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The Asian ESP Journal
December 2018
Volume 14, Issue 7.2

Chief Editor - Roger Nunn

1
Published by ELE Publishing
(Division of the TESOL Asia Group)

TESOL Asia Group is wholly owned by SITE SKILL TRAINING Pty Ltd (Australia)

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of ELE Publishing or the Chief Editor of Asian ESP.

No unauthorized photocopying

Publisher: ELE Publishing

Managing Editor of ELE Publishing: Dr. John Adamson

Chief Editor of the Asian ESP Journal: Professor Roger Nunn

Associate Production Editor: Ramon Medriano, Jr.

Production Editor: Eva Guzman

ISSN. 2206-0979

2
 Table of Contents

1. Ramon Medriano, Jr…………………………………………………………………………05 - 08

Foreword

2. Randy Joy Magno Ventayen and Caren Casama Orlanda-Ventayen.................................09 - 30

Graduate Students’ Perspective on the Usability of Grammarly® in one ASEAN State University

3. Shella D. Dela Cruz…….……….…..…………..………………………….............................31 - 51

Code-Switching Patterns and Functions in Philippine Literature

4. Rio Averil Carmen-Pamittan and Conchita Malenab-Temporal........................................52 - 67

Language Pedagogical Styles in Technical-Vocational Education

5. Muhammad Arham and Andi Hudriati Akrab..…………………...…................................68 - 89

Delving into Content Lecturers’ Teaching Capability in Content Language Integrated
Learning (CLIL) at an Indonesian University

6. Vu Ngoc Tung ………...…………………………..…………………………..……...……..90 - 112

The Integration of Reflection to Develop Teacher Agency in a Context of Current English
Language and Current English Teaching at the Vietnamese Local Law Firm

7. Christopher Jovido Cocal and Irene De Vera .....…………………………………….…113 - 131

Challenges and Strategies on Paper Publication to International Indexed Journals by Filipino
Academic Researchers

8. Anna Louisa Perez and Ericson Alieto …………..………………………………………132 - 150

Change of “Tongue” from English to a Local Language: A correlation of Mother
Tongue Proficiency and Mathematics Achievement

3
9. Ariane Milagrosa Pantaleon..……………………..……………………………………..151 - 175
A Corpus-Based Analysis of “For Example” and “For Instance”

10. Sahraini and Syamsudarni….…………………..…………………..…………………176 - 194

Helping Islamic Higher Education Students Learn Listening Skills by Using Video-cast

11. Harwati Hashim, Melor Md. Yunus and Mohamed Amin Embi..……………...……195 - 208
Factors Influencing Polytechnic English as Second Language (ESL) Learners’ Attitude
and Intention for Using Mobile Learning

12. M. Sarpparaje, Dr. V.R. Jeyasala, Dr. K. Rathiga and Dr. K. Sasirekha...…..……...209 - 228
Flipped Classroom Approach to make the Best Utilization of ESL Classes
at Mepco Schlenk Engineering College – A Try Out

13. Dr.K.Sasirekha, Dr. K.Rathiga, Ms. M. Sarpparaje and Mr. G.S.Suresh…………...229 - 250
English Language Pedagogy for Engineering Students through Domain Specific
Literature – Classroom Experiments and Experience

14. Tran Thi Thu Huong……………………………………………………………………..251 - 279

English Language Needs in Listening and Speaking Skill of Police Officers in Vietnam:
Basis for ESP Syllabus Design

15. Rebekka Eckhaus.…………………………………………………………………...…...280 - 298

Supporting the adoption of business case studies in ESP instruction through technology

16. Mr. Josemari V. Cordova and Asst. Prof. Thawascha Dechsubha………………..….299 - 308
Using Moodle in Improving Listening Abilities in English for Specific Purposes of
Vongchavalitkul University Students

17. Panushkina Tatyana and Ilintseva Anna…………………………..………………..…309 - 316

Teaching in Multicultural Classrooms: Challenges and Opportunities for FEFU ESP Students

18. Boyet L. Batang, Vanessa Joy Dayag – Vecaldo, Ramon Medriano, Jr…………..…317 - 335
Conversational Topic Preferences, Taboo Words and Euphemisms Used by ESL Philippine Male and
Female Students

4
 Foreword
Pedagogy, Assessment and Multicultural Class
Ramon Medriano, Jr.

TESOL Asia

In this issue of AESP (Volume 14, Issue 7.2), we will talk about pedagogy in the ESP
classroom, student assessment and evaluation and challenges in multicultural and multilingual
classrooms.

Correct grammar has long been used to measure students’ performance in a language
classroom. Randy Joy Magno Ventayen and Caren Casama Orlanda - Ventayen in their study,
Graduate Students’ Perspective on the Usability of Grammarly® in one ASEAN State
University evaluated the perception of graduate students in the use of the Grammarly software.
This research concluded that the grammar and plagiarism checker has its weaknesses and
strengths yet still favored by students.

In Code-Switching Patterns and Functions in Philippine Literature, Shella Dela Cruz

examined the use of code-switching inside Philippine Literature classrooms. It was later found
that code- switching was helpful and useful in facilitating understanding of the lessons in
Philippine literature.

Learning styles of students should match the teaching approach being utilized by teachers in
the classroom. Rio Averil Carmen – Pamittan and Conchita Malenab - Temporal in their study,
Language Pedagogical Styles in Technical-Vocational Education investigated the differences
between students’ language styles and teachers’ teaching preferences in the technical-
vocational education. Findings revealed that generally a disparity exists between the students’
dominant learning approaches and the teachers’ instructional styles.

5
Muhammad Arham and Andi Hudriati Akrab in Delving into Content Lecturers’ Teaching
Capability in Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) at an Indonesian University
examined lecturers‘ perspectives on Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in their
classroom teaching practices, and how effective CLIL is implemented by the content lecturers
in their teaching practices. The study has endeavored to influence scholarly understanding of
CLIL in Indonesian Higher Education based on Westhoff’s effective language teaching
performance.

Vu Ngoc Tung in his research, The Integration of Reflection to Develop Teacher Agency in a
Context of Current English Language and Current English Teaching at the Vietnamese Local
Law Firm examined the integration of reflective practice into English for Specific Purposes
(ESP) teachers’ growth of agency. It was further claimed that reflective teaching practice is
trusted for teachers to share minds and opens doors for students academically; communities of
practice will become more fruitful, granting ESP teachers responsibilities to manage their
teaching knowledge as great thinkers and enhance teaching practice as great applicants.

One of the measures of research productivity is publication. Christopher Jovido Cocal and
Irene De Vera in Challenges and Strategies on Paper Publication to International Indexed
Journals by Filipino Academic Researchers determined the challenges and strategies on paper
publication to international indexed journals by Filipino academic researchers. It was pointed
out that the problem of a paper being poorly written is not exclusive to the Filipino researchers
as this is also experienced by researchers who are non-native speakers of English.

In Change of “Tongue” from English to a Local Language: A correlation of Mother Tongue

Proficiency and Mathematics Achievement, Anna Louisa Perez and Ericson Alieto examined
how language proficiency in the mother tongue (MT) relates to mathematics achievement of
students. It was further revealed that there was a very strong positive correlation between the
students’ achievement in mathematics and proficiency in the MT.

Ariane Milagrosa Pantaleon in her study, A Corpus-Based Analysis of “For Example” and
“For Instance” investigated the confusion of students in the use of these conjunctive adverbs.
The difference lies more on stylistic choices and preferences rather on semantic and syntactic
dimensions. This is supported by the finding of the conjunctive adverbs’ universality and
fluidity with respect to location in, or between, clauses and/or sentences.

6
Using educational technology in English language classrooms is still a major concern to
enhance language teaching and learning processes. Sahraini and Syamsudarni in Helping
Islamic Higher Education Students Learn Listening Skills by Using Video-cast actively
designed lesson plans, implemented the action, observed the action, and made reflection, which
were conducted in two cycles in State Institute for Islamic Studies (IAIN) Palopo, Indonesia.
The study showed that the use of video-cast enhanced students’ listening skills and engaged
students to learn.

Harwati Hashim, Melor Md. Yunus and Mohamed Amin Embi in their research, Factors
Influencing Polytechnic English as Second Language (ESL) Learners’ Attitude and Intention
for Using Mobile Learning examined the factors that influenced polytechnic ESL learners’
attitude and intention for using mobile learning. Results indicated that performance expectancy,
effort expectancy, social influence, perceived language learning potential and learning
preference are significant predictors of the learners’ attitude towards mobile learning which in
the end influenced their intention; while, self-management of learning was found to be
insignificant.

In Flipped Classroom Approach to make the Best Utilization of ESL Classes at Mepco Schlenk
Engineering College – A Try Out, M. Sarpparaje, Dr. V.R. Jeyasala, Dr. K. Rathiga and Dr.
K. Sasirekha studied the use of Flipped Classroom Approach which has been adopted as a
language teaching pedagogy in Mepco Schlenk Engineering College and explored its potential
in enhancing the communicative competence in English among engineering students.

Today, almost all engineering works in corporations, multinational companies and industries
are associated with English language skills. Dr. K. Sasirekha, Dr. K. Rathiga, M. Sarpparaje
and Mr. G. S. Suresh in their study, English Language Pedagogy for Engineering Students
through Domain Specific Literature – Classroom Experiments and Experience shared
classroom experiences in the selection of language materials and methodologies adapted to
enrich the language skills of engineering students.

Tran Thi Thu Huong in English Language Needs in Listening and Speaking Skill of Police
Officers in Vietnam: Basis for ESP Syllabus Design identified the English language needs of
the police officers in Vietnam by looking into their actual English activities along listening and

7
speaking skills in their workplace and determined their strengths and weaknesses in the use of
the English language along speaking.

Rebecca Eckhaus in her research, Supporting the adoption of business case studies in ESP
instruction through technology designed a research-based approach in providing business case
studies as a content in an ESP class. It was further revealed that business cases provide a
challenge that working professionals can appreciate. With the purpose of supporting teachers
new to adopting case studies in the language classroom, the unit design ideas presented in the
paper served as either a foundational structure for lesson planning or as an inspiration for the
use of real-world content in the ESP classroom.

In Using Moodle in Improving Listening Abilities in English for Specific Purposes of

Vongchavalitkul University Students, Josemari Cordova and Asst. Prof. Thawascha
Dechsubha investigated the effects of using Moodle in improving the ESP listening abilities of
Vongchavalitkul University students. This study also proved that technology, online and
mobile applications combined with the students’ collaboration and independence played vital
roles in the improvement of their listening abilities.

Panushkina Tatyana and Ilintseva Anna in their study, Teaching in Multicultural Classrooms:
Challenges and Opportunities for FEFU ESP Students presented a teaching approach for ESP
students with emphasis on cultural diversity at the Far Eastern Fеderal University (FEFU),
Russia. Creating a common culture in the multicultural classroom with atmosphere of respect,
tolerance and cohesion is the main condition for a more productive EFL/ESL classroom.

Boyet Batang, Vanessa Joy Dayag – Vecaldo and Ramon Medriano, Jr. in Conversational
Topic Preferences, Taboo Words and Euphemisms Used by ESL Philippine Male and Female
Students analyzed conversational topic preferences, use of taboo words, euphemisms and
cathartic words of male and female ESL students. It was concluded that the ability to use
euphemisms to replace a taboo word, the ability to control oneself from outbursts of anger, and
the ability to talk about the right topic with the persons, all speak of a learned person’s
characteristics and the school should still find its purpose in the inculcation of good morals to
students inside the classroom.

8
Graduate Students’ Perspective on the Usability of Grammarly® in one
ASEAN State University

Randy Joy Magno Ventayen

Pangasinan State University, Open University Systems
Caren Casama Orlanda-Ventayen
Pangasinan State University, Lingayen Campus

Biodata:

Randy Joy Magno Ventayen is a faculty of PSU Open University Systems, PSU Lingayen
Campus and a mobile faculty of PSU Binmaley Campus. He graduated his Doctoral Degree
in Business Administration in 2010 and currently writing his dissertation leading to Doctor
in Information Technology at the University of the Cordilleras in consortium with Ateneo
de Manila University. He served as the University Web Administrator of Pangasinan State
University in 2016 to 2018.

Email: [email protected]

Caren Casama Orlanda-Ventayen is a faculty of Senior High School Department of

Pangasinan State University, Lingayen Campus and currently completed his academic
requirements leading to Master of Arts in Education major in Educational Management. She
finished her Bachelor's degree in Elementary Education at the Adelphi College in Lingayen,
Pangasinan, and Bachelor of Secondary Education major in Technology and Livelihood
Education at PSU Lingayen Campus.

Email: [email protected]

Abstract

One of the criteria for excellent work is a perfect grammar in English, which is the global
lingua franca. The Pangasinan State University subscribed to Grammarly® software which

9
 considered as one of the leading grammar checker and plagiarism tester software available.
The objective of the paper is to evaluate the software based on the perception of the graduate
students of PSU Open University Systems. The selection of participants is purposive where
20% of the total graduate students of the Batch 2018 who completed their thesis writing
before graduation was selected as the respondents. A SUS questionnaire and follow up
interview, as part of the triangulation method were used in order to determine the usability
of the software, its strengths, and weakness. This study also focuses on the impact of the
application for Non-English majors. Based on the result of the study, majority of the
respondents agree that the software is usable. The users identified the strength of the
software that helps the user improve writing such as automatic detection of mistakes in
Conceptual Writing, Grammar, Punctuation, Sentence Structure, Style and Vocabulary
Enhancement. While other users also identified some weakness for possible future
improvement of the software, the overall result shows that there is a significant improvement
in the written output of English and non-English majors. Students who are not English
majors showed that there is a significant change of confidence level in writing. It
recommends that the software should continuously be utilized. It is also recommended that
the software should improve its detection to avoid misleading feedback to users.

Keywords: grammar checker, plagiarism test

Acknowledgments

The researchers would like to thank the Center for English Language, the Open University
Systems and the Senior High School Department under the College of Teacher Education of
Pangasinan State University for supporting us in doing this research. Specifically, to the
following: Dr. Valentin B Calpo and Dr. Philip G. Queroda of the Open University Systems;
Dr. Renato E Salcedo and Dr. Rosario DL Valencerina of the College of Teacher Education,
and Dr. Luzviminda Q. Ramos of CEL for entrusting the technical support task of the
Grammarly® Utilization. Lastly, to Mr. Michael Mager of Grammarly® for answering the
researchers’ inquiry in the conduct of the research.

1.Introduction

English is known as the global lingua franca, where it is used in writing and speaking. In every
aspect of education around the world, the quality on the use of the English language is essential.
In the article, Global Business Speaks English by Harvard Business Review (2012), the English

10
language is the global language of business because more multinational companies are
mandating the language as the typical corporate language. Most of the research papers around
the globe are written in English, and with the ongoing development of technology, Grammar
checker and plagiarism software are indispensable tools in aiding researchers to identify and
correct their mistakes (Japos, 2013). Acceptance in Journal publication and even in paper
presentation needs a corrected grammar in order to avoid embarrassment and to provide the
right detail of the research.

In the Philippines alone, education from the primary level introduce the subject English, this is
in order or the elementary student to master the language. The importance of the language in
the Philippines is visible, such as the Philippine constitution, laws and court decisions are
written in English. It is also used in higher education such as the programs in computing,
business, and education. It is also preferred by authors writing textbooks in schools. Because
of this adaptation in the language, Filipinos were able to speak and write fluent English,
although there is the difference between the diction and pronunciation.

The English language in Philippine setting traditionally followed American English spelling
and grammar (Gonzales, 2009). This advantage may have a contribution that Filipinos may be
able to use Grammar Checker Software without any possible adjustment. Microsoft Office
application such as Word has a built-in grammar checker and spell check, but this primary tool
misses several critical grammatical issues. A number of applications came to the market in
order to address this needs such as Grammarly®, Reverso, Ginger Software, WhiteSmoke, and
LanguageTool. This Grammar checkers provides real-time correction of in-depth problems in
writing.

The Pangasinan State University, Center for English languages initiate the subscription of a
Grammar Checker software which is the Grammarly®. In the study of Daniels and Leslie
(2016), Grammarly® application outperforms several competitors which offer the same
service, that is why, Pangasinan State University chooses this application to uplift the quality
of written outputs, such as researchers and communication. As part of the program, the center
is also set to conduct series of training with its partner organization, American TESOL Institute
Philippines Inc. which aims to educate, certify and produce world-class English educators by
providing programs at par with international standards. (Pangasinan State University, 2018)

11
Because of this subscription, the institution needs to assess the use of the software by measuring
its usability based on the perception of the users itself. There are 500 accounts available for
Pangasinan State University. The division of accounts includes the graduate students from the
School of Advanced Studies and the Open University Systems where there are 100 graduate
students for SAS and 75 graduate students in OUS. All the 175 graduate students are in writing
their thesis for a masters degree and dissertations for the doctoral degree. In order to achieve
the high standard in language and plagiarism test, students are required to run their manuscript
in Grammarly® and secure a clearance from the accredited tester in the Unit before
bookbinding the final copies of the paper. A detailed report was needed in order or the Critic
Reader to see if the corrections are integrated into the manuscript of the graduate student.

1.1 History of Grammar Checker

Grammar Checking is still in the field of Natural Language Processing in Computing under
Artificial Intelligence. The history of a grammar checker is way back 1970. The first system
was Writer's Workbench, and it was a set of writing tools included with Unix systems in the
early 70s (Silverman, n.d.). Another breakthrough in the history of grammar checking is the
program called Grammatik; it was the first grammar checking program developed for
computers. Aspen Software of Albuquerque released the earliest version in 1981. In 1985
Reference Software of San Francisco, California, acquired Grammatik. Lastly, Grammatik
was ultimately acquired by WordPerfect Corporation and is integrated into the WordPerfect,
word processor. (Vernon, 2000)

As of these days, there are tens of available grammar checker software which is available for
purchase or integrated into the software as plugins such as Reverso, Ginger Software,
WhiteSmoke, and LanguageTool. With the list of software, Grammarly® was chosen as
perceived by the institution as the leading grammar checker application. It was commercially
available since 2009; it is an app that was developed by Alex Shevchenko and Max Lytvyn,
in Kyiv. The application is owned under the company Grammarly® Inc. The application
automatically recognized potential grammar, spelling, punctuation, word choice and wrong
styles n writing. It is a web application where a user can upload a document or encode that
automatically detects issues in the text and suggest possible corrections for errors. It also has
a plagiarism checker for premium accounts. Grammarly® was patented last 2015 (Hoover,

12
Lytvyn, & Shevchenko, 2015) Today, the Pangasinan State University is utilizing the software
application Grammarly® to improve the writing skills of its selected faculty and student.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

This study aims to answer the following question

1. What is the profile of the graduate students as grammar checker application users?
2. What is the usability evaluation of the Grammarly® application?
3. What is the status in the use of the grammar checker application and the impact?
4. What is the strength and weakness of the grammar checker application as perceived
by the users?
5. What is the sentiment of non-English majors in the use of the grammar checker?
6. What are the proposed actions for Pangasinan State University and other
institutions in the use of the grammar checker application?
1.3 Significance of the Study
The Pangasinan State University currently subscribes to the premium accounts of
Grammarly®; this study will be a basis for the continuity of the accounts. This result also serves
as a basis for validation of the previous study related to the usefulness of the application.

2. Related Studies

Grammar checkers and artificial intelligence history is around since the 80s, but this software
is considered a novelty and inaccurate (Pogue, 1993; Major, 1994). In recent times as the value
of technology increases, they are regarded as a helpful aid rather than a burden (Qassemzadeh
& Soleimni, 2016). Based on the result of the study conducted by Grammarly®, majority of
the users report significant benefits from using the application. Based on the result, those who
use Grammarly® more often tend to feel more confident in their writing, save time on writing,
and get better grades in general. Lastly, majority of the survey respondents are likely to
recommend Grammarly® to others. (Grammarly®, 2018). It is seen in several studies that
grammar checkers obtain positive feedback from users because of the development of
technology. But based on the previous studies, graduate students and faculty are not part of the
respondents.

As the field of artificial intelligence and technological researches increases in the field of
natural language processing, several applications, not only Grammarly® software provide this

13
solution to the growing needs of the community. Another research conducted by Cavaleri and
Dianati (2016), states that the student evaluations of Grammarly® were generally in agreement
that it is useful and easy to use, and the application also helps the students increase their
confidence in writing. While these studies provide an output, a good number of sampling of
respondents was not attained, where the study was tiny scale with only 18 student participants.
The correlation was not done as it needs a larger sample.

In the recent studies, the researcher found out that there is a need to conduct this study where
faculty and graduate students who are currently employed are needed to ask about their
perspective in the utilization of the Grammarly® software.

3.Methodology

In order to conduct this study, the Pangasinan State University should be subscribed to the
premium account of the service. A total of 500 accounts was allotted to the institution. Under
the leadership of the Center of English Language Director, the subscription was pursued in
February 2018. With the help of the MIS unit of the University, the web administration team
assisted the faculty and staff in the creation of the university email address under the domain
of psu.edu.ph. Initially, 44 accounts were created for the faculty and staff, as time goes by,
more accounts were given to other faculty members. Students who are taking thesis writing in
the Open University Systems and School of Advanced Studies are also given accounts with a
total of 175 accounts for the graduate students. The remaining accounts were continuously
given to the other qualified faculty members and staff of the institution. This study initially
covers the 20 percent of the graduate students from the Open University Systems.

The research design of this study is descriptive. It gathers information based on survey and
interview. The graduate students enrolled in the Open University Systems of the Pangasinan
State University are the primary respondents of this study.

3.1. Sources of Data

The primary sources of the data are the graduate students enrolled in Doctoral and Masteral
degree of the Open University Systems and School of Advanced Studies, where there are 75
students who are undergoing thesis writing and 20 percent was targeted as the respondents.
Students were assigned and given a psu.edu.ph domain email address; every user received an
invitation to activate Grammarly®. There are 24 respondents who answered the online survey

14
thru Google forms, and there are 15 students who were non-English majors sent the reports
from the Grammarly® application to the researchers and was interviewed later. All
communications was done thru email, except on the interview process because this mode of
communication is easy and convenient for them, as it offers flexibility and freedom (Mabuan
& Ebron, Jr., 2017).

3.2 Data Processing

After activation of the Grammarly® account for each student, they are given time to use the
application. Grammarly® apps include the online editor, plugins for Microsoft Office, a plugin
for Google Chrome, for windows and mobile keyboard. An orientation was conducted in order
for them to be familiarized with the use of the application.

A survey questionnaire was created in order to know the usability of the application; this
includes the profile of the respondents, the usability, usage and satisfaction and statement of
strength and weakness. A follow-up interview was also conducted in order to validate the result
and helps the researcher gather first information from the users. Google form was utilized in
order to float a questionnaire.

System Usability Scale (SUS) was used in order to measure the usability of the application.
The researcher used this tool because it only consists of a 10-item questionnaire with five
response options for respondents and it is easy to validate. After gathering all the data, the
result was saved in CSV format for analysis. The proponent used a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet
in order to tabulate and analyze the data. (Affairs, 2018)

Non-English majors are also selected to run their thesis in Grammarly® with supervision; the
supervision is just for the purpose of the reliability of the result. In order for a reliable result of
the study, the student didn’t initially run the manuscript in Grammarly® or other plagiarism
tester available. Lastly, In order to validate the response from the students, Critic Readers are
also interviewed if there is an improvement in writing and revising the paper.

3.3 Treatment of Data

Several statistical treatments were used, such as the frequency for the profile and frequency
percentage on some part of the SUS survey. For the SUS questionnaire, the participant’s scores
for each question are converted to a new number, which is added together and then multiplied
by 2.5 to convert the original scores of 0-40 to 0-100. The average mean was also computed

15
in several problems, and a compiled narrative explanation for the strength and weakness of the
application was explained.

4. Results and Discussion

This part of the study discusses the result of the study. This will answer the profile of the
graduate students as grammar checker application users, the usability evaluation score of the
Grammarly® application, the status in the use of the grammar checker application and the
impact, the strength and weakness of the grammar checker application as perceived by the users
in narrative approach, and lastly, the proposed intervention for Pangasinan State University in
the use of the grammar checker application.

4.1 Profile of the Respondents

Most of the Masters and Doctorate students’ age range from 31 to 40 years, followed by 21 to
30 years. This shows that most of the students are millennials who are known to be adept in
the use of technology (Gibson & Sodeman, 2014).

Figure 1
The Age of the Respondents

Age

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

50 above 41 - 50 31 - 40 21 - 30 Less than 21

In the study of Deal, Altman, and Rogelberg (2010) that agrees with other studies, millennials
differ in work attitudes specifically in the use of technology (Gibson & Sodeman, 2014). This
current study shows that most of the students taking up graduate studies belong to a younger
age.

16
Figure 2

Sex of the Graduate Students

Total

Female
Male

Regarding sex, majority of the respondents are female. In the PSU Open University Systems,
the majority of the students are female as shown in the enrollment data of the unit. In the article
by Schow (2016), it emphasized that in the 7th year in a row in the year 2015, women are
earning more doctoral and master's degrees than men.

Figure 3

Educational Attainment

Count of Educational Attainment

Masters Degree 5
Masters (with Units or Academic
5
Requirements)
Doctoral Degree 4
Doctoral (with Units or Academic
10
Requirements)
Bachelor Degree 0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Most of the respondents are holding Doctoral units. They are a fresh graduate from Master’s
degree and continue directly to their Doctoral degree.

