Muhammadiyah Sufism and The Quest For Au

Indonesian Journal of Islam and Muslim Societies
Vol. 13, no. 1 (2023), pp. 199-226, doi : 10.18326/ijims.v13i1. 199-226
Muhammadiyah, Sufism, and

the quest for ‘authentic’ Islamic
spirituality
Ahmad Muttaqin
UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, Indonesia
E-mail: [email protected]
Ustadi Hamsah
Robby Habiba Abror

DOI:10.18326/ijims.v13i1. 199-226
Abstract
This current paper explores and analyzes the trend of Sufism discourses
and practices among Indonesian Muslim modernist-reformer organizations
with special reference to the Muhammadiyah movement. The public tends
to categorize Muhammadiyah as an anti-Sufism movement. A close study,
however, shows that the existence of Sufism discourse and practices is a clear
religious phenomenon among its individual figures and members, although
organizationally Muhammadiyah does not recognize the existence of Sufi orders
199
IJIMS: Indonesian Journal of Islam and Muslim Societies, Volume 13, Number 1, June 2023: 199-226
(tarekat). Based on the data collected from subjective-ethnographic notes of

the organization’s programs and activities as well as literature studies of the
organization documents, this study implements Stephen Katz’s philosophical
model. It shows that Muhammadiyah is searching for Islamic spirituality by
promoting the authenticity of tasawuf aspects, namely tauh}i>d or monotheism
and akhla>q al-kari>mah or noble characters as reflected in the concept of ih}sa>n. In
this regard, Sufism is defined as a system of values and spirituality, not involved
in a particular Sufi order. Muhammadiyah interprets Sufism as ethical values
and ethos to do virtuous actions in society.
Tulisan ini mengeksplorasi dan menganalisis tren wacana dan praktik tasawuf
dalam organisasi Islam modern-pembaharu di Indonesia dengan referensi
khusus pada gerakan Muhammadiyah. Masyarakat cenderung mengkategorikan
Muhammadiyah secara umum sebagai gerakan anti tasawuf. Namun kajian
mendalam menunjukkan bahwa praktik dan wacana tasawuf merupakan
fenomena keagamaan yang nyata di kalangan individu tokoh dan anggotanya,
meskipun secara organisasi Muhammadiyah tidak mengakui keberadaan tarekat.
Berdasarkan data yang dikumpulkan dari catatan etnografi subjektif dari program
dan kegiatan organisasi serta studi literatur dokumen organisasi, penelitian ini
menerapkan model filosofis Stephen Katz sebagai pisau analisi. Hasil kajian
menunjukkan bahwa spiritualitas Islam di mata Muhammadiyah dikonstruksi
dengan mengedepankan autentisitas tasawuf itu sendiri, yaitu ih}sa>n dan akhla>q
al-kari>mah. Tasawuf diartikan sebagai suatu sistem nilai dan spiritualitas, bukan
keterlibatan dalam tarekat tertentu. Muhammadiyah memaknai tasawuf sebagai
nilai etis dan etos untuk melakukan tindakan kebajikan dalam masyarakat.
Keywords: Ih}sa>n; Islamic Spirituality; Modernist Muslim; Muhammadiyah
Introduction
Muhammadiyah is an Islamic movement known for its slogan “calling for
enjoining right and forbidding wrong,” (da’wah amar ma’ru>f nahi> munkar)
which is rooted in the epistemology of Muslim reformers.1 The basis of
1
Haedar Nashir, Muhammadiyah a Reform Movement, Surakarta: Muhammadiyah University
Press, 2015, 18.
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Muhammadiyah, Sufism, and the quest for ‘authentic’ Islamic spirituality (Ahmad Muttaqin, et.al)
Islamic reform is rational thoughts and its social implementation. Sheerin

T. Hunter explained that the reform of the Muslim paradigm is more
on the rationalization of belief systems, scriptures, and sources of law to
respond to existing social problems.2 In this context, Muhammadiyah has
been a pioneer in developing a rationalist perspective in Indonesia. The
rationalization pattern developed by Muhammadiyah became a “model”
for the epistemology of Muslim reformers in the Southeast Asian region.3
In its contemporary development, Muhammadiyah interacts a lot
with wider socio-cultural dynamics. The social dynamics of this reformist
paradigm continue to emerge into more complex social contexts. Keith
Ward in his book The Case for Religion describes that institutionally religion
will experience four processes of interaction with its socio-cultural context,
namely local, canonical, critical, and global.4 At the global level, religion will
blend and intersect with various contexts of social and cultural progress,
even the most extreme ones. The tendency of the rationalist paradigm, as
noted by Max Weber, will have implications for institutionalization so that
it is more oriented to modes of thought and attitude that are practical,
logical, socially involved, and provide answers to social problems.5
At glance, such a rationalist paradigm tends to neglect the practices of
asceticism, which emphasizes more on inner practices. The intuition-based
epistemology developed in the ascetic tradition is not a domain of the rationalist
paradigm. Nevertheless, the dynamic development within Muhammadiyah in
interacting with various socio-cultural contexts sometimes leads to an “ascetic”
tendency orienting to the practice of Sufism in a distinctive way.
2
Shireen T. Hunter, ed., Reformist Voices of Islam: Mediating Islam and Modernity, New York
and London: M.E. Sharpe, 2009, 3.
3
James L. Peacock, Muslim Puritans: Reformist Psychology in Southeast Asian Islam, London:
University of California Press, 1978, 19-20.
4
Keith Ward, The Case for Religion, Oxford: One World, 2008.
5
Max Weber, The Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism, London: George Allen &
Unwin Ltd., 1950.
201
One of the studies on the phenomenon of Sufism in Muhammadiyah

