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THERMAL PROPERTIES

The internal energy of a system is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy.

U = EK + EP

Where U is internal energy and is determined by the state of the system.

In solids, the majority of the internal energy is EP, while in gases the majority of the internal
energy is EK.

Heat Capacity & Specific heat capacity

A change in temperature of a body indicates a change in internal energy.

Heat Capacity (C)

This is the heat energy needed of an object to raise its temperature by one Kelvin (or one degree).

The heat capacity of an object depends on:

(i) the type of material the object is made of.

(ii) the mass of the object.

The formula for heat capacity (C) is:

Heat Capacity = Heat Energy

Temperature Rise

C = E
∆T
Units: J/°C or J/K

[N.B. - The heat capacity refers to the whole object]

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Specific Heat Capacity (c)

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1kg
of a substance by 1K (or one degree).

The formula for specific heat capacity (c) is:

Specific Heat Capacity = Heat Energy

Temperature rise × Mass

c = E
m × ∆T

Units: J/(kg°C) or J/(kgK)

We can arrange the formula to get:

heat energy = mass × specific heat capacity × temperature change

E = mc∆T

[NB: This formula is used to calculate the heat energy required to heat up a substance]

The Relationship between Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity

The heat capacity is when you are talking about the entire / whole object. The specific heat capacity
refers to 1 kg of the object. There is a relation which exists between the heat capacity and the
specific heat capacity of an object.

heat capacity = specific heat capacity × mass

C = mc

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Electrical Methods of Measuring Heat Capacity

Heat Capacity of Solids

We set up the experiment as shown in the diagram above. We then determine the mass of the
material. We use a thermometer and measure the initial temperature of the material. Next we
supply a known amount of energy to the material and we measure the temperature rise in the
material.

We use a heater of known power supply and use the heater for approximately five (5) minutes. We
can use the formula below to determine how much energy was sent to the material.

heat energy supplied = power of heater × time

E = VIt

We the find the temperature change of the material by using

temperature change (∆T) = initial temperature – final temperature

∆T = T final – T initial

Final we use the formula below to calculate the specific heat capacity of the material

specific heat capacity = heat energy supplied

temperature change ×mass

c = VIt

m ∆T

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Heat Capacity of Liquids

The specific heat capacity of a liquid is cl and inner colorimeter is cc

V is the voltage and I is current

We can use the equation

Heat energy = heat energy + heat energy

supplied by to colorimeter to liquid
heater

𝑉𝐼𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝛥𝜃𝑐 + 𝑚 𝑙 𝑐𝑙 𝛥𝜃𝑙

Continuous Flow Method for Specific Heat Capacity of Liquids (pg 241)

Method is due to Callender & Barnes (1899)

- Liquid passes through the continuous flow calorimeter at a constant rate until all
conditions are steady.

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- At this time measure mass of liquid (m1), current (I1), voltage (V1), time (t.) and
temperature change (Δθ).
- Alter the rate flow of liquid so that the mass in time (t) is m2
- Measure V2 and I2. Use same temperature change Δθ, using original initial temperature of
final temperatures.

We can find the heat energy by using

Heat energy = heat energy + heat lost by

supplied by gained by surroundings
heater fluid

Initially:
𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑡 = 𝑚1 𝑐 𝛥𝜃 + 𝑄 … (1)

After changing the rate of flow of the liquid and heating rate

𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑡 = 𝑚2 𝑐 𝛥𝜃 + 𝑄 … (2)

If we subtract equation (2) and equation (1) we get

𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑡 − 𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑡 = 𝑚2 𝑐 𝛥𝜃 − 𝑚1 𝑐 𝛥𝜃

(𝑉2 𝐼2 − 𝑉1 𝐼1 )𝑡 = (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )𝑐 𝛥𝜃

Method of Mixtures

This is the most common practical used to find the specific heat capacities of solids and liquids.
We usually add a hot solid (or a hot liquid) of known temperature to a cold liquid and determine
the final temperature.

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We assume that all the heat from the hot substance goes to the cooler one if we can reduce heat
loss by using insulation.