17
Figure 4
Majors

Major

English Major
Non-English Major

There is the majority of the Non-English major student. The PSU Open University Systems
offers major in Educational Management and Instructional Leadership, it is expected that
majority will be Non-English majors. In this study, there is a focus on non-English major to
determine if there is a significant effect of the software in their written output in English.

Figure 5

Student Programs

Programs

Master of Arts in Education 10

Master in Development Management 3

Doctor of Education 11

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Most of the respondents are taking up Doctor of Education and Master of Arts in Education
since it is the primary offered programs of the Open University Systems. There is only one
major for Doctor of Education which is Educational Management, where there is a mixture of
English and non-English major students.

18
4.2. Usability Score of Grammarly®
In this result of the study, a usability score measured, and a scale used in order to understand
the usability evaluation of the application.

Figure 6

SUS Scores

SUS SCORES
120.00

100.00

80.00

60.00

40.00

20.00

-
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Grammarly® obtained an overall average of SUS score of 86.04 which is convertible to an A+

grade; this means that Grammarly® evaluation is excellent as perceived by the users.

Table 1

SUS Scale Summary

Statement 1 % 2 % 3 % 4 % 5 %
I think that I would like to use this system 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 3 12.5% 7 29.2% 14 58.3%
frequently
I found the system unnecessarily complex 13 54.2% 8 33.3% 2 8.3% 1 4.2% 0 0.0%
I thought the system was easy to use 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 3 12.5% 7 29.2% 14 58.3%
I think that I would need the support of a 12 50.0% 8 33.3% 4 16.7% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
technical person to be able to use this
system
I found the various functions in this 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 9 37.5% 15 62.5%
system were well integrated
I thought there was too much 13 54.2% 7 29.2% 4 16.7% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
inconsistency in this system
I would imagine that most people would 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 9 37.5% 15 62.5%
learn to use this system very quickly
I found the system very cumbersome to 10 41.7% 13 54.2% 1 4.2% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
use
I felt very confident using the system 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 3 12.5% 7 29.2% 14 58.3%

19
 I needed to learn a lot of things before I 11 45.8% 11 45.8% 1 4.2% 1 4.2% 0 0.0%
could get going with this system

SUS is a validated questionnaire. The blue shaded part of the table is a positive statement, while
the other even number is a negative statement. Based on the result, the majority of the
respondents has a positive outlook on the utilization of the application.

It can be seen that the application has a positive impact on the graduate students’ perspective.
As these graduate students utilized the software which they can learn from their grammatical
mistakes and use of this program that could raise their awareness on their errors which provide
them better feedback in revising their error. The result of the study agreed with the study of
Cavaleri and Dianati (2016), where the results reveal that students perceive Grammarly® as
useful and easy to use. Based on the follow-up interviews from the non-English majors, most
of them learned from their mistakes and the feedback provided by the software increases their
awareness of their errors in writing.

4.3 Usage and Student Scores

The graduate students embraced technology and appreciate the grammar checker which based
on the result of the study. Similar to this, Grammarly® provides several platform and plugins

Figure 7

Platform Used

20
Most of the Respondents or 91.7% prefer to use Grammarly® as Microsoft Office Add-on,
where it automatically corrects mistakes as user type in a word processor. There are also 62.5%
of the respondents use Grammarly® in the website itself where respondents generate a report
for filing purposes.

Figure 8

Usage of the Application

Grammarly® Usage

Once or Twice a month

Every other week

Once or Twice a week

Almost Daily

Once a day or more Often

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Most of the respondents are using Grammarly® more often. It shows that most of them use the
software once or twice a week, but there are many respondents who use it daily if we combine
the respondents from using “almost daily” and “once a day or more often.” The result shows
the acceptability of the software as a useful tool in writing.

21
Figure 9

Confidence Level

Confidence Level
14 12
12
10 9
8 8
8
6
4 3 3
2 2
2 1
0 0 0
0
Not Not Very Somewhat Confident Very Completely
Confident At Confident Confident Confident Confident
All

Before After

There is an apparent change in the confidence level of the respondents where most of them are
not very confident before using Grammarly®. After using the application, the majority of the
respondents was utterly confident. The result of the study agreed with the study of Cavaleri
and Dianati (2016), where students reported that Grammarly® improved their writing and
understanding of grammar rules. The results of the 100% increase in the level of confidence
also superseded the result conducted by Grammarly® (2018) where 70% reported an increased
level of writing confidence.

Figure 10

Impact on Time

22
Most of the respondents save time significantly with a total percentage of 37.5% followed by
notably which is 29.2%. It shows that the software contributed to productivity and time
management. 16 respondents agreed that Grammarly® helped them to save time significantly
and notably, where the distribution is 15 non-English majors and only 1 English major. The
result shows that there is a significant effect of the grammar checker application to the non-
English major in terms of time management.

Figure 10

Overall satisfaction

Majority of the respondents or 58.3% are very much likely to recommend the Grammarly®
software. There is no negative response from the respondents regarding the recommendation.

23
Table 2

Scores of Non-English major students generated by Grammarly®

Issues Found in Text

Respondents

No of Words
Enhancement
Punctuation

Vocabulary
Contextual
Plagiarism

Grammar

Structure
Sentence
Spelling

Score
Style
1 5 61 156 59 37 234 154 69 17824
2 0 47 147 54 36 209 146 72 15235
3 37 17 48 27 7 99 75 78 17434
4 3 17 84 15 2 124 35 75 19434
5 11 9 39 12 3 93 37 77 18923
6 2 18 126 20 2 213 113 76 20162
7 35 29 73 28 4 126 81 80 21743
8 7 52 176 59 29 255 165 73 17342
9 1 48 166 62 38 198 143 71 13452
10 9 27 101 50 10 125 71 69 19093
11 12 31 86 33 12 126 78 70 20832
12 2 12 50 19 6 41 23 76 22783
13 63 50 92 76 9 219 130 79 20432
14 3 63 128 65 10 368 103 63 18663
15 23 63 63 59 20 209 167 75 16723

Scores of the graduate students show that students have low grammar skills without the
grammar checking software. Scores of a graduate student are ranging from 69 to 80 out of 100.
A thesis in Pangasinan State University averagely consists of a hundred page with around
15,000 to 20,000 words. As we can see in the result of the test, the majority of the non-English
majors received a number of feedback from Contextual Spelling, Grammar, Punctuation,
Sentence Structure, Style, and Vocabulary Enhancement. Based on the given feedback, the
students were asked to decide on the suggestion of the Grammarly® application and correct
necessary mistakes. The software significantly improves the writing skills of the students based
on their own perspective and thankful to the utilization of the software. After the utilization of
Grammarly®, all of the respondents reported an increase in the score. As the respondents
continue working on their draft and implementing Grammarly’s suggestions, the scores
improved. The application is advised as a supplement rather than a substitute for revision. Thus,
a Grammarly® score should be used only as a general guide, not as a final consultation. Despite

24
the limitation of the software, a follow-up interview was conducted and we’re asked the
assigned Critic Reader of the students' paper. Where according to the Critic Readers who we’re
in charge, there was an improvement in grammar and writing style of the students compared to
the first consultation.

Figure 11

Plagiarism and Score Result

Plagiarism and Score

90 80
78 77 79
75 76 76 75
80 72 73 71
69 69 70
70 63 63
60
50
37 35
40
30 23
20 11 12
7 9
10 5 3 3
0 2 1 2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Plagiarism Score

Based on the result of the Plagiarism versus the result, it is visible that graduate student with a
high percentage of plagiarism result obtains a higher score based on the report generated by
the Grammarly®. This implies that there is lesser grammatical error for plagiarized material.
Majority of the plagiarized content is in the review of related literature and introductory part
of the thesis. The students we’re carefully asked about the reason of the plagiarism, where most
of them are not aware that there is a software or program that could detect. Students also agreed
that several factors were identified influencing students to commit plagiarism such as lack of
knowledge in technology, academic culture. The result of the study agrees with Roman (2018),
where academic culture is one reason where students commit plagiarism.

4.4. The Strength and Weakness

In order to validate the response of the respondents, 15 of the respondents personally
interviewed about the strength and weakness of the software.

Most of the respondents were amazed by the use of the software.

25
4.4.1 Strength of the Grammar Checker
Finally, graduate was asked for further comments about Grammarly® in their own words.

Most of the comments described Grammarly® as useful, helpful and easy to use: “useful
assistance in grammar”, “It corrects most common mistakes in English”, “It provides great
suggestions”, “though there is some suggestion that may not be correct for me, the best thing
is it corrects grammar that I overlooked during proofreading”, “it saved a lot of my time
checking my students' research papers”, “It has helped me correct subject-verb agreement
issues”.

This result validates the overall satisfaction of the users in the utilization of the grammar
checker software Grammarly®. Some of the Non-English major commented that the
application is “useful” and provide them “greater confidence” in writing.

4.4.2 Weakness of the Grammar Checker

However, some students identified weakness such as: “it is only used when one has an internet
connection. I wish it could be used offline”, “Well, even it is a promising tool, it has still some
limitations”, “I can't undo some mistakes”, “there should be excluded from checking biography
and references”, “When I use the mobile keyboard, it slows my mobile phone”.

Despite the given weakness of the application, it shows that there is no direct comment
regarding grammatically result except for the statement “…it has still some limitations,” where
the user did not specify if the limitation is internal or external. As commented by Nova and
Lukmana (2018, July), “the use of automated writing evaluation program in detecting error
seems giving some benefits for the user. However, the application of this program still needs
the teacher and lecturer’s supervision to reduce the weaknesses of the program in detecting
the errors”. Thus, grammar checker is a useful tool that improves students writing quality
(Darayani, Karyuatry, & Rizqan, 2018), but it cannot replace human as the best checker
because the computer cannot think for us.

4.5 Focusing on Non-English majors

Since one of the objectives of this study is to determine the use of the Grammarly® application
to non-English majors. The result of the study shows there is a positive reaction to the
application from the non-English majors.

26
Figure 12

Confidence Level of Non-English Majors

Non-English Major
9 8
8 7
7
6 5
5
4 3 3
3 2
2 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
0
Not Confident Not Very Somewhat Confident Very Confident Completely
At All Confident Confident Confident

Before After

The figure shows that 100% of the non-English majors have significant improvement in the
confidence level of writing. The researchers received feedbacks from the non-English major
that they have confidence in writing in the presence and “without the tool, I cannot write it” as
mention by one writer. Most of them appreciated the software as “it saves a lot of money and
time”, since lesser help from the experts is needed. Majority of the respondents agrees that it
improved their writing skills.

This result agrees with the study conducted by Karyuatry (2018) and other authors Darayani,
Karyuatry & Rizqan, 2018) that Grammarly® can be used as an appropriate tool to minimize
errors and improve students’ writing quality. For non-English majors, Grammarly® is a useful
writing tool that provides instant feedback as you type. It has excellent online grammar
knowledgebase and useful for non-native English speakers and new writers. Graduate students
aim to write quality researches with excellent grammar because of errors in writing impact
perceptions of both writing quality and characteristics of the author. The researchers agreed
that texts that exhibit poor spelling and grammar are perceived as lower quality (Johnson,
Wilson & Roscoe, 2017).

27
4.5. Proposed Action
The Pangasinan State University started its subscription to the Premium Accounts of
Grammarly® this year. This study provides information to the institution on its usability based
on the feedback of its users. The researcher suggested that the accounts should renew because
it is usable. It also suggests that the MIS department should work closely in assisting the
Grammarians to fully utilized the accounts.

This result also serves as a basis for validation of the previous study related to the usefulness
of the application. The result shows that based on the findings, Grammarly® is useful as
perceived by the users itself despite its limitations.

4.5.1 Pedagogical Implications

Despite the limitations, that the application is advised as a supplement rather than a substitute
for grammar checking, the usefulness of Grammarly® is seen and proven. This study primary
implies not only the importance of plagiarism but also the importance of Grammar Checking
in research. Grammarly® is one of the most useful tools to achieve this goal because not all
Critic Readers are experts in proofreading. Based on the result that 100% of the non-English
majors have significant improvement in the confidence level of writing. The result of this study
shows the importance as a basis for the utilization of the software in the classroom especially
in the courses that teaches writing a research paper. The utilization of the software also lessens
the consultation from the experts that saves time and efforts and improves writing speed. The
result of the study implies that the submission of class work in the courses could be improved.

5. Conclusions and Recommendation

Based on the result of the study, the majority of the respondents agree that the utilized software
is usable. The users identified the strength of the software that helps the user improve writing
such as automatic detection of mistakes in Conceptual Writing, Grammar, Punctuation,
Sentence Structure, Style and Vocabulary Enhancement. While other users, specifically the
English major graduate students, who identified some weakness for possible future
improvement of the software such as the misleading feedback from the software, the non-
English majors provide feedback that the software is very much useful to them. Overall, the
software found it to be usable despite minor flaws in the correction. It recommended that the
software is continuously utilized. It is also recommended that the software should improve its

28
detection to avoid misleading feedback for users. Grammarly® is a powerful tool for writing
English, but a human cannot be replaced by computers. Since Grammarly® is automated, it
does have limitations. A grammar checker is recommended to use as a supplement rather than
a substitute for proofreading your article. For the future studies, the researchers suggest to
validate the result in succeeding years in the Pangasinan State University; it is also suggested
that future studies should include the undergraduate students and faculty staff.

References

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Cavaleri, M. R., & Dianati, S. (2016). You want me to check your grammar again? The
usefulness of an online grammar checker as perceived by students. Journal of Academic
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TO IMPROVE STUDENTS’WRITING QUALITY. Edulitics (Education, Literature,
and Linguistics) Journal, 3(1), 36-42.
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what we need to do (if anything). Journal of Business and Psychology, 25(2), 191-199.
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Grammarly® (2018). Grammarly®@EDU. Grammarly®.com Retrieved 8 August 2018, from
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Harvard University. (2012). Global Business Speaks English. Harvard Business Review.
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plagiarism detection software in reducing grammatical errors and plagiarism of
undergraduate researches. JPAIR Institutional Research, 1(1), 97-109.
Johnson, A. C., Wilson, J., & Roscoe, R. D. (2017). College student perceptions of writing
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Karyuatry, L. (2018). Grammarly® as a Tool to Improve Students’ Writing Quality: Free
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30
 Code-Switching Patterns and Functions in Philippine Literature

Shella D. Dela Cruz

Cagayan State University
[email protected]

Abstract
This study aimed to present the use of code –switching in Philippine Literature. A class
of 42 students and an instructor were involved in the study. The descriptive method using the
qualitative and quantitative approaches were utilized to gather the data in the study. The
classroom was tape – recorded and then the patterns of code –switching was documented using
Yamada (2003) as a framework. On the other hand, code –switching functions were analyzed
on the basis of Hymes (1962) framework. After the classroom recordings, an informal
interview and a questionnaire were used to gather the perception of the respondents on the use
of code- switching in the classroom. The study found out that the intersentential, intrasentential
and tag- switching patterns were used during the class discussion. It was also used for its
expressive, directive, metalinguistic, poetic and referential functions. In sum, this study
indicated that code- switching can be helpful and useful to facilitate understanding of the
lessons in Philippine literature.

Keywords: code-switching, patterns, functions, Philippine literature

Introduction:
“It’s not naman the grades that matter diba, ang importante, you’ve learned from the subject.
Oo sige na nga. I’ll really do my best next time. That’s the spirit! Let’s have our lunch na.”
This is a typical conversation in our schools now. Others call it the “Kris Aquino
English”. Some tag it the “Kolehiyalang Sosyalera” style where speakers think that mixing
Filipino with English bring them to a higher social status. As observed by Lesada (2017)
Filipinos are quick to abandon one language to reap social benefits. In his stay in the Philippines
to do his analysis of Taglish in Metro Manila, he observed that a family may exclusively teach

31
the children in English. He found out that the motivation for this action is the thought that
English is beneficial economically, socially and educationally. This kind of mentality
illustrates that English is the language of prestige, and being able to use it even if it is mixed
with Filipino may mean the speaker can achieve a higher social status. According to him, the
way a Filipino speaks is understood to be a notable pillar of one’s identity. Linguistic styles
and registers denote education level, geographical origin, ethnolinguistic heritage, gender
identity and socioeconomic status. Language choices evidently play a vital role in Philippine
society and personal expression and this feature of the Philippine language situation is
important to the understanding of Tagalog- English code-switching.
Traditional grammarians call this “poor English”. For them, not being able to speak
eloquent English is an evidence of incompetency and lack of language facility. In the language
world, this juxtaposition of two languages in a sentence or discourse is called “code-switching”.
Code-switching, though typical in our society, remains a controversy. In fact, Bonifacio
Sibayan, a founding member of the Linguistic Society of the Philippines claims that “the
language situation in the Philippines is probably the most studied in the world,” (Thompson,
2003).A research like that of Martin (2006) proved that code-switching does not hinder
students to achieve fluency in English nor did it hinder the learning experience of Science. She
claimed from her data that code –switching is not only useful in the learning experience of the
students, but also in teaching. Bernardo (2005) stresses that multilingualism is not a problem
in teaching and learning. He emphasizes that it must actually be used as a resource to help
increase students achievement.
However, code-switching still has no place in our academic system.
Unacceptable though, it is very evident that code - switching has penetrated the
premises of the schools, and even inside the classrooms. Students and teachers alike are heard
code -switching in meetings and other gatherings, and even in classroom discussions. Whether
we like it or not, we find comfort in code - switching as we use it in expressing our ideas. In
our curriculum where most of the subjects are taught in English, sometimes we cannot help but
to code - switch to facilitate understanding and allow more rooms for exchanging of ideas.
It is in these observations that the researcher thought of this study. The researcher
wanted to find out how prevalent is code switching inside the classroom by teachers and
students of Philippine Literature subject. The researcher also wanted to look into how the
students and teachers perceived the use of code- switching in the classroom.
Philippine Literature is a mandated subject in the Philippine Higher Education
Curriculum. It focuses on the literatures of the different regions in the country. The subject

32
aims to let all Filipino students be familiar with the country’s best known poems, songs, stories,
epics in the different periods of development. Since literature is an expression of peoples’
ideals, aspirations, emotions and creativity, it also aims to let every Filipino student to
appreciate the culture of fellow Filipinos in the country. But, just like any other subject in our
curriculum, the subject is taught in English.
Being a teacher of Philippine Literature, it is an observation that students become more
interested in a literary genre when discussed to them both in English and Filipino. Needless to
say, the students understand the lesson better when the teacher uses both English and Filipino
in explanation of concepts and in narration. They are also more active in discussion when they
are allowed to explain their ideas in English and Filipino.
This then gave an idea to the researcher to pursue this research. Since the aim of
Philippine Literature subject is appreciation of every region’s literature and culture and not
learning the English language, the researcher wanted to find out how code - switching can be
helpful in learning the topics in Philippine Literature.

Conceptual Framework
This study is based on the idea that code – switching is a natural phenomenon among
bilinguals like Filipinos. But as teachers and students have double standards in perceiving code
– switching, negative and positive reactions towards it are also heard.
The framework below which was adopted from Abad (2005) with some revisions
guided the researchers in the study.

Prevalence of code
switching in the classroom NEGATIVE
POSITIVE Teachers’ and
• Practical Students’ • interferes with language learning
Perceptions of
• Useful • inappropriate to the situation
Code – Switching in
Teaching

Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

33
 The conceptual framework provides the basis in analyzing the data gathered in this
study. Hence, as illustrated in the graphic presentation the prevalence of code – switching and
the teachers’ and students’ perceptions are at the center. As the teachers’ and students’
perceptions of code - switching in teaching are inextricably embedded and are influenced by
underlying beliefs related to code - switching on the twin processes of teaching and learning,
this relationship generates two opposing views of code - switching as experienced by teachers
and students during instruction.
In today’s generation, code – switching is widely used inside the classroom. It is
extensively used by the teachers to let students better understand the lesson.
Usually teachers’ beliefs and attitudes influence code – switching. Apart from this
personal understanding of code – switching, the educational policies affects teachers’ language
use (Liu and Ahn, 2004).
Code - switching may be deemed positive as it is a practical and useful tool for both
learning and teaching especially in cases when the use of English may not always yield positive
learning outcomes. Thus, when the teachers’ belief in code - switching is that it is beneficial
for the various functions it serves during instruction, they are likely to incorporate code -
switching or modify their use of language as they see fit in a learning environment where
English abounds. Similarly, when the students share the same beliefs with their teachers on the
perceived benefits of code - switching, they would most likely welcome their teachers’ code -
switching but only when the situation warrants it so as to facilitate their learning. Thus,
Bernardo (in press) makes this suggestion as regards language – in- education- policy: “what
is needed in multilingual educational communities is a creative and pragmatic approach to
defining how language could be used in facilitating student learning and achievement. The
approach may need to allow the various agents in the learning process to flexibly negotiate how
the various proficiencies could be best appropriated in specific learning episodes and contexts”
Thus, Bernardo (in press)
Despite the benefits that students and teachers gain through code switching, there are
also problems encountered in its use specifically in facilitating the effectiveness of English
communication. For example, the study of Pagaval – Gabriel and Reyes – Otero (2006) shows
that code – switching among Mathematics teachers in Philippines was said to negatively affect
learning. Their analysis reveals that teachers’ code – switching confused students and
consequently affected their lesson comprehension. In short, students whose teachers discussed
and explained with less description like code switching and marked definitions has higher
achievement.

34
 Also, code - switching may be viewed negatively. When teachers believe that code -
switching is detrimental to instruction which causes the students to misunderstand concepts,
they are likely to execute an all English instruction throughout class time as it is mandated by
the school and an expectation of the school’s stakeholders. Similarly when the students’
perceptions of code - switching during instruction are negative because it is deemed to bring
about confusion in their minds, they would expect an all English instruction over an all-Filipino
medium. Filipino is not the language that they have been accustomed to ever since the grade
school. Moreover the confusion that code - switching can cause may also interfere with
language learning since the development of language skills is deemed to be a shared
responsibility of all teachers regardless of the subjects they teach. Lastly, code - switching may
also influence the students’ understanding of appropriateness in language use in specific
situations as the speech mode may be considered informal and, therefore, inappropriate to a
formal setting such as the school.
The use of code – switching should be allowed only during informal class activities like
group work. In such context, it is better to use language which the students are more
comfortable to use (Filipino – English language). Although, there has been no categorical proof
yet in the actual effect of code – switching on a bilinguals’ language competence (Abad, 2005).
It is better to take precautionary measure and ensure that no harm can take place by limiting its
use in the classroom to the most important and appropriate contexts only. Hence even code
switching in small or formal group activities should be monitored by the teacher and regulated
by clearly set rules. Code – switching is beneficial to learning situation and it should be allowed
in content area subjects to help students understand difficulty concepts explained in English.
Behind these two underlying concepts, is the occurrence of code – switching in the
classroom. More often than not, bilinguals like the Filipino learners use different patterns of
code – switching depending on the situations. These situations determine the functions of code
– switching among teachers and learners.

Statement of the Problem:

It cannot be denied that even English classes cannot be loyal to the “English only”
policy This study then explores on the use of code – switching in the English class and hopes
to support the idea of code - switching as an aid to the students in learning the English concepts
in the classroom.
In light of all conflicting findings of code – switching in the classroom, teachers are
confused on whether they should not allow their students to code switch in the classroom. This

35
paper looks on the different patterns and functions of classroom code – switching and the
perceptions about the participation of the students and the teacher in its use. As the main
participants in the learning, their code – switching interactions and perspectives should play a
significant role in determining whether code – switching should be allowed in learning
contexts.
Specifically, the study aims to answer the following questions:
1. What are the code – switching patterns used by the respondents in the classroom?
2. What are the functions of code- switching in the classroom?
3. How do the students and the teacher perceive code – switching in the classroom?
METHODOLOGY

Subjects
A total of 42 students enrolled in Philippine Literature during the second semester of
school year 2017-2018 at the College of Information Technology, Cagayan State
University, and an English teacher in the subject were the respondents in the study.
Philippine Literature is a three- unit subject offered to the sophomore students in the
university.

Instruments
1. Classroom Recordings
The researcher audio recorded two classroom discussions in the subject. The recording
was then later transcribed to determine the code – switching patterns and functions used
in the discussion of the lesson. The teacher was informed that her classes will be
recorded for research purposes, but she was not informed when these recordings will
happen. This is to maintain spontaneity and natural discussion between the teacher and
the students. The researcher assigned a student to record the discussion, but she was
instructed not to tell the class about the recording.
2. Questionnaire
A revised questionnaire was used in the study. Questions were meant to gather the
perception of the respondents on the use of code-switching in the Philippine Literature
class. Both the teacher and the students answered the items in the questionnaire. The
questionnaire was distributed after the class recordings.
3. Post-interview

36
 An informal post – interview was conducted to validate the answers of the respondents
in the items from the questionnaire. It was used to document the reasons of using code-
switching in class.

Procedure

Class Recording Questionnaire Interview

Statistical Treatment
Frequency count and percentage were used to determine the perception of the teacher and the
students on the use of code- switching in the classroom.

Results and Discussion

The researcher used Yamada (2003) as a basis in identifying the code – switching patterns used
in the Philippine Literature class. Like Poplack in Romaine (1994:p.178), Yamada also
classified code – switching into Intersentential, Intrasentential and Tag Switching.
Patterns of Code – Switching
I. Intersentential Code – Switching- Inter-sentential switching covers a switch at a clause or
sentence boundary, where each clause or sentence is in one language or another. This type is
thought to be the most difficult kind of switching since it requires greater fluency in both
languages. Samples are given below:

Why are there different literary pieces? Why do we have poems? Why do we have novels?
Bakit hindi tula na lang? Bakit hindi isa na lang?