was conducted by Biyanto who has mapped the tendency of Sufism
practices in Muhammadiyah. According to Biyanto, the practice of Sufism
in Muhammadiyah manifest in several principles, such as based on the
purity of monotheism, being in the frame of the teachings of the Qur’an
and Sunnah, the substance of its teachings oriented to the application
of good manners (akhla>q al-kari>mah) and good deed (‘amal sha>lih}), in line
with developments and modernity, innovative and creative in character –
not fatalistic, morally patterned and avoiding philosophical debates, not
centered on spiritual gurus and unorganized in a particular Sufi order.6
The above principles are the main pillars of the structure of
Muhammadiyah’s identity known as an integration of puritanism and
modernity.7 This principle is recorded in the system of thought, attitude,
and behavior for Muhammadiyah members. Thus, the Sufism model in
Muhammadiyah is practiced in attitudes and action of ultimate value (ih}
sa>n) and good manners (akhla>q al-kari>mah), not on the institutionalization
of attitudes in certain “rites”. Such principles underline the concept
of Sufism in Muhammadiyah for internalization of ih}sa>n in actions
and good manners in accordance with Islamic sharia. In line with this,
Herman L. Beck, in his study on the historical account of a century of
Muhammadiyah’s official positions towards Sufism stated, “… as long as
Sufism is shari>ah-abiding and promotes morality it will be tolerated by the
Muhammadiyah, but as soon as it becomes heterodox and heteropraxy it
will be challenged.” 8
6
Biyanto, “The Typology of Muhammadiyah Sufism: Tracing Its Figures’ Thoughts and
Exemplary Lives”, Indonesian Journal of Islam and Muslim Societies, Volume 7, Number 2 (2017),
221-249, https://doi.org/10.18326/ijims.v7i2.221-249.
7
Mitsuo Nakamura, “Prof. H. Abdul Kahar Muzakkir and The Development of Islamic
Reformist Movement in Indonesia”, Afkaruna, Volume 15, Number 2 (2019), 203-225, https://
doi.org/10.18196/aiijis.2019.0103.203-225.
8
Herman L. Beck, “The Contested State of Sufism in Islamic Modernism: The Case of the
202
Due to the strict and distinctive position of Muhammadiyah toward

Sufism, critics said that this Modernist Muslim group is now spiritually
dry and arid. The organization is so far known for its anti or at least does
not appreciate to Sufism (tashawuf) or spiritual dimension of Islam. Such a
judgment is based on the following arguments: The First is that the image
of Muhammadiyah as a modernist Muslim organization, where modern
people tend to regard mystical experiences as backwards, traditional
expression as well as the barrier of progress and development. The
notion that Muhammadiyah is a pioneer of Islamic movement promoting
pragmatic rationalization and setting out intellectual and ratio has placed
the organization as by definition as anti-Sufism.9
The second argument is the fact that Muhammadiyah is frequently
described as puritan Muslims actively opposing superstition, heresy, and
myth (Takhayul, Bid’ah and Churafat [TBC]) in Islam. Among puritan
Muslims, there is a common view that Sufism is a kind of unauthentic
Islamic teaching.10 The last argument is the fact that none of the Sufi
order (tarekat) affiliates to the Muhammadiyah. This is in contrast to, let’s
say, Nahdhatul Ulama (NU) that organizationally develops an umbrella
organization of Sufi order, the JATMAN (Jam’iyah Ahli Thari>qah al-
Mu’tabarah al-Nahdhiyah), accommodating various authentic (mu’tabarah)
Sufi orders.11
Muhammadiyah Movement in Twentieth-Century Indonesia”, Journal of Sufi Studies, Volume

3, Issue 2 (2014), https://doi.org/10.1163/22105956-12341269.
9
Mohamad Ali, “Sufisme dalam Pandangan Muslim Modernis Awal: Telaah Pemikiran
Tasawuf Kiai Moechtar Boechari (1899-1926)”, Jurnal Lektur Keagamaan, Volume 17, Number
1 (2019), https://doi.org/10.31291/jlk.v17i1.606.
10
Abas Sofyan, “Konsep dan Icon Gerakan Muhammadiyah”, Kawasa, Volume 8, Number
3 (2018).
11
Rangga Sa’adillah S.A.P., “Spiritualitas Muhammadiyah: Kontekstualisasi Gagasan
Sufisme Ahmad Dahlan dalam Masyarakat Postmodern”, El-Banat: Jurnal Pemikiran
dan Pendidikan Islam, Volume 9, Number 1 (2019), 21-34, https://doi.org/10.54180/
elbanat.2019.9.1.21-34.
203
In addition to the above three arguments, scholars of modern movement

in Islam also have difficulties tracing back terms of tasawuf as well as
tarekat in Muhammadiyah’s official documents. The question, therefore,
is Muhammadiyah really anti Sufism or Islamic spirituality? Are there any
discourses and practices on tasawuf, Sufism and other Islamic spirituality
among Muhammadiyah figures and its communities? What kind of Islamic
spirituality Muhammadiyah tries to construct?
To answer the above questions, we will explore the dynamic of Sufism
thoughts and practices among Muhammadiyah activists. Based on the
data gathered from document studies and auto ethnographic notes of
the authors as Muhammadiyah activists, we then analyze and reflectively
formulate the state of the art of Sufism in Muhammadiyah context from
Stephen Katz’s philosophical model.
Discourse and practices of Sufism in Muhammadiyah

Generally, the attitude of Muhammadiyah towards Sufism can be classified
into three categories. The first are those who totally oppose to, and refuse,
Sufism; second are those open to the idea of Sufism, and the third are
those accommodating tasawuf. This sub chapter will elaborate the dynamic
discourses and practices of Sufism in Muhammadiyah leaders, activists,
members and sympathizers as well as that appears in the organization’s
documents.
Tasawuf, Akhla>q and Ih}sa>n

Among Muhammadiyah activists in various regents, the quest for official
Muhammadiyah’s outlook on Sufism still frequently appears.12 In
12
Purmansyah Ariadi, Rulitawati Rulitawati, and Mona Novita, “Pemahaman dan
Pengamalan Nilai-nilai Tasawuf di Kalangan Elit Muhammadiyah Sumatera Selatan”, Nur
El-Islam : Jurnal Pendidikan dan Sosial Keagamaan, Volume 8, Number 1 (2021), https://doi.
org/10.51311/nuris.v8i1.292.
204
several Muhammadiyah religious forums and training programs such as