We then use the formula below to determine the specific heat capacity of the substance

heat loss by solid = heat gained by liquid

m solid × c solid × (T solid – T final ) = m liquid × c liquid × (T final – T liquid )

Where:

m solid = mass of the solid c solid = specific heat capacity of

m liquid = mass of liquid c liquid = specific heat capacity of liquid
T solid = initial temperature of solid T liquid = initial temperature of liquid
T final = final temperature of mixture

Melting, Boiling & Latent Heat

When a substance undergoes a phase change, energy is absorbed or released, but there is no
temperature change.

During melting & boiling the energy absorbed increases the mutual potential energy of all
molecules. The average kinetic energy remains constant.

In terms of the first law of thermodynamics: melting, vaporization and sublimation are
represented by the equation

𝐿 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊
where

L is the latent heat in order to phase change

∆𝑼 is the increase in internal potential energy which accompanies the phase change.
(NB: no change in temperature means there is no change in kinetic energy)
∆𝑾 is the external work done as a result of the phase change.
(positive for expansion and negative for contraction)

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Latent Heat of Fusion (L)

The latent heat of fusion of a solid is the heat required to change a solid to a liquid without a
temperature change.

latent heat of fusion = heat energy needed to melt all of it.

𝑳 = ∆𝑸

Units: Joules (J)

Specific Latent Heat of Fusion ( ɭ )

The specific latent heat of fusion of a solid is the heat required to change 1kg of it, from a solid to
a liquid without any temperature change.

specific latent heat of fusion = heat energy

mass

∆𝑸
𝒍=
𝒎
Units: J/kg

We can rearrange this formula, to obtain a formula for heat energy:

heat energy = mass × specific latent heat

∆𝑸 = 𝒎𝒍

Latent Heat of Vaporization (L)

The latent heat of vaporization of a liquid is the heat required to change a liquid to a gas, without
a temperature change.

Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization ( ɭ )

The specific latent heat of vaporization of a liquid is the heat required to change 1kg of it, from a
liquid to a gas without any temperature change.

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Experimental Determination of the Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization of a Liquid

- An example of continuous flow method which uses a self-jacket vaporization

- Liquid is heated to boiling point, vapour passes to the condenser through holes (H) in the
inner walls of the vessels
- Boiling continues and eventually the temperatures at all parts become steady
- At this point, condense vapour is collected over a time (t), mass (m1) is determined and the
voltage (V1) and current (I1) is measured. Since the temperatures are constant this energy
is used to vaporise the liquid and offset heat lost.

𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑡 = 𝑚1 𝑙 + 𝑄 … (1)

where l is latent heat of vaporization

Q is heat lost to the surroundings

- When the voltage and current are changed to V2 and I2, the new mass (m2) of the vapour
is measured in the same time (t). Since each part of the apparatus is the same temperature,
we can state that
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑡 = 𝑚2 𝑙 + 𝑄 … (2)

- Hence if we subtract equation 2 and equation 1 we get that

(𝑉2 𝐼2 − 𝑉1 𝐼1 )𝑡 = (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )𝑙

- In summary

𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝑙=
𝑚

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Evaporation

High energy surface molecules leave liquids. Hence the average Ek of the remaining molecules is
less so the liquid is cooler. The greater the rate of evaporation, the cooler the liquid will feel.

Evaporation is affected by the ambient temperature (temperature of surrounding). The second

factor that affects evaporation is the specific heat capacity of the liquid.

Cooling

Molecules of a liquid have a variety of speeds. During evaporation, the molecules with higher Ek
escape. As a result the average Ek of the remaining liquid is cooler due to the temperature of the
liquid being reduced.

Example when a volatile liquid (methanol) comes in contact with your skin it feels cool. The reason
for this is that specific heat capacity and latent heat are required for change of state. This energy
is absorbed from the skin by the liquid. Hence the temperature of the skin drops.

Comparisons of Boiling and Evaporation

BOILING EVAPORATION

 occurs at a specific temperature called  occurs at any temperature

the boiling point

 occurs throughout the liquid  occurs at the surface of the liquid

 produces steam  produces water vapour

 boiling point raised by external  rate of evaporation increases with

pressure temperature and surface area

 rate increases with airflow over the

liquid

 rate is decreased with increased

pressure

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