ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::TIRUPATI

(AUTONOMOUS)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
B.Tech IIYEAR ISEM ELECTRICAL MACHINES-I(20APC0203)
Academic Year:2023-2024
UNIT-IV: Transformers
SYLLABUS:
Constructional features, principle of operation, EMF equation, ideal transformer, transformer on No
load and ON load and its phasor diagrams, equivalent circuit, voltage regulation, losses and
efficiency. Testing of transformer - polarity test, open circuit and short circuit tests, Sumpner’s test,
and separation losses.

Introduction:

• The main advantage of alternating currents over direct currents is that, the alternating
currents can be easily transferable from low voltage to high or high voltage to low. Alternating
voltages can be raised or lowered as per requirements in the different stages of electrical
network as generation, transmission, distribution and utilization. This is possible with a static
device called transformer. The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. It
transfers an electric energy from one circuit to other when there is no electrical connection
between the two circuits. thus we can define transformer as below:

Key Point: The transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which an electrical power
is transformed from one alternating current circuit to another with the desired change in
voltage and current, without any change in the frequency.

Working Principle of Transformer:

The principle of mutual induction states that when two coils are inductively coupled and if
current in one coil is changed uniformly then an e.m.f. gets induced in the other coil.

Principle of Working:
The principle of mutual induction states that when two coils are inductively coupled and if
current in one coil is changed uniformly then an e.m.f. gets induced in the other coil. This e.m.f.
can drive a current, when a closed path is provided to it. The transformer works on the same
principle. In its elementary form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically
separated but linked through a common magnetic circuit. The two coils have high mutual
inductance. The basic transformer is shown in the Fig. 6.1.1.
• One of the two coils is connected to a source of alternating voltage. This coil in which electrical
energy is fed with the help of source is called primary winding (P). The other winding is
connected to load. The electrical energy transformed to this winding is drawn out to the load.
• This winding is called secondary winding (S). The primary winding has N 1 number of turns
while the secondary winding has N2 number of turns. Symbolically the transformer is indicated
as shown in the Fig. 6.2.1.

• When primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage, it circulates an alternating current.

This current produces an alternating flux (ϕ) which completes its path through common
magnetic core as shown dotted in the Fig. 6.2.2. Thus an alternating, flux links with the
secondary winding. As the flux is alternating, according to Faraday's law of an electromagnetic
induction, mutually induced e.m.f. gets developed in the secondary winding. If now load is
connected to the secondary winding, this e.m.f. drives a current through it.
• Thus though there is no electrical contact between the two windings, an electrical energy gets
transferred from primary to the secondary.

Key Point: The frequency of the mutually induced e.m.f. is same as that of the alternating source
which is supplying energy to the primary winding.
1. Can D.C. Supply be used for Transformers?
• The d.c. supply cannot be used for the transformers.
•. The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, for which current in one coil
must change uniformly. If d.c. supply is given, the current will not change due to constant supply
and transformer will not work.
• Practically winding resistance is very small. For d.c., the inductive reactance X L is zero as d.c.
has no frequency. So total impedance of winding is very low for d.c. Thus winding will draw very
high current if d.c. supply is given to it. This may cause the burning of windings due to extra heat
generated and may cause permanent damage to the transformer.
• There can be saturation of the core due to which transformer draws very large current from
the supply when connected to d.c.
Thus d.c. supply should not be connected to the transformers.

Construction of a Transformer:

Parts of Transformer
The various parts of transformer are,
1. Core: It is made up of high grade silicon steel laminations. Its function is to carry the flux,
providing low reluctance to it. Generally 'L' es shaped or 'I' shaped laminations are used as
shown in the Fig. 6.2.2.

2. Limb : It is vertical portion of the core and its function is to carry the windings.

3. Yoke : The top and bottom horizontal portion of the core is called yoke. Its function is to
carry the flux produced by one winding to reach to the other winding and provide the low
reluctance path to the flux.
4. Windings: The coils used are wound on the limbs and are insulated from each other. The
function of the windings is to carry the current and produce the flux necessary for the
functioning of the transformer.
5. Conservator: The oil in the transformer expands when temperature inside the transformer
increases due to heat while it contracts when the temperature decreases. The function of the
conservator is to take up the expansion and contraction of the oil without allowing it to come in
contact with the ambient air.
6. Breather : Smaller transformers are not fully filled with oil and some space remains between
oil level and tank. The tank is connected to atmosphere by vent pipe. When oil expands air goes
out while when oil contracts the air is taken in. The breather is a device which extracts the
moisture from the air when the air is taken in and does not allow oil to come in contact with the
moisture. The breathers contain the silica gel crystals which immediately absorb the
atmospheric moisture.
7. Explosion vent: It is a bent pipe fitted on the main tank which acts as a relief valve. It uses
nonmetallic diaphragm which bursts when pressure inside the transformer becomes excessive
which releases the pressure and protects the transformer.
8. Buchholz relay : It is a safety gas operated relay connected to transformer. When the fault
gets developed inside the transformer, the gases are released. The Buchholz relay is operated
with these gases and trips the circuit breaker to n protect the device.
1. Construction Features:
• The cross-section of the limb depends on the type of coil to be used either circular or
rectangular. The different cross-sections of limbs, practically used are shown in the Fig. 6.3.2.

• To avoid the high reluctance at the joint, the alternate layers are stacked differently to
eliminate the joints. This is called staggering. The butt joints are staggered in alternate layers. It
is shown
intheFig.6.3.3.
The advantages of staggering in transformer are,
1. It avoids continuous air gap.
2. The reluctance of magnetic circuit gets reduced.
3. The continuous air gap reduces the mechanical strength of the core. The staggering helps to
increase the mechanical strength of the core.

