dc output.
7.We also connect a inductor or filter to smooth the dc current. This will be construction of
dc welding transformer. The diagrams are shown below.

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Fig. DC welding transformer

Fig. AC welding transformer

The winding which is connected to power supply is called primary winding and the winding
to which load is connected is called secondary winding.

Working of welding transformer:

1.As it is a step down transformer we have less voltage at secondary which is nearly 15 to 45
volts and has high current values which is nearly 200 A to 600 A it can also be higher than
this value.
2. For adjusting the voltage on secondary side there are tappings on secondary winding by
this we can get required amount of secondary current for welding.
3. These tappings are connected to several high current switches.
4. Now one end of secondary winding is connected to the welding electrode and the other end
is connected to the welding pieces as shown in fig 2.
5.When a high current flows a large amount of I2R heat is produced due to contact resistance
between welding pieces and electrode.
6.Because of this high heat the tip of electrode melts and fills the gap between the welding
pieces.
Volt – ampere characteristics of welding transformer:
Figure given below shows the volt – ampere characteristics of welding transformer.

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2. Autotransformers
An autotransformer has a single winding on an iron core and a part of winding is common to
both the primary and secondary circuits. Fig. (7.36 (i)) shows the connections of a step-down
autotransformer whereas Fig. (7.36 (ii)) shows the connections of a step-up autotransformer.
In either case, the winding ab having N1 turns is the primary winding and winding be having
N2 turns is the secondary winding. Note that the primary and secondary windings are
connected electrically as well as magnetically. Therefore, power from the primary is
transferred to the secondary conductively as well as inductively (transformer action).
For the same output and voltage transformation ratio K(N2/N1), an autotransformer requires
less copper than an ordinary 2-winding transformer. This is one of the advantages of the
autotransformer.
Weight of Copper in autotransformer = (1 – K) Weight of Copper in ordinary transformer
Therefore Saving of Copper = K * weight of Copper in ordinary transformer
Where K is the voltage transformation ratio

Regardless of autotransformer connection (step-up or step-down), the current in the portion

of the winding that is common to both the primary and the secondary is the difference
between these currents (I1 and I2). The relative direction of the current through the common
portion of the winding depends upon the connections of the autotransformer. The type of
connection determines whether input current I1 or output current I2 is larger. For step-down
autotransformer I2 > I1 (as for 2-winding transformer) so that I2 - I1 current flows through
the common portion of the winding. For step-up autotransformer, I2 < I1. Therefore, I1 - I2
current flews in the common portion of the winding

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Applications of Autotransformers
(i) Autotransformers are used to compensate for voltage drops in transmission and
distribution lines. When used for this purpose, they are known as booster
transformers.
(ii) Autotransformers are used for reducing the voltage supplied to a.c. motors during
the starting period.
(iii) Autotransformers are used for continuously variable supply.

Mode of Heat Transfer:

The heat from one body to another body can be transferred by any one of the following
methods.
i. Conduction
ii. Convection
iii. Radiation
Conduction
✓ The process in which heat is transferred from one particle to another in direction of
fall of temperature without the actual movement of particles of medium is called
conduction.
✓ In this method, heat travels without the actual movement of practices (molecules).
✓ The flow of heat from one part of the body to other part is dependent upon the
temperature differences between these parts.
✓ It is also applicable when two bodies at different temperatures are joined together.
✓ The heated molecules of the substances transfer their heat to the adjacent molecules
and this heat flow will invariably take place so long as there is difference in
temperature.
✓ For example, when one end of solid is heated, the molecules at that end absorb the
heat energy and begin to vibrate rapidly when these molecules collide with
neighbouring molecules, some energy is passed them with in turn begin to vibrate
faster and pass some energy to their molecules.

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✓ Thus, heat is transferred from one molecule to another molecule without their actual
movement. If the heat is to be conducted from one object to another object, the
following conditions must be met.
o The objects should be bodily in contact with each other.
o The temperature of the two bodies should be different i.e. temperature gradient
should exist
Convection:

The process of heat transference in which heat is transferred from one place to another (from
hotter to colder one) by actual movement of particles of medium is called convection. For
example in case of heater used for heating buildings, the air in contact with a heat radiator
element in a room receives heat from contact with the element. The heated air expands and
rises, cold air flowing into takes place. Thus there is a constant flow of air upwards across the
heating elements. In this way the room gets heated up. A similar action takes place in an
electric water heater, a continuous flow of water passing upwards across the immersed
heating element, with the result that the whole of the water in the tank becomes hot. The
quantity of heat absorbed from the heater by convection depends mainly upon the
temperature of the heating element above the surroundings and upon the size of surface of the
heater

Radiation:

The process of transmission of heat in which heat energy is transferred from hotter body to
colder body without heating the medium in between is called radiation. For example, we
receive energy from the sun by radiation through there in distance of about 150 million Kms
between sun and earth.