The Dominican has introduced Catholicism and Religious Literature. We also have Tagalog
versifiers called Ladinos. Sino yung mga manunulat natin?

What stories about magical birds do you know? Alam niyo na yung Ibong Adarna?

37
 The folk songs mirrored our culture and love of nature. Dati na tayong may mga ganito
katulad ng pampatulog sa mga bata.

The awit are medieval folktales usually based on European tales or legends. So noong unang
panahon kapag nagkukuwento sila, ginagamitan ng gitara, meron din siyang tono.

II. Intra- Sentential Code – Switching

Appel & Muysken in Susanto (2008:48) stated that inter-sentential codes - switching is
the switch involving movement from one language to other between sentences. This situation
may also include a switch from a whole sentence or more than one sentence produced entirely
in one language. Inter sentential code - switching may serve to emphasize a point made in the
other languages in conversation. Below are examples of Intersential Code-switching recorded
from the class. Further supported by (Hoffman, 1991:112) inter sentential switching is the
switch from one language into another language which occurs between sentences or speech
acts.

What do you mean by Corrido? Naka encounter na ba kayo nang parang white screen siya
tapos may pupunta sa kanyang likuran, yung shadow lang.

So here comes the panganay, si Don Pedro, sabi niya kay father: “Father, ah magpapaalam
ako na ako ang pupunta sa Mt. Tabor. At last, bliness siya ng father.

So as you can see in our family, meron at meron yang sinasabi na blackship, sukir. Meron
din yung humble.

Hindi niya alam na yung pinagresan niya na tree ay doon pala ang favorite na tahanan ng
Ibong Adarna.

II. Tag – Switching- This type of code-switching involves the insertion of tag in one language
into utterance, for example : you know, no way, it‟s okay. I mean, well, etc. Tag switching

38
involves the insertion of a tag from one language into an utterance which is otherwise entirely
in other language. Tags used easily inserted in speech at a number of point in monolingual
utterance without breaking syntactic rules (Romaine in Susanto, 2008: 47).Tag question may
be used as a polite request or to avoid the impression of a firm order. Further supported by
(Poplack in Hoffmann, 1991: 113) it is exclamation or tags which is serving as an emblem of
the bilingual character.
The awit are medieval folktales usually based on European tales or legends. So Noong unang
panahon kapag nagkukuwento sila, ginagamitan ng gitara, meron din siyang tono.

The youngest asked permission to leave , but the king could not let him go. So yung bunso
ang nagpaalam. So sabi niya…

In the last part, what happened to don Pedro. He turned into a stone, di ba?

These findings confirmed the presence of code – switching in the Philippine Literature
class. In a subject where the medium of instruction is English, and both teachers and learners
are bilinguals, a switch from the first language to the target language or vice versa can be very
common and may automatically occur. This is supported by Wardaugh (1998) who states that
code-switching or code mixing is a common phenomenon among bilingual or multilingual
society. He found out that it is unusual for a speaker to have command of, or use, only one code
or system or variety of language, whether it is a dialect or style. This would appear to be an
extremely rare phenomenon. Most speakers mastered several varieties of any language they
speak. Usually, people are required to select a particular code whenever they want to speak,
and they may also decide to switch from one code to another or to mix codes even within
sometimes very short utterances and thereby create a new code. Moreover, Borlongan (2009)
in his analysis of University Students Attitude Towards English- Tagalog Code-Switching
observed that while Philippine institutions and in the science and technology courses where the
policy is English-as-the-medium –of –instruction, code-switching inevitably takes place for
various reasons, not only because of lack of proficiency but also because of explanatory
adequacy of content lectures and discussions.
The findings also show that code-switching is accepted inside the classroom where
English is expected to be the instructional language. Admittedly, the teachers have been

39
employing code- switching as a means of providing students with the opportunities to
communicate and increasing students understanding. Furthermore, Ahmad (2009) said the code
- switching helps to facilitate the flow of classroom instruction since the teachers do not have
to spend so much time trying to explain to the learners or searching for the simplest words to
clarify any confusion that might arise. Again, Borlongan(2009) in his study found out that
most English language teachers in her sample (11 out of 14 0r 78.57%) code-switch. That
means that they violate the implementing speak –English-oly-policy. They code-switch in
around less than five to almost 50 utterances or a little less than 15, at the average, in the entire
class session. Students also have their share of code-switching in the class session.
In this study where the specific lesson concentrated on explanation of concepts and
narration of a short story in Philippine Literature, the teacher needs a lot of talking, thus, a lot
of switching also occurred. As Martin (2006) claims, code-switching palso promotes shared
meaning, indirectly but naturally be able to monitor student’s level of comprehension and
maintains teacher narrative.

Functions of Code – Switching

According to Hymes (1962), there were five basic functions of code – switching. In the
following, the researcher analyzed the teacher’s teaching in this course based on Hymes’
framework.
I. Expressive Functions. In this function, the teacher uses code – switching to express
emotions.Below are the samples of this function:
Sentence Emotion/feeling
The people heard about the king and they were Worry
troubled.. So narinig naman ito ng buong
sambayanan. So sabi nila, ano kaya yun? Ano kaya
ang pinapahanap ng king?
They know that along the way there were many evils Fear
and strange animals. May mga nagbabadyang
pangamba.

Don Pedro walked fastly inspired by the thought that Excitement

he was near the end of his travel. Sabi niya “Aha!” at
last makakarating na din ako.

40
 Don Pedro was surprised to hear a human voice so Fear
parang kinilabutan si Don Pedro nang marinig niya
yung boses.

Masyadong malakas yung agos, kaya please tulungan Asking for sympathy
mo ako.

Go away! Can’t you see that it’s hard for me to cross Anger
the river. Hirap na hirap ako tapos dadagdag ka pa.

It can be seen on the sample sentences above that the teacher use code –
switching in translating the text in Philippine literature. She strategically does this in
order to bring out the emotion being evoked in the text and students may also feel
these emotions. One of the aims of Philippine Literature is to develop among
students an awareness and appreciation of the country’s poems, stories and other
literary genre. As the Philippines went through different phases in history, aside from
having different regions and culture, different emotions are also featured in the
literary work. Code – switching helps in bringing out these emotions since feelings,
authentically come out when expressed in one’s own language.
II. Directive Functions. This function is used when the speaker wants to catch the
attention of the listener in giving instructions or directions. Below are the samples
of this function:
Let us try to find out so you listen. Makinig. I was not able to reproduce you
a copy kaya makinig ng mabuti.

Activity no.1, assignment niyo na ito at quiz na rin. What do you want, copy
or photocopy? Sige photocopy na lang.

41
 You may go, tayo na.

I will download if there is an available copy,bibilhin ko tapos panoorin ninyo.

It can be seen in the sentences that the teacher used code-switching to solicit the attention
of the students and listen to a given instruction or direction. This is an important function of
code-switching since directions and instructions in the classroom must be strictly followed. It
is therefore important that students understand what are they directed to do and using the first
language in giving directions may really be helpful.
III. Metalinguistic Functions. Code – switching is used in definition of terms, figures of
speech, translations, giving of examples to make the concept clearer. Samples of this
function are seen below.
What do you mean by corrido? Nakaencounter na ba kayo nung parang white screen
siya tapos may pupunta sa kanyang likuran, shadow lang ang nakikita niyo.

In this sentence, the teacher used code – switching to define “corrido”. In defining it,
she tried to solicit prior knowledge or experience of the students and described how a “corrido”
maybe performed on the stage. This technique helps the students understand what “corrido” is
since they are able to imagine what it is through the description of the teacher using the Filipino
language.

So he thought of a plan of breaking some branches of the tree nearby and tie
them together and made a raft-balsa.

In this sentence, code-switching is used to translate the English word raft into the
Ilocano language balsa. Since Ilocano is the dominant native language of the students in class,
most of them understand the term.
Please let me go with you across the river, so sinasabi niya nagmamakaawa ako
young man, itawid mo ako sa ilog.

42
 In this situation, the teacher used code –switching in retelling a line in the short story
from English to Filipino. Again, this is being done to increase understanding among students.
Excerpts from the recordings show that retelling the lines into the Filipino language has been
used in narrating the story to the students. The teacher repeats the lines in Filipino to make the
students understand the text better. Hoffman (1991) supports the use of repetition for
clarification. He states that “when a bilingual wants to clarify his/her speech so that it will be
understood more by the listener, he/she sometimes used both languages that he masters saying
the same utterances.
Ok he had seen a tree with leaves of sparkling silver, so may nag gaganyan, so
kumikinang.

It can be seen on this sentence that code-switching is again used to make the meaning
of an unfamiliar word clearer by translation into the Filipino language. The word “sparkling”
has been translated into “nag gaganyan (teacher doing the action of sparkling), kumikinang.

IV. Poetic Functions – In this function, code –switching is used when the speaker inserts
joke, stories or quotations and “expressions” which are familiar to the listeners . This
is also to emphasize a point and to make the conversation interesting. Samples from
the classroom recordings are given below:
So Don Pedro walked faster inspired by the thought that he is near the end of
his journey. Sabi niya Aha! At last makarating na ako dito sa pang anim na
bundok, ilang kuwan nalang, konting kembot na lang.

The expression “konting kembot na lang” is a slang in the Filipino language which
means “few more steps”. This is usually being used when referring to being close to achieving
something. In the lines used by the teacher, “konting kembot na lang” was used to emphasize
or to explain that the character is already near the end of his journey.
Hinanap niya yung Ibong Adarna at laking gulat niya nakita yung Ibong
Adarna dahil ang kulay ay mas maganda pa kesa kulay ng rainbow. Wow,
magic!

In these lines, the teacher used Filipino language to narrate the story, then later code-
switch into an English language. The expression “wow, magic!” has been popularized in the

43
Philippines by a contestant in a known talent show. It is being used to refer to something which
happened miraculously or instantly. In the lesson, the teacher used it to emphasize the victory
of the character for seeing what he had longed to find. Using the expression known to the
students, makes the lesson more interesting.
According to Lesada(2017)bilinguals are likely to use tags or expressions because of
the desire for social connectedness through linguistic means. Since “konting kembot na lang”
and “wow, magic” are popular phrases among students, the teacher used them in situations
which she thinks could be inserted to show that she can also go along with her students by
using the language which the they consider “in” within their circle.
V. Referential Function. Code – switching is used when terms lack exact equivalent
or appropriate terms in the second language. Sometimes the first language is being
used to maintain the effect of the language. Samples are given below:
Once upon a time there was a king with three sons. Meron yung humble,
meron din yung sukir.

Sukir is an Ilocano word which refers to a person who has an unpleasant character.
Since a person with an unpleasant character maybe called in many ways in English
(disobedient, lazy, violator, delinquent, etc.), the teacher chose to use the native language
“sukir” which is a familiar word to the student. By using this native word, the teacher may not
need to expound or to describe further what kind of son the king has. In the data gathered and
transcribed in this study, this is the only native word being used by the teacher throughout the
lecture. In most cases, she code - switched using Filipino and English. Probably, the teacher
thinks using the native language “sukir” captured what she really wants to convey to the class
aside from she cannot really grasp an exact English term to be used.
Quickly he researched where the voice came from, then beside him stood an
old man in tattered clothes, long beard, basta yagit.

“Yagit” is a Filipino word used to refer to a homeless person, beggar or dirty children. In
the lines used by the teacher, he chose to use the word “yagit” so that the students will instantly
imagine the person she is describing without further explanations.
Meanwhile, the bird went on singing the seven songs putting a spell on Don
Pedro. After singing nag start na siyang ano…tumae. So what happened to
Don Pedro?

44
 In these lines, the teacher code-switched to the Filipino language in the part where she
felt it is the appropriate word to use in order to maintain the impact of the language. “Tumae”
is sometimes considered an offensive language in the Filipino community because of its
unhygienic effect. But, the teacher still chose to use it instead of the original text to stimulate
the imagination of the students and to achieve the real impact of the story. Using the English
term of “tumae” in the story lessens the impact of the word because euphemism is usually being
applied to substitute words that may be offensive in nature.

Perception of the Respondents on Code – Switching

A. Students Perception

Table 1 reflects the perception of the respondents as to whether they like their
teachers to use Filipino in their English course. As reflected on the table, the
respondents think it is alright to use Filipino in the English course “sometimes”
(83.33%); 7 or 16.66 percent thinks it is alright to the Filipino in the English course “a
little” and none think that the teacher should never use or overly use Filipino in the
English course.

1. Do you like your teacher use Filipino in this English course?

Choices Frequency Percentage
Not at all 0 0
A little 7 16.66%
Sometimes 35 83.33%
Very much 0 0

Table 2 shows the opinion of the respondents as to when Filipino maybe

necessary in the English learning class. As seen on the table, the respondents ranked
their choices from first to fifth. For the respondents “practice translation” comes first,
“explain complex concept” is the second, “explain complex grammar rules” is the third,
“define new vocabulary” is the fourth and “provide instruction” is the last.

45
 It can be noted that the two top answers (practice translation and explain
complex concept) really require the teacher or the students to understand the concept
and to speak the language. In other words, these two skills require them to think and
speak the English language, but seemingly both students and the teacher think the
Filipino could be necessary in these situations to probably make them understand the
concept and express themselves in such a way that others would understand them.

2. In your opinion, when do you think Filipino is necessary in the English learning
class?
Choices Frequency Percentage Rank
Define new vocabulary 4 9.52 4th
Practice translation 17 40.47 1st
Explain complex grammar rules 4 9.52 4th
Explain complex concept 11 26.19 2nd
Provide instruction 6 14.28 3rd

Table 3 reflects the perception of the respondents on whether code – switching

interfere with their English learning. It can be seen on the table that the respondents see
code – switching to pose a “little” interference (4 or 9.5%); it may also “sometimes” (2
or 4.7%) interfere in their English learning; 24 or 57.11% say it does not interfere
English learning at all while there is one respondents who said code – switching could
“very much” (3.22%) interfere in their English learning.
Although most of the students think that code-switching does not interfere in
their English learning, the data below reflects that even if they prefer code – switching,
they still entertain the idea that it could interfere in their learning the English language.
In the post interview conducted, the respondents said that when they are allowed to do
code – switching, they would rather code-switch all the time then use straight English.
Thus, their code – switching may interfere in their learning the English language.

3. Does code – switching interfere with your English learning?

Choices Frequency Percentage
Not at all 24 57.11%
A little 4 9.5%

46
 Sometimes 2 4.7%
Very much 1 2.3%

Table 4 shows the perception of the respondents as to whether code – switching

confused them in understanding their lesson. Most of the respondents 27 or 64.28%
said code – switching does “not at all” confuse them in understanding their lesson; 6 or
14.28% of them said that code – switching “sometimes” confuse them in understanding
their lesson; only “a little” (11 or 35.48%) agree that code – switching could be
confusing and none of the respondents said code – switching confuse them in
understanding their lesson.
This data reinforce the researcher’s claim that code – switching facilitates
understanding of difficult concepts in the classroom.

4. Does code – switching confuse you in understanding your lesson?

Choices Frequency Percentage
Not at all 27 64.28
A little 9 21.42
Sometimes 6 14.28
Very much 0 0

Table 5 shows the situations where code- switching maybe needed in the
classroom. As seen on the table, the respondents ranked the functions of the code –
switching from first to 7th. The table further shows that “repetition for clarification”
topped the function of code – switching while “quoting somebody else” was seen to be
its last function. Again, with this result, it could be deduced that code – switching is
mainly being used in the classroom to promote understanding of concepts and
explaining a speech content.

5. When do you see the need of code – switching in class?

Choices Frequency Rank
Talking about a particular topic 6 3rd
Quoting somebody else 3 5th

47
 Being emphatic about something 9 2nd
Interjection (Inserting sentence fillers or sentence 2 6th
connectors)
Repetition used for clarification 12 1st
Intention of clarifying the speech content 6 3rd
Expressing group identity 4 4th

B. Teachers Perception
This portion shows the perception of the teacher on code-switching as reflected
in his answers in the items included in the questionnaire.

1. Do you like the use of Filipino in this English course?

_______ not at all
_______ a little
___/____ sometimes
_______ very much

2. In your opinion, when do you think Filipino is necessary in the English learning
class?

Choices Rank
Define new vocabulary 4th
Practice translation 2nd
Explain complex grammar rules 5th
Explain complex concept 1st
Provide Instruction 3rd

3. Does code – switching interfere with your teaching in English?

_____/__ not at all
_______ a little
______ sometimes
_______ very much

48
 4. Does code – switching confuse you in teaching your lesson?
_____/__ not at all
_______ a little
______ sometimes
_______ very much
5. When do you see the need of code – switching in class?

Choices Rank
Talking about a particular topic 3rd
Quoting somebody else 5th
Being emphatic about something 4th
Interjection (Inserting sentence fillers or sentence 6th
connectors)
Repetition used for clarification 1st
Intention for clarifying speech content 2nd
Expressing group identity 7th

It is evident on the teachers’ answers that she welcomes code-switching in teaching.

Needless to say, even if the teacher is aware of the Bilingual Policy of Education in the
Philippines which separated Filipino and English as medium for instruction, she did not deny
that code-switching can be an alternative source of teaching and learning English classes. These
results are supportive of the New London Group (2000) advocacy of developing multiliteracies
and multiliteracy pedagogies, but also derives multicultural and postcolonial discourse.
Conclusions
This study attempted to look into code-switching in the classroom and how it functions
in the learning and teaching process. It also tried to discover how the students and teacher
perceive its use in the classroom. Generally, results of this study help other researchers of code-
switching prove that, truly code-switching is an alternative resource in teaching and learning.
Specifically, the following can be drawn from the study:
1. Code – switching is evident in Philippine Literature and it is used in translating and
narrating the literary pieces in the class.

2. Code – switching facilitates understanding of literary pieces in Philippine literature.

49
 3. Code – switching can create a comfortable atmosphere in the class which is conducive
for learning.
4. Teachers and students intentionally and unintentionally use code – switching to achieve
instructional goals in the classroom.

Recommendations
As evidenced from the transcripts of data in this study, code-switching is an
unavoidable phenomenon in classes with bilingual or multicultural students and teachers. It’s
presence in the classroom is a perplexing issue which should not be denied, rather it should be
given attention. Unfortunately, in the Philippines our language curriculum policy makers are
not ready to accept the role of code-switching yet in fostering expression and achieving
instructional goals even in English classes. It is high time that code-switching be given an
attention it deserves. It does not mean that we change our policy in language instruction, but
following Bernardo’s (2005) proposal to make our formal school environment “relax” our
language prescription. This is to make both teachers and students enjoy the benefit of
understanding by using two or three languages at their disposal.

References
Abad, L. (2005). Code – Switching in the Classroom: A Clash of Two Language? (A
Sociolinguistic of Classroom Interaction) Leaps: Miriam College Faculty Research
Journal. Vol. 25 No. 1
Abad, L. (2005). Code – Switching: An Alternative Resource in Teaching Science and Math.
Leaps: Miriam College Faculty Research Journal. Vol. 32 No. 1
Abad, L. (2010). An Analysis of Teachers’ and Students’ Perceptions of Code – Switching in
Teaching Science and Mathematics in a Philippine Private High School. The Journal
of ASIA TEFL Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 239 – 264.
Bautista, M. L. S. (1999). An Analysis of the Functions of Tagalog – English Code – Switching:
Data from one case. In M. L. S. Bautista and G. O. Tan (Eds.), The Filipino Bilingual:
A Multidisciplinary Perspective (Festschrift in honor of Emy M. Pascasio) (pp. 19 –
31). Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philipines.
Bautista, M. L. S. (2004). Tagalog – English Code – Switching as a Mode of Discourse. Asia
Pacific Education Review 2004, Vol. 5, No. 2, 226 – 233.

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Bernardo,A.B.I. (2007). Language in Philippine Education: Rethinking of old fallacies,
exploring new alternatives amidst globalization. In T.R.F. Tupas (Ed.) , (Re) making
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– Tagalog Code- Switching in Classroom Instruction. TESOL Journal. Vol. 7, pp.70-
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Chahayani, Y.N. (2003). The Analysis of Lecturers” Code – Switching in Teaching and
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Gan, R. (2009). Code – Switching and English Language Proficiency. UM Research Journal.
Vol. 6, No. 1
Lesada, J.D. (2017). Tagish in Metro Manila: An Analysis of Tagalog- English Code –
Switching. University of Michigan Department of Linguistics.
Liu, D., Ahn, G., Baek, K., and Han, N. (2004). South Korean High School English Teachers’
Code – Switching: Questions and Challenges in the Drive for Maximal Use of English
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51
 Language Pedagogical Styles in Technical-Vocational Education

Rio Averil Carmen-Pamittan

Cagayan State University, Philippines

Conchita Malenab-Temporal
Cagayan State University, Philippines

Biodata:
Rio Averil Carmen-Pamittan is a language instructor at Cagayan State University – College
of Industrial Technology. She is currently pursuing her doctorate degree in English Language
Education at the same university. Her research interests are along psycholinguistics,
sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and issues and trends in English language teaching. She
can be reached at [email protected].

Conchita Malenab-Temporal is an Associate Professor of English at Cagayan State

University-College of Teacher Education and currently the University Quality Assurance
Officer of the same university. She is a Ph.D. degree holder in the field of Language Education.
She teaches both in the undergraduate and graduate programs of the University. She can be
reached at [email protected].

Abstract
Student learning is governed by a student’s skills, schema, and abilities and the compatibility
of his styles to learning and his teacher’s approach to teaching. Hence, this study aimed to
determine whether a difference exists between the students’ language learning styles and
language teachers’ teaching preferences in the technical-vocational education. To this end, it
determined specifically the students’ language styles and the differences, if any, when they are
grouped according to sex, ethnicity and discipline. It further ascertained the language teachers’
teaching preference. This study involved 38 Industrial Technology students and four English
teachers purposively selected. A modified survey questionnaire was used as main instrument.

52
Findings revealed that generally a disparity exists between the students’ dominant learning
approaches and the teachers’ instruction styles. Students are revealed to be auditory,
individual, dependent and analytical language learners. Moreover, there exists a significant
difference when students were grouped according to discipline Meanwhile, language teachers
adapt kinaesthetic, group, independent and teacher-modelling styles.

Keywords –Learning style, teaching style, pedagogical, second language

Introduction
The success of learning essentially depends on the active engagement between the
teacher who nurtures and facilitates the learning referred to as the tool for effective learning,
and, the learner who possesses multiple intelligences and skills referred to as the core of the
process. This is summed in the principle that a student learning is governed by a student’s
skills, schema, and abilities and the compatibility of his styles to learning and his teacher’s
approach to teaching. Accordingly, it is very important that both work together to attain the
ultimate goal of delivering and acquiring quality education. Considerably, classrooms have
become a melting pot of the cultures which include differing worldviews, religious beliefs,
values, abilities, languages, and family backgrounds of students (Saban, 2013). Anent to this,
it becomes a diverse learning institution where students require varied and multiple approaches
so that the education provided becomes quality, efficient and effective.
Researchers like Brown (2002) and Miller (2001) consider that the alliance of
learning and teaching styles plays important role in empowering students to maximize their
educational experience, to persist, and to complete. With which, further studies have verified
the very importance of matching teaching styles to learning styles. Oxford et al. (1991)
emphasized that mismatch of learning preferences and teaching preferences is likely to result
in student boredom, discouragement, poor test performance, low motivation, shattered self-
esteem, and decisions to quit the course or program (Oxford et al., 1991). Teachers, then, must
assess the students as to their means of acquiring information for the former to provide a more
comprehensive and appropriate classroom learning environment. This will definitely boost
learners’ cooperation and interest in a subject matter. Significantly, learning English has
become one of the struggles of students because they lack the interest; what affects this interest
redounds to the teacher styles and approaches.
Thus, it is but fitting and proper that research on the learner’s preferred style of
learning be conducted. The ways in which an individual characteristically acquires, retains, and

53
retrieves information are collectively termed the individual’s learning style. Smith and Dalton
(2005) wrote that these are distinctive and habitual manner of acquiring knowledge, skills or
attitudes through study or experience, and tends to be more stable across different contexts.
Moreover, teaching styles refer to teachers’ classroom behaviors based on their beliefs. These
are leading factors that shape and assure the success of a highly complex teaching-learning
process (Artvinli, 2010); hence are essential for providing students with good learning
experiences and improving students’ academic outcomes. Chang (2003) believes that
understanding the preferred learning styles of students has a resounding impact on curriculum
design, teacher training, material development and student orientation.
However, studies verified the usual disparity between the two. In studies of
Coffielder, et. al. (2004), it is noted that it is an existing problem that practitioners have lack of
understanding of the theoretical foundations related to learning styles, along with a diverse
literature adopting different theoretical approaches, which are vital in effectively planning
personalized learning opportunities. More so, Hussain and Ayub (2012) cited Tucker, Stewart
and Schimdt (2003) who further suggested conduct of necessary studies; hence, this research
which focused on the English language pedagogical styles of Technical-Vocational students.
Bloom (1956), cited in Mohammad (2013), emphasized that Vocational Education
students also have their own learning preferences, “considering they rely less on their cognitive
abilities and more on their psychomotor talents, including physical movement, coordination,
and use of motor skills”.
It is, therefore, thrilling to collect a literature identifying how students in the program
learn a foreign language, consideringtheir cultural diversity and their specialization.