2. Types of Windings
• The coils used are wound on the limbs and are insulated from each other. In the basic
transformer shown in the Fig. 6.2.2, the two windings wound are shown on two different limbs
i.e. primary on one limb while secondary on other limb. But due to leakage flux increases which
affects the transformer performance badly. Similarly it is necessary that the windings should be
very close to each other to have high mutual inductance. To achieve this, the two windings are
split into number of coils and are wound adjacent to each other on the same limb. A very
common arrangement is cylindrical concentric coils as shown in the Fig. 6.3.4 (a)

• Such cylindrical coils are used in the core type transformer. These coils are mechanically
strong. These are wound in the helical layers. The different layers are insulated from each other
by paper, cloth or mica. The low voltage winding is placed near the core from ease of insulating
it from the core. The high voltage is placed after it.
• The other type of coils which is very commonly used for the shell type of transformer is
sandwich coils. Each high voltage portion lies between the two low voltage portion sandwiching
the high voltage portion. Such subdivision of windings into small portions reduces the leakage
flux. Higher the degree of subdivision, smaller is the reactance. The sandwich coil is shown in
the Fig. 6.3.4 (b). The top and bottom coils are low voltage coils. All the portions are insulated
from each other by paper.
• The transformers are generally kept in tightly fitted sheet metal tanks. The tanks are
constructed of specified high quality steel plate cut, formed and welded into the rigid structures.
All the joints are painted with a solution of light blue chalk which turns dark in the presence of
oil, disclosing even the minutest leaks. The tanks are filled with the special insulating oil. The
entire transformer assembly is immersed in the oil. The oil serves two functions:
i) Keeps the coils cool by circulation and
ii) Provides the transformers an additional insulation.
• The oil should be absolutely free from alkalies, sulphur and specially from moisture. Presence
of very small moisture lowers the dielectric strength of oil, affecting its performance badly.
Hence the tanks are sealed air tight to avoid the contact of oil with atmospheric air and
moisture.

Construction of Single Phase Transformers:

The various constructions used for the single phase transformers are,
1. Core type 2. Shell type and 3. Berry type
1. Core Type Transformer
• It has a single magnetic circuit. The core is rectangular having two limbs. The winding
encircles the core. The coils used are of cylindrical type. As mentioned earlier, the coils are
wound in helical layers with different layers insulated from each other by paper or mica. Both
the coils are placed on both the limbs. The low voltage coil is placed inside near the core while
high voltage coil surrounds the low voltage coil. Core is made up of large number of thin
laminations.
• As the windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs, the natural cooling is more
effective. The coils can be easily removed by removing the laminations of the top yoke, for
maintenance.
• The Fig. 6.4.1 (a) shows the schematic representation of the core type transformer while the
Fig. 6.4.1 (b) shows the view of actual construction of the core type transformer.
2. Shell Type Transformer
• It has a double magnetic circuit. The core has three limbs. Both the windings are placed on the
central limb. The core encircles most part of the windings. The coils used are generally
multilayer disc type or sandwich coils. As mentioned earlier, each high voltage coil is in between
two low voltage coils and low voltage coils are nearest to top and bottom of the yokes.
• The core is laminated. While arranging the laminations of the core, the care is taken that all the
joints at alternate layers are staggered. This is done to avoid narrow air gap at the joint, right
through the cross-section of the core. Such joints are called over lapped or imbricated joints.
Generally for very high voltage transformers, the shell type construction is preferred. As the
windings are surrounded by the core, the natural cooling does not exist. For removing any
winding for maintenance, large number of laminations required to be removed.
The Fig. 6.4.2 (a) shows the schematic representation while the Fig. 6.4.2 (b) shows the outaway
view of the construction of the shell type transformer.

3. Berry Type Transformer

• This has distributed magnetic circuit. The number of independent magnetic circuits are more
than 2. Its core construction is like spokes of a wheel. Otherwise it is symmetrical to that of shell
type.
• Diagramatically it can be shown as in the Fig. 6.4.3.

Comparison of Core and Shell Type Transformers:

Basis for Comparison Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer

Definition The winding surround the The core surround the
core. winding.
Lamination Shape The lamination is cut in the Lamination are cut in the
form of the L strips. form of the long strips of E
and L.
Cross Section Cross-section may be square, The cross section is
cruciform and three stepped rectangular in shape.
Copper Require More Less
Other Name Concentric Winding or Sandwich or Disc Winding
Cylindrical Winding.
Limb Two Three
Insulation More Less
Flux The flux is equally Central limb carry the whole
distributed on the side limbs flux and side limbs carries
of the core. the half of the flux.
Winding The primary and secondary Primary and secondary
winding are placed on the windings are placed on the
side limbs. central limb
Magnetic Circuit Two One
Losses More Less
Maintenance Easy Difficult
Mechanical Strength Low High
Output Less High
Natural cooling Doesnot Exists Exists

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer:

When the primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage V 1, it circulates alternating

current, producing an alternating flux ϕ.
• The primary winding has N 1 number of turns. The alternating flux o linking with the primary
winding itself induces an e.m.f. in it denoted as E 1.
• The flux links with secondary winding through the common magnetic core. It produces
induced e.m.f. E2 in the secondary winding. This is mutually induced e.m.f.
• The primary winding is excited by purely sinusoidal alternating voltage. Hence the flux
produced is also sinusoidal in nature having maximum value of ϕ m as shown in the Fig. 6.5.1.

The various quantities which affect the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. are:
Φ = Flux and
ϕm = Maximum value of flux
N1 = Number of primary winding turns
f = Number of secondary winding turns
E1 = Frequency of the supply voltage
E2 = R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f.
• From Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction the average e.m.f. induced in each turn is
proportional to the average rate of change of flux.
Average e.m.f. per turn

• Consider the ¼th cycle of the flux as shown in the Fig. 6.5.1. Complete cycle gets completed in
1/f seconds. In ¼ th time period, the change in flux is from 0 to ϕm

as dt for ¼ th time period is ¼ f seconds

Average e.m.f. per turn = 4 f ϕm
• As ϕ is sinusoidal, the induced e.m.f. in each turn of both the windings is also sinusoidal in
nature.
For sinusoidal quantity,
Form Factor = R.M.S. value / Average value = 1.11
R.M.S. S. value = 1.11 × Average value
R.M.S. value of induced e.m.f. per turn
= 1.11 x 4 f ϕm = 4.44 f ϕm
• There are N1 number of primary turns hence the R.M.S. value of induced e.m.f. of primary
denoted as E1 is,
E1 = N1 x 4.44 f ϕm volts
• While as there are N 2 number of secondary turns the R.M.S. value of induced e.m.f. of
secondary denoted E2 is,
E2 = N2 × 4.44 f ϕm volts
• The expressions of E1 and E2 are called e.m.f. equations of a transformer.
E1 = 4.44 f ϕm N1 volts...(6.5.1)
E2 = 4.44 f ϕm N2 volts.....(6.5.2)

1. Concept of Ideal Transformer

• A transformer is said to be ideal if it satisfies following properties :
i) It has no losses.
ii) Its windings have zero resistance.
iii) Leakage flux is zero i.e. 100 % flux produced by primary links with the secondary.
iv) Permeability of core is so high that negligible current is required to establish the flux in it.