Induction Heating
Induction heating is based on the principle of a.c. transformers.
There is a primary winding through which an a.c. current is passed which is magnetically
coupled to the charge to be heated.
When an a.c. current is passed through primary heating coil, an electric current is induced in
the charge.
The value of the induced current is dependent on
1. The magnitude of primary current.
2. The ratio of number of turns in the primary and secondary circuit.

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3. Co-efficient of magnetic coupling.

𝑉2
The heat develops depend upon the power drawn by the charge and since P = therefore to
𝑅

develop heat sufficient to melt the charge the resistance should be low which is possible only
with metals and the voltage must be higher which is obtaining by employing higher flux since
the higher the flux linked, the higher is the voltage induced.
Thus magnetic materials are found to be suitable for this type of heating because of their
higher permeability. In case of charge to be heated is non-magnetic, the heat generated is due
to eddy current losses whereas if it is a magnetic material there will be a hysteresis loss in
addition.

Dielectric Heating:
✓ When non-metallic metals i.e. insulators such as wood, plastic, ceramics e.t.c. are
subjected to high alternating voltage their temperature will increase due to the
conversion of dielectric loss to heat.
✓ The material to be heated is placed as slab between the metallic plates or electrodes
connected to high frequency a.c. supply.
✓ Dielectric loss is depend upon the frequency and high voltage therefore for obtaining
adequate heating effect high voltage at about 20 kV and frequency of about 10-30
MHz are usually employed.
✓ The current drawn by the capacitor when connected to an a.c. supply voltage does not
lead the supply voltage by exactly 90° since it is not possible to get a pure capacitor
and there is always some resistance due to which heat is always produced in the
dielectric material placed in between the two plates of capacitor. The electric energy
dissipated in the form of heat energy in dielectric material is known as dielectric loss.

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ELECTRIC FURNACE

Electric arc welding is the process in which the pieces to be welded are brought to the proper
welding temperature at point of contact by the heat liberated at the arc terminals and in the
arc stream so that metal arcs completely fused in to each other, forming a single solid
homogenous mass after it solidifies.

In this process an electric arc is produced by bringing conductors connected to a distance.

The current continuous to flow across the small gap and gives intense heat. The heat
developed is utilized to melt the part of work piece and filler metal and thus form joint.

INDUCTION FURNACE
Its working principle is based on the principle of ac transformers i.e., when the primary is
connected to a high-frequency ac supply, eddy currents are induced in the charge to be
heated.
There are core type and coreless type induction furnace
Core Type Induction Furnace:
The core type induction furnace consists of primary and secondary windings which are
magnetically linked together through an iron core that facilitates a low reluctance path for the
flux linkage between primary and secondary. The primary of the furnace is connected to the
supply and the charge to be heated as secondary.
The direct core type induction furnace is similar to a two-winding transformer. In this
furnace, the primary consists of a number of turns, and the charge to be heated forms the
short-circuited secondary. Both primary and secondary are magnetically coupled by an iron
core as shown below.

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The flux set up by the primary will induce a heavy current in the charge to melt it.
Coreless Induction Furnace
The furnace in coreless induction heating is made up of ceramic crucible cylindrical in shape
surrounded by coils that act as the primary winding of the transformer as shown below. The
charge to be heated is kept in the crucible and it acts as the secondary of the transformer.
Working of Coreless Induction Furnace :
When the ac power supply is given to the coils of the induction furnace, the coils setups
alternating flux. The flux set up by the primary winding will induce the eddy currents in the
charge. These eddy currents heat up the charge to its melting point and also set up
electromagnetic forces producing stirring action which is essential for obtaining uniform
quality of metal.

ARC FURNACE

✓ When a high voltage is applied across in air gap, the air in the gap gets ionized under
electrostatic forces and become conducting medium.
✓ Current flows in the form of a continuous spark called the arc. A very high voltage is
required to establish an arc across the air gap but to maintain an arc small voltage
should be sufficient.
✓ Alternatively, an arc can also be produced by short circuiting the two electrodes
momentarily and then withdrawing them back.

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✓ Arc between the two electrodes produces heat and has a temperature between 1000° C
and 3500° C depending upon the material of electrodes used.
✓ The use of this principle may be in electric arc furnace.
Types of arc furnaces:
Arc furnaces may be classified into two types.
1. Direct arc furnace.
2. Indirect arc furnace.
1. Direct arc furnace:
In this type of furnace, the arc is formed between the electrodes and the charge as shown in
figure. In this type of furnace, charge acts as another electrode. There are two carbon or
graphite electrodes and the arc is developed at two places. Since in direct arc furnace, the arc
is in direct contact with the charge and heat is also produced by current flowing through the
charge itself, therefore the charge can be heated to highest temperature.

2.Indirect arc furnace:

In this type of furnace, the arc is formed between two electrodes above the charge and the
heat is transmitted to the charge solely by radiation as shown in figure. The temperature of
the charge in the indirect-arc furnace is lower than in the direct-arc furnace, since heat is
transmitted to it solely by radiation. As no current flows through the charge there is no
inherent stirring action, and the furnace must be rocked mechanically; for this reason, a
cylindrical shape is adopted

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