Objectives of the Study

Generally, this study aimed at exploring whether significant difference is present between
the students’ preferred language learning styles and the teachers’ language teaching styles.
Specifically, it answered the following questions:
1. What are the dominant language learning styles of Technical Vocational
Students?
2. Are there differences in learning styles among students when grouped
according to a) sex, b)ethnicity, and c)discipline?
3. What are the language teachers’ preferred teaching styles?
4. Is there a difference between the learning styles and teaching stylesidentified by
respective respondents?

54
Methodology
The study utilized the descriptivedesign in determining the students’ preferred language
learning styles and the teachers’ preferred language teaching style. It involved the four (4)
teachers of English and 38 students from the Industrial Technology program of Cagayan State
University, Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City.
In gathering the data, the researcher modified and made use of the English Language
Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (SPQ) developed by Joy Reid in 1987. Moreover,
educators’ teaching style preferences were examined through the Teaching Style Preferences
developed by Wong (2015). The instrument used 4-point Likert scale with a scale of 1-
Strongly Disagree (SD); 2- Disagree (D); 3- Agree (A); and 4- Strongly Agree (SA). The
respondents were then asked to answer the survey questionnaire honestly and accurately.
To statistically treat the data, frequency counts and weighted mean were used to analyze
the extent students’ preferred language learning styles and the teachers’ preferred language
teaching style. Moreover, Analysis of Variance or ANOVA was utilized in the tests of
difference among students’ learning styles when grouped according to profile variables.
Finally, T-test for Independent samples was used to determine whether difference between
Learning Style of the students and Teaching style of the Teachers existed.

Results and Discussion

Language Learning Styles of Technical-Vocational Students
Results as shown in Table 1 present that the students in Technical-vocational program are
auditory language learners (3.2986). This means that student-respondents generally favour
learning English language through lectures, tutorials and group discussions where they, most
of time, are given opportunities to listen to concepts, ideas and rules. Focused group discussions
with the respondents revealed that they need to relearn the rules on writing effective
paragraphs, to be acquainted of intermediate and advanced vocabulary which they prefer be
told to them. This, according to them, is due to their very limited exposure of the language.
Moreover, they most likely favour learning individually (3.11). This signifies their want of
individual work like assignments and quizzes. For the respondents, learning individually
allows them to internalize information and relate it to their previous experiences and learning.
Notably, the students prefer language learning dependently (3.3958) but analytically. From
here, they are still preferring teachers to have an authority role in class, delivering instruction
and giving clear guidelines. Further, as delineated from the theory of Willing’s two-
dimensional learning style in ESL/EFL contexts (1987), authority-oriented style makes

55
students prefer structured English classroom than discovery learning. The teacher, therefore,
has to be the source of comprehensive information which shall be meaningful for the students.
The Tech-Voc students are known to be kinaesthetic, learning through doing activities where
they get rich experience; yet, herein study found that learning English is much different, since
they give preference having the teacher provide information and demonstrate how a rule is
used, or how a guideline is followed.
However, they also prefer using the teacher’s instruction in order to continue on a deeper
learning approach using their own understanding. Wong (2015) summed in the interviews with
her teacher-respondents that having analytical skills is also necessary in English learning
because higher education is a more advanced level. Herein study, the students have noted
during the informal discussions that English learning is more of using the acquired knowledge
and information to a more critical activity which is the use of the language in particular
contexts. Hence, the learners expect to receive comprehensive examinations and tests in their
use of language through a process in order to reach accuracy or fluency. As a support, Fogal
(2008) in his study while literature-based, presents that from a student’s perspective there is a
place for scaffolding that engages their metacognitive awareness, for literary theory and for a
teacher-centered methodology. This research supports putting students in a position that
engages them as such. The implications of this positioning are students who are better prepared
for literary analysis and, as is the case with reader-response theory, students who now have the
justification – and more importantly an awareness of the justification – to position themselves
inside a wider literary dialogue.
Table 1. Language learning styles of Technical-Vocational students.
Style Mean Std. Deviation Description
Visual 3.2014 .40453 A
Auditory 3.2986 .36263 SA
Kinesthetic 3.2778 .41738 SA
Tactile 3.2917 .44921 SA
Group Learning 3.0116 .50125 A
Individual Learning 3.1181 .46861 A
Independent Learning 3.1574 .40717 A
Dependent Learning 3.3958 .41993 SA
Analytical Learning 3.3634 .30677 SA
Teacher Modeling 3.3519 .38787 SA

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Difference between Language Learning Styles of Technical-Vocational Students when
Grouped According to Sex
It can be delineated from the succeeding table that sex is not a factor that determines the
learning styles of the students. This supports the study conducted by Brew (2002) and Demirbas
and Demirkan (2007), both cited in West (2013). More so, it contradicts most studies lie of
Wehrwein et al. (2007) which resulted to show that male and female students have significantly
different learning styles.
Table 2. Comparison of learning styles according to sex.

Computed Value Probability Value Decision

Visual .012 .914 NS
Auditory .449 .507 NS
Kinesthetic 2.06 .160 NS
Tactile .086 .771 NS
Group Learning .206 .653 NS
Individual Learning 1.551 .221 NS
Independent Learning 1.787 .190 NS
Dependent Learning 3.596 .066 NS
Analytical Learning 1.165 .288 NS
Teacher Modeling .242 .626 NS

Difference between Language Learning Styles of Technical-Vocational Students when

Grouped According to Ethnicity
Baneshi et al. (2014), cited in Wong (2015) had noted that culture might have effects
to the diverging learning style among students. The study had included Ilocano, Itawes, Isneg
and Tagalog respondents. Nonetheless, herein results show that ethnicity is not a factor as no
significant difference was found. This can be attributed to the fact that the students are hybrids,
products of the mixture of these ethnic groups even in their family trees.
Table 3. Comparison of learning styles according to ethnicity.
Style Computed Value Probability Value Decision
Visual 2.193 0.093 NS

57
 Auditory 1.689 .178 NS
Kinesthetic .239 .914 NS
Tactile 1.346 .275 NS
Group Learning 1.816 .151 NS
Individual Learning .460 .765 NS
Independent Learning .808 .530 NS
Dependent Learning .276 .891 NS
Analytical Learning .305 .872 NS
Teacher Modeling 3.275 .024 NS

Difference between Language Learning Styles of Technical-Vocational Students when

Grouped According to Discipline
No previous studies had focused on comparison of learning styles among the different
fields of specialization in the technical-vocational education. Hence, this study ventured on this
area. It desired to assess the learning styles among Automotive, Drafting, Mechanical and Food
Technology majors. It is found that though the students belong to the same umbrella of
education, some majors show significantly different styles of English learning.
Post Hoc Tests result that Automotive Technology majors had differing regard with
Food Technology and Drafting Technology majors on auditory learning style. In addition,
Automotive Technology students also posted differences with the Drafting Technology
students on teacher modelling and tactile styles.
Table 4. Comparison of learning styles according to discipline.
Style Computed Value Probability Value Decision
Visual 2.699 0.062 NS
Auditory 5.342 .004* S
Kinesthetic 1.680 .191 NS
Tactile 4.473 .010* S
Group Learning 1.249 .308 NS
Individual Learning 1.622 .204 NS
Independent Learning 1.052 .383 NS
Dependent Learning 1.671 .193 NS
Analytical Learning .421 .739 NS

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 Teacher Modelling 5.095 .005* S

Language Teaching Styles of Technical-Vocational English Teachers

Table 4 presents how the language teachers in the program deliver English instruction
among the students.
The professors deliver English education through provision of complete body
experience activities like role playing, actual oral or written communication activities and
interviews (3.88). This is attributed to their idea that the students learn by doing. Considerably,
the subjects that are being required of the students’ curriculum are Literature, Grammar and
Speech Communication where students are most likely involved in dramatizing, writing
grammatically correct sentences and paragraphs, and build confidence in speaking activities.
Meanwhile, they teach the lessons highlighting independent learning (3.38) and group
learning (3.75). Reid’s Perceptual Learning Styles pattern describes group learning style as that
where students learn through working with others like in group discussions, projects and
activities. However, it is desired that the learners think for themselves, to explore topics which
they are interested in instead of relying on teacher-instruction. For the teacher-respondents,
these techniques give avenue for students to share their knowledge while learning from each
other.
Finally, teacher-modelling(3.60) is also their type of instruction where they provide lots
of examples and illustrations; this is consistent with the Confucian culture that emphasizes
“study” means finding a good teacher and imitating their words and deeds” (Rieger, 2006).
Moreover, Bandura’s concept about modelling is that it makes students encouraged and
engaged in the learning.
Accordingly, the teacher-respondents value the need to provide the students avenue to
better understand concepts written in textbooks or materials by giving examples. This is so that
the students can apply the learning in their own activities or even in real life.
Table 5. Teachers’ preferred teaching style.
Style Mean Standard Deviation Interpretation
Visual 2.75 .000 A
Auditory 3.25 .000 SA
Kinesthetic 3.88 .144 SA
Tactile 3.50 .577 SA
Group Learning 3.75 .289 SA

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 Individual Learning 2.50 .289 A
Independent Learning 3.38 .144 SA
Dependent Learning 3.13 .144 A
Analytical Learning 3.25 .000 SA
Teacher Modeling 3.60 .231 SA

Comparison between Language Teaching Styles and Students’ Learning Styles

There is a mismatch that is evident with the succeeding table that presents the
comparison of the preferred learning styles of the students as against the teaching styles of the
language educators in the field. The table shows that significant differences occurred on how
the two sets of respondents regard visual, kinaesthetic, group learning, individual learning,
independent learning and teacher modelling.
A more detailed presentation (Appendix A) shows that visual learning, though least
regarded as a style by both groups, receives lesser mean from among the students (2.75) than
that of the teachers (3.20). On sensory styles, teachers deliver instruction with the use of
kinaesthetic style (3.88) but students prefer learning by listening (3.2986). Meanwhile, teachers
value group (3.75) but valuing independent learning (3.38) while students learn best with
individual (3.1181) but dependent learning (3.3958). Finally, teacher-modelling (3.60) is how
the instructors deliver lesson but students perceive to better learn in analytical manner (3.3634.
Incongruity of teaching styles and learning styles is common dilemma among
classrooms and courses. This only supports that individuals have distinct means on how to
learn best or teach best. That is why this study was undertaken in order to provide literature to
prove herein discord. As Pashler et al. (2008) noted, effective instruction can only be
undertaken if the learners learning preferences are diagnosed and the instruction is tailored
accordingly.
Technical-vocational courses are producers of skilled individuals who can become
members of the national or even global workforce towards economic development. Graduates
herein therefore have to be given attention, most especially in their use of the English language.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the International
Labor Organization (2002, p27-28) have particularly set that programmes of technical and
vocational education, as training for an occupational field must “include an interdisciplinary
perspective to equip students to work in the changing employment environment, and
incorporate a multicultural perspective, which may include the study of a foreign language as

60
preparation for international employment; and, include the study of at least one foreign
language of international use, which, while conducive to a higher cultural level, will give
special emphasis to the requirements of communication, the acquisition of a scientific and
technical vocabulary, and the need to prepare for international employment and multicultural
working environments.
Table 6. Comparison of learning and teaching styles.
Computed Probability
Value Value
Visual 5.145 .000* S
Auditory 0.39 .699 NS
Kinesthetic 6.45 .000* S
Tactile 1.114 0.347 NS
Group Learning 4.55 0.004* S
Individual Learning 3.246 0.023* S
Independent Learning 2.64 0.020* S
Dependent Learning 2.07 0.059 NS
Analytical Learning 1.95 0.062 NS
Teacher Modeling 2.45 0.05* S

Conclusion
The students of the technical-vocational program useauditory as a language learning style.
They regard listening as their prime skill towards acquiring the English language; though, they
are generally kinesthetic as identified in previous studies and as expected from their fields
of specialization. Moreover, they prefer learning individually but they still value depending on
lectures and guidelines as set by their teachers. Finally, they are analytical; so, they learn best
when teachers would allow them to comprehend and analyze during class interactions.
Meanwhile, teachers’ language instruction is more of activities that require students to be
kinesthetic. They more often give group activities than individual because they highlight that
students learn best with others. Furthermore, the learning environment they create allows
independence for students while agreeing that learners acquire language through teacher-
modeling. When grouped according to sex or ethnicity, no significant differences were
identified.

61
 However, significant difference was noted when respondents were grouped according
to discipline. Specifically, drafting majors had posed differences with automotive majors on
Auditory, Tactile and Teacher-modeling Learning styles. Finally, on the comparison between
the teaching styles of language professors and the learning styles of the students, significant
differences were noted on the following styles: visual, kinesthetic, group, individual,
dependent and analytical learning styles. To conclude, mismatch between students’ learning
styles and the teachers’ teaching styles was recorded.

Recommendations
Anent the above results, the following recommendations are hereby advanced:
1.English teachers must still value lectures and guide notes as important tools for the students
to effectively acquire competency in the English language;
2.Highlight of individual learning that requires analytical learning must be considered in class
activities.
3.Necessary revision of curriculum guides or syllabi to include activities where students learn
best through consideration of the above findings is strongly recommended;
4.Teachers should adopt a teaching style that would match students’ learning styles in order to
enhance the latter’s learning; and,
5.Conduct of similar study to include other disciplines in technical-vocational field is
recommended.

Pedagogical Implications
The conclusion derived from this study has significant implication to the teaching of language
in technical-vocational courses. The glaring disparity as noted in the styles of teaching and
learning behoves the curriculum planners and designers, most especially the curriculum
implementers- the teachers - to align their pedagogy to the needs and interests of their students,
because undoubtedly, a match between teaching and learning styles helps students get
motivated to achieve their optimal learning. It stands to reason that for learning to be processed
to the best advantage of learners, teachers should aim to have a balanced pedagogical style and
to adapt classroom activities to meet individual learning style, particularly in this case, the need
for analytical activities with a blend of lectures and guide notes. Further, the findings yielded
by this study would shed light on the nature of students’ needs in technical-vocational courses
– hinting teachers to be strategic as they allow students to discover their learning styles

62
purposefully to help them appreciate their own personal strengths and weaknesses as sources
of learning as well.

References
Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E. & Ecclestone, K. (2004). Should we
be using learning styles? What research has to say to practice. http://www.lsda.org.uk
/files/PDF/1540.pdf Retrieved on January 2018.
Fogal, G. (2008). EFL Literature Studies: Students’ Feedback on Teaching Methodology.
Asian EFL Journal Volume 12 Issue 4
Hussain, N. and Ayub, N. (2012). Learning styles of students and teaching styles of teachers
in business education: a case study of Pakistan. International Conference on Education
and Educational Psychology 2012. Available at www.sciencedirect.com.
Mohammad, M. (2013). Learning styles and academic achievement among building
construction students . UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia .
Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, R., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning styles concepts and
evidence. Retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1539-
6053.2009.01038.x
Rieger, A., & McGrail, E. (2006). Understanding English language learners’ needs and the
language acquisition process: Two teacher educators’ perspectives. On Point Series,
1-14. Available: http://www.urbanschools.org/publications/on_point.html
United nations educational, scientific and cultural organization and the international labor
organization. (2002). Technical and Vocational Education and Training for the Twenty
First Century.
Wehrwein, E. et al. (2007). Gender differences in learning style preferences among
undergraduate physiology students. Advances in Physiology Education. 1June 2007
Vol. 31 No. 21. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.scribd.com/document/302833592/Learning-Styles-and-Sex
West, K. (2013). Learning styles and gendered traits (Doctoral dissertation, Pacific
University). Retrieved from: http://commons.pacificu.edu/spp/1117
Wong, W. (2015). A study of language learning style and teaching style preferences of
Hong Kong community college students and teachers in English for Academic
Purposes (EAP) Contexts. University of Canterbury. Retrieved from
file:///G:/Files/ /Files/Drive/Files/ /Astudyoflanguagelearningstyles.pdf\

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Appendices
TABLE 7. Detailed Presentation of Comparison between Teachers’ Teaching styles and the
Students’ preferred Learning styles.
Mean for Mean for
Teachers’ Students’
Answers Answers
Visual 2.75 A 3.2014 A
Auditory 3.25 SA 3.2986 SA
Kinesthetic 3.88 SA 3.2778 SA
Tactile 3.50 SA 3.2917 SA
Group Learning 3.75 SA 3.0116 A
Individual 2.50 A 3.1181 A
Learning
Independent 3.38 SA 3.1574 A
Learning
Dependent 3.13 A 3.3958 SA
Learning
Analytical 3.25 SA 3.3634 SA
Learning
Teacher 3.60 SA 3.3519 SA
Modelling

A. Language Pedagogical Styles Questionnaire

Good day Respondents!
We are currently undertaking a study on the Language Pedagogical Styles of Technical
Vocational Students which specifically seeks to identify the learning styles of the students as
well as the teaching styles of English professors in the fields.
With this, we are seeking your support by filling out the attached form responding as how the
statements therein apply to your study/teaching of English language. Please use the following
scale:
1-Strongly Disagree (SD)
2- Disagree (D)
3- Agree (A)

64
 4 – Strongly Agree (SA)
Thank you very much!

The Researchers

Language Pedagogical Styles Questionnaire

Statements 1 2 3 4
SD D A SA
1. I learn best by reading what the teacher writes on the board
and/or power point presentation
2.I learn better in class with oral instructions.
3. I prefer to learn by doing practical work in class.
4.I learn more when I can make something by myself.
5.I like it when I work with other students.
6.I learn best by working on individual tasks.
7.I prefer to solve problems by myself first.
8.I prefer teachers to lecture most of the time.
9.I like class activities that allow me to analyze problems.
10. I like teachers providing me with lots of examples to
illustrate language concepts (e.g. grammar and vocabulary)
11. When I read instructions, I learn better.
12. When I do things in class, I learn better. (E.g. jotting
down vocabulary meanings, instead of reading handouts
given by teachers only.
13. I learn more when I make something for a class project.
(E.g. collecting and summarizing readings for a class project.
14. I learn more when I study with other students.
15. When I work alone, I learn better.
16. I prefer to participate in activities that allow me to
explore topics which I am interested in.
17. I learn better if teachers prepare lots of handouts for me.

65
18. I prefer teachers to give me models of successful work
from other people when doing an assignment.
19. I remember things I have heard in class better than things
I have read.
20. I enjoy learning in class by doing practical work. (e.g.
practicing how to cite an article in class, instead of reading
referencing manuals given by teachers.
21. I like teachers explaining language concepts by making
drawings. (E.g. concept mapping, mind mapping)
22. I prefer teachers to give me lots of guidelines and
reference materials when giving assignments.
23. I prefer teachers to give me opportunities to ask and
respond to questions.
24. I learn better if someone can show me how I can apply
different language concepts in different situations.
25. I think I understand language concept like grammar
better with written notes than oral explanation.
26. I learn better in class when listening to a lecture (instead
of reading a book).
27. I understand things better in class when I participate in
active activities like role playing.
28. When I construct something, I remember what I have
learned better. (E.g. writing my own notes for revision).
29. I enjoy working on assignment with two or three
classmates.
30. I think, having personal consultation with my lecturers
help me understand new concepts or things that I do not
understand.
31. When I am interested in a topic, I prefer finding out more
about it on my own, instead of relying on teachers.
32. I learn better when I can evaluate on other people’s work
(E.g. evaluating on other people’s essay)

66
 33. I learn more by reading textbooks than by listening to
lectures.
34. I learn better with instructions that allow me to hear what
I am learning.
35. I learn better when I study with others.
36. I prefer to work by myself.
37. When I don’t understand something, I prefer figuring it
out for myself first.
38. I like teachers spending most of the time on explanation
when presenting new concepts in class.
39. I prefer teachers to allow me analyze language concepts
(grammar and vocabulary) through giving examples.
40. I understand better if someone can show me how to do
things or demonstrate ways of thinking. (E.g. showing how to
work out the answers in class)

Appendix C. Likert Scale Used

1-1.75 - Strongly Disagree
1.76-2.5 - Disagree
2.6-3.25 - Agree
3.26-4 - Strongly Agree

67
Delving into Content Lecturers’ Teaching Capability in Content Language
Integrated Learning (CLIL) at an Indonesian University

Muhammad Arham
[email protected]

Andi Hudriati Akrab

[email protected]

Abstract
The pilot study of this paper is to examine the lecturers‘perspectives on Content Language
Integrated Learning (CLIL) in their classroom teaching practices, and how effective CLIL is
implemented by the content lecturers in their teaching practices based on assumptions of
Westhoff’s effective language teaching performance. This study employs exploratory research
design by utilizing interviews and observations to gather data on content-lecturers’ perception
towards the use of CLIL in their classroom as well as how effective they employ CLIL into
their classroom teaching practices in line with their perceptions of CLIL. The findings revealed
that there were noticeable differences in how the content lecturers perceive CLIL and that these
differences impact their CLIL teaching practices in their respective classrooms. The
intertwined connection of content lecturers’ attitude toward CLIL and their classroom teaching
practices led to content lecturers’ three categories of commitment in teaching CLIL such as:
(1) lecturers with Strongly Committed CLIL; (2) lecturers with Moderately Committed CLIL;
and (3) and lecturers with Low Committed CLIL. Based on the findings what is apparent is
that the more positive lecturers perceive CLIL, the more effective they are in carrying out an
effective CLIL in their teaching practices. This study has endeavored to influence scholarly
understanding of CLIL in Indonesian Higher Education based on Westhoff’s effective language
teaching performance.

Keywords: CLIL, attitude, competence, higher education

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Introduction
CLIL is an educational approach which has a dual focus on content and language where
L2 is used as a medium for teaching and learning. This approach highly emphasizes on student
understanding, not only on content but also on language (Coraz, 2009). Genesee (1994)
suggests that the lesson of the immersion program is the merging of common subjects with
language having a more positive effect than separate language learning; Students on
immersion-based learning are able to display the same abilities even beyond the abilities of
native-speaking children in terms of writing or speech when managed well. This is further
supported by Lal and Mangubhai (2000, p.203) who states that the teaching of languages
immersion (combining language with other subjects) is' one of the best learning approaches.
Most current CLIL programmes are experimental within Indonesia specially in higher
education. Few studies have been conducted on the CLIL approach in an Indonesian tertiary
education. These experiments have highlighted theneed to focus on meaning alongside form in
order to achieve better practice among students. This approach attempts to develop a language
learner to become a language user in order to acquire the adaptability in globalization in the
hopes that its potential for developing internationally-minded and capable professionals might
be more fully realized (Brown, 2013). Furthermore, it is more meaningful and fruitful to
provide learners with instructions which focus on the integration of both content and language,
rather than to teach them separately (Uemura, 2013).
CLIL is rarely used in an Indonesian university even then only a handful of content-
lecturers are capable of teaching CLIL within their classroom. State University of Makassar
(UNM) has begun in an attempt to implement CLIL within its majors creating international
class programs (ICP) to promote the institution and enhance the university’s profile. However,
even then few studies of CLIL in higher education has ever been conducted, given that only
few Indonesian universities have implemented the use of foreign language (English) as a
medium in teaching non-linguistic subjects.
Studies on CLIL in primary and secondary schools have continued to increase in
number, but there is still a lack of research at the tertiary level. CLIL courses may put more
emphasis on the content learning outcomes; they may even be planned around the curriculum
of the school or university subject. It is Such lessons would be referred to as content-led. Other
lessons may focus more on language learning outcomes; they may be planned around an
EFL/ESL (English as a foreign/second language) course. These would be referred to as
language-led. This research solely focuses on the content-led CLIL courses where content
specialists teaching CLIL courses are to be assessed in terms of second language acquisition

69
CLIL teaching performance which is conducted at State University of Makassar specifically in
international class program (ICP) of mathematics major.
In line with background above, the research questions were put forward as in the
following (1) How was the CLIL implemented by the University lecturers in their EFL
classroom based on assumptions of Westhoff’s effective language teaching performance
indicators? (2) What was the university lecturers’ perceptions towards the CLIL implemented
in their classroom teaching practices? Dealing with the research questions, the objectives of
this research were to give descriptive account of (1) the CLIL implemented by the University
content lecturers in their classroom teaching practices based on assumptions of Westhoff’s
effective language teaching performance indicators (2) the lecturers’ perceptions towards CLIL
implemented in their classroom teaching practices.

CLIL in Indonesia
With the creation of National Education Law 20/3, 2003, CLIL in Indonesia is referred to
as English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) where selected urban schools have employed
CLIL. Such schools are marked by their distinct trait of being Sekolah Bertaraf International
(Standard International Schools). And that these schools have a separate type of class which is
called the International Class Program (ICP) where the bilingual education program is adopted
(Rachmajanti et al., 2015). There is an increasing number of universities in many countries
where English is not the national language, moving towards English-medium instruction in
Higher Education (Hughes, 2008). And with the increasing trend of CLIL elements in
Indonesian schools, universities in Indonesia have begun to develop programs of using English
as a medium of instruction within their majors in the form of International Class Programs
(ICP). Furthermore, this trend is not limited to Indonesia but are occurring all over Asia which
would grow over time. CLIL’s role in higher education content-classrooms is practical
orientated, which is to enhance students’ repertoire in English language usage combined with
that of content learning.
Yet even with their increasing influence in Indonesia’s education, implementing CLIL is still
in its experimental stage and are considered questionable to apply in Indonesia especially in
higher education. Coleman (2006) found out that there were ‘inadequate language skills among
students and teachers and the need for training of indigenous staff and students. One of the
main reasons in Indonesia is the lack of qualified teaching staffs in the CLIL approach.
Teachers’ competences are highly demanded in the so-called “CLIL-based Classroom” in
which teachers are not only required to be competent in the subject matters but also the

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linguistic competences. In order to adopt a CLIL approach, in which language and content are
integrated, certain pedagogical principles must be address (Coyle, et. al., 2010). The majority
of lecturers in ICP classes are key content-lecturers who taught in Bahasa Indonesia of their
respective faculty then be given responsibility by the university to teach content subjects in
English through ICP despite their lack of experience in teaching content with the additional
focus of language learning.