2. Ratios of a Transformer:

• Consider a transformer shown in Fig. 6.5.2 indicating various voltages and currents.

1. Voltage ratio: We know from the e.m.f. equations,

E1 = 4.44 f ϕm N1 and
E2 = 4.44 f ϕm N2
Taking ratio of the two equations we get,
E2 / E1c = N2 / N1 = K
This ratio of secondary induced e.m.f. to primary induced e.m.f. is known as voltage
transformation ratio denoted as K.
Thus, E2 = K E1 where K = N2/ N1.
1. If N2 > N1 i.e. K > 1, we get E2 > E1 then the transformer is called step-up transformer.
2. If N2 < N1 i.e. K < 1, we get E2 < E1, then the transformer is called step-down transformer.
3. If N2 = N1 i.e. K = 1, we get E 2 = E1 then the transformer is called isolation transformer or 1:1
transformer.
2. Current ratio : For an ideal transformer there are no losses. Hence the product of primary
voltage V1 and primary current I1, is same as the product of secondary voltage V 2 and the
secondary current 12.

Hence the currents are in the inverse ratio of the voltage transformation ratio.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS:

Ex. The e.m.f. per turn of a single-phase, 6.6 kV, 440 V, 50 Hz transformer is approximately 12 V.
Calculate number of turns is the HV and LV windings and the net cross-sectional area of the core
for a maximum flux density of 1.5 T.

Sol. :
Ex. A single phase, 50 Hz, 1000 kVA transformer the for 12000/240 V ratio has a maximum flux
density of 1.2 Wb/m2 and an effective core section of 300 cm2, magnetising current (RMS) is 0.2 A.
Estimate the inductance of each wire on open circuit.

Sol. :
Ideal Transformer on No Load:
• Consider an ideal transformer on no load as shown in the Fig. 6.6.1. The supply voltage is
V1 and as it is an no load the secondary current I2 = 0.

• The primary draws a current I 1 which necessary to produce flux in the core. As it is
magnetising the core, it is called magnetising current denoted as I m. As the transformer is ideal,
the winding resistance is zero and it is purely inductive in nature. The magnetising current I m is
very small and lags V1 by 30° as the winding is purely inductive. This I m produces an alternating
flux which is in phase with Im.
• The flux links with both the winding producing the induced e.m.f.s E 1 and E2, in the primary
and secondary windings respectively. According to Lenz's law, the induced e.m.f. opposes the
cause producing it which is supply voltage V 1. Hence E1 is in antiphase with V1 but equal in
magnitude. The induced E2 also opposes V1 hence in antiphase with V1 but its magnitude
depends on N2. Thus E1 and E2 are in phase.
• The phasor diagram for the ideal transformer on no load is shown in the Fig. 6.6.2.

• It can be seen that flux ϕ is reference. I m produces hence in phase with ϕ. V 1 leads Im by 90° as
winding is purely inductive so current has to lag voltage by 90°.
• E1 and E2 are in phase and both opposing supply voltage V1.
• The power input to the transformer is V 1 I1 cos (V1^ I1) i.e. V1 Im cos (90°) i.e. zero. This is
because on no load output power is zero and for ideal transformer there are no losses hence
input power is also zero. Ideal no load p.f. of transformer is zero lagging.
Practical Transformer on No Load:
• Actually in practical transformer iron core causes hysteresis and eddy current losses as it is
subjected to alternating flux. While designing the transformer the efforts are made to keep these
losses minimum by,
1. Using high grade material as silicon steel to bas reduce hysteresis loss.
2. Manufacturing core in the form of laminations or stacks of thin laminations to reduce eddy
current loss.
• Apart from this there are iron losses in the practical transformer. Practically primary winding
has certain resistance hence there are small primary copper loss present.
• Thus the primary current under no load condition has to supply the iron losses i.e. hysteresis
loss and eddy current loss and a small amount of primary copper loss. This current is denoted
as I0.
• Now the no load input current I0 has two components:
1. A purely reactive component Im called magnetising component of no load current required to
produce the flux. This is also called wattless component.
2. An active component Ic which supplies total losses under no load condition called power
component of no load current. This is also called wattful component or core loss component of
I0.
• The total no load current I0 is the vector addition of Im and Ic.

• In practical transformer, due to winding resistance, no load current I 0 is no longer at 90° with
respect to V1. But it lags V1 by angle ϕ0 which is less than 90°. Thus cos ϕ 0 is called no load
power factor of practical transformer.
• The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 6.7.1. It can be seen that the two components of I 0 are.

Im = I0 Sin ϕ0 ............... (6.7.2)

• This is magnetising component lagging V1 exactly by 90o.
Ic = I0 cos ϕ0.................... (6.7.3)
• This is core loss component which is in phase with V 1.
The magnitude of the no load current is given by,
I0 = √Im2+Ic2 ......................(6.7.4)
While ϕ = no load primary power factor angle
• The total power input on no load is denoted as W0 and is given by,
W0 = V1 I0 cos ϕ0 =V1 Ic ............(6.7.5)
• It may be noted that the current I 0 is very small, about 3 to 5 % of the full load rated current.
Hence the primary copper loss is negligibly small hence I c is called core loss or iron loss
component. Hence power input W0 on no load always represents the iron losses, as copper loss
is negligibly small. The iron losses are denoted as P i and are constant for all load conditions.
W0= V1 I0 cos ϕ0 = Pi = Iron loss ......(6.7.6)

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS:

Ex. The no load current of a transformer is 10 A at a power factor of 0.25 lagging, when
connected to 400 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate,
a) Magnetising component of no load current
b) Iron loss and
Transformer on Load (M.M.F. Balancing on Load ):

• When the transformer is loaded, the current I 2 flows through the secondary winding. The
magnitude and phase of I 2 is determined by the load. If load is inductive, I 2 lags V2. If load is
capacitive, I2 leads V2 while for resistive load, I2 is in phase with V2.