in the Baitul Arqam and Darul Arqam, participants usually asked about
Muhammadiyah’s attitude towards Sufism. Interestingly, the answers of
the speakers of the training programs towards the above questions are not
strictly said that Muhammadiyah is anti tashawuf or noting that Sufism
is h}ara>m (unlawful) for Muhammadiyah. Novrizal Nawawi, the leader
of Muhammadiyah Palembang, for example, said that Muhammadiyah
cannot blame tasawuf per se. In fact, Muhammadiyah takes the beneficence
of tasawuf in different aspects. Since the core of tasawuf is akhla>q al-kari>mah,
Muhammadiyah therefore elaborates more on the concept and practice of
the akhla>q al-kari>mah rather than the tarekat (Sufi order), of which existences
differ. Some tarekat groups are considered mu’tabarah (valid, authentic
for it is considered not to contradict shari>’ah), and many other groups are
classified as ghairu mu’tabarah (not valid, due to its contradiction to the
shariah principles).
Regarding participants’ question as to why Muhammadiyah tends to be
allergic to tashawuf, another speaker, Ris’an, a Professor of Islamic Studies,
member of Majelis Tarjih of Muhammadiyah Palembang, acknowledges that
he understood that Muhammadiyah is allergic to tasawuf because the
organization emphasizes fiqh-oriented rituals. Nevertheless, Ris’an asked
the audiences not to easily blame Muslims who practice tasawuf teachings.
Ris’an further explained that a number of Muhammadiyah members
would probably have been sufficient to be close to God (taqarrub ila> Alla>h)
through the daily ritual of the ‘iba>dah mahdhah. But the practitioners
of tasawuf would say that the ‘iba>dah mahdhah is not enough for them.
Therefore, they develop another spiritual path to cultivate their rasa (inner
dimension of religious experience). According to Ris’an, the cultivation
of inner spiritual experience, which is dedicated to be close to God, is in
line with the concept of ih}sa>n.
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K.H. Ahmad Azhar Basyir, the former chief person Central Board of
Muhammadiyah, stated that the notion of tasawuf is identical to that of
ih}sa>n. One day, Haedar Nashir, when he was at the Educational Bureau
of Cadre (Badan Pendidikan Kader), asked Pak Azhar, “If Muhammadiyah
rejects tasawuf, what is the alternative for it?” Pak Azhar then replied by
noting the prophet tradition about ma> huwa al-Isla>m, ma> huwa al-I>ma>n,
wa ma> huwa al-Ih}sa>n (what is Islam, what is Iman, and what is Ih}sa>n). The
tashawuf, according to Pak Azhar, is equivalent to ih}sa>n, meaning “you
pray to God as if you see Him, if you cannot see Him, God must see you”
(an ta’budalla>ha ka annaka tara>hu fainlam takun tara>hu fainnahU> yara>ka).
However, among other current Muhammadiyah activists, ihsan is
interpreted in a broader meaning, not only in terms of Islamic spirituality,
which refers to the inner dimension of religious experience as it is indicated
in the hadis. For instance, one day, in a board member meeting of the
Dakwah Council of the Central Board of Muhammadiyah (Majelis Tabligh
PP Muhammadiyah), one of the board members questioning the need
for the council to develop a program that addresses and elaborates ihsan
dimension in Muhammadiyah. Another board member who presented
the paper on the coaching concept for Muhammadiyah members (Konsep
Pembinaan Warga Muhammadiyah) said that the ih}sa>n dimension is about
tazkiyatu nafs (purification of self), which has been included in the tauhi>d
and doctrinal aspect of Islam. Another member added saying that ihsan is
more about the fruit of amal shaleh (good deeds) and morality.
Unlike the above interpretation that tend to frame the tauh}i>d from the
concept of tauh}i>d and the fruit of morality, the opinion of Majelis Tarjih
and Tajdid (Council of Islamic Legal Affairs and Reform) board members
seems to be more open to discuss the term from a spiritual perspective.
When we asked a board member of the Majelis Tarjih about the urgency for
elaborating the concept of ih}sa>n amid the growing number of urban Islamic
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spiritual groups and the need of Muhammadiyah to actively contribute

to the discourse of tashawuf, he said that Muhammadiyah indeed needs
Sufism to mature the religiosity of its members.
Practical Sufism at the grassroots

Muhammadiyah activists, members and sympathizers in grassroots seem
to be more open and not allergic to the experiential dimension of Islam.
Nakamura’s fieldwork at Kotagede Yogyakarta in the 1970s found Sufis
elements in local activist and Muhammadiyah leaders, such as the practice
of zikir and wirid, guidance of lust control, as well as nurturing sincere,
virtuous, and commendable morals.13 A huge number of Muhammadiyah
people are longing for such inner spiritual experiences. This can be read
from the high demand for training that explores spiritual experience such as
the ESQ (Emotional and Spiritual Quotinet), Hearth Intelligence, training
for sholat khusyuk (solemn prayer), and many other Spiritual-development
programs.
Amid the growing Islamic spiritual market in printing, music, neo-
Sufism classes, as well as the mass congregation of zikir in 1990s to 2000s,
Muhammadiyah is not fully absent. Among one of the national figures in
Giant Zikir (Zikir Akbar) frequently aired on television, the late Muhammad
Arifin Ilham, is a figure reportedly genetically from the Muhammadiyah
family and an alumnus of Muhammadiyah School. Hadad Alwi, a national
singer of shalawat songs was an alumnus of Muhammadiyah schools, as
well. Emha Ainun Najib, who manages Maiyah forum and Kyai Kanjeng
religious music group, is an alumnus of Muhammadiyah High school
in Yogyakarta and his families in Jombang are Muhammadyah activists.
Din Samsuddin, the 2005 to 2015 chairperson of the Central Board of
Mitsuo Nakamura. “Unsur Sufi dalam Muhammadiyah”, Prisma No. 8/Agustus,

13
1980.
207
Muhammadiyah, for some moments participated in the mass zikir.