Westhoff’s Effective Teaching Performance (Penta-Pie)

The Penta Pie was developed by Westhoff (2002) and further developed as the basis of an
observation tool for effective teaching performance in CLIL second language acquisition by
De Graff (2007). According to the Penta-Pie theory the following five components can be
distinguished in foreign language acquisition: (1) exposure to input, (2) meaning-focused
processing, (3) form-focused processing, (4) output production and (5) use of strategies (see
Westhoff, 2002).

CLIL Teaching Performance Indicators (see De Graaff, Et al, 2007).

Based on assumptions of Westhoff’s Penta-pie in SLA, an observation tool was developed by
De Graaff et al. (2007) to analyze practical evidence for teaching performance in CLIL domain
which consisted five main indicators and contains several sub-indicators in each of the main
indicators, they are:

• Teacher facilitates exposure to input at a (just) challenging level

Before the lecturer begins the class, He/she is expected to select and tailor input material in
order to have it challenging but comprehensible for learners. Two types of scaffolding can be
distinguished during the lesson, namely on content and/or language of the input material, and
content and/or language of teacher talk (De Graaff et al, 2007).

In the observation tool, this category consists of the following indicators for effective
teaching performance:
1. text selection in advance
2. text adaptation in advance
3. adaptation of teacher talk in advance
4. text adaptation during teaching
5. tuning of teacher talk

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 • Teacher facilitates meaning-focused processing
In correspondence to this assumption, a teacher can be expected to stimulate content-processing
of oral or written input by giving special tasks that involve learners in grappling meaning
(trying to make sense of whatever they hear or read). The teacher should check whether the
meaning of the input has been comprehended sufficiently. If meaning is processed
insufficiently or erroneously, the teacher might give some kind of support. Supplementary
exercising of the related content features of input can be performed in this category as well (De
Graaff et al (2007).
In the observation tool, this category consists of the following indicators
for effective teaching performance:
1. stimulating meaning identification
2. checking meaning identification
3. emphasizing correct and relevant identifications of meaning
4. exercising on correct and relevant identifications of meaning

• Teacher facilitates form-focused processing

In correspondence to this assumption, a CLIL teacher can employ activities aimed at
awareness-raising of language form, thus making learners conscious of specific language
features. The teacher might indicate and direct learners’ attention to correct and incorrect uses
of form, give examples of such uses, thus facilitating implicit or explicit noticing of language
form. In giving corrective feedback the teacher might employ implicit techniques (e.g.
clarification requests, recasts) or explicit techniques (e.g. explicit correction, metalinguistic
comment, query, advice) for focusing on form, as well as nonverbal reactions (De Graaff et al,
2007).

In the observation tool, this category consists of the following indicators for effective
teaching performance:
1. facilitating noticing of problematic and relevant language forms
2. providing examples of correct and relevant language forms
3. correcting use of problematic and relevant language forms
4. explaining problematic and relevant language forms, e.g. by giving rules
5. having pupils giving peer feedback

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 • Teacher facilitates opportunities for output production
In correspondence to this assumption, in promoting output production in the target language a
CLIL teacher can encourage learners to react, ask questions aimed at functional output as well
as stimulate interaction between learners in the target language. Different interactive formats
(e.g. group, pair work) might be implemented to facilitate meaningful communication in
English. Through instructions and/or corrections the teacher can guide learners to use English
exclusively in the lesson. Corrective feedback by teachers or peer students might stimulate the
use of correct form/meaning connections by learners. The teacher can use a diverse range of
activities for further exercising essential aspects of form/meaning use (De Graaff et al, 2007).

In the observation tool, this category consists of the following indicators for effective
teaching performance:
1. asking for reactions
2. asking for interaction
3. letting students communicate
4. stimulating the use of the target language
5. providing feedback, focusing on corrected output
6. organizing written practice

• Teacher facilitates the use of strategies

In correspondence to this assumption, a CLIL teacher should be able to assist learners to
overcome their language and content comprehension and communication problems, by
developing a repertoire of receptive and productive compensatory and communication
strategies. Scaffolding and reflection on-the-spot is considered of great importance, when the
teacher should be able to suggest to the learners an effective path (use of strategies) for
resolving comprehension or language use problems they have encountered (De Graaff et al,
2007).

In the observation tool, this category consists of the following indicators

for effective teaching performance:
1. eliciting receptive compensation strategies
2. eliciting productive compensation strategies

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3. eliciting reflection on strategy use
4. scaffolding strategy use

Method
Design and Samples
This study applied qualitative research design which collected, analyzed, and
interpreted a variety of the data to acquire results on lecturers CLIL effective teaching
performance and their perception towards CLIL in their teaching practices. The participants of
the study under observation consisted of three lecturers of mathematics major from State
University of Makassar (UNM). In recent years UNM has also begun to move towards
internationalization with the intention of increasing the university’s academic profile. The
International Class Program (ICP) at UNM was created back in 2013 in three different majors
namely mathematics, biology, and science. The lecturers were chosen firstly due to their
educational background, who achieved masters degree from prestigious national as well as
international universities. Secondly, they have taught CLIL teaching at the university’s’ ICP
classes since its creation thus have years of experience in content-language teaching. In
addition, their students were in 6th semester studying at the ICP Mathematics Department in
State University of Makassar (UNM) and have long since acquainted the samples and are
familiar with their lectures.

Instruments and Procedures

The researcher applied two kinds of instruments to facilitate the study. These instruments are:
1. Observation
Observation was to answer the research question number 1 (How was the CLIL
implemented by the University lecturers in their classroom based on assumptions of Westhoff’s
effective language teaching performance indicators?). The data gained from observation are
for assessing lecturers’ effective teaching performance using De Graff et al (2007) CLIL
teaching performance indicators.
2. Interview
Semi-structured interview was used in this study to get data. In applying this type of
interview, the researcher provided some questions to ask, yet remained flexible so that further
information may still arise. The questions are focused on the lecturers’ view of CLIL, view of
English as a long-term skill needed in their career as well as students’ career, and their overall
opinion in teaching and difficulty of employing CLIL within the university non-linguistic

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majors. This is to answer the research question number 2 (What were the university lecturers
perception towards the CLIL implemented in their classroom teaching practices?) Semi
structured interview guided the researcher to investigate the lecturers’ perception.

Results and Discussions

The findings present the lecturers CLIL teaching performance and their perception towards
CLIL which interconnects with the teaching performance and their perception as well as
students’ perception.

Findings 1:
The research data below shows De Graff et al (2007) observation tool which indicates
signs of specific performance indicators for each sample. Each category are explained for the
performance indicator and all sample are explained in each subcategories, then showed an
example found in one of the lessons. Based on the observation, the result revealed that lecturer
1 proves to be an effective CLIL lecturer leaning more on output production and lecturer 2
shows that his lessons of CLIL are content-focused and teacher-centered and also seldom in
students’ language production. Whereas lecturer 3 indicated weak signs of language
development since almost no examples of the subcategories were observed during his lessons
except only exposure to input and checking meaning were identified.
a. Teacher facilitates exposure to input at a minimally challenging level

1) Text selection in advance

Performance indicator: When choosing a ‘text’, the teacher pays attention to both the language
level of the text and the content in such a way that it is just beyond the expected level of the
students. Text in this context means written texts, videos and audios, sites, etc (De Graaff et al
(2007).

Lecturer 1 formulates the process just within the students vocabulary limit in order to increase
the vocabulary repertoire by using h+1 words and sentences and introducing new words. Such
as “based on the result, the measurement of this analysis seems incorrect” are induced well
within the lesson plan.
Lecturer 2 No such performance indicator was observed.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.
2) Text adaptation in advance

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Performance indicator: The teacher has adjusted the selected text in such a way that the level
of the text is just beyond the expected level of the students. Text here means the same as above.
The teacher can choose from a variety of methods: offer a list of core concepts, use synonyms
and/or translations of ‘difficult’ words, clarify text structure by indicating headings,
paragraphs, key words, etc., use pictures to support the text, visualize the text using diagrams,
summarize the text orally or written, etc (De Graaff et al (2007).

Lecturer 1 formulates preparation/process activities in the form of steps to be taken during the
lesson highlighting them on the monitor; gives clear instruction how to work in steps and find
an answer to the main question. Within the Statistics lesson the teacher selects exercises with
an increasing level of difficulty if the students are successful with the previous exercises and
explains the sequence of tasks to be solved.
Lecturer 2 shows often examples of summarizing texts orally as well as formulates
preparation/process instructional materials visually providing mathematical diagrams of the
content.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.
3) Adaptation of teacher talk in advance
Performance indicator: The teacher has prepared teacher talk in such a way that it is just beyond
the expected level of his/her students. Words or sentences might be ‘too difficult’ for the
students and s/he can think of ways to adjust these. Such may be done by using body language,
simple sentence structures, giving synonyms, descriptions, translations of difficult words, etc
(De Graaff et al (2007).

Lecturer 1 explains the steps of how to solve problems within the statistics program and uses
comprehensible structured sentences. The subject matter being taught is manual statistics
measurement using a statistic program. The lecturer presents problem solutions to overcome
the statistic measurement. One solution is explained as follows: ‘ ... that is the first step that I
found. They used a monitor to show the result of their first data measurement (he shows the
data inputted in the program and provide a valid answer of the data), ... Could you do the same
with same result?’ Then further asked the students to try and acquire the same result using the
same data measurement.
Lecturer 2 No such performance indicator was observed.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.
4) Text adaptation during teaching

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Performance indicator: The teacher adapts his/her selected texts during the lesson after
realizing it is above comprehension level. Techniques used include: summarizing,
paraphrasing, translating synonyms, asking clarifying questions, gestures and body language,
board drawings, etc (De Graaff et al (2007).

The following example shows that in the statistics lesson the formula to solve the measurement
is not clear to the students and how the Statistics Lecturer decides to adapt his language: ‘Okay,
so to solve this you use this formula here (writes the formula in the board), and then press enter.
Okay here (shows a part of the formula) what do you input?...the sample or number of sample?’
(Student fail to answer). ‘What do you type in “n” here? Name sample or number of sample..?
well, guys. Miranda?
Lecturer 2 shows examples in during one of the lesson paraphrases and summarizes instructions
within a text book used in the lessons. Whenever the lecturer thinks the students seem unclear
of the content of the book, he adapts his language so students could comprehend:’allright, so
what you need to do is first form one group with five people and then choose topic in the text
book. Next, discuss with your group and then presentation with the solution. Okay you get it?’.
Lecturer 3 shows often examples of asking clarifying questions followed by paraphrasing the
texts during his PowerPoint presentation:’ok, first problem bagus. Now….what about the
second?’ (students stood in silence). ‘this one is the same number one…only this one about
derivatives’.
5) Tuning of teacher talk
Performance indicator: The teacher adapts his/her own language after realizing or suspecting
that this is beyond the students’ level. S/he uses the same techniques as mentioned in
‘Adaptation of teacher talk in advance’. It is also possible that the teacher deliberately first
introduces a word or concept in a challenging way and then gives the more easy words (or vice
versa) (De Graaff et al 2007).

Lecturer 1 makes a gesture of “average” while introducing the word in a sentence then
translates the whole sentence into Indonesian.
Lecturer 2 translates a difficult sentence within a text book in Indonesian then paraphrases into
a simpler sentence.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.

b. Teacher facilitates meaning-focused processing

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 1) Stimulating meaning identification
Performance indicator: The teacher sets tasks for the students that help them to identify the
meaning of important concepts. Tasks such as filling in plans, using organizers or matching
exercises all aim at a better understanding of the contents of the lesson (De Graaff et al (2007).

Lecturer 1 stimulates students to identify meaning in the following way: ‘based on the result
why “n” here is (points to one part of the written formula) is Crude Oil? Can anyone tell me?
Sri do you know?’.
Lecturer 2 shows example stimulating students to identify meaning in the following way:’now
then tell me why this picture wants a mathematical explanation….can anyone explain to me?’.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.
2) Checking meaning identification
Performance indicator: The teacher checks whether students have understood the most
important concepts or words. Simple questions such as ‘Do you understand that?’, ‘Do you
agree with that?’, ‘Do you believe it’ or ‘Do you think the description is correct or the previous
one?’ help the students to rethink the concepts.

Lecturer 1 says to a student: ‘oke, you need to fill in the correct sum. Alright? Do you
understand? Can you do it?’
Lecturer 2 says to a student:’what’s the meaning of this? Can you understand what the sentence
mean?
Lecturer 3 says to a students:’do you understand the text? Paham tidak? (get it or not)’
3) Emphasizing correct and relevant identifications of meaning
Performance indicator: The teacher gives or emphasizes the correct meaning of important
concepts or words when s/he notices or suspects that students do not fully master these
concepts.

Lecturer 1 asks the question: ‘can you tell me how to determine the result from the formula?
I’ll give you guys a few minutes to think.’ After the student has answered the question the
teachers emphasizes as follows: ‘ok, ok. So the solution to the problem is the arrangement of
the samples. That is the reason why some of you got wrong results.’
Lecturer 2 No such performance indicator was observed
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed
4) Exercises on correct and relevant identifications of meaning

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Performance indicator: The teacher sets extra tasks that anchor identifications of meaning that
have already been identified. S/he usually does so when s/he considers it important for the
students to remember these concepts. One can think of the following tasks: fill in plans related
to a certain text or topic, construct your own order of the contents of the topic, match pictures
with the concepts, make a web-diagram, but also make sure that students write the difficult
words per lesson e.g. in the back of their notebooks or make them work with personal files.

Lecturer 1 shows the students examples of statistical analysis and then tells the students to
make the same analysis but with a different topic in mind.
Lecturer 2 explains the problem questions and shows how to solve through equations then
shows another problem question for the students to solve.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed

c. Teacher facilitates form-focussed processing

1) Facilitating noticing of problematic and relevant language forms
Performance indicator: The teacher points out language forms and structures that are essential
for both understanding and oral or written production of the content. S/he may expect that the
forms will be both relevant and challenging for the students. Forms and structures may include
a large variety e.g. phrasal verbs, tenses, word order, sentence structure or chunks.

Lecturer 1 reminds the students to use the appropriate tenses for their presentations: ‘so
remember guys you have to use correct grammar in presentation. Okay? For example when
talking about past, what tenses do you use?’
Lecturer 2 constantly reminds the students to use the correct form of verb whenever the students
speak in english.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed
2) Providing examples of correct and relevant language forms
Performance indicator: The teacher emphasizes and/or gives examples of language forms and
structures that are also relevant in other contexts.

Lecturer 1 said: ‘okay the assignment is due Monday, so you hand in (stressed) your assignment
next Monday.’
Lecturer 2 says to a students:’its heavier..not more heavy…the blue cargo is heavier than the
yellow cargo’.

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Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.
3) Providing feedback on use of problematic and relevant language forms
Performance indicator: This subcategory focuses on correcting incorrect language production
(both oral and written) from the students. The teacher makes a judgement whether the
classroom situation and the language proficiency level is such that a positive effect of the
correction may be expected. The following subcategories may be used. Explicit correction. The
teacher repeats the incorrect language production and corrects the mistake explicitly. Recast.
The teacher repeats the incorrect language production and corrects the mistake implicitly.
Metalingustic feedback. The teacher gives the grammatical rule.

In one of the lessons, a student was saying to Lecturer 1:

‘she type different order from the other ...’ and the lecturer correcting ‘yes, she typed (stressed)
a different order than (stressed) the other one...’.
Lecturer 2 provides feedback by explaining the grammatical rule whenever the students make
the same mistake repeatedly.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.
4) Explaining problematic and relevant language forms, e.g. giving rules
Performance indicator: The teacher explains a rule when s/he expects that this explanation
promotes correct language production or recognition in the future.

Lecturer 1 immediately corrects a students’ grammatical error by explaining the rule of the
grammar: ‘okay, every one remember that simple present tense the verb use “s” when the
subject is he/she/it and no “s” when use i/you/they/we!...so he calculates (stressed) and not he
calculate!.
Lecturer 2 explains a grammatical error and corrects the student then tells the whole class: okay
remember to use the correct verb…pay attention to your verb (stressed)’.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.
5) Having pupils give feedback
Performance indicator: The teacher signals an incorrect language production and makes
another student react to this. Another way of doing this is having students correct each other’s
language production.

An example was found during the lessons of Lecturer 1. When the lecturer tries collecting some
content-based reactions from his students, the lecturer pauses the students and expresses: ‘uh

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ah...wait…’ then a student corrects her fellow classmate on his mispronunciation: ‘determines!
....’ After this has been done lecturer says: ‘is there any other mistake? Miranda?’
Lecturer 2 No such performance indicator was observed.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.

d. Teacher facilitates output production

1) Asking for reactions
Performance indicator: In a whole-class situation the teacher asks individual students questions
about the contents of the lesson or about important concepts. S/he makes sure that an individual
student answers his/her question each time.

During the lesson, Lecturer 1 says: ‘can you explain to why the result of the analysis, only one
is “true” and all the other “false”? Look again at the formula ... Pauses ... Nisa can you answer
it, could you explain it to me?’
In one of the lesson, Lecturer 2 says: ‘ok look at the examples on the board, what’s the
difference between the left and the right? Fitri?
Lecturer 3 shows such performance indicator during the lesson. Lecturer 3 says: ‘whats the
meaning of this sentence here..? ada yang bisa jawab?’.
2) Asking for interaction
Performance indicator: In a whole-class situation the teacher proceeds as described above. The
difference is that s/he encourages students to react to each others’ reactions. Questions like:
‘would you agree with what X just said?’ and ‘How would you rephrase what X just said?’, are
good examples for this category.

Lecturer 1 also motivates other students to react in the following way: ‘hmmm “yang lain”
maybe there is another person, anyone else want to say something? ...’
Lecturer 2 No such performance indicator was observed.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.
3) Letting students communicate
Performance indicator: The teacher sets small assignments which encourage students to talk
with one another in small groups or pairs. The teacher uses various combinations of individual,
pair and team work to accomplish a joint project (presentation, group report, presenting flyers).

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Lecturer 1, after having explained the purpose and procedure of a statistics competition, tells
them to form small groups and start prepare oral presentations on trending topics.
Lecturer 2 No such performance indicator was observed.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.
4) Stimulating the use of the target language
Performance indicator: The teacher uses the target language continuously and stimulates
students to do so as well.

Lecturer 1 during the lesson interrupts a student speaking in indonesian: ‘ ee’... in English
please. Come on! speak English in this class ...’
Lecturer 2 no such performance indicator was observed.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.
5) Providing feedback on language use, focusing on corrected output
Performance indicator: Like ‘Providing feedback on use of problematic and relevant language
forms’ this category focuses on correcting incorrect language production from the students,
both oral and written. The teacher makes a judgment whether the classroom situation and the
language proficiency level is such that a positive effect of the correction may be expected. The
difference is that the teacher prompts the students to give the correct language utterance. The
following subcategories may be used.
- Repetition. The teacher repeats the student’s mistake without correcting it. The teacher
highlights the mistake by adjusting intonation in such a way that s/he ‘forces’ the
student to repeat his utterance in a correct way.
- Elicitation. The teacher repeats the incorrect utterance, but leaves out the mistakes and
replaces that by a question mark or simply a ‘mmm’. In this way the student is asked to
‘fill in the blank’ and thus provide the correct answer.
- Clarification request. The teacher directly asks the students what he means with his
incorrect utterance in such a way that it is clear that the student produced incorrect
language.
Lecturer 1, At the end of the lesson, a student says: ‘Kak, the homework is due Monday?.’
Lecturer 1: ‘Yes...it’s due on monday’.
Lecturer 2 asks a student about her mispronunciation because it was unclear to the lecturer
himself then corrects the mispronunciation.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.
6) Organizing written practice

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Performance indicator: The teacher sets written assignments for the students in which the
students have to process the subject contents.

Lecturer 1 first explains and shows certain statistics formula and then he says: ‘oke now in your
own laptop try to do what you saw and try to make it with different samples.’
Lecturer 2 sets group tasks for the students to make their own sets of problems questions then
says: ‘alright after you finish making your own questions, give them to other groups to solve
the problem’.
Lecturer 3 groups the students and says: ‘solve the problem in groups ya’.
e. Teacher facilitates the use of strategies
1) Eliciting receptive compensation strategies
Performance indicator: When students face problems understanding texts the teacherhelps
them by asking questions that stimulate the students to use reading strategies, suchas: helping
questions related to pictures, photos, cartoons, etc. that can be found in thetext; questions
related to titles, subtitles, headlines, bold or italic words, indentations;questions about
discourse markers or text-structure words; questions related to theoverall text structure of the
text; questions related to how to deal with difficult orunknown words, etc. All these strategies
help the reader to understand meaning,structures and relationships between different parts of
the text.

Lecturer 1 shows a coin and explains the “head” or “tail” in order for the students to understand
the meaning and function of it within a statistical formula.
Lecturer 2 No such performance indicator was observed
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.
2) Eliciting productive compensation strategies
Performance indicator: The teacher helps the students during their oral language production
when they fail to express themselves in a correct way. S/he will stimulate them to keep on
talking and e.g. describe things in their own words or use gestures or body language to make
clear what they want to say. Sentences like ‘Describe this in your own words’ or ‘Please show
me with your hands what it looks like’ fall under this category. Stimulating the use of
dictionaries can also be part of this category.

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Lecturer 1 elicits a compensation strategy in the following way. When a student fails to define
a statistical term “mean score”, he asks her: ‘what’s the middle number from 10-20? That’s the
mean score!’
Lecturer 2 shows such example during the lesson. When a student pauses too long and thinks
of the correct sentence to say but couldn’t, he says to her: ‘mm..its okay to use simple word,
don’t mind grammar for now’
Lecturer 3 shows evidence of stimulating students to use dictionaries or internet whenever the
students are having difficulties in language.
3) Eliciting reflection on strategy use
Performance indicator: The teacher explicitly discusses the advantages for the students of using
compensation strategies mentioned in the two categories above.

Lecturer 1 No such performance indicator were observed.

Lecturer 2 No such performance indicator was observed.
Lecturer 3 briefly discusses advantages of using any resources that may help the language part
with minimum effort.
4) Scaffolding strategy use
Performance indicator: When students have to prepare a presentation in class, the teacher
suggests ways of how to prepare this from a language point of view. S/he makes them realize
which vocabulary or chunks they might need while giving the presentation.

Lecturer 1 gave constant reminder to the class on proper sentences to use in

presentations/debate.
Lecturer 2 informs the students of correct vocabularies to use before presentations/debate.
Lecturer 3 No such performance indicator was observed.

Data results of the lecturers teaching performance were acquired through observations.
Each lecturer were observed for three teaching sessions and found examples of the categories
and subcategories for affective teaching performance. These examples are categorized further
in terms of the frequency found during the observations with “Always” occurred in all three
sessions, “Often” occurred in two of the sessions, “Seldom” occurred only once, and “Never”
where no examples were found during observations.
In general it was found that, over all lessons observed, lecturer 1 used almost the whole
range of effective SLA teaching indicators, lecturer 2 used some of the indicators which reveals

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lecturer 2 is moderately committed in CLIL as categorized in the interview, and lecturer 3 used
only several of the effective SLA teaching indicators. This indicates not every lecturer used all
performance subcategories in all the observed lessons, consistent and useful examples were
found for almost every subcategory. Furthermore, lecturer 2 and 3 used basic English during
the teaching process with the exception of reviewing concepts of previous meetings, asking
questions and giving response to students’ questions.

Findings 2:
The lecturers’ perception towards CLIL used by the lecturers was identified through
interview. Based on the interview results, the researcher found that the lecturers perception of
CLIL led to the categorization in terms of their commitment in teaching using the approach
they are; (1) highly-committed CLIL, (2) moderately-committed CLIL, (3) and low-committed
CLIL. Each lecturer interviewed has different perception towards CLIL, motivation to teach
through CLIL, and effort in teaching through CLIL which indicates a clear distinction between
the three lecturers.
Questions regarding their opinion in teaching language within content classes were
answered differently by each sample which supports the statement that their commitment
towards CLIL varies as it can be seen in the following:

“Lecturer 1:oh really pay attention to it…my priority now is language because I have
already mastered content…so adaptation of materials, explanation, language exposure, and
practice are my main focus for now”
“Lecturer 2: sometimes I do and sometimes I don’t. usually depends on students
competence. If they are already good at English then I use full English without worrying. If not
then I do as did in tutorials if they need improvement”
“Lecturer 3: not that much because I believe the students could understand because I
explain the materials in Bahasa. Moreover they often use google translate whenever they don’t
understand something in the materials”

Three samples with varying levels of commitment towards CLIL are also different in
terms of effective CLIL teaching. In the interview lecturer 1 indicates that he is aware of these
categories and that he does pay rapt attention to the language level of the students as well as in
selecting texts. Lecturer 2 is rather vague in the awareness of language in CLIL teachings. On

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the other hand 3 expresses that content lecturers is not responsible in the language domain, as
stated below:

“Lecturer 3: But then I don’t think content lecturers necessarily need to focus on
language as well. Just getting them used it is enough.”