• There exists a secondary m.m.f. N 2 I2 due to which secondary current sets up its own flux ϕ 2.
This flux ϕ opposes the main flux which is produced in the core due to magnetising component
of no load current. Hence the m.m.f. N 2I2 is called demagnetising ampere-turns. This is shown in
the Fig. 6.8.1 (a).
• The flux ϕ2 momentarily reduces the main flux ϕ, due to which the primary induced e.m.f.
E1 also reduces. Hence the vector difference ???? increases due to which primary draws more
current from the supply. This additional current drawn by primary is due to the load hence
called load component of primary current denoted as 1' 2 as shown in the Fig. 6.8.1 (b).
• This current I'2 is in antiphase with 12. The current I'2 sets up its own flux ϕ'2 which opposes
the flux ϕ2 and helps the main flux ϕ This flux ϕ' 2 neutralises the flux I2 produced by 12. The
m.m.f. i.e. ampere turns N1 I'2 balances the ampere turns N2I2. Hence the net flux in the core is
again maintained at constant level.
Key Point: Thus for any load condition, no load to full load the flux in the core is practically
constant.
• The load component current I' 2 always neutralises the changes in the load. As practically flux
in core is constant, the core loss is also constant for all the loads. Hence the transformer is called
constant flux machine.
As the ampere turns are balanced we can write, N2 I2 = N1 1'2
I'2 = N2 / N1 I2 = K I2 (6.8.1)
• Thus when transformer is loaded, the primary current I1 has two components:
1. The no load current I0 which lags V1 by angle ϕ0. It has two components Im and
Ic.
2. The load component I'2 which is in antiphase with I2. And phase of I2 is decided by the load.
Hence primary current I1 is vector sum of I0 and I'2.

• Assume inductive load, I2 lags E2 by ϕ2, the phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 6.8.2 (a).
• Assume purely resistive load, I2 in phase with E2, the phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 6.8.2
(b).
• Assume capacitive load, I2 leads E2 by ϕ2, the phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 6.8.2 (c).
Note that I'2 is always in antiphase with I2.
Actually the phase of I2 is with respect to V2 i.e. angle ϕ2 is angle between I2 and V2. For the ideal
case, E2 is assumed equal to V2 neglecting various drops.
The current ratio can be verified from this discussion. As the no load current I 0 is very small,
neglecting I0 we can write, I1 = I'2
Balancing the ampere-turns, N1 I'2 = N1 I1 = N2 I2
N2 /N1= I1 /I2= K
Under full load conditions when I 0 is very small compared to full load currents, the ratio of
primary and secondary current is constant.

Ex. A single phase transformer takes 10 A on no-load at 0.2 p.f. lagging. The turns ratio is 4: 1
(step down). If the load on the secondary is 200 A at a p.f. of 0.85 lagging, find the primary current
and power factor. Neglect the voltage drop in the winding. Also draw the phasor diagram. AU
May-08, Marks 8
Sol:

I2 is in antiphase with I2 which lags E2 by 31.788°.

The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 6.8.3 (a) with flux ϕ as the reference.

Resolve I2 and I0 into two components, along and in quadrature with ϕ

Horizontal component of I0 = I0 sin ϕ0 = 9.798
Vertical component of I0 = I0 cos ϕ0 = 2
Horizontal component of I2 = I2 sin ϕ2 = 26.3388
Phasor Diagrams for Transformer on Load:

• Consider a transformer supplying the load as shown in the Fig. 6.12.1.

The various transformer parameters are,

R1 = Primary winding resistance,
X1 = Primary leakage reactance
R2 = Secondary winding resistance,
X2 = Secondary leakage reactance
Z1 = Load impedance, I1 = Primary current
I2 = Secondary current = IL = Load current

whereI0 = No load current

I '2 = Load component of current decided by the load
= K I2 where K is transformation ratio
The primary voltage V1 has now three components,
1. - E1, the induced e.m.f. which opposes V1
2. I1 R1, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I1
3. I1X1, the drop across the reactance, leading I1 by 90°

• The secondary induced e.m.f. E2 has also three components,

1. V2, the terminal voltage across the load
2. I2 R2', the drop across the resistance, in phase with I2
3. I2 X2', the drop across the reactance, leading I2 by 90°
• The phasor diagram for the transformer on load depends on the nature of the load power
factor. Let us consider the various cases of of the load power factor.

1. Unity Power Factor Load, cos ϕ2 = 1

• As load power factor is unity, the voltage V 2 and I2 are in phase. Steps to draw the phasor
diagram are,
1. Consider flux ϕ as reference
2. E1 lags ϕ by 90°. Reverse E1 to get - E1.
3. E1 and E2 are in phase.
4. Assume V2 in a particular direction.
5. I2 is in phase with V2.
6. Add I2 R2 and I2 X2 to V2 to get E2.
7. Reverse I2 to get I'2.
8. Add I0 and I'2 to get I1.
9. Add I1 R1 and I1 X1 to - E1 to get V1.
Angle between V1 and I1 is ϕ1 and cos ϕ1 is primary power factor. Remember that I 1X1, leads
I1 direction by 90° and I 2 X2 leads I2 by 90° as current through inductance lags voltage across
inductance by 90°. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 6.12.2.
2. Lagging Power Factor Load, cos ϕ2
As load power factor is lagging cos ϕ 2, the current I2 lags V2 by angle ϕ2. So only change in
drawing the phasor diagram is to draw I 2 lagging V2 by ϕ2 in step 5 discussed earlier.
Accordingly directions of I2R2, I2X2, I'2, I1,I1R1, and I1 X1, will change. Remember that whatever
may be the power factor of load, I 2X2 leads I2, by 90° and IX1 leads I1 by 90°. The complete
phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 6.12.3.