In Yogyakarta, corporatized spiritual training centers have developed
since the early 2000s, founded and led by figures associated with
Muhammadiyah. Two centers worth noting here are Bioenergy and
Synergy. The Bionergi was founded by Syaiful M. Maghsri [b.1968],
an alumnus Educational Psychology program at the Muhammadiyah
Institute for Teacher Training and Pedagogy (IKIP [Institut Keguruan dan
Ilmu Pendidikan Muhammadiyah]), currently known as the University of
Ahmad Dahlan, Yogykarta. The Bioenergi is a centre for training, healing,
and business consultation. The motto of the centre is ‘Menjadi Akhir
Segala Solusi’ [be the final solution] (i.e. of various problems, such as those
concerning disease, career, business, and family), and ‘sehat’, ‘sukses’, ‘kaya-
raya’, and ‘bahagia’ [healthy, successful, rich, and prosperous] are among
terms often used in its promotion.14
Syaiful claims that what he is doing in his centre is just explaining Sufi
teachings, such as sabar [Ar. shabar, patience], sukur [Ar. shukU>r, gratitude],
ikhlas [Ar. ikhla>sh, sincere], and tawakal [Ar. tawakkal, trust], at a practical
level, for the direct purpose of achieving this-worldly success. In doing so,
he explores the concept of the progressive Sufi spiritual paths of syariat,
tarekat, hakikat, and makrifat [Ar. shari>’ah, thari>qah, haqi>qah, ma’rifah]
by developing a formula he calls ‘Pola Kecerdasan Terpadu’ [Integrated
Intelligent Model] or ‘Bioenergi Quotient’, abbreviated as BQ. The formula,
which is a combination of elements of Sufism and neuro-linguistic-
programming, incorporates the concept that to be successful and lucky,
people should integrate their four brains, namely, otak kiri [left brain]
which is the base for the syariat, otak kanan [right brain] for the tarekat, otak
spiritual [spiritual brain] for the hakikat, and the otak universal [universal
brain] for the makrifat.
14
https://bioenergicenter.com/bioenergi/bioenergi-center-adalah/
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Syaiful explained the word ‘spiritualitas’ [spirituality] is tasawuf in its

practical meaning. He deliberately does not mention words like ‘tasawuf’
or ‘Sufism’ and other Islamic terms as part of the name of his centre.
However, reading his book ‘Pencerahan’ (2006), for example, we can find
Sufi teaching in it. In addition to narrating Syaiful’s spiritual journey, the
book describes modes of enlightenment [pencerahan] as an outcome of the
cultivation of spirituality and the management of mind and social life.
The explanation of spirituality in ‘Pencerahan’ draws on tasawuf teachings,
by referring to Syekh Abdul Qadir Jailani’s spiritual stages: Tobat, Ikhlas,
Tawakal, Syukur, Sabar, Yakin, dan Jujur [repentance, sincerity, trust in God,
gratitude, patience, confidence, and honesty].15
Another spiritual center is Sinergy, developed by Basuki AR, who was a
Muhammadiyah activist in Warung Boto Yogyakarta and a former lecturer
at the Ahmad Dahlan University. The Sinergy was founded in 2003 and
is branded as a leadership centre with the slogan “My HEART See My
GOD” (Hatiku Melihat Tuhanku). One of its leading programs is Heart
Intelligence Training. In his centre, Basuki offers both in house and on-call
training programs for leadership, character building, service excellence,
parenting, and many others.16 Asked about the training contents, Basuki
explained that he just elaborated Sufism in the practical levels, such as
bringing participants to know and understand God properly, behave to
other people nicely, and to express their gratitude rightly to what God
has given to them.
Basuki explained that Sufism should be practical. It was true that there
are aspects of philosophical Sufism or Sufism teachings such as the concept
of wah}dat al-wujU>d (mystical union). The concept of wah}dat al-wuju>d is
15
Furher discussion on Bionergi as the representation of hybrid spiritual enterprise can be
found in Ahmad Muttaqin, “From Piety to Efficacy: Hybrid Sufism in Secular Landscape”,
RIMA Review of Indonesian amd Malysian Affairs, Volume 46, Number 2 (2012), 25-46.
16
http://sinergycenter.blogspot.com/2009/03/program-sinergy-lc.html
209
one the Sufism teaching, which was usually rejected by shariah-oriented

Muslims as well as some Muhammadiyah members and sympathizers.
In order to avoid the rejection of Sufism teachings, reinterpretation and
contextualization is needed. For example, if the concept of wah}dat al-
wujU>d is understood as the union between God and man, it is potentially
in contradiction to the concept of tauh}i>d. The mystical union concept
therefore should be understood that the union is not between the two
dza>t (essences) but between the characters. In terms of God and human
relation, the characters of God (Sifat-sifat Tuhan) enter the human soul
and then inspire humans to act accordingly to the God characters. At
this stage, human should think, feels, and act based on the 99 of Allah’s
characters (asma>` al-h}usna>).
Operationally, since the fruit of tasawuf is morality (akhla>q kari>mah),
the more appropriate concept is wah}datul ira>dah (the union of intention),
instead of the wah}dat al-wuju>d. The wah}da al-ira>dah refers to the union
between human’s will with God will. It means, when God orders human
to create peace and harmony in this world, humans should do it. When
God forbids humans to break the world, humans intentionally will not
create any harm.
At the grassroots level, since the 2010s, there has been a trend of study
groups (pengajian) on Sufism among Muhammadiyah communities. In
Sidoarjo, East Java, a study group focusing on Sufism was initiated H.
Khusni Tauchid, known as Abah Us, the Chairman of the Muhammadiyah
Branch (PCM) Sukodono at the al-Ishlah Mosque. In 2020 he died of covid,
after completing teaching on Sufi interpretation books, Kita>b al-H}ikam by
Ibn Atha’illah al-Sakandari and Nasha>`ih} al-‘Iba>d, every Monday night.
In the last five years, Sufi study group has become also increasingly
widespread and developed among Muhammadiyah communities in
cities such as Bandung and Yogyakarta. In Bandung, the study of the
210
Kita>b al-H}ikam is held routinely every Thursday night entitled “Dirasah

Kitab” or “Kajian Kitab Malam Jumat (Kaki Maju),” supervised by Cecep
Taufikurrohman. The program was aired live via YouTube streaming by
the Muhammadiyah channel of West Java.
In Yogyakarta, a Sufi study group was organized by Muhmmadiyah
Distric of Yogyakarta city, under the topic “Tazkiyatun Nafs ala K.H.
Ahmad Dahlan” (Self-Purification according to K.H. A Dahlan, the founder
of Muhammadiyah). The study was conducted every Saturday night,
focusing on al-H}ikam book and supervised by Muhammad Damami Zein,
one of Deputy Chairpersons of the Tabligh Assembly, Central Board of
Muhammadiyah.
Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, the study of Sufism
on Muhammadiyah website also appeared on mediamu.id, an official of
news channel of the Muhammadiyah Special Territory of Yogyakarta.
Among the topics discussed were insa>n ka>mil, imago dei, wah}dah al-wujU>d,
ma’rifah, muka>shafah, ta`wi>l al-h}urU>f and so on.
It is worth noting here that although criticisms toward Sufism from
the puritan wings continue to appear, a number of Muhammadiyah
non-puritan generations are continuing to grow up and are familiar with
post-modernism and post-traditionalism discourses and are not hesitatant
about dealing with the inner and esoteric dimensions of Islam.
Sufi-nuanced terms in Muhammadiyah’s documents