The interview results show that the lecturers had the same amount of knowledge in the
CLIL but each one varies in terms of their commitment in implementing the CLIL approach.

“Lecturer 1: the first time I was assigned in icp I asked prof on what model I should
use to teach in English…he recommended me to use CLIL…so I started searching on the
internet for books to improve my teaching technique…as it turns out CLIL is similar to what
I’ve been doing but wasn’t a full-fledged CLIL…so I continued to study it further.”
“Lecturer 2: yah at the time when I was searching through materials on the net. Few
years ago a colleague of mine also recommended the CLIL approach since I have experience
in teaching language off campus.”
“Lecturer 3: I know of it because I have studied it when I was assigned to teach in the
international programme. So I had to study it to teach in the ICP classes.”

Possibly, this could occur since they have different years of teaching, personal
experiences, educational background, opinions of language teaching in content-led subjects
and age that might affect them. This deals with the previous related study conducted by Larenas
and Hernandez (2015) stating that beliefs were rooted in teachers’ semantic memory as
cognitive and affective constructs that hold different degrees of fixation depending on the
professional, academic or personal experiences thats haped them.

Conclusion
Based on the findings and discussions in the previous point, the researcher concluded
that (a) in accordance with the categories, these lecturers vary in the effective teaching
performance observations. HCC (lecturer 1) seem to use almost the whole range of the
performance indicator in effective SLA teaching performance in CLIL context. The most
frequent indicator found during the lessons were output production where the lecturer is
actively stimulating the students to speak English and constantly attempting to create an
anxiety-free environment. MCC (lecturer 2) shows less usage than what HCC used in the

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effective SLA teaching indicator even though he is frequently active in speaking English.
However, lecturer 2 seems to be heavily focused on students’ grammatical correction and
feedback orally as well as written form. And as for LCC (lecturer 3), it is revealed that almost
none of the performance indicators were detected in his teachings of CLIL but nonetheless
shows signs of supporting CLIL approach through exposure to L2 in the form of teaching
materials (b) There are many possible factors influencing the lecturers’ variety in commitment
towards CLIL approach in their teaching and learning practice such as teaching experience,
age, personality, content knowledge, language competence, years of service in the department,
and educational background. HCC and MCC are more or less the same in terms of age and
teaching experience but have different educational background which would be the deciding
factor influencing their teaching performance. LCC has a lower language competence
compared to MCC and HCC which affected the level of commitment towards CLIL yet
supportive in implementing CLIL in higher education. (c) Students’ responses towards CLIL
differ with each category of the lecturers, under HCC most students were active in
communicating through English and seemed enthusiastic in the CLIL class. Furthermore, the
students themselves took the initiative to advise another student who speaks in Indonesian.
Meanwhile MCC’s students were less enthusiastic in speaking English and became either
passive or active learner depending on the teaching technique of MCC. And during study in
LCC’s class students are passive and unmotivated in speaking English. However, result shows
students with low language competency or high anxiety were more enthusiastic studying in
LCC’s class than when studying in either MCC or HCC class which indicates that the findings
of a low-committed CLIL might not necessarily be a negative impact to every student but rather
it could serve as a stepping stone for students with high anxiety and low language competence.
Considering the conclusions, the researchers give suggestions as follows: (1) Content-
lecturers diving into world of CLIL should further study the CLIL teaching approach, method
and technique in order to be able to perform all the indicators of effective teaching performance
and improve their commitment and teaching repertoire towards CLIL to produce the intended
graduates of an ICP program capable of or mastery in the L2 language specifically the English
language as well as content mastery,(2) Content masters and Language masters should
collaborate in the design of the CLIL program within Indonesian higher education context so
that language strategies could also be mastered by content lecturers and capable of language
teaching mastery without the aid of language lecturers so that the maximum result can be
attained and possibly perfected through numerous researches on CLIL within campus, and (3)
Since this study was conducted to assess content lecturers use of CLIL as an effective SLA

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 teaching performance, it is recommend to further this study in terms of language lecturers in
using the CLIL approach within ESP domain at tertiary level and compare its students
achievements to that of content-led CLIL classes. On a global context these findings and
suggestions should be adhered when designing a curriculum based on CLIL and how the
identification of the lecturers here provide insights how they should be assigned to specific
types of class through the suggestions made above. Hence the results reported here should have
significant impact to lecturers, university leaders, curriculum developers, professional
development experts, researchers and other stakeholders in the development of lecturers
delving into CLIL within university context.

References
Brown, P. S. (2013). Teaching a medical English CLIL course with vocabulary learning
strategies instruction in Japan. Asian EFL Journal, 15(4), 275–304.
Coleman, J. A. (2006). English-medium teaching in European Higher Education. Language
Teaching, 39,1–14.
Coraz, S. (2009). Teacher Training and Competences for Effective CLIL Teaching in Argentina
Capacitación de profesores y competencias para la enseñanza efectiva de CLIL en
Argentina, 2, 37–43. http://doi.org/10.5294/laclil.2009.2.2.14
Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. 2010. CLIL: Content and language integrated learning.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Chostelidou, D., & Griva, E. (2014). Measuring the effect of implementing CLIL in higher
education : An experimental research project. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,
116(1982), 2169–2174. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.538
Genesee, F. (1994). Integrating language and content: Lessons from immersion. Mcgill
university. National center for research on cultural diversity and second language learning.
Graaff, R. De, Koopman, G. J., Anikina, Y., & Westhoff, G. (2007). An Observation Tool for
Effective L2 Pedagogy in Content and Language Integrated Learning ( CLIL ), 10(5),
603–624. http://doi.org/10.2167/beb462.0
Hughes, R. (2008). Internationalisation of higher education and language policy. Higher
Education Management and Policy, 20,1–18.
Lal, P. and Mangubhai, F. (2000). What learning strategies do esl learners in fiji use? An
exploratory study. Directions, 22(1): 53-69.
Rachmajanti, S., Zen, E.L., & Apriana A. (2015). Using English In Science Class As An Attempt
To Maximizing Input In Second Language Learning. Vietnam: TESOL Conference 2015.

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 Retreived from http://www.vnseameo.org/TESOLConference2015/
Materials/Fullpaper/Dr.%20Sri%20Rachmajanti%20+%20Ms.%20Evynurul%20Laily%
20Zen%20+%20Ms.%20Aulia%20Apriana.pdf
Uemura, T. (2013). Implementing content and language integrated learning (CLIL) approach to
TOEIC preparatory lessons. Asian EFL Journal, 15(4), 305–323.
Westhoff, G. (2003). Trends in second language pedagogy, (April)
Yamano, Y. (2013). Utilizing the CLIL approach in a Japanese primary school: A comparative
study of CLIL and EFL lessons. Robertson, P. and Adamson, J, 8–35.

89
 The Integration of Reflection to Develop Teacher Agency in a Context of
Current English Language and Current English Teaching at the
Vietnamese Local Law Firm

Vu Ngoc Tung
Concordia University Chicago
(7400 Augusta St, River Forest, IL 60305, USA)
Biodata:

Vu Ngoc Tung is a MA graduate from MA TESOL at Concordia University Chicago. Tung

has more than 6 years in teaching and his past years of teaching covered adult learners who are
interested in English for Specific Purposes. His fruitful exposure to international learning
environment has equipped him with the updated and realistic pedagogical approaches with the
aim of training domestic learners of different academic backgrounds, cultures and preferences.
His prime interests in research encompass Intercultural Communication and Computer-based
Language Learning. His reports on different channels of research-based or practical settings
have signified his strong expertise in Foreign Language Education.

Affiliation: Concordia University Chicago (7400 Augusta St, River Forest, IL 60305, USA)

Abstract

This paper is a mirror of the integration of reflective practice into English for Specific Purposes
(ESP) teachers’ growth of agency. Reflective practice, through the study, was believed to be a
key to developing ESP teachers’ awareness in terms of being concerned with their own
professional development, allowing them time to reflect on their past experience in connection
with their future orientation, but closely attached to the conceptualized present. The study was
successfully implemented in an organization specializing in Law. English has been
increasingly recognized as the essential language, a fact which motivates professional lawyers
to attain linguistic proficiency with the aims of meeting ever-changing job needs and acquiring
continued personal development in their careers. The study had implications for teacher

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education: educations for teacher should be more involved in order to develop teachers
professionally on a sustainable basis, in addition to educating them in how to teach and how to
lead classroom activities.

Introduction

English teachers are under pressure to adapt to change to meet the diverse needs of
students, and also to develop their professional careers in the light of English usage these days
around the world. As far as my experience is, Vietnamese teachers have insufficient access to
professional development. Therefore, regardless of how hard they tried, staff members of the
English department, which provides English for both English-majored and non-English-
majored students, failed to achieve a high record of successes. In this study with particular
regard to education in Vietnam based on English for Professional Purposes (Law expertise)
where educational reforms had limited preparations for the success of learners, I am deeply
passionate to look into teacher agency as part of potentially pedagogical transformations. This
research’s duration survey timely with the participation of multiple in-service experienced
teachers. This research also serves as an occasion for 05 English teachers in Ha Pham Law
Firm in Ho Chi Minh City – Vietnam to have an opportunity to encourage themselves to reflect,
motivate, and make their previously unheard voices heard. This research will be, additionally,
comprised of the core values, and implications of this study for teacher education imply a series
of internal reforms which will be discussed.

Literature Review

Reflection
Dewey is proud to be the first researcher to discover the definition of reflective practice.
The research by Burhan-Horashanh & Ortactepe (2016) did a quite excellent job, collecting
and critically examining various developing theories of reflection in relation to teacher
education. On the basis of the developments, according to Dewey (1933), reflective practice
(or reflection or reflective teaching) is a process to be implemented systematically, which
serves to help teachers solve problems in ways in which they delve themselves into specific
events, incidents or situations. When reflection was reviewed in the year 1987 by Solomon,
reflection is called as “a social practice, in which the articulation of ideas to others is central to
the development of a critical perspective”. In a period of 44 years (between the year 1933 by
Dewey and the year 1987 by Solomon), it is acknowledged that reflection, especially in

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education, has been significantly transformed from an uncommon to a more common practice,
not only made by individuals but also by people in big societies. At the core of reflection is the
focus of people on “learning through questioning and investigation to lead to a development of
understanding” (Loughran, (2002), which Smyth (1992) originated). Of other significant
importance regarding reflective practice is to bridging teaching theories and practices.
Pertaining to reflective teaching practice for teacher education, Maharsi (2018) has
summarized that not only could teaching practice permit the instructors to assess their own
practice, but it heightens their intrinsic awareness of their personal and professional
development.

It is also imperative to note what forms a reflective teacher or reflective teaching. Under
some lenses, the research is to review from different scholarly researchers. Firstly, the very
first consideration comes from the discovery of reflection-on-action, reflection-in-action, and
reflection-for-action. Schon (1983) announced that people “reflect on action, thinking back on
what we have done in order to discover how our thinking how our knowing-in-action may have
contributed to an unexpected outcome” (p. 26). Reflecting-in-action is perceived as either
active or interactive. Teachers who practice reflecting-in-practice are likely to rely on present
demands, while past demands are significant with them. Reflection-on-action, as discussed by
Van Manen (1991), acts as reflection before action (or anticipatory reflection), so it is highly
advised that teachers should use reflection for the purpose of combining the solving of
problems and the considering of possible remedies to appearing problems.

Another study by Fat’hi, Ghaslani, and Parsa (2015) in a different lens allied and
accorded to reflection, has identified “post-method pedagogy” which has considerable impacts
on the practices of reflection among teachers. The post-method pedagogy, according to
Kumaravadivelu (2001), is “a more democratic approach to language teaching profession since
it assigns a voice to practitioners and respects the type of knowledge they possess”. Teachers,
in far greater detail, have a very crucial role in challenging the “methods-only arguments to
find effective strategies to teach in the most appropriate and effective way”. Therefore, they
are not likely to find “the most effective strategies and techniques to enrich her or his teaching
repertoire”. It is not the researcher’s task to describe how the post-method pedagogy is built,
but it generally includes The Parameter of Particularity, The Parameter of Practicality, and the
Parameter of Possibility.

In addition to examining teachers’ reflection under the lens of Dewey, Schon and

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Kumaravadivelu, Johnson’s (1996) research work will serve as a useful supplement to this
research. He stated that there is the interaction of reflection with sociocultural perspective, by
further implying that teacher education is no longer entitled as cognitive position, rather it is
now seen with a more situated and socio epistemology. Argued by the sociocultural
perspectives, Emirbayer & Mische (1998) has viewed the agency as “the capacity of actors to
shape their responsiveness to problematic situations critically”. Teachers are recommended to
teach flexibly in specific classrooms and school situations that replaced the striking regularity
of top-down educational approach.

Teacher agency
Human agency, for a long time, is generally a topic of interest of many worldwide
experts in a number of fields, or functions of life.. As part of this literature review, teacher
agency will be approached by generalizing the concept of agency or human agency, followed
by a critically concise analysis concerning teachers who, in this study, are targeted to become
teachers with agency or, directly speaking, autonomous teachers.

In tandem with sociocultural perspective mentioned above, agency was widely

recognized by Scott and Marshall (1998) as “juxtaposed to structure and is often no more than
a synonym for action … as opposed to the alleged determinism of structural theories”. That re-
emphasizes the significance in parallel to the claim by Vygotsky (1978) that “human beings do
not live in a vacuum; thinking and being are mediated through the cultural symbol systems and
artefacts we use” (Kumpulainen, Lipponen, Hilppo & Mikkola, 2013). Besides, Rogers and
Wetzel (2013) collaborated to improve the definition of agency as “the capacity of people to
act purposefully and reflecting on their world”, or Biesta and Tedder (2006, p.11) who prefer
calling actors “critically shaping their responses to problematic situations”. As shared by
Campbell (2012), examining agency is of universal importance, especially in a lens of the roles
of the teacher. Teachers, in a professional capacity, are firmly connected to the development
of pedagogical practices in general. Campbell (2012) highlighted that teachers also play as
agents of change in an attempt to decide on what to initiate and develop based on a variant of
context according to differing times. This remark is aligned with the advocates such as Buzzelli
and Johnston (2002) who argued that teaching is named as an activity that fosters the moral
interaction and subsequently allows the enhancement of more agents in the classroom.

It is more significant for us to be aware of what teacher agency should look like and
how it is constructed that resonates with far-reaching direction as far as this research is

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concerned. This has extensively attracted considerable scholarly attention, diverging from
Archer’s (1995), to Gidden’s (1984), to Bourdieu’s (1977), Elias’s (2000).

Toom, Pyhalto, and Rust (2015) stressed that teacher agency is decided by “willingness
and capacity to act according to professional values, beliefs, goals and knowledge” by
definition. A thoroughly review of the studies by Toom, Pyhalto, and Rust (2015) can also give
us a better understanding. Their explanation and development of theory, once again, was
grounded on the fact that teachers are not only responsible as teachers, but also enrolled as
learners to enhance their expertise towards which the assistance of current context and past
personal experiences make a positive contribution (Emirbaye & Mische, 1998; Biesta &
Tedder, 2007).

Moreover, it was noted that teacher’s professional agency is dependent on decisions

made on innovated practices in relation to curriculum design and instruction. Therefore, it is
understood that teachers are the best people who are conscious of what students would like to
learn and develop and teachers, as a result, make most of these related insights so as to ensure
the highest relevance by considering contextual factors and designing a wealth of helpful
knowledge.

Research Questions

This study is designed to uncover the unclear in relation to the extent to which the
integration of reflection enables to develop teacher agency in a context of current English
language and current English teaching at the Vietnamese local Law Firm. For the purpose of
the study, three sub-questions will be examined.

• What are teachers’ perceptions towards their current English teaching and the
current English as Foreign Language teaching programs?;
• How can reflection in teaching help improve agent teachers’ agency?;
• What are some effective ways of developing teachers’ agency?

Methodology

Participants

It was well confirmed and analyzed by Yendol-Hoppey and Fichtman Dana (2009) that
the success of research is significantly decided by the collaboration of those who share the
similar interests while the research is being conducted and then presented. It is very beneficial

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that the participants have diverse backgrounds or diverse life experience to provide
substantially wide-ranging insights into the research objectives by which research questions
are critically considered and written.

When it comes to my research study that employs inquiry support that is introduced by
Yendol-Hoppey and Fichtman Dana (2009), I thought carefully to invite the teaching staff
employed at Ha Pham Law Firm based in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Backgrounds and ages
vary between veteran and much experience (for the former), and between 24 and 30 years of
age (for the latter). The reasons why I invited them to this project are twofold. The first goal
was regarded as professionals’ varying backgrounds of language, which led to us considering
the flexible curriculum that meets the personal needs and the different contextual needs where
their expertise works. The second goal was to stimulate their teaching staff members’ needs as
they used to share that they need regular talks with me as their supervisor to think how to
improve the teaching practices in the context of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). The third
goal was to promote the regular employment of agency as a means of teachers’ commitment to
enhancing the professionals’ confidence in foreign events of communication with clients and
growing the business’ professional image in the competitive market.

In my project, I interviewed five teachers (four female teachers and one male teacher)
who are currently employed as English Teachers of Professional Purposes. It is not every day
that any corporations, except for English Training Institutions, have English teachers. They
tend to use external vendors to provide language courses for them.

Intervention

The study employed the model written by Emirbayers’s and Mische’s ideas on
pragmatics. The research questions were carefully examined by the consultancy of the director
who is proactive to update on our parallel projects. The consultancy also motivated the
collaboration of our participating teachers, so the findings were well-collected although there
were minor follow-up questions.

Once I finished a range of training sessions, I left to help them familiarize themselves
with the process of data collection, verification, and analysis. Occasionally, my thanks went to
my university colleague who was invited to join some individual meetings to help me with the
audit.

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 I performed a 30-45-minute interview with each participant. We sometimes needed to
adapt to the slightly modified questions to clear up any misunderstandings arising during the
conversation. We happily recognised to have been able to question and respond in spite of
some aggressive arguments directly. Each teacher was subsequently given questions, ranging
from a sound understanding of contexts to a practical knowledge of agency in professional
teaching. Each of the interviewees was straightforward, coupled with shows their sense of
activeness to request further clarification of questions and my intended tones when voiced as I
was about to highlight the primary points in need of insightful and critical opinions.

Data collection

Dörnyei (2007) defined qualitative analysis, following the constant approach to

methodologies of grounded theory as a framework in terms of three characteristics and, to name
some, they are iterative, emergent and interpretive. Priestley et al. (2013); Priestley, Edwards,
Miller, & Priestley (2012) have successfully strengthened the theory of agency based on
Emirbayer and Mische’s (1998) “chordal triad”, which celebrates the positive influences of
ecological view (Priestley, Biesta, & Robinson (in press); Priestley, Edward, Priestley, and
Miller (2012). In terms of ecological view, Emirbayer and Mische (1998) expressed much
interest in demonstrating agency as not what “people can have, it is something that people do”.
In a wake of research by Vaughn & Faircloth (2011), they also proved to agree that teacher
agency is configured and developed to empower teachers whose main vision is to remove the
restrictions on practices and other related difficulties, with the result that the significantly
growing demands of students are completely satisfied. From those perspectives, the roles of
contextual factors are really important, making them closely relevant to the formation of
agency in human-beings in general, and teachers in particular which is a stress in this study.

This study works on ecological view on which Priestley based to develop the following
model of teacher agency. Teacher agency was influenced by three distinctive elements.

• That is the influences from the past (iterational) – including “the selective reactivation
by actors of past patterns of thought and action, routinely incorporated in practical
activity, thereby giving stability and order to social universes and helping to sustain
identities, interactions, and institutions over time” (Emirbayer & Mische, 1998, p. 971).
• That is the orientations towards the future (projective) – including “the imaginative
generation by actors of possible future trajectories of action, in which received

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 structures of thought and action may be creatively reconfigured in relation to actors’
hopes, fears, and desires for the future” (Emirbayer & Mische, 1998, p. 971).
• That is the engagement with the present (practical-evaluative) – including “the capacity
of actors to make practical and normative judgments among alternative possible
trajectories of action, in response to the emerging demands, dilemmas, and ambiguities
of presently evolving situations” (Emirbayer & Mische, 1998, p. 971).
According to the model (Understanding teacher agency, presented by Priestley et al.,
2013, p. 190), this action research would top reflection as a tool to facilitate teacher agency as
part of the extended commitment to professional development. The research’s findings would
fuel teachers’ perception regarding the overwhelming assistance that can help them think about
their current teaching profession which has considerably impacted on the success of
organisation’s Professional Lawyers. Thanks to contextually-located data, those actions
provided them with a lens of real concepts of agency in a teacher, and additionally give the
researcher several authentic and realistic insights. Although the researcher and teachers are in
a close relationship, they guaranteed that the findings will be kept to a minimum of bias and
prejudice.

The adequate number of teachers was a right encouragement that covers the reliable
data to be gathered according to currently organizational settings. As you may see, the
reflection of Vietnamese context regarding English language usage and English language
education, the work is necessarily critical that the linear thinking can be adopted in order to
compare and contrast between the broader and narrower scope of research. Data collection was
scheduled for four weeks, with a review of literature’s work in progress.

Results

What follows is a chronological update on responses to participants’ reflection. They

are in the premise of how three main research sub-questions were investigated. For the purpose
of the research objectives, three respective themes were presented in line with the sub-
questions. As far as reflection goes, findings suggested that reflection substantially leads to
teacher agency, with participants expressing their contentment entirely within six months of
the project. They also expressed their commitment to learning to enhance their teaching
practice in line with entrepreneurial goals. Reflective practice also inspired their dedication to
professional development on a regular basis.

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Impact 1: Teachers’ ill-structured perceptions of English language learning resulted in their
discouraging teaching career;

The first arising feature is the unclear purposes of the ESP teachers’ language development.
They appeared to have meagre expectations for short- and long-term objectives regarding
foreign-language education.

P1: I was not used to being considerate for identifying the specific goals to learn English
as a foreign language. Although I was the student teacher at the university, nobody
assisted me in this stuff, and I just let the studies go without any intentions.

P5: I occasionally continued to wonder why I needed to study this major. I was not in
consultation with professors to talk about where teaching career leads me, or it would
probably worsen my capacity. What university professors delivered was all about
grammatical and phonetic lessons, so how different they are from high schools was
questioned. That has resulted in my significant losses of communicative competence –
we were obsessed with test-purposes, and we nearly lost our Vietnamese culture that
teachers over-represented the Standard American English and that of British English.

However, two participants assumed that the objectives of teaching as a career relies on the
responsibilities of the schools or institutions. Once they admitted the students, the students kept
in mind that the school would be able to guarantee the future jobs for them and they were less
likely to do comprehensive research on how the situation would be to develop and how their
teacher would potentially flourish on the career ladder.

P3: My deep belief was that I didn’t have to do any particular plan. The student progress
has been sorted to turn out an automatic plan of the curriculum. Little have my
professors noticed us being conscious of our direction towards career plan, so we
intended to be over-dependent on the well-structured curriculum.

P5: We didn’t even recognize what skills we must be competent to compete in the world
of employment as the traditional learning methods predominated inside our classrooms,
despite very few irregular collaborative works for teams of 3-4… But, you know, we
were sick of the reliance of the others or the reliance of others on me when working in
a group with other reliant and lazy students.

Teachers finally showed their disappointment towards the fact that they were little to not at all
motivated to improve language proficiency, although the truths are that they were expected to

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be proper English users in order to qualify as teachers. Moreover, a majority of them could not
deny the privilege from their high language proficiency that resonates with professional
teaching. For example, for the sake of career promotion, they would be increasingly apt for the
innovated teaching techniques and teaching practices. According to teachers, they said:

P1: I am so confident that I can use English very well. I have learnt English since I was
little. I was in the Linguistic major as I loved it. I, to a high extent, was not keen on
teaching, but I was motivated to teach because I want to share my learning experience
with other people. One of the finest examples is that I would give them tips on how to
create the learning environments by themselves and then just feel learning it naturally.
I also want to update on other good ways, such as keep daily dairies, or travel to other
countries to meet varieties of English speakers to exchange cultures.

P3: Once I found that my pronunciation was not proper enough when I was in a
conversation with the native speakers. I was sorry that I felt embarrassed as a student
teacher with excellent marks. There was a general recognition that had I been advised
to practice English as a habit, and I would not have upset myself. Hence, it came to my
realization I had to practice every day at any time when I had a chance.

P4: News caught my attention which was about the growing numbers of students who
were deciding to study overseas for Master’s degrees. They major in Linguistics,
English studies, or Foreign-language translation/interpretation. In order to be admitted
to the good universities which would lead to good working prospects (such as I will be
employed at reputational universities as lecturers/ educators/ specialists, or at well-
known Language Centers as English trainers/ teachers), I need to pass the IELTS or
Toefl iBT or Toefl PBT tests with admiring scores. This requirement needs to be given
enough priority and taken into full consideration.

P2: Let’s think about that. I made a lot of friends with foreigners. It’s not nice if I cannot
speak English effectively and/or they know that English Teaching is my major. It must
be recognized as a consequence of my past teacher education in the university on
account of teacher-centered approach – I honestly have not had any hours spent on
practicing speaking with my next-by peers, and we had to indulge ourselves in books
on which dull and discouraging drilling-questions are given, so I was unhappily
unconfident to speak in public. Until have I been offered the first job, I was unable to

99
 speak fluently. It still resisted me to keep my mind isolated with the modern techniques
for teaching as I thought if I couldn’t change my self – how can I develop my students?