3. Leading Power Factor Load, cos ϕ2

• As load power factor is leading, the current I 2 leads V2 by angle ϕ2. So the change is to draw I 2,
leading V2 by angle ϕ2. All other steps remain same as before. The complete phasor diagram is
shown in the Fig. 6.12.4.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer:
• The term equivalent circuit of a machine means the combination of fixed and variable
resistances and reactances, which exactly simulates performance and working of the machine.
• For a transformer, no load primary current lo has two components,
Im = I0 sin ϕ0 = Magnetising component
Ic = I0 cos ϕ0 = Active component
• Im produces the flux and is assumed to flow through reactance X 0 called no load reactance
while Ic is active component representing core losses hence is assumed to flow through the
resistance R0. Hence equivalent circuit on no load can be shown as in the Fig. 6.13.1. This circuit
consisting of R0 and X0 in parallel is called exciting circuit. From the equivalent circuit we can
write,
R0 = V1 / Ic and X0 = V1 / Im
• When the load is connected to the transformer then secondary current I 2 flows. This causes
voltage drop across R2 and X2. Due to I2, primary draws an additional current
•I'2 = I2 / K. Now I1 is the phasor addition of I 0 and I'2. This I1 causes the voltage drop across
primary resistance R1 and reactance X1.
• Hence the equivalent circuit can be shown as in the Fig. 6.13.2.

• But in the equivalent circuit, windings are not shown and it is further simplified by
transferring all the values to the primary or secondary. This makes the transformer calculations
much easy.
So transferring secondary parameters to primary we get,

While transferring the values remember the rule that

Low voltage winding → High current → Low impedance
High voltage winding → Low current → High impedance
• Thus the exact equivalent circuit referred to primary can be shown as in the Fig. 6.13.3.

• Similarly all the primary value can be referred to secondary and we can obtain the equivalent
circuit referred to secondary.

Similarly the exciting circuit parameters also gets transferred to secondary as R' 0 and X'0. The
circuit is gris shown in the Fig. 6.13.4.
• Now as long as no load branch i.e. exciting branch is in between Z 1 and Z'2, the impedances
cannot be combined. So further simplification of the circuit can be done. Such circuit is called
approximate equivalent circuit.

1. Approximate Equivalent Circuit

• To get approximate equivalent circuit, shift the no load branch containing R 0 and X0 to the left
of R1 and X1. By doing this we are creating an error that the drop across R 1 and X1 due to Io is
neglected. Hence such is equivalent circuit is called approximate equivalent circuit.
• So approximate equivalent circuit referred primary can be as shown in the Fig. 6.13.5.

In this circuit now R1 and R'2 can be combined to get equivalent resistance referred to primary
R1e discussed earlier. Similarly X 1 and X2 can combined to get X 1e. And equivalent circuit can be
simplified as shown in the Fig. 6.13.6.

• In the similar fashion, the approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary also can be
obtained.
Voltage Regulation of Transformer:
• Because of the voltage drop across the primary and secondary impedances it is observed that
the secondary terminal voltage drops from its no load value (E2) to load value (V2) as load and
load current increases.
• This decrease in the secondary terminal voltage expressed as a fraction of the no load
secondary terminal voltage is called regulation of a transformer.
Let E2 = Secondary terminal voltage on no load
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage on given load
• Then mathematically voltage regulation at given load can be expressed as,
voltage regulation = E2-V2 / V2 × 100
• The ratio (E2 - V2 / V2) is called per unit regulation.

• The secondary terminal voltage does not depend only on the magnitude of the load current
but also on the nature of the power factor of the load. If V2 is determined for full load and
specified power factor condition the regulation is called full load regulation.
• As load current I1 increases, the voltage drops tend to increase and V2 drops more and more.
In case of lagging power factor V2 < E2 and we get positive voltage regulation, while for leading
power factor E2 < V2 and we get negative voltage regulation. This is shown in the Fig. 6.2.1.
Key Point: The voltage drop should be as small as possible hence less the regulation better is
the performance of a transformer.

1. Expression for Voltage Regulation

• Mathematically percentage voltage regulation is defined as,
% R = E2-V2 /V2 × 100 = Total voltage drop / V2 × 100
• The total voltage drop depends on the nature of the power factor of the load.
osol navig no sestlov lenim
Case I : Lagging power factor load
• It is known that when the transformer is loaded, there are voltage drops across resistance and
inductance. Hence the no load voltage E2 is given by,
• For lagging p.f. load, I2 lags V2 by ϕ2. Take V2 as a reference phasor. The drop I2 R2e is in the
direction of I2 while I2 X2e is at 90° to I2 R2e such that I2 lags by 90°.
• The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 6.14.2.

Case II: Leading power factor load

• The current I2 leads V2 by ϕ2 and the phasor diagram is as shown in the Fig. 6.14.3.
Key Point: If I2 or I1 in above expression is full load current it gives full load regulation.
2. Per Unit Representation
• From the regulation expression we can define constants of a transformer.
• The terms VR and Vx are called constants of a transformer because for the rated output I2, E2,
R1e X1e ,R2e ,X2e are constants. The regulation can be expressed interms of VR and Vx as,

On no load condition, E2 = V2 and E1 = V1

• where V1 and V2 are the given voltage ratings of a transformer. Hence VR and Vx can be
expressed as,

• where V1 and V2 are no load primary and secondary voltages.

• VR and Vx can be represented on percentage basis as,
Percentage resistive drop = VR × 100
Percentage reactive drop = Vx × 100
Key Point : Note that VR and Vx are also called per unit resistance and reactance respectively.
• Thus the % resistance and % reactance values of transformer winding on full load are,

Key Point: The currents used must be full load currents to calculate % values of resistances and
reactances of the transformer windings.
3. Zero Voltage Regulation
• We have seen that for lagging power factor and unity power factor condition V2 < E2 and we
get positive regulation. But as load becomes capacitive, V2 starts increasing as load increases. At
a certain leading power factor we get E2 = V2 and the regulation becomes zero. If the load is
increased further, E2 becomes less than V2 and we get negative regulation.