Muhammadiyah has been known so far as a progressive, modernist,
and lately, puritan group, so accommodating tasawuf would be difficult
although in the level of term. Let’s see, for example, a charismatic
Muhammadiyah leader, Hamka, who wrote Tasawuf Modern (Modern
Sufism). He should add “modern” after the “tasawuf” for the recipes
and practices of the inner dimension of Islam to be accepted by Muslims
211
modernists. Hamka’s book was part of his project to bring tasawuf back to
the right and original meaning, or in Al-Junaid words “as a style of thought
and a mode of piety that ought to be in line with the syariah and purified
from the many external influences” that has led Sufism is more openly
accepted by Muhammadiyah communities and Malay world in genaral.17
One of Muhammadiyah leaders, K.H. Azhar Basyir, as elaborated in
the previous chapter, avoids the term tasawuf and proposed ‘ih}sa>n.’ Other
Muhammadiyah figures prefer using “spiritual” or “spiritualitas” (spirituality),
and ‘irfa>ni>.’ Referring to the Muhammadiyah documents, we will find a number
of terms which are equivalent to Sufism, if the term is interpreted in terms
of inner dimension of Islamic expression, such as “ih}sa>n” (in the Kepribadian
Muhammadiyah – the Character of Muhammadiyah), “spiritual” (in the
Matan Keyakinan and Cita-cita Hidup - Matters of Faith and Life’s Aspiration
of Muhammadiyah), and “Spiritualitas” (in Manhaj Tarjih dan Pengembangan
Pemikiran Islam – Method of Tarjih and the Development of Islamic Thought).
Muhammadiyah prefers to word “ih}sa>n” (literally means good deeds,
goodness, virtue, benefaction) than the “tashawuf” because it is the word
noted definitely by Prophet Muhammad in one of his hadiths. For this
reason, Muhammadiyah figures elaborate the concept of ih}sa>n on a
practical level. One of the articles in the Kepribadian Muhammadiyah notes
“Ihsan Kepada Kemanusian” (good deeds for the sake of humanity) as part
of Muhammadiyah identity, reflecting the importance of maintaining a
balance between human-God and human-human relationships. Whereas
the notion of “Spiritual” in the MKCH underlines that Islam promotes
both spiritual and material prosperity.
After its 43rd Congress in Banda Aceh (1995), the Muhammadiyah
introduced a program called Spiritualisasi Syariat (spiritualization of
17
Khairuddin Al-Junaid, “Reorienting Sufism: Hamka and Islamic Mysticism in the Malay
World”, Indonesia, No. 101, (April 2016), 67-84. DOI: 10.1353/ind.2016.0012
212
syariah). According to Munir Mulkhan, indeed the first term introduced

by the committee was “Sufistifikasi Shariat” (Sufistification of the Shari>’ah).
Furthermore, the Majelis Tarjih dan Pengembangan Pemikiran Islam also
promoted “’irfa>ni>” approaches as one of methods in thinking in addition to
the “baya>ni>” (deductive based on text explanation) and “burha>ni>” (inductive,
based on empiric evident and ratio). ‘Irfa>ni> is an approach based on the
inner experience of hearth and intuition guided by God. In Syiah tradition,
‘’irfa>ni> is equivalent to Sufism as that in Sunni tradition.
Far before the official documents were formulated, Kyai Dahlan, the
founder of Muhammadiyah, had used terms to connotatively refer to
Sufism such as “hati suci” (pure heart) and “akal suci” (pure/sacred intellect)
in his speech at Islamic Congress, in Cirebon (1911) and Muhammadiyah
Congress in February 1922. The above terms, according to some observers,
reflect Sufi ideas of the Muhammadiyah founding father.
The term ih}sa>n and tashawuf were even used by Ki Bagoes Hadikoesoema,
the Chairman of Central Board Muhammadiyah (1942-1953). In 1941 Ki
Bagoes Hadikoesoema published a book entitled, Poestaka Ihsan, Tasawoef
Haqiqi Hikmah Achlaqiyah, in Javanese. The description of the book noted:
“Kitab anarengaken piwoelang Tasawoef (Achlaq), wewaton dalil al-Qur’an lan
hadits” (a book on the teaching of Tasawuf [Akhlaq], supported by argument
of al-Qur’an and Hadits).
Sufism as the neglected tajdi>d of Muhammadiyah?

Although we can find many equivalent terms of Sufism in Muhammadiyah
official documents, the organizational concept and guideline of Islamic
spirituality in Muhammadiyah is still rare. Referring to the hadiths on
what is Isla>m, what is I<ma>n, and what is Ih}sa>n, Muhammadiyah so far has
been succeeded in institutionalizing “Islam” in the context of ‘iba>dah
mahdhah (daily routine prayer) through its guidance for the ibadah based
213
on Muhammad’s teaching as it is elaborated in the Himpunan Putusan

Tarjih Muhammadiyah (Compilation of Tarjih Decisions).
The organization has also succeeded in elaborating the principles of
iman (faith) and religion as in the ideological-organizational principles of
the Khittah Perjuangan (the footpath of struggle), Mukaddimah Anggaran
Dasar (the preamble of statutes), Matan Keyakinan dan Cita-cita Hidup
(Matters of Faith and Life’s Aspiration), and Kepribadian Muhammadiyah
(The Character of Muhammadiyah).
The organization has also succeeded elaborated the concept of
mu’a>malah based on the principles of Quran and Sunah as in the the
Guideline for Islamic Life of Muhammadiyah Community (Pedoman Hidup
Islami Warga Muhamadiyah – PHIWM) in the organization, education,
economic, politic, and social sphere.
However, why does Muhammadiyah seem to hesitate to explore the
Sufism aspects and avoiding for institutionalizing and implementing
systematically the concept of ih}sa>n as its Islamic Spirituality? The silence of
Muhammadiyah to elaborate the dimension of ih}sa>n, in our view, is one of
the roots for the notion that Muhammadiyah is spiritually dry and, later
on, it stimulates some Muhammadiyah members in at the grassroot level
to question their leader about the position of tasawuf in Muhammadiyah.
It is worth noting here again, however, that some Muhammadiyah figures
have paid attention to the issue of tasawuf, Sufism, or Islamic Mysticism such
as Ki Bagoes Hadikoesoema, who wrote Poestaka Ihsan (Reference of Virtues)
in 1941; HAMKA wrote Tasawuf Modern (Modern Sufism) in 1971; Simuh
wrote the Javanese Mystical Islam of Raden Ngabehi Ronggo Warsito in 1988; Abdul
Munir Mulkhan discerns the spiritual legacy of Shaikh Siti Jenar in 1999, M.
Damami explored the Positive Sufism of Hamka in 2000, and many others.
There is also a trend to promote Muhammadiyah figures who have reached the
quality to be a Sufi. For example, in 2008 Masyitoh in her studied explored the
214
biografi of AR Fachruddin and attributed him as the figure of Muhammadiyah