Teachers were far happier that they are working in the current local-organization with
full immersion in the international environment. Given that they were given space to develop
professionally. For instance, they were offered enough training courses (hard skills and soft
skills), and with lots of opportunities helping them interact with the professional learners who
are all lawyers with high demands, yet limited time to study. There is full access to teaching a
group of lawyers and have full rights to consult professionals with individual plans.

P1: Let’s assume that if I am not working here, I don’t know the meaning of teaching
job. It is … everything … amazing! The founder of my company is incredibly kind, and
my supervisor is such an understanding expert. I appreciate their time allocated for our
professional life. We take our full responsibility to manage our learner group, and that
is what made us so autonomous. It is more helpful that they trained us very carefully
during my entire employment as they know that English is a key to help the organization
go further and further. Sometimes, they are unsure about how to grow us to a certain
extent; they seek for the external experts to come in search of the immediate ways. They
were not hesitated to invest considerable money in my little, but dominant, team.

P2: My boss is a bit “crazy”, but I am pleased and excited to work with him. I know
that this research is his work, but I don’t want to hide any disaggregate thoughts as I
know he also wants to learn with us. I was not scared to work one by one with him as
he was the solution-oriented and critical thinker.

P4: I had to say: “wow”. The job here has changed my career dramatically. I was
fortunate to be in. My boss’s writing skill was so useful that I want him to teach me
how to improve writing. Speaking of him was quite good also.

Impact 2: Reflective practice roots out ESP teachers’ teacher professional discourse;

An ecological construct serves as a platform to develop teacher agency. On an explicit

basis, it is practical to uncover the extent to which an ecological construct is subject to
structural, culturally, and material influences that are intelligibly defined in the practical-
evaluative dimension. With the delivery of pre-research instructions in general and knowledge
on the agency in specific, teachers were, to an increasing extent, mindful of the way to enable
their sense of agency (autonomy in distant prospect).

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 The first emerging feature is centred on participants’ viewpoints on their group under
guidance. The assumption is that learning members of staff vary in language proficiency
(especially with regards to knowledge, skills, and attitudes). According to what was shared
among respondents from a series of reflection, many commented on their height of teacher
awareness of learners’ backgrounds and interests. They said:

P1: Once I have some time to manage my gratitude reflection, I see that I grow my
teaching techniques, earning from the diversity of my professional learners. A third of
my group are just beginners of English learners or a half between Intermediate-
Advanced, and the rest in Advanced Levels. I found it useful to design the lessons
together with teaching techniques that represent the big array of intelligence and
preferred learning styles;

P4: From my recent conversation, I am becoming more aggressively happy that my

group have always been tolerant of my difficulties when I had to deal with diverse
needs. I felt optimistic situations in which we work individual and collaborative lesson
action plans. We came to get pleased as we finally learned what we need and it is
desperately inspiring!

As for the culturally and linguistically diverse group of professionals, the researcher
was additionally impressed by the enlightening discovery of teachers’ notable roles. Findings
of this point suggested that teachers are highly desirable to combine students’ own cultures and
English’s target culture to form their teaching practices. Teachers felt rewarded that as opposed
to when they were educated at universities in early career life, they saw in different views of
points that the world is entirely different from what they expect now. However, they used to
underestimate the challenges of the teaching career. Moreover, they had room to take risks and
make mistakes. At present, they were gravely optimistic to announce:

P1: More often, I asked for my colleague’s observation and give me positive comments
to enhance my teaching practice. I believe they can help me a lot in addition to
enormous support from my supervisor.

P2: I was measured to be a facilitator. I taught them in small groups in a training room
or at our favorite coffee shops, especially at the weekends. I signify that I lead the
classes entirely different from the traditional ones in which my learners can overcome
the students’ affective barriers, with relaxing and entertaining feelings. Learning
language becomes more useful than ever once integrated into the user-friendly

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 atmosphere with clear learning outcomes on a seasonal basis and learning objectives.
To establish the learners’ rapport that creates a venue for their working success as well,
it means that the spheres must be interactive, resourceful, collaborative, independent to
grasp the real meaning of language in nature that transforms language radically. I also
take this chance to eradicate the static events of activities that make my learners feel
abundantly depressed and lacking the supportive peers & teachers. They have more
time to brainstorming manifold life-topics to discuss and refresh themselves as they
think learning is playing and relaxing. They view me in an excellent facilitating role
that impacts on their increased critical-thinking and problem-solving competencies.
Well, I must say I am a skilled developer, also.

P3: Solely, I am not acting as a teacher. This job at the firm came as a surprise that the
job required me to play different roles. [I guess …]. Such as I take charge as a mentor
who shows the effective learning techniques for the professionals especially who have
to learn by themselves when they are on a business trip.

P5: I talked to my learners who determined me as not a teacher any longer. They called
me as their best friend as my advice was acutely beneficial. They never look down on
me although sometimes I was uncertain of their job’s technical terms in English and I
mispronounced on an infrequent basis.

The research gained more significance when filled with another component of
professional discourses, that is the role of socialisation for lawyers’ success. Teachers, who
returned from work lit by being crammed full of excitement, shared both the similar and
dissimilar comments on the role of socialisation, but the similarities are entitled to be higher.
Participants were indicative and assertive of the role of socialisation that could be helped by
lawyers’ learning aspiration.

P5: As a teacher, I fully acknowledge that English can bring my learners to the world
of knowledge and fruitful views of society. I inspired my lawyers through my personal
experience that I made my most effort to learn different things on the grounds of English
as a foreign language. Like I talked to many people around the world, and they gave
me better insights into cultures that are best described in the lens of languages. I
observed them think, behave, say, feel, and so on. It is astonishing. I would like to bring
this sense to my learners. They would have the best memories ever when coming to
learning the English language or any language they are fond of.

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 P4: They will be socially engaged, just pure in a virtual world. They don't need to visit
their favourite destinations because of insufficient time allocation or financial losses.
Culture will change their views, and they must be critically thinking about problems
inside and outside their surrounding environments, thus reconstructing and broadening
their horizons.

P1: Similarly applied into English communication, I usually embedded the abundance
of real-life problems into my teaching sessions and wanted my learners to solve these
by brainstorming Law, and its expertise, might fluctuate from one place to another, so
I allow my learners in a group to search for the law of the other countries, seeing how
they are functioned according to a country’s legislation. Like other subjects, Law
requests the learners or workers to get a nearer look at the economic, political, and
environmental aspects. My learners, based on absolutes, will grow fast soon!

In addition to teachers’ role in the formation of socialisation in learners, continual

learning to improve self-proficiency in English as a foreign language, or English as a lingua
franca is inevitably a good way to form and enhance teachers’ broad spectrum of knowledge
on and awareness of identity, echoing Norton (2013). Identity, which is conceptualized as “the
way a person understands his or her relationship to the world, how that relationship is
constructed across time and space, and how the person understands possibilities for the future”
(Norton, 2013, p. 4) , and suggestions in this paper on identity as reflected on by who language
users are and how uniquely they voice their ideas on the worldviews, goes hand in hand with
the agency as the prerequisite. Identity lies at the bottom of their own educational and cultural
backgrounds. Teachers were be more likely to commemorate why and how they approached
their language learning progress, and to remind how and what they had done to better get others
inspired by the benefits. Learning to improve identity through reflecting on personal history
began to help participants organize themselves to understand, arrange, tackle their goals and
make them realistic as opposed to regarding them as lofty, unrealistic, and unattainable. They
reclaimed their identity as legitimate academic writers and professionals, and through writing
about themselves, they could ultimately reach their “… mastery of the linguistic code”
(Glowerdew and Miller, 2008, p. 204) in a new linguistic and cultural space. Interestingly
observed, the research goes on to summarise that when the lives of identity-loving reflectors
are chased, their various expressions of static and dynamic environments are shared.

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 P2: I define the short-term and long-term as far-reaching tasks, which is better than that
of previously performed. I see the teacher as a reflective doer and facilitator now
attached to the cutting-edge of modern education generally and modern language
education specifically.

P3: It is strongly advocated that learning language and culture will equip me more
knowledge and understanding about Law, then explicitly I will be showing learners
great opportunities to figure out how Law terms are operated according to contexts.

P4: I see myself in the job. I don’t have to act like other people. I know what my
strengths are and am taught how to improve my prominent weaknesses.

P5: Teaching jobs at present are greatly more organised. I manage my teaching jobs
and personal development sensibly. This combination presents a very inspiration that
asks my need to try on a daily basis. On the one hand, I will strictly adhere to my career
plan to ensure that my full capacity will grow, reaching my higher potential. On the
other side, my students’ improved communicative competence will have been my pride
by the later half year of 2018, that I am willing to share my stories with the other four
teachers. My boss, very uniquely, must be proud of me!

Impact 3: Some suggestions are available to develop agency among teachers of English;

From the analysis of data merely collected from a high number of chances to observe
from conducting training sessions and semi-structured oral interviews, the last theme is related
to the advice to improve agency among the teachers as primary participants. Three following
items needed to be discussed. Firstly, teachers must have been given more room to have the
reflection that could be organised in a variety of ways.

P1: I will be better intrigued to have been able to share my existing problems with my
team in association with obstacles which prevent me from addressing. Like I was stuck
in some cases that I couldn't manage well technical issues (the company’s portal) with
which my group of professionals were faced. I am utterly incompetent at technology,
so I was so mindful of the anxiety … I didn’t know how to say it explicitly! But I’d be
happier if we should have more sharing sessions among us.

P2: There are so many advantages to doing reflection. If we are busy with our schedule,
I prefer we can design the Google sheets that we can share what we want people to
notice, and then we can seek for advice or help from the relevant people.

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 Two of the participants profoundly wondered whether or not the company should
require the feedback meeting between supervisor/director and them. They highly recommend
that this type of research should be incorporated to motivate teachers while they are thinking
about our career in both a short and long term. They are more likely to admit that teaching is
an everlasting source of aspiration in later life and a dependable companion to lean on.

P3: I considered it in a grateful way that we should do the reflection at least once every
two months or a quarter, but this activity is highly respected be on a yearly basis. I also
consider it a way of developmental privilege at any organisation, I hope that this request
will take into effect as soon as possible.

P5: As previously stated, I didn’t care much about my language proficiency as a result
of the little attention of many parties, including me – of course. Doing reflection
requires me to use more effective and appropriate spoken and written languages to
communicate as if I talk to myself and I know what factually lies in my biggest concern.

Bond and close work relationships between teacher education and professional
development were conceptualized, with a teacher expressing from the bottom of her heart. They
knew a secret to happiness following in teaching career.

P4: I am much obliged to my colleagues, supervisor and director for their time and
effort placed into this research. I have never imagined that I grew up significantly at
this time. I felt they are all doing for us, wholeheartedly. We treasured that they were
with me in particular, and my colleagues in general, in an attempt to understand our
concerns, or needs, and train us with your most expertise. I hope they will continue to
keep their beliefs in us, as well as their direction that drives our team and our
organisation towards big success. We would go with them as far as we feel it possible.
Last but not least, I was with them from the very early time of our company, and now
I was still with them. Therefore, we are living up to expectations.

The data were collected and then broken into an array of themes about the research’s
identified expectations and requirements. The study kept the sub-questions attended. The
researcher and participants were ready to understand the nature of questions explicitly for
which the answers are sufficiently accurate. The data were entirely based on the open-ended
interviews without any Yes/No questions; even they were then asked as the follow-up inquiries.
The data became much more reliable when supported by the researcher’s observations of
teachers’ active involvement in orientation sessions. Therefore, it could be said that sufficiency

105
and trustworthiness were capably met and achieved, together with the consultancy from the
researcher’ colleague who worked as the lecturer at the university.

Discussion

What accords with the findings indicated that the reflection was entirely attached to the
professional experience of all ESP teachers. Reflective discussions acted as a passport to
encourage language teachers who were also continuous learners to discuss their past
experiences in order to have a higher sense of positives and negatives. Reflection was also a
vehicle to benefit teachers to establish their awareness of the efficacious future practices. The
interview sessions were comprehensively anchored by the breadth of literature review and the
depth of interactions in researcher-teachers and teacher-teacher in terms of teaching and
learning. From the critical analysis, the study’s results contributed to three conclusions that
advocate the future landscape of education. They are:

• Reflection is committed to helping ESP teachers get out of teachers’ difficulties in self-
learning and self-teaching and to offering them an air of perspectives as agents of
change;
• Reflection benefited ESP teachers as its practices involved both target culture and
teachers’ cultures, when combined to create and develop their collaborative community
of practice;
Reflection is committed to helping ESP teachers get out of teachers’ difficulties in self-
learning and self-teaching and to offering them an air of perspectives as agents of
change;

Zeichner and Liston (1996) shared their views on the shortcomings of reflective
practice. They stated that reflection merely presents an individualistic process, meaning that
only situations of a teacher are only included. This is similar as with Kumaravadivelu (2003)’s
ideas regarding the introspective process related to reflective moments. In order to alleviate the
isolation of teachers’ reflective movement in an individual process, reflective practice from a
sociocultural perspective was adopted within which teachers’ knowledge is learnt and
developed dialogically in the event of individuals interacting with each other. Far more
importantly, they exchanged their sources of knowledge on a detailed basis, in both general
and specific terms. They, as a result, developed themselves professionally, benefiting from
teacher education with the hope that the move of nature in reflection will be shifted from “a

106
cognitive position” to “a more situated and social epistemology”, and these findings were
supported by Johnson (2006) and Hawkins (2004).
Heavily dependent on a sociocultural perspective, written by Johnson (2006), the way
teachers observed, acquired, and comprehended knowledge was wholly influenced by the
social practices that happened in their classroom and organization. Johnson (2009) further
highlighted that the future of teacher education in relation to a sociocultural perspective would
be potentially fruitful. First, this perspective was believed to carry a bridge to connect the
cognitive/individual process with the socially situated process from which teachers’ career are
enlarged, coupled with more career satisfaction and opportunities. Second, a sociocultural
perspective was deemed necessarily as it required teacher education to demonstrate practically
by focusing on matters, but more than assimilation to cultures. L2 teachers education were
encouraged to pay substantial attention to the reconstructed activities designed as a prompt
response to the generally social and particularly educational needs.
Teachers, on the premise of agents of change, were offered greater privileges with the
goals of listening to their learners’ specific needs when they decided what to deliver in
classroom. They recognized skills and traits future labourers need to acquire to accommodate
the calls for employment needs. Therefore, we came to conclude that reflection as a unstopped
process contains characteristics to make teachers conscious of the future scenarios in teaching,
subsequently examining what might need to be done to match them.
Reflection benefits ESP teachers as its practices involve both target culture and
teachers’ cultures, when combined to create and develop their collaborative
community of practice;

As evidenced by the interwoven relationship of culture and language, learning and

teaching language must not be separate from learning and teaching culture in which language
is at the time used. As agent of changes in the first discussion, teachers were the key drivers of
democratically multifaceted communities and societies. To foster the education for everyone,
community of practice could be well established in the sense that both target culture and
teachers’ culture must be an important part in critical reflective practice. To do so, communities
implied in this discussion are the workplaces and the individual learning spaces where teachers
as continuous and collaborative learners gather to deal and negotiate the new understandings
of what forms the career and how the career grows. Moreover, to make it applicable, teachers
not only shared what they knew to others or tried to come up with the new understandings of
the professor, but also learned from what their colleagues or peers offered them positive

107
feedback or responses to personal critical reasoning/wonderings. They, rather come to compete
each other for a particular goal, were supposed to support mutually for common goals. Those
goals, as planned, belonged to the education, which catered for the fulfillment of learners, the
enhancement of teacher education, and the transformation of society. These intentions were
packed by Abrahamson and Chase (2015), defining a collaborative reflective practice as
“human speech supplements an artifact’s back talk” (p. 373). It could be understood that a
collaborative reflective practice leads to a change in attitude of learners which is the most
critical factor. It was solely because their attitude triggered their passion, readiness and,
willingness to learn things from and for individual needs. The final note claims pertaining to
Glazer, Abbott and Harris (2004), who demonstrated the collaboration in reflection practice
might assist “identify[ing] and address[ing] professional practice-related issues and
challenges” (p. 37), thus “the individual’s thoughts and experiences are collaboratively
maximized” (Kabilan, 2007, p. 698).

Conclusion & Pedagogical implications for ESP teachers

Reflection led to a platform where people grew together and look forward to the future for
which a democracy education is under pressing challenged and fostered. Reflective teaching
practice is trusted for teachers to share minds and opens doors for students academically. In
particular regards to EFL that expands beyond Vietnamese culture (e.g. Eastern counterparts
in general), communities of practice will become more fruitful, granting ESP teachers
responsibilities to manage their teaching knowledge as great thinkers and enhance teaching
practice as great applicants. As reflective findings stated that ESP teachers described their
developed agency professionally at personal level and would pay more consistent attention to
ESP learners’ autonomy to develop academically and professionally. Due to a small number of
teacher participants, the research cannot represent a wide population of ESP
teachers/instructors in other EFL/ESL communities of practice. However, it is certain that this
research is the finest example that will drive future large-scaled research on reflective practices
as this present study has partly represented cross-culturally.

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 Challenges and Strategies on Paper Publication to International Indexed
Journals by Filipino Academic Researchers

Christopher J. Cocal and Irene De Vera

Pangasinan State University

Biodata:
Christopher Jovido Cocal
#78 Tara, Bolinao, Pangasinan , Philippines
Mobile #. 639985587401
E-mail: [email protected]
Summary of Qualifications
Ph.D. Major in Development Studies
✓ Former Technical Staff, Office of the Vice President for Business Affairs and
Resource Generation, Vice President for Administration and Planning, and Vice
President for Research, Extension and Training
✓ Campus Director for Research, Development and Extension (PSU-Alaminos City
Campus)

Abstract
One of the measures of research productivity is publication. The study determined the
challenges and strategies on paper publication to international indexed journals by the Filipino
academic researchers. The descriptive method of research was employed with 55 academic
researchers from the different state colleges and universities in the Philippines. Results showed
that difficulty formatting the papers based on author’s guide of the target journal and the paper
being evaluated as poorly written or needs to be reviewed by a native English speaker were
among the major problems encountered together with lack of funds for publication fee,
difficulty searching for an appropriate journal based on the area of research being published
and target journal has very high standards that the paper was rejected outright by the editor
because of lack of innovation or contribution to what already exists were the major challenges

113
encountered by the researchers in publishing their papers to international indexed journals. The
inability of the academic researchers to publish their papers in high impact, international
indexed journals has resulted to paper publication in their institutional, non-indexed, low
impact journals.

Keywords: Research, publication, challenges, strategies

Introduction
The importance of scholarly publications to an institute of higher learning cannot be
exaggerated. Publication leads to the creation of new knowledge, increases an institution's
reputation, stimulates modernization and innovation, enhances the quality of academic staff
and improves the economic status of the institution (Dhillon, Ibrahim, & Selamat, 2015).
Publication rates are a vital measure of individual and institutional performance (Rickard et al.,
2009). Scientific research and publications are essential for advancement of knowledge.
Publication of original research in indexed journals ensures career progression in academic
institutions (Das, 2017).
Scholarly publication is an important determinant of research productivity. Publication of
research outputs would lead to greater transfer of knowledge and possible utilization (Peng &
Qi, 2006). Publications in leading journals are widely known to have a positive impact on
economists’ judgments of the value of authors’ contributions and professional reputations
(Powdthavee, Riyanto, & Knetsch, 2017). Publishing in peer-reviewed journals is recognized
as the main method for knowledge diffusion (Palese, Coletti, & Dante, 2013). Research have
shown that scientists increased their reporting of outcomes when outcomes were being used
for program assessment and feedback (Chandler et al., 2017).
Academics display a preference for impact over publications, even when that impact is not
associated with requirements of the assessment system in terms of rigor of the underpinning
research. The preference for impact over publications is heightened by organization tenure,
non-academic work experience, intrinsic career motivations and research-intensive contexts,
while it is weakened by academic influence, extrinsic career motives and academic rank (Salter,
Salandra, & Walker, 2017). However, while a high number of publications in top journals
indicate that a scholar has been prolific and successful in generating high visibility output, such
a number, which would earn a scholar a position in the lists of top contributors based on
publication counts, gives us no information about whether this output has a significant impact
(Peng & Qi, 2006).

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 Publishing in top journals is very important in the process of attaining excellence in the
early career in addition to publishing many papers. The number of top journal publications and
highly cited publications during the first four years of the career were the most important
predictors of who will attain excellence in the later career (Lindahl, 2018). Publishing in high
impact journals will further enhance an author's academic reputation (Cuschieri, 2018).
Publishing is influenced by a tripod of forces: authors wish to publish more, readers are
inundated and wish to read less, and editors are mainly interested in enhancing their journal's
profile. The art of successful publishing lies in the ability of the author to produce original and
striking manuscripts representing research output, identifying a suitable journal and whet the
editor's appetite enough to consider the article for publishing (Cuschieri, 2018).
A researcher's experience has the most influence on research output besides the
researcher's academic position. Likewise, research environment such as funding for research,
and the attitude of the academic staff which is behavioral have a positive influence on
increasing the production of scholarly publications among academic staff specifically those in
the top and middle levels of management (Dhillon et al., 2015). Academic inventors publish
significantly more than non-inventors (Looy, Callaert, & Debackere, 2006). Academicians who
engage in entrepreneurial research publish the results of their study more than their colleagues
working in the same fields as they are. More experienced researchers expect their submitted
manuscript to be accepted for publication within a shorter time frame than those that have
published fewer papers. Time was ranked as the greatest barrier to publication (MacKinney et
al., 2015). The production time of an article from its data collection involves significant
processes and skills. However, the time may also be lengthened by factors not related to the
processes of research, such as the time available to researchers (Palese et al., 2013).
Preparation of a manuscript that will successfully pass through the peer review process is
not intuitive. While it is clear that a high quality manuscript should reflect high quality science,
the manuscript itself should attract and hold a reviewer’s attention by being easy to read,
grammatically correct and following style and format guidelines (Robinson, Udén, Wiseman,
& Mateos, 2007). Writing for publication requires a high level of writing skills (Murray &
Newton, 2008) that can be learned (Rickard et al., 2009) which is categorized as academic
writing intended for anyone researching, studying or, indeed, writing in English as a second or
foreign language. (Tang, 2012).These skills and strategies are not always developed in
undergraduate or postgraduate courses (Murray & Newton, 2008). Most authors learn academic
writing skills through a process of trial and error (Keen, 2007). Development of research
writing abilities can be better addressed if pedagogical instruments designed to enable

115
researchers to perform this multi-level task are underpinned by the exploration of the wider set
of factors that generate the need to write up research in English (Bardi, 2015).
The rejection of a manuscript is a frustrating experience and is mostly due to poor
experimental design (lack of hypothesis/aims, poor recruitment or small sample size, short
follow-up, un-justified or lacking conclusions, or when the text is simply incomprehensible).
Other frequent reasons for manuscript rejection are failure to conform to the target journal,
insufficient problem statement, methods not described in detail, over-interpretation of results,
inappropriate statistics, confusing presentation of tables and/or figures, conclusions not
supported by data, and poor review of the literature (Audisio et al., 2009). Accurate editing is
crucial: sloppy submissions with substandard layout, grammatical and punctuation errors,
inaccurate referencing and confusing format are considered with suspicion (Audisio et al.,
2009).
For researchers to increase their chance for publication, they work as co-authors of other
known researchers. However, for authors with high h index, research quality is a major goal
and working with a co-author only matters if this co-author contributes to this goal
(Besancenot, Huynh, & Serranito, 2017). Interdisciplinary research does have a significant,
positive effect on publication productivity (Millar, 2013). Collaborative writing is reported as
a commonly applied strategy used by academics when writing for publication (Hollis as cited
by Keen, 2006). Brokerage is identified as one of the most important correlatives of publishing
success. However, in many cases, the best performers are smart collaborators who take
advantage of the benefits of both bridging and bonding social capital. In general, co-authorship
itself does not provide an advantage. Instead, a proper collaboration strategy appears to be more
important. Additionally, embeddedness of authors within their affiliations should be considered
(Lopaciuk-gonczaryk, 2016). Collaboration increases the chance of other authors to publish
especially in high impact journals.
With the Philippines having very low publication output, it is essential to know the
challenges and strategies employed by the Filipino academic researchers in publishing their
research outputs to international indexed journals. Determining the problems encountered by
the academic-researchers in publishing their outputs would be important to address the low
publication output.

116
Methods

The study made use of the descriptive research design as the study determined the
challenges and strategies employed by the Filipino academic-researchers in publishing their
papers to international indexed journals.
The respondents of the study were the academic-researchers from the different state colleges
and universities in the Philippines, covering Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Academic-
researchers from the top universities in the Philippines and members of the National Research
Council of the Philippines were not included in the study. A total of 55 academic-researchers
served as respondents of the study. The respondents were selected from those who have
participated in various national and international conferences and seminars attended by the
researchers in the year 2017.
The main instrument used in gathering the pertinent data of the study was a
questionnaire-checklist. The questionnaire was developed by the researchers themselves based
from literatures reviewed. The gathered data were analyzed using employing non-parametric
tools particularly frequency counts and percentages. SPSS 17 was employed in the tabulation
and analysis of data.