This is the leading p.f. at which voltage regulation becomes zero while supplying the load.
4. Condition for Maximum Voltage Regulation
The per unit voltage regulation is,
% R = [VR cos ϕ + Vx sin ϕ] × 100
Findϕ for maximum voltage regulation by differentiating above equation with respect to ϕ,

As tan is ϕ positive, maximum regulation occurs at lagging power factor. The magnitude of
maximum regulation is,

Maximum regulation

Key Point: Thus the maximum regulation is equal to the per unit value of the equivalent
impedance of the transformer.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS:
Ex. A single phase transformer has Z1=1.4+j 5.2 Ω and Z2 = 0.0117+j0.0465 'Ω. The input voltage
is 6600 V and the turn ratio is 10.6: 1. The secondary feeds a load which draws 300 A at 0.8 power
factor lagging. Find the secondary terminal voltage and the kW output. Neglect no-load current.
Sol.:
Ex. The parameters of approximate equivalent circuit of a 4 kVA, 200/400 V, 50 Hz, ϕ
transformer are: R'p=0.15 ; X'p=0.37 W; R0 = 600 Ω; Xm =300 Ω. When a rated voltage of 200 V is
applied to the primary, a current of 10 A at lagging power factor of 0.8 flows in the secondary
winding. Calculate
1) The current in the primary Ip.
2) The terminal voltage at the secondary side.
Sol.:
Losses in a Transformer:
In a transformer, there exists two types of losses.
i) The core gets subjected to an alternating flux, causing core losses.
ii) The windings carry currents when transformer is loaded, causing copper losses.
1. Core or Iron losses
• Due to alternating flux set up in the magnetic core of the transformer, it undergoes a cycle of
magnetisation demagnetisation. Due to hysteresis effect there is loss of energy in this process
which is called hysteresis loss.
It is given by, Hysteresis loss = Kh Bm1.67 f v watts
Kh = Hysteresis constant depends on material and
Bm = Maximum flux density
f = Frequency and v = Volume of the core.
• The induced e.m.f. in the core tries to set up eddy currents in the core and hence responsible
for the eddy current losses. The eddy current loss is given by,
Eddy current loss = Ke Bm2 f2t2 watts/unit volume
where Ke = Eddy current constant and t = Thickness of the core.
• As seen earlier, the flux in the core is almost constant as supply voltage V 1 at rated frequency f
is gato always constant. Hence, the flux density Bm in the core and hence both hysteresis and
eddy current losses are constants at all the loads. Hence the core or iron losses are also called
constant losses. The iron losses are denoted as P i.
• The iron losses are minimized by using high grade core material like silicon steel having very
low hysteresis loop and by manufacturing the core in the form of laminations.
2. Copper losses
• The copper losses are due to the power wasted in the form of I 2R loss due to the resistances of
the primary and secondary windings. The copper loss depends on the magnitude of the currents
flowing how through the windings.
• Total Cu loss = I12 R1 +I22 R2 = I12 (R1 + R'2) = I22 (R2 +R'1) = I12 R1e = I22 R2e
• The copper losses are denoted as P Cu. If the current through the windings is full load current,
we get copper losses at full load. If the load on transformer is half then we get copper losses at
half load which are less than full load copper losses. Thus copper losses are called variable
losses.
• Copper losses are proportional to the square of the current and square of the kVA rating as
voltage is constant.
So, PCu ∞ I2 (kVA)2
Thus for a transformer,
Total losses = Iron losses + Copper losses = P i + PCu
• The copper losses are kept minimum by designing the windings with low resistance values.

Efficiency of a Transformer:
• Due to the losses in a transformer, the output power of a transformer is less than the input
power supplied.
Power output = Power input - Total losses
Power input = Power output + Total losses = Power output +P i + PCu
The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of the power output to power input. So for a
transformer the efficiency can be expressed as,
η = Power output / Power input = Power output / Power output + P i + PCu
• Now power output = V2 I2 cos ϕ where cos ϕ = Load power factor. The transformer supplies
full load of current I2 and with terminal voltage V2.

• This is full load percentage efficiency with I 2 = Full load secondary current.
• But if the transformer is subjected to fractional load then using the appropriate values of
various quantities, the efficiency can be obtained.
Let n = Fraction by which load is less than full load = Actual load Full load / Full load
• For example, if transformer is subjected to half load then, n = Half load / Full load = (1/2)/1 =
0.5
• When load changes, the load current changes by same proportion.
New 12 = n (I2) F.L.
•Similarly the output V2I2cos ϕ2 also reduces by the same fraction. Thus fraction of VA rating is
available at the output.
• Similarly as copper losses are proportional to square of current then,
New PCu = n2 (PCu )F.L.
The copper losses get reduced by n2 while iron losses remain same.
• In general for fractional load the efficiency is given by,

where n = Fraction by which load is less than full load.

For all types of load power factors lagging, leading and unity the efficiency expression does not
change and remains same.

1. Condition for Maximum Efficiency

• The load current at which the efficiency attains maximum value is denoted as I2m and
maximum efficiency is denoted as ηmax.
• The efficiency is a function of load i.e. load current I 2 assuming cos ϕ2 constant. The secondary
terminal voltage V2 is also assumed constant.
• The graph of efficiency against load current is shown in the Fig. 6.16.1.

So for maximum efficiency

So condition to achieve maximum efficiency is that,

Copper losses = Iron losses i.e. Pi = PCu
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS:
Ex. The primary and secondary windings of a 500 kVA transformer have resistance of 0.4 Ω and
0.001 Ω respectively. The primary and secondary voltages are 6600 V and 400 V respectively. The
iron loss is 3 kW. Calculate the efficiency on full load, the load power factor being 0.8 lagging.
Sol.:
Ex. A 600 kVA, single phase transformer when working at u.p.f. has an efficiency of 92 % at full
load and also at half load. Determine its efficiency when it operates at unity p.f. and 60 % of full
load.
Sol. :
Ex. Calculate the efficiency at half, full load of a 100 kVA transformer for power factor of unity and
0.8. The copper loss is 1000 W at full load and iron loss is 1000 W.
Sol. :
Polarity Test:
• When the primary winding of a transformer is excited with suitable rated voltage then e.m.f.
gets induced in both the windings. The polarities of these e.m.f.s depend on how the windings
are wound on the core. It is usual practice to determine which ends of the two windings acquire
simultaneously positive or negative polarity. This polarity determination is carried out by
conducting the polarity test on a transformer.
• Consider a transformer shown in the Fig. 6.17.1. Usually the ends of the L.V. winding are
lebelled with small letters as a 1,a2 while the ends of the H.V. windings are lebelled with capital
letters as A1, A2
• In determining the relative polarity of the two windings of a transformer using polarity test,
the two windings are connected in series across a voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected across
a1 - A1.
• One of the windings is excited by suitable voltage source. So a 1 – a2, is excited by voltage V 1. Let
E1 and E2, are the induced e.m.f.s
Key Point: If the voltmeter reads E1 ~ E2, thus voltmeter reading is less than V 1, then the
polarities are called subtractive in nature.
• The net voltage acting around the local circuit consisting the voltmeter is E 1 ~ E2. In such case
the ends a2, A2 are simultaneously positive or negative. This is indicated by dots, as shown in the
Fig. 6.17.1.