shu>fi> akhla>qi> or moral Sufism. In 2010, the Muhammadiyah region of East
Java launched a book entitles Pergulatan Muhammadiyah Menuju Sufi: Catatan
Pemikiran (The Struggle of Muhammadiyah toward Sufis: Notes of Thought) of
ustadz Abdurrahim Nur, the former chief person of Muhammadiyah East Java.
Farid Cahyono and Yuliantoro Puryoadi launched Pak AR Fachrudin biografi
entitles Pak AR Sufi yang Memimpin Muhammadiyah (Pak AR, A Sufi Who
Lead Muhammadiyah) in 2010; and in 2018 Biyanto, one of Muhammadiyah
leaders in East Java wrote The Typology of Muhammadiyah Sufism: tracing its figures’
thoughts and exemplary lives.
Nevertheless, on the organizational level, Muhammadiyah is still silent
about Sufism. The silence of Muhammadiyah on Sufism discourse is in
contradiction to its attribute as a reform movement. Muhammadiyah
criticism on the dichotomist approach in education, for example, has
led the organization to propose an integrated system serving both secular
science and Islamic teaching in its schools. Muhammadiyah criticism
of the problem of the poor has led the organization to initiate Islamic
philanthropic action for serving the needs by establishing hospitals and
orphanages. But, why Muhammadiyah’s criticism toward TBC (Tachayul
Bidah Churafat – Superstition, Heresy, and Myth) is never followed by its
concept and action to provide legitimate and authentic spiritual canals?
Will Muhammadiyah keep ignoring the spiritual thirstiness of its members?
The reluctance of Muhammadiyah to systematically and seriously elaborate
on its teaching of authentic Islamic spirituality has led to the stigma that
Muhammadiyah is puritan and anti-tasawuf.
The absence of Muhammadiyah in providing official spiritual guidance
and canals for its member amid the growth of spiritual markets in the world
today is letting its members shop for any spiritual products and services, in
which its authenticity is questioned. In fact, there are several members and
215
sympathizers of Muhammadiyah who were fond of listening to shalawa>t

songs of Hadad Alwi’s and Opick’s albums, actively attending collective
zikir, and healing zikir rituals, practicing pseudo-spiritual-sport of Yoga and
Reiki, participating in the ESQ (Emotional and Spiritual Quotient) training
programs, Shalat Khusuk training, and other spiritual cultivation either
for the shake of self-serenity, success in career and business, or healing.
Authentic Islamic spirituality in Muhammadiyah context

The phenomenon of Sufism appears in Muhammadiyah circles,
emerging in two forms, ethics and ethos.18 The ethical form focuses on
the absorption of fundamental elements in Sufism such as monotheism,
submission to God, internalization of moral values, and pietism. The
ethos form focuses on persistence and orderliness of worship, spirit of
hard work to advance society, applying moral values in the individual
and social domains, immaculacy and public order. These two forms of
Sufism flow in the body of Muhammadiyah movement both personally
and institutionally. Interestingly, the values of ethics and ethos are not
institutionalized in an organization of Sufi order but become a system of
values for Muhammadiyah members and leaders.
This study confirms previous research done by Biyanto, Nakamura, and
Herman Beck in terms of availability of Sufism nuance in Muhammadiyah.
This study, however, presents specific novelty on authentic Islamic
spirituality in Muhammadiyah characterized by piety and affirmative
religiosity. These two characters have not been revealed by previous
researchers on the phenomenon of Sufism in Muhammadiyah. The piety
character describes the elements of piety built among Muhammadiyah
members. The character of affirmative religiosity illustrates the high
18
Ahmad Najib Burhani, “Pluralism, Liberalism and Islamism: Religious Outlook of
Muhammadiyah”, Studia Islamika, Volume 25, Number 3 (2018), https://doi.org/10.15408/
sdi.v25i3.7765.
216
enthusiasm of Muhammadiyah members to make breakthroughs progress

for the society in social, cultural, educational, art, science, technology, and
environmental life. Sufism, then, is not interpreted as merely a religious
effort, but also as a way of advancing society based on ethical values.
The implication of the results of this study provides a clear illustration
that the phenomenon of Sufism in Muhammadiyah would unite a world
view on social reality with the paradigms of baya>ni> (text), burha>ni> (science
and technology), and ‘irfa>ni> (appreciation, piety, wisdom) and affirmative
theology, a form of theology concerning socio-cultural aspects.19 This can
be seen from several products of Muhammadiyah thought such as Tafsir
at-Tanwir, Risalah Akhlak Islami (Treatise on Islamic Morals), Pedoman Hidup
Islami Warga Muhammadiyah (Islamic Living Guidelines for Muhammadiyah
Members), Fikih Lingkungan (Theology of Environment), Fikih Informasi
(Theology of Information),20 Fikih Difabel (Theology of Difabel), Fikih Air
(Theology of Water), Fikih Tata Kelola (Theology of Good Governance),
and Fikih Anti Korupsi (Theology of Anti-Corruption).21
It seems that, with the above literature products, Muhammadiyah
tries to present an alternative to the practices of Sufism which had been
trapped in the rites and cults of the Sufi order leadership with minimum
attention to social problems. In addition, Muhammadiyah also offers to
fill the dryness of the spiritual dimension among activists of the reform
movement, which tends to neglect the inner dimension of religion.22
19
Palahuddin, “The Typology of Religious Thought in Muhammadiyah”, IJISH
(International Journal of Islamic Studies and Humanities), Volume 3, Number 2 (2020), https://
doi.org/10.26555/ijish.v3i2.2233.
20
Niki Alma Febriana Fauzi and Ayub, “Fikih Informasi: Muhammadiyah’s Perspective on
Guidance in Using Social Media1”, Indonesian Journal of Islam and Muslim Societies, Volume
9, Number 2 (2019), https://doi.org/10.18326/ijims.v9i2.267-293.
21
Niki Alma Febriana Fauzi, “Nalar Fikih Baru Muhammadiyah: Membangun Paradigma
Hukum Islam Yang Holistik”, Afkaruna, Volume 15, Number 1 (2019).
22
Syamsul Anwar, “Manhaj Tarjih Muhammadiyah”, Tajdida: Jurnal Pemikiran dan Gerakan
Muhammadiyah, Volume 16, Number 1 (Juni 2018).
217
An analysis of the mushrooming phenomena of Kita>b al-H}ikam studies