Key Point: But if the windings are wound in such a way that the voltmeter reads E 1 +
E2 polarities are said to be additive.
• In such case the voltmeter reading is more than V 1. This confirms that if a2, is positive, terminal
A2 is negative and vice-versa. In such case, the polarity markings of one of the windings must be
interchanged.
Key Point: In practice the transformer windings are wound in such a way that the relative
polarities are subtractive which in indicated by dots, as per the dot convention.

Open Circuit and Short Circuit Tests:

• The efficiency and regulation of a transformer on any load condition and at any power factor
condition can be predetermined by indirect loading method. In this method, the actual load is
not used on transformer. But the equivalent circuit parameters of a transformer are determined
by conducting two tests on a transformer which are,
1. Open Circuit Test (O.C. Test)
2. Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test)
Key Point: The parameters calculated from these results are effective in determining the
regulation and efficiency of a transformer at any load and power factor condition, without
actually loading the transformer.
• The advantage of this method is that without much power loss the tests can be performed and
results can be obtained. Let us discuss in detail how to perform these tests and how to use the
results to calculate equivalent circuit parameters.
1. Open Circuit Test (O.C. Test)
• The experimental circuit to conduct O.C. test is shown in the Fig. 6.18.1.
• The transformer primary is connected to a.c. supply through ammeter, wattmeter and variac.
The secondary of transformer is kept open. Usually low voltage side is used as primary and high
voltage side as secondary to conduct O.C. test.
• The primary is excited by rated voltage, which is adjusted precisely with the help of a variac.
The wattmeter measures input power. The ammeter measures input current. The voltmeter
gives the value of rated primary voltage applied at rated frequency.
• Sometimes a voltmeter may be connected across secondary to measure secondary voltage
which is V2 = E2 when primary is supplied with rated voltage. As voltmeter resistance is very
high, though voltmeter is connected, secondary is treated to be open circuit as voltmeter
current is always negligibly small.
• When the primary voltage is adjusted to its rated value with the help of variac, readings of
ammeter and wattmeter are to be recorded.
The observation table is as follows

V0 = Rated voltage, W0 = Input power, I0 = Input current = No load current

• As transformer secondary is open, it is on no load. So current drawn by the primary is no load
current I0. The two components of this no load current are,
Im = I0 sin ϕ0, Ic = I0 cos ϕ0
Where cos ϕ0 = No load power factor
And hence power input can be written as,
W0 = V0 I0 cos ϕ0
The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 6.18.2.
• As secondary is open, I 2 = 0. Thus its reflected current on primary is also zero. So we have
primary current I1 = I0. The transformer no load current is always very small, hardly 2 to 4 % of
its full load value. As I2 = 0, secondary copper losses are zero. And I 1 = I0 is very low hence
copper losses on primary are also very very low. Thus the total copper losses in O.C. test are
negligibly small. As against this the input voltage is rated at rated frequency hence flux density
in the core is at its maximum value. Hence iron losses are at rated voltage. As output power is
zero and copper losses are very low, the total input power is used to supply iron losses. This
power is measured by the wattmeter i.e. W 0. Hence the wattmeter in O.C. test gives iron losses
which remain constant for all the loads.
W0 = Pi = Iron losses
Calculations: We know that,

Key Point: The no load power factor cos 'ϕ0 is very low hence wattmeter used must be low
power factor type otherwise there might be error in the results. If the meters are connected on
secondary and primary is kept open then from O.C. test we get R' 0 and X'0 and with which we
can obtain Ro and X0 and knowing the transformation ratio K.

2. Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test)

• In this test, primary is connected to a.c. supply through variac, ammeter and voltmeter as
shown in the Fig. 6.18.2.
• The secondary is short circuited with the help of thick copper wire or solid link. As high
voltage side is always low current side, it is convenient to connect high voltage side to supply
and shorting the low voltage side.
• As secondary is shorted, its resistance is very very small and on rated voltage it may draw very
large current. Such large current can cause overheating and burning of the transformer. To limit
this short circuit current, primary is supplied with low voltage which is just enough to cause
rated current to flow through primary which can be observed on an ammeter. The low voltage
can be adjusted with the help of variac. Hence this test is also called low voltage test or reduced
voltage test. The wattmeter reading as well as voltmeter, ammeter readings are recorded. The
observation table is as follows,

• Now the currents flowing through the windings are rated currents hence the total copper loss
is full load copper loss. Now the voltage applied is low which is a small fraction of the rated
voltage. The iron losses are function of applied voltage. So the iron losses in reduced voltage test
are very small. Hence the wattmeter reading is the power loss which is equal to full load copper
losses as iron losses are very low.
• Thus we get the equivalent circuit parameters R 1e X1e and Z1e. Knowing the transformation
ratio K, the equivalent circuit parameters referred to secondary also can be obtained.
• Important note: If the transformer is step up transformer, its primary is L.V. while secondary
is H.V. winding. In S.C. test, supply is given to H.V. winding and L.V. is shorted. In such case we
connect meters on H.V. side which is transformer secondary though for S.C. test purpose H.V.
side acts as primary. In such case the parameters calculated from S.C. test readings are referred
to secondary which are Rze' Z2e and X2e. So before doing calculations it is necessary to find out
whether the readings are recorded on transformer primary or secondary and accordingly the
parameters are to be determined. In step down transformer, primary is high voltage itself to
which supply is given in S.C. test. So in such case test results give us parameters referred to
primary i.e. R1e' Z1e and X1e.
Key Point: In short, if meters are connected to primary of transformer in S.C. test, calculations
give us R1e and Z1e. If meters are connected to secondary of transformer in S.C. test calculations
give us R2e and Z2e.

3. Calculation of Efficiency from O.C. and S.C. Tests

We know that,

Thus for any p.f. cos ϕ2 the efficiency can be predetermined. Similarly at any load which is
fraction of full load then also efficiency can be predetermined as,

4. Calculation of Regulation
• From S.C. test we get the equivalent circuit parameters referred to primary or secondary.
• The rated voltages V 1, V2 and rated currents (I1) F.L. and (I2) F.L. are known for the given
transformer. Hence the regulation can be determined as,

where I1, I2 are rated currents for full load regulation.

For any other load the currents I1, I2 must be changed by fraction n.
I1, 12 at any other load = n (I1) F.L., n (I2) F.L.
• Thus regulation at any load and any power factor can be predetermined, without actually
loading the transformer.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS:
Ex. Draw the equivalent circuit for a single phase 1100/220 V transformer on which the following
results were obtained:
i) 1100 V, 0.5 A, 55 W on primary, secondary being open circuited
ii) 10 V, 80 A, 400 W on L.V. side, H.V. being short circuited.
Calculate the voltage regulation and efficiency for the above transformer when supplying 100 A at
0.8 p.f. lagging.
Sol. :
Sumpner's Test (Back to Back Test):
• The Sumpner's test is another method of determining efficiency, regulation and heating under
load conditions. The O.C. and S.C. tests give us the equivalent circuit parameters but cannot give
heating information under various load conditions. The Sumpner's test gives heating
information also. In O.C. test, there is no load on the transformer while in S.C. test also only
fractional load gets applied. In all in O.C. and S.C. tests, the loading conditions are absent. Hence
the results are inaccurate. In Sumpner's test, actual loading conditions are simulated hence the
results obtained are much more accurate. Thus Sumpner's test is much improved method of
predetermining regulation and efficiency than O.C. and S.C. tests.
• The Sumpner's test requires two identical transformers. Both the transformers are connected
to the supply such that one transformer is loaded on the other. Thus power taken from the
supply is that much necessary for supplying the losses of both the transformers and there is
very small loss in the control circuit.
• While conducting this test, the primaries of the two identical transformers are connected in
parallel across the supply V1. While the secondaries are connected in series opposition so that
induced e.m.f.s in the two secondaries oppose each other. The secondaries are supplied from
another low voltage supply are connected in each circuit to get the readings. The connection
diagram is shown in the Fig. 6.19.1.

• T1 and T2 are two identical transformers. The secondaries of T 1 and T2 are connected in series
opposition. So EEF = EGH i.e. induced in two srb secondaries are equal but the secondaries are
connected such that E is connected to G and F is connected to H. Due to such series opposition,
two e.m.f.s act in opposite direction to each other and cancel each other. So net voltage in the
local circuit of secondaries is zero, when primaries are excited by supply 1 of rated voltage and
frequency. So there is no current flowing in the loop formed by two secondaries. The series
opposition can be checked by another voltmeter connected in the secondary circuit as per
polarity test. If it reads zero, the secondaries are in series opposition and if it reads double the
induced e.m.f. in each secondary, is necessary to reverse the connections of one of the
secondaries.
• As per superposition theorem, if V2 is assumed zero then due to phase opposition no current
flows through secondary and both the transformers T 1, T2 are as good as on no load. So O.C. test
gets simulated. The current drawn from source V 1 in such case is 2 I0 where I0 is no load current
of each transformer. The input power as measured by wattmeter W 1 thus reads the iron losses
of both the transformers.
Pi per transformer = W1 / 2 as T1, T2, are identical.
• Then a small voltage V2 is injected into the secondary with the help of low voltage transformer,
by closing the switch S. With regulating mechanism, the voltage V 2 is adjusted so that the rated
secondary current I2 flows through the secondaries as shown. I2 flows from E to F and then from
H to G. The flow of I1 is restricted to the loop BAIJCDL KB and it does not pass through W1.
Hence W1 continues to read core losses. Both primaries and secondaries carry rated current so
S.C. test condition gets simulated. Thus the wattmeter W 2 reads the total full load copper losses
of both the transformers.
(Pcu)F.L. per transformer = W2 /2
Key Point: Thus in the Sumpner's test without supplying the load, full iron loss occurs in the
basol core while full copper loss occurs in the windings simultaneously. Hence heat run test can
be conducted on the two transformers. In O.C. and S.C. test, both the losses do not occur
anolboro simultaneously hence heat run test cannot be conducted. This is the advantage of
Sumpner's test.
From the test results the full load efficiency of each transformer can be calculated as,

where Output = VA rating × cos ϕ2

Key Point: As all the voltages, currents and powers are measured during the test, the equivalent
circuit parameters also can be determined. Hence the regulation at any load and load power
factor condition can be predetermined.
•The only limitation is that two identical transformers are required. In practice exact identical
transformers cannot be obtained. As two transformers are required, the test is not economical.
Separation of Core Losses:
• It is seen that the core losses of transformer includes,
•1. Hysteresis loss 2. Eddy current loss bol
• For a given volume and thickeness of laminations, these losses depend on the operating
frequency, maximum flux density in the core and the voltage.
• The hysteresis loss is given by Steinmet'z relation,
Where A = Constant assuming constant voltage.
The eddy current loss is given by,

Where B = Constant for given thickness t of core

Thus the total core loss becomes,
Pi = Ph+Pe = ABm1.67 f + BBm2f2 ..............(6.21.3)
• Practically conduct two tests on transformers at two different frequencies f 1 and f2, keeping
maximum flux density Bm in the core same. The results are to be used in the equations (6.21.1),
(6.21.2) and (6.21.3) to obtain the constants A and B. Thus the e core losses i.e. iron losses can
be separated into hysteresis and eddy current losses.