among Muhammadiyah members, in which spirit of Sufism in the form
of studies of Sufi books of Kita>b al-H}ikam, led to a conclusion that there
is a reviving spirit of Sufism in Muhammadiyah that has been shown
by Hamka in his Tasawuf Modern (Modern Sufism). If the phenomena
are analyzed from Stephen Katz’s analytical model,23 which details the
phenomena of mysticism in religion into three layers, will lead to the
following explanation.
First, the mystical phenomenon is a condition of human consciousness
to unite in the midst of God. This mystical phenomenon is actualized into
the core awareness of religion. Mircea Eliade sees this phenomenon as an
expression of the presence of God in human life that appears in various
manifestations (hierophany).24
Second, the crystallization of mystical values is seen within the
framework of religious traditions. According to Reynold Nicholson, the
crystallization of this value will form a specific mystical tradition in each
religion, which in Islam is called Sufism. Islamic Sufism requires a stage
(station, maqa>m) and conditions (ha>l) to actualize mystical values. The
actualization of these mystical values will form mystical traditions that refer
to certain Sufi figures such as al-Hallaj, Abu Yazid al-Bustami, Ibn ‘Arabi.
Rabi’ah al-‘Adawiyah, Jalal al-Din al-Rumi, and so forth. Each character
has their own way (suluk) in actualizing their mystical values such as the
values of monotheism, morality, and very strict worship.25
23
Steven T. Katz, ed., Mysticism and Philosophical Analysis, New York: Oxford University
Press, 1978.
24
Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion, New York: Harcourt,
Barce & World, Inc., 1987.
25
Muhammad Iqbal Birsyada, “Sufism Ethics in Javanese Aristocracy: A Historical
Perspective”, International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change, Volume 11, Issue 10
(2020); Atif Khalil, “Sufism and Qur’a>nic Ethics”, in Lloyd V. J. Ridgeon (ed.), Routledge
Handbook on Sufism, London & New York: Routledge, 2020: 159-170, https://doi.
org/10.4324/9781315175348.
218
Third is the institutionalization of the practice of Sufism into a tareqat

tradition that specifically develops the suluk practices of certain Sufi figures.
Tareqat is more concerned with the institutional aspects as taught by the
figures rather than the actualization of mystical values. Institutionally, the
tareqat limits itself to its own traditions and almost never teaches traditions
from other tarekats:26 for example, the Qadiriyah Tareqat, which refers to
the tradition of Shaykh Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani; the Nakshabandiyah Tareqat,
which refers to the Sufi tradition of Shaykh Muhammad Baha’ al-Din al-
Nakshabandi; Tareqat Syattariayah, which refers to the tradition of Shaykh
‘Abdullah al-Syattar; and many others such as Chistiyah, Khalwatiyah,
and Tijaniyyah. However, some tareqat traditions merge or develop their
traditions institutionally, such as the Qadiriyah-Nakshabandiyah and the
Nakshabandiyah-Khalidiyah.
What has been described by Stephen Katz about mysticism in religion
when applied to capture the phenomenon of Sufism in Muhammadiyah
can be illustrated by the following diagram:
26
Agus Sholikhin, “Tarekat sebagai Sistem Pendidikan Tasawuf”, Conciencia, Volume 18,
Number 2 (2018): 1-13, https://doi.org/10.19109/conciencia.v18i2.2760.
219
Figure. 1
Sufism and Muhammadiyah Context
Stephen Katz Sufism Muhammadiyah

Model Context Context
References
Mysticism Awareness to the Tauhid as system 1. AD/ART

unity of God of value 2. MKCH
(unity with God)
Tasawuf (basic 1. PHIWM

Deep meaning of
Crystalization value & practice of 2. Majelis Taklim
al-akhlāq al-karīmah
Islamic mysticism) and Kajian
(internalization of
value)
Actuating the 1. Fiqhs in

Tareqat (sufi order piety in ‘ibādah Muhammadiyah
Institutiolaization 2. Guidance
based on the and social
specific syaikh) practices Documents &
Fatwas
The above diagram illustrates that in the context of Muhammadiyah,

the core teaching of Sufism is monotheism, which is used as a value
system, not only as a stagnant doctrine. Tawhid, which is understood in
Muhammadiyah referring to the formulation contained in the Statutes
and Bylaws (AD/ART) of Muhammadiyah and the Faith Pledge and
Aspiration of Muhammadiyah Life (Matan Keyakinan dan Cita-Cita Hidup
- MKCH Muhammadiyah), is interpreted as an order of dynamic values
and moves others.
In MKCH, on the other hand, it is stated that, “Muhammadiyah
works for the establishment of a pure Islamic ‘aqi>dah, free from the
symptoms of polytheism, bid’ah and khurafa>t, without neglecting the
principle of tolerance according to Islamic teachings.” This formulation
220
is an affirmation of the value of monotheism in Muhammadiyah, which

is reflected in real actions and their relationships with other entities.
Understanding the values of monotheism and the desire to manifest it is
a basic awareness of the concept of unity between God and humans (unity
of God). This can be said as a phenomenon of worldly ascetism (a term
introduced by Max Weber to describe a phenomenon in Protestantism)
and worldly mysticism.
The values of monotheism are then finally manifested in normative
formulations. These values are used as a reference for social action for
Muhammadiyah members which are formulated in the Guidelines for
Islamic Life of Muhammadiyah Members (Pedoman Hidup Islami Warga
Muhammadiyah - PHIWM) and are internalized through pengajian (religious
study circles) as well as pengkaderan (cadre training). This formulation is a
direct form of crystallization of the value of monotheism into ethical norms.
This direct articulation of the values of monotheism is manifested
in various social actions that are framed in various contemporary
jurisprudence rules of theology in Muhammadiyah. In addition, there
are practical rules and guidelines formulated in various councils and
institutions in Muhammadiyah. These various normative rules are direct
references for daily socio-cultural activities and actions for Muhammadiyah
members, either in the form of individual or institutional actions. The
articulation of the values of monotheism and good morals in this practice
becomes the core for the practice of Sufism in Muhammadiyah without
the need for a Sufi order and a Sufi leader (shaikh).
The practice of Sufism in Muhammadiyah become an anti-thesis for the
tradition of Sufism in Islam which is almost always framed in a Sufi order
that is bound to its specific tradition and the Shaikh who are the main
reference for its Sufism behavior and actions.27 Even so, Muhammadiyah
27
Hasnan Bachtiar, “Gagasan dan Manifestasi Neo-Sufisme dalam Muhammadiyah:
221
does not oppose the Sufistic traditions practiced by various tarekat except
those that are contrary to the values of pure monotheism and good
morals. Sufism in Muhammadiyah emphasis on implementing the values
of monotheism and morality in daily behavior, both individually and
institutionally. The practice of Sufism in Muhammadiyah becomes an
enrichment for the Sufism tradition in the Islamic world, more oriented
towards inclusive social action rather than individual asceticism for
exclusive inner satisfaction.28
Conclusion
Based on the above explanation, is it true that Muhammadiyah is anti-
Sufism? We would like to say that Muhammadiyah is not anti-Sufism but
does not accommodate the Sufis order. Sufism (tasawuf) of course differs
from Sufis order (tarekat). Tasawuf is the “content” whereas tarikat is the
container and the umbrella organization. Tasawuf is the goal of quality to
be reached, whereas tarekat is one of ways to reach the quality.
For this reason, any claim that Muhammadiyah is spiritually dry and arid
or anti and against Sufism should be revised. Being absent from promoting
tasawuf word and not providing space for tarekat does not mean that this
Modernist Muslim organization rejects an esoteric dimension of Islam. It
would be wise to say that Muhammadiyah formulates and practices Sufism
in a distinctive way.
Sufism in Muhammadiyah emerges in two forms, ethics and ethos, and
flows in the body of the Muhammadiyah movement both personally and
institutionally. Ethics focuses on the absorption of fundamental elements
Sebuah Analisis Teoretik”, Afkaruna, Volume 11, Number 2 (2015): 157-194, https://doi.
org/10.18196/aiijis.2015.0047.157-194.
28
Samsidar MA, “Persepsi Muhammadiyah dalam Memahami Tasawuf”, Al-Muaddib :
Jurnal Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial & Keislaman, Volume 2, Number 2 (2017), https://doi.org/10.31604/
muaddib.v2i2.278.
222
in Sufism, such as monotheism, submission to God, internalization of

moral values, and pietism. Ethos emphasizes persistence and orderliness of
worship, the spirit of hard work to advance society, applying moral values
in the individual and social domains, immaculacy, and public order. Both
values of ethics and ethos are not institutionalized in an organization of
Sufi order but become a system of values for Muhammadiyah leaders and
members.
Muhammadiyah tries to formulate an “authentic” Islamic spirituality
by the implementation of monotheism values and morality in daily life,
both individually and institutionally. Its practice is more oriented towards
active and inclusive social action rather than individual asceticism for
exclusive inner satisfaction.
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Indonesian Journal of Islam and Muslim Societies

Vol. 13, no. 1 (2023), pp. 199-226, doi : 10.18326/ijims.v13i1. 199-226

Muhammadiyah, Sufism, and

Robby Habiba Abror

(tarekat). Based on the data collected from subjective-ethnographic notes of

Keywords: Ih}sa>n; Islamic Spirituality; Modernist Muslim; Muhammadiyah

Islamic reform is rational thoughts and its social implementation. Sheerin

One of the studies on the phenomenon of Sufism in Muhammadiyah

Due to the strict and distinctive position of Muhammadiyah toward

Muhammadiyah Movement in Twentieth-Century Indonesia”, Journal of Sufi Studies, Volume

In addition to the above three arguments, scholars of modern movement

Discourse and practices of Sufism in Muhammadiyah

Tasawuf, Akhla>q and Ih}sa>n

several Muhammadiyah religious forums and training programs such as

spiritual groups and the need of Muhammadiyah to actively contribute

Practical Sufism at the grassroots

Mitsuo Nakamura. “Unsur Sufi dalam Muhammadiyah”, Prisma No. 8/Agustus,

Muhammadiyah, for some moments participated in the mass zikir.

Syaiful explained the word ‘spiritualitas’ [spirituality] is tasawuf in its

one the Sufism teaching, which was usually rejected by shariah-oriented

Kita>b al-H}ikam is held routinely every Thursday night entitled “Dirasah

Sufi-nuanced terms in Muhammadiyah’s documents

syariah). According to Munir Mulkhan, indeed the first term introduced

Sufism as the neglected tajdi>d of Muhammadiyah?

on Muhammad’s teaching as it is elaborated in the Himpunan Putusan

biografi of AR Fachruddin and attributed him as the figure of Muhammadiyah

sympathizers of Muhammadiyah who were fond of listening to shalawa>t

Authentic Islamic spirituality in Muhammadiyah context

enthusiasm of Muhammadiyah members to make breakthroughs progress

An analysis of the mushrooming phenomena of Kita>b al-H}ikam studies

Third is the institutionalization of the practice of Sufism into a tareqat

Stephen Katz Sufism Muhammadiyah

Mysticism Awareness to the Tauhid as system 1. AD/ART

Tasawuf (basic 1. PHIWM

Actuating the 1. Fiqhs in

The above diagram illustrates that in the context of Muhammadiyah,

is an affirmation of the value of monotheism in Muhammadiyah, which

in Sufism, such as monotheism, submission to God, internalization of

Bachtiar, Hasnan, “Gagasan dan Manifestasi Neo-Sufisme dalam

Modernity. New York and London: M.E. Sharpe, 2009.

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