Results and Discussion

Table 1
Profile of the Academic Researchers
Variable n %
Age
21 – 39 12 21.82
40 – 59 35 63.64
60 and above 8 14.55
Sex
Male 16 29.09
Female 39 70.91
Highest Educational Attainment
Bachelor's Degree 1 1.82
Master’s Degree 6 10.91

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 With Doctoral Units 7 12.73
Doctorate Degree 41 74.55
Years in Service
10 years or less 11 20.00
11 – 15 6 10.91
16 – 20 10 18.18
21 or more 28 50.91
Academic Rank
Instructor 8 14.55
Assistant Professor 13 23.64
Associate Professor 24 43.64
Professor 10 18.18

Table 1 shows that 63.64% of the academic-researchers were aged 40 – 59 with 21.82%
aged 21 – 39. The academic-researchers are young and middle adults who are on the process
of establishing their careers in their respective universities. The academic-researchers were
dominated by females as shown by the fact that 70.91% of them were females. Results could
be attributed to the fact that the teaching profession is a female-dominated profession.
Table 2
Number of Publication-related Trainings and Seminars Participated by the
Filipino Academic-Researchers

Variable Frequency Percent

A. Training
Institutional
0 22 40.00
1–5 18 32.73
6 or more 15 27.27
Regional
0 28 50.91
1–5 19 34.55
6 or more 8 14.55

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 National
0 11 20.00
1–5 33 60.00
6 or more 11 20.00
International
0 23 41.82
1–5 28 50.91
6 or more 4 7.27
B. Seminar
Institutional
0 30 54.55
1–5 11 20.00
6 or more 14 25.45
Regional
0 35 63.64
1–5 12 21.82
6 or more 8 14.55
National
0 22 40.00
1–5 22 40.00
6 or more 11 20.00
International
0 31 56.36
1–5 22 40.00
6 or more 2 3.64

Majority (74.55%) of the Filipino academic-researchers were holders of doctorate degrees

with 23.64% holding master’s degrees. As shown in Table 1, 50.91% of the academic-
researchers have been in service for more than 20 years. Further, 29.09% have been in service
for 10 – 20 years. Faculty members of higher education institutions who have been working
for a longer period are more active in doing research than those who are young in the service.
This could be attributed to the fact that faculty members holding academic ranks of assistant

119
professor to professor have greater research workload than instructors.
Results show that those holding associate professor ranks engaged more in research than
those holding instructor, assistant professor, and professor ranks. It has to be noted that as set
by the Accrediting Agency of Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACUP), faculty
members must have published research outputs in international research journals to qualify for
promotion as professor. With this, faculty members having academic ranks as associate
professors conduct researches and publish the same in international indexed journals.
It is noticeable that institutions of higher learning are not equipping their faculty members with
the knowledge and skills on publication especially to international indexed journals. This was
shown by the fact that 40% of the respondents have not attended any training on publication at
institutional level and 54.55% have not attended seminars on publication, also at institutional
level. It is worthy to note that 58.18% of the academic-researchers have participated
international trainings on publication. Likewise, 43.64% have attended international seminars
on publication.
Despite the fact that 80% of the academic researchers have been in service for more
than 10 years and 85.5% have academic ranks of assistant professors to professors, a very large
percentage (60%) have conducted only 1 – 5 researches. Only 11.82% have conducted more
than 10 researches. Results revealed that doing research is not a priority among the faculty
members of higher institutions of learning. Having few researches affects publication
productivity among the academic-researchers.

Table 3
Number, Type, and Area of Research Conducted

Variable F %
No. of Research Conducted
1–5 33 60.00
6 – 10 10 18.18
11 – 20 10 18.18
21 or more 2 3.64
Type of Research
Experimental 23 41.82
Quasi-experimental 12 21.82

120
 Non-experimental 42 76.36
Area
Education 27 49.09
Social Sciences 23 41.82
Economics 4 7.27
Policy Development 9 16.36
Information Technology 4 7.27
Agriculture 14 25.45
Natural and Applied Sciences 15 27.27
Note: For the type and area of research, respondents have multiple responses.

The academic researchers prefer to conduct non-experimental research as manifested

by the fact that 76.36% of them have conducted non-experimental research in the past years.
Education and social research were the area or discipline of research among 49.09% and
41.82% of the academic researchers.

Table 4
Research Participation and Funding Source

Variable F %
A. Participation
Project Leader 28 50.91
Study Leader 47 85.45
Program Leader 4 7.27
B. Funding Source
External 31 56.36
Internal/Institutional 16 29.09
Personal 27 49.09
Note: Researchers have multiple participations and funding sources

Results show that 85.45% of the academic researchers have served as study leaders
while 50.91% as project leaders. In terms of funding, 56.36% were granted funding from
external sources. However, 49.09% have personally funded the research that they have
conducted. The academic researchers are spending their own money just to a research. It has

121
to be noted that for state colleges and universities in the Philippines, part of the General
Appropriations Act (GAA) is allotted for research. Likewise, 10% of the income of the SUCs
is also allotted for research. Research funding is one of the aspects being looked into when
SUCs apply for program accreditation to the AACUP. The academic researchers should request
funding from their respective institutions.

Table 5
Number and Level of Research Collaboration of the Academic Researchers

Variable F %
A. No. of Collaborative Researches
0 13 23.64
1–5 38 69.09
6 – 10 4 7.27
B. Level of Collaboration
Institutional 33 60.00
Regional 10 18.18
National 13 23.64
International 8 14.55
Note: Academic researchers have multiple level of collaboration

Findings of the study revealed that 76.36% of the academic researchers have collaborated
with other researchers wherein, 69.09% have 1 – 5 collaborated research. However, most of
the collaboration was institutional or with researchers in their own institutions. Research
productivity is significantly affected by collaboration at intramural and domestic level
(Abramo, Ciriaco, Angelo, & Murgia, 2017). Results also showed that 14.55% of the academic
researchers have international collaborations while 23.64% at national level. Results show that
there are academic researchers that have established their reputations as researchers as
manifested by their national and international research collaboration.

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Table 6
Research Paper Authorship of the Academic Researchers
Authorship F %
Primary Author 50 90.91
Secondary Author 28 50.91

Findings revealed that 90.91% of the academic researchers were the primary authors of their
papers. This could be attributed to the fact that the academic researchers have served as project
and study leaders.

Table 7
Number of Papers Submitted and Published in Different Journals
Submitted Published
Journal
F % F %
Scopus-Indexed
0 47 85.45 49 89.09
1–5 7 12.73 5 9.09
6 or more 1 1.82 1 1.82
Thomson Reuters Indexed
0 48 87.27 49 89.09
1–5 6 10.91 5 9.09
6 or more 1 1.82 1 1.82
Other International Indexed Journals
0 32 58.18 40 72.73
1–5 20 36.36 14 25.45
6 or more 3 5.45 1 1.82
Institutional Journals (Non-Indexed)
0 31 56.36 31 56.36
1–5 21 38.18 21 38.18
6 or more 3 5.45 3 5.45

Although Filipino academic researchers are conducting a lot of researches, very few are

123
 submitting their papers for publication to international indexed journals. As shown in Table 7,
85.45% of the academic researchers have not submitted their papers to Scopus-Indexed
journals while 87.27% have not submitted papers in Thomson Reuters/ISI-Indexed journals.
Majority (56.36%) of academic researchers were not even submitting their papers to their
institutional journals. Results further showed that the papers submitted to the international
indexed journals were not all accepted and published. The academic researchers end up
publishing their papers in their institutional journals which are not indexed.

Table 8
Publication Writing Skills of the Filipino Academic Researchers

Level of Skill
Descriptive
Research Process 5 4 3 2 AWM
Rating
F % F % F % F %
1. Writing the title. 4 7.27 35 63.64 16 29.09 0 0.00 3.78 Skilled
2. Writing of research abstract based on 2 3.64 35 63.64 18 32.73 0 0.00 3.71 Skilled
standard formats (150 – 300 words
abstract).
3. Writing the introduction (including the 2 3.64 33 60.00 20 36.36 0 0.00 3.67 Skilled
literature following APA format).
4. Writing the methods. 2 3.64 31 56.36 22 40.00 0 0.00 3.64 Skilled
5. Writing the results and discussion. 1 1.82 38 69.09 15 27.27 1 1.82 3.71 Skilled
6. Drawing of conclusions based on 3 5.45 34 61.82 17 30.91 1 1.82 3.71 Skilled
research objectives and findings.
7. Referencing/citing reviewed literature 3 5.45 26 47.27 21 38.18 5 9.09 3.49 Skilled
using APA/MLA/Harvard/Chicago
style.
Level of Skill
5 Very skilled I can write it well without any revision needed
4 Skilled I can write it well with 10 – 15% revisions needed
3 Moderately skilled I can write it with 25% revisions needed
2 Least skilled I can write it with 50% revisions needed
1 Very low skilled I can write it but more than 50% needs to be revised

The level of publication writing skills of the academic researchers affects their
publication performance. Results of the study showed that the academic researchers believed
that they were skilled on writing for publication. Of the different parts of the papers, the

124
academic researchers were skilled the most in writing the title of their papers followed by
writing the abstract, results and discussion, and drawing of conclusions based on the research
objectives and findings.
It is important to note however that a large percentage, ranging from 27.27% - 40% of
the academic researchers believed that they have moderate skills in writing the different parts
of their papers for publication. These needs to be addressed by the institutions where they are
affiliated to improve the performances of their institutions and the academic researchers in
publishing papers to international indexed journals.

Table 9
Challenges Encountered by the Filipino Academic Researchers
in Publishing Papers to International Indexed Journals

Challenges/Problems F %
1 Lack of funds for publication fee. 32 58.18
2 Difficulty searching for an appropriate journal based on the area 31 56.36
of research being published.
3 Target journal has very high standards that the paper was 30 54.55
rejected outright by the editor because of lack of innovation or
contribution to what already exists.
4 Lack of support from the administration. 27 49.09
5 Difficulty formatting the paper based on author’s guide of the 20 36.36
target journal.
6 Similarity indexed is high. 12 21.82
7 The paper was evaluated as poorly written or need to be 9 16.36
reviewed by a native English speaker.
8 The journal asked me to recommend reviewers for the paper but 8 14.55
I do not know anyone.

The number 1 problem encountered by the Filipino academic researchers in publishing

papers to international indexed journals was the lack of funds for publication fee. The problem
was experienced by 58.18% of the researchers. Difficulty searching for an appropriate journal

125
based on the area of research being published and target journal has very high standards that
the paper was rejected outright by the editor because of lack of innovation or contribution to
what already exists followed.
To address the challenges encountered by the Filipino academic researchers in
publishing papers to international indexed journals, the researchers have employed various
strategies. To address the difficulty searching for an appropriate journal based on the area of
research being published and target journal has very high standards that the paper was rejected
outright by the editor because of lack of innovation or contribution, the academic researchers
opted to submit and publish their papers in their institutional journals. However, these journals
are non-indexed, thus, the publications are not recognized as part of the knowledge accepted
worldwide.
To improve their chance to publish in international indexed journals, the academic
researchers have undergone trainings/workshops on paper publication writing and submission.
Prior to submission to the target journals, 34.55% of the academic researchers have requested
their peers to review their papers. On the other hand, 23.64% have subjected their papers to
Grammarly and plagiarism check prior to their submission to the target journals.

Table 10
Strategies Employed by the Filipino Academic Researchers in Meeting the Challenges
Encountered in Publishing Papers to International Indexed Journals

Strategy F %
1 I submitted my paper to our institutional journal. 24 43.64
2 I underwent trainings/workshops on paper publication writing and 24 43.64
submission.
3 I submitted my paper to multidisciplinary research journal. 22 40.00
4 I requested help from others to suggest possible reviewers for my 19 34.55
paper.
5 I requested peers to review my paper first prior to submission to 16 29.09
improve my paper.
6 I published my papers in open-accessed (paid for publication) 13 23.64
journals.

126
 7 I subjected my paper to similarity and grammar check using 13 23.64
software available online.
8 I published my paper to journals with low impact factor. 11 20.00
9 I requested my institution to pay/shoulder publication fee since the 11 20.00
institution will also be benefited from my publication.
1 I collaborated with authors with high H index values. 2 3.64
0

Considering that the number one problem encountered by the academic researchers in
publishing their paper to international indexed journals was the lack of fund for publication
fee, 20% of the academic researchers have requested their institutions to pay/shoulder the
publication fee since the institution will also be benefited from their publication.

Discussion
The focus of the study was on the determination of the challenges faced by researchers in higher
academic institutions in a third world country as well as the strategies employed by them in
publishing their papers to international indexed journals.
Despite the fact that majority of the Filipino academic researchers are holding doctorate
degrees, holding academic ranks of assistant professor to professor, and have been working in
their respective institutions for more than 10 years, research productivity in terms of
publication is very low. The low publication can be attributed to the fact that the academic
researchers have few researches conducted. Findings of the study confirmed the findings of
Mishra and Smith as cited by Abramano et, al. (2017) where faculty members holding higher
academic ranks have less time for research activity due to their designations and other
administrative functions.
The research conducted are generally education and social research which are found non-
innovative or have little contributions or impact by editors and reviewers of high impact
journals. The art of successful publishing lies in the ability of the author to produce original
and striking manuscripts representing research output, identifying a suitable journal and whet
the editor's appetite enough to consider the article for publishing (Cuschieri, 2018).
Despite the fact that budgets are allotted for the conduct of research, researchers in academic
institutions are personally funding their researches with minimal amount. The minimal funding
affects the quality of researches being conducted which also later on affect the acceptability of

127
the research output for publication to high impact journals.
Interdisciplinary research does have a significant, positive effect on publication
productivity (Millar, 2013). Although academic researchers engaged in collaborative
researches, collaboration is within institution and with peers in their respective institutions.
However, such collaboration has not helped the academic researchers improve their
performance in publication to international indexed journals. This was shown by the fact that
only 10.91% of the academic researchers have publications in high impact international
indexed journals. For authors with high h index, research quality is a major goal and working
with a co-author only matters if this co-author contributes to this goal (Besancenot et al., 2017).
The academic researchers must learn and practice proper collaboration. Embeddedness of
authors within their affiliations should be considered (Lopaciuk-gonczaryk, 2016).
Although the academic researchers believed that they are skilled in writing papers for
publication, their publication performances speak otherwise. Writing for publication requires
a high level of writing skills (Murray & Newton, 2008) that can be learned (Rickard et al.,
2009). These skills and strategies are not always developed in undergraduate or postgraduate
courses (Murray & Newton, 2008). Most authors learn academic writing skills through a
process of trial and error (Keen, 2007). Development of research writing abilities can be better
addressed if pedagogical instruments designed to enable researchers to perform this multi-level
task are underpinned by the exploration of the wider set of factors that generate the need to
write up research in English (Bardi, 2015). The problem of a paper being poorly written is not
exclusive to the Filipino researchers. This is also being experienced by researchers abroad who
are not native English speakers and are not fluent in written English.
Publications in leading journals are widely known to have a positive impact on
economists’ judgments of the value of authors’ contributions and professional reputations
(Powdthavee et al., 2017). Academic researchers consider the quality of the journal where to
publish their papers. High impact journals are the priorities, however, few researches are
accepted for publication to high impact journals. The inability of the academic researchers to
publish their papers in high impact, internationally indexed journals has resulted to paper
publication in non-indexed, low impact journals. This in turn make the researchers vulnerable
to publishing their papers to predatory journals. It is important to highlight that even researchers
abroad who have great desire to make their paper published experienced the same.

128
Conclusions
A lot of academic researchers are needing assistance not only in the conduct of good research
but also in paper publication to high impact journals. However, the institutions where the
academic researchers are affiliated are not providing the needed support such as trainings on
publication which is vital in equipping the academic researchers the knowledge and skills on
writing publishable papers that meet the standards of international indexed journals. Only few
are being sent to attend and participate in trainings provided by other organizations at the
regional, national, and international levels. Academic institutions should provide greater
funding support in the conduct and publication of research outputs to encourage more academic
researchers to conduct more researchers. This in turn will result to greater research outputs and
more papers to be submitted for publication.
Research to be conducted should address gaps in the existing body of knowledge if not to
generate new or noble results. Duplicating research conducted worldwide limits the chance of
a researcher to get his paper published.
Our research has shown the dilemmas faced and experienced by researchers in academic
institutions in a third world country. To further confirm the research findings, it is suggested
that a research of the same nature be conducted in other third world countries. Moreover, the
results of this study can serve as basis in the conduct of policy reviews on research of the
different academic institutions.

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 Change of “Tongue” from English to a Local Language: A correlation of
Mother Tongue Proficiency and Mathematics Achievement

Anna Louisa Perez

[email protected]
Western Mindanao State University
Normal Road, Baliwasan
Zamboanga City, 7000 Philippines

Ericson Alieto**
[email protected]
[email protected]
Western Mindanao State University
Normal Road, Baliwasan
Zamboanga City, 7000 Philippines
De La Salle University
2401 Taft Avenue, Malate
Manila 1004, Metro Manila
Philippines
**Corresponding Author
Biodata:

Associate Professor Anna Louisa Perez is presently the principal of the Integrated Laboratory
School of the Western Mindanao State University. She is a Mathematics Teacher for almost 15
years in the elementary before assuming administrative positions. She holds a degree in Doctor
of Education with Educational Administration as area of specialization. .

Associate Professor Ericson Alieto is a full-time faculty of the College of Teacher Education,
Western Mindanao State University – a Premiere State University in Southern Mindanao,
Philippines. Currently, he is finishing his Ph.D. degree in Applied Linguistics at De La Salle
University, Taft Avenue, Manila as scholar of the Commission of Higher Education (CHED).

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Abstract
Significant consequences are results of mere decision on determining the language of
instruction specifically in the early years of education. It means that rightful language choice
leads to educational success. Contrariwise, an inappropriate selection of a language proves to
be detrimental in the taking place of learning. With the recent language policy shift from
English to Mother tongue (MT), in the context of the Philippines, as medium of instruction in
the teaching of mathematics in early grades, this study examined how language proficiency in
the MT relates to mathematics achievement. Study participants include 71 grade 2 students
aged 6-8. The findings show that the respondents’ mean achievement in mathematics and their
mean proficiency in the MT are both described as ‘advanced’. Moreover, it was revealed that
there is a very strong positive correlation between the respondents’ achievement in
mathematics and proficiency in the MT.

Keywords: Mother Tongue, Mathematics, K-12, Medium of Instruction, Policy Planning

1. Introduction

1.1 Background of the study

The essential role of language can never be overemphasized in the learning of students as most
acquisition of knowledge and learning of skills are realized through the aid of language (Casil-
Batang & Malenab-Temporal, 2018). Therefore, Ejieh (2004) maintains that language in
education is not a simple but a crucially essential concern. Significant consequences are results
of mere decision on determining the language of instruction specifically in the early years of
education. It means that rightful language choice leads to educational success. Contrariwise,
an inappropriate selection of a language proves to be detrimental in the taking place of learning.
It is a reasonable conclusion that success of any educational process relies much on the
language to be used because it is a tool in the transmission of knowledge. The language of
instruction plays a crucial role in the learners’ educational development, and is essential in the
realization of communication and understanding between and among teachers and students
(Ejieh, 2004).

In relation to this, Moschkovich (2002) argued that learner’s first language can serve as
a resource that can be capitalized for them to be able to communicate mathematically.
Additionally, not a few but most research on mathematics educaton which have investigated
multilingual classrooms support the use of MT (Setati, 2008). Moreover, Moschkovich (2002)
contends that the ability to communicate is central to learning mathematics in school. By this

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reason, it is best to teach young learners in their home language or L1 (Mackenzie, 2009). In a
similar vein, Young (2009) asserts that there is a need for the languages of children and the
languages of instruction to connect. Unless so, education will then be less effective.

Notwithstanding research-based supports for the use of MT in teaching subjects like

mathematics and other content areas, penchant for English language as medium of instruction
(EMI) remains true for parents, for the learners themselves, and for the whole educational
institution. In fact, children’s mother tongues (MTs) are not chosen to be the language of
education (UNESCO, 2011).

Moschkovich (2002) reports that in South Africa there exist a general view that parents
want their children to be educated in English, and that most learners wanted to be taught in
English too. The same author noted that many schools in Africa choose English as the medium
of instruction, and that the performance of African learners in mathematics is characterized to
be poor.

Comparatively, Igboanusi (2008) recounted that the low achievement of students in

Nigeria roots from the pre-mature use of English as a medium of instruction. He affirms the
abrupt transition from MT to English caused an interruption in the cognitive and academic
development of children explaining the poor achievement of students.

Subsequently, numerous researches highlight the importance and advantages of the use
of MT especially in early education. The longitudinal study of Thomas and Collier (1997),
conducted across states in America, produce profound results on the impact of MT use in the
schooling of learners. It was found out in their study that children of language minority, in the
long term, gained advantage from academic work set in their L1. The researchers reported:

“The more children develop L1 academically and cognitively at an age appropriate level,
the more successful they will be in academic achievement in L2 by the end of their school
years (p.49)”.

“Of all the five program variables, L1 support explains the most variance in student
achievement and is the most powerful influence on LM (Language Minority) students’ long
term academic success (p.64)”.

Students instructed in L1 are noted to academically succeed. In addition, the researchers

warn against “cognitive or academic slowdown (p.77)” which happens when students are yet

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to fully develop proficiency in their L1 but have abruptly transited to learning a second
language (L2). Results of the study further reveal that students taught in their L1 were better
as compared to those children taught in L2 only or educated in their L1 for a very short of time.
Identically, African students exposed to a language of instruction (LoI) that is not their MT
have relatively low academic achievement especially students who had rare exposure to
English (Graham, 2010). Williams (1993 cited in Graham, 2010) adduces students’ poor ability
to comprehend the LoI , which is English, as cause of their mediocre academic standing.

The Philippines is no exception to practices that seem to over value English; hence, the
country has just recently heed the call for the use of mother tongue in the education of children
in the primary years since the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
first made the call in 1953 which is approxiamately 65 years ago (UNESCO, 1953). It must be
noted that the performance of Filipino learners in Mathematics during the years when English
was used as MoI in teaching is characterized to be far from being ideal as the students
achievement compared to other learners from other countries.

The reshaping of language lanscape in education in the Philippines eventuates from the
enactment of the bill into law, the Republic Act 10533 otherwise known as the Enhanced Basic
Education Act of 2013. The language provision of the law includes the use of MT as medium
of instruction in all subject areas such as Mathematics from pre-kindergarten throughout grade
3 while Filipino and English are taught as distinct subjects.

It has been about five (5) years from the first implementation of MT as MoI in content
subjects. Owing to the benefits in teaching using MT as language of instrution, this study aimed
to lend support to the benefits of teaching in MT, specifically in Mathematics. The study is set
in three directions. First is to determine the language proficiecny of the respondents in Mother
Tongue. Second is to determine the respondents’ achievement in mathematics. Last and the
main focus of the study is to establish whether or not a relationship between language
proficiency in MT and achievement in Mathematics can be drawn.

1.2 Review of Related Literature

1.2.1 The Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education

Lawton (1973, in Ejieh, 2004) explained that the ability to communicate through language is
unique to human, and such is a mean to attain learning and creative thinking. In education, the
language choice for instruction generally plays a vital role, as the chosen language can either

135
serve as a key to understanding or a barrier of learning (Orwenjo, 2012). Similarly, Gorgorió,
and Planas (2001) claimed that language as medium of learning mathematics is an essential
area of investigation.
UNESCO (2013) provides an array of delineation for the term mother tongue as “(1)
the language/s that one has learnt first; (2) the language/s identifies with or is identified as a
native speaker by others; (3) the language/s one knows best, and (4) the language/s one uses
most” (p.15).

Further, mother tongue-based education generally means realizing instruction through

the use of the learners’ first language (L1) or primary language in the early years of education
(UNESCO, 2011); hence, also known as the ‘first language first approach’ (Orwenjo, 2012).
This means that the language of instruction is the one that children have first learned or the
language of the home. Discussions, lectures, instructions, and recitations inside the classrooms
are therefore done in children’s L1 which enables the interaction between learners and their
teacher and even among themselves to happen more naturally (Benson, 2004) and freely
(MacKenzie, 2009) resulting to a strong classroom participation (Dutcher, 1995 in Burton,
2013).

Instruction of the reading and writing literacy including content is done in a language
to which the learner is proficient. Learning of other languages, the second language (L2) and
the third language (L3), will be done systematically after the grounding of competence in the
L1 of young learners. This practice would allow the transfer of both literacy and knowledge
from L1 to another language/s (L1, L2). After the mastery of the first language another
language is added to be learned, making this to be known as ‘additive approach’ (Orwenjo,
2012).

The non use of home language fosters difficulty to learners. Educational systems that
do not account the use of children’s home language in their early education expect young
schooling children to learn a new language alongside learning content which proves to be too
difficult if not improbable to fulfill (Jhingran, 2005 in MacKenzie, 2009 ). This becomes
particularly true in study of mathematics taught in English to English language learners (ELL)
as it was confirmed that there exist a so-called language-associated difficulties (Lee & Jung,
2004). Moreover, it is further claimed that non-mother tongue-based schooling imposes
constraints to learners’ acquisition of knowledge and learning of skills. This is because
understanding the language of instruction becomes a task in itself in cases where the learners

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are yet to master the medium of instruction. This is essentially true with respect to the subject
mathematics as learning the said subject is noted to be a two-way process The first is to
understand the math concepts being taught, and the second is to be able to communicate such
understanding (Gerber , Engelbrecht, Harding, & Rogan, 2005). To the both processes pointed,
language plays both central and vital roles. Therefore, the language of instruction proves to be
very important for learners to be able to relate to happenings during class hours, and there
would be no other best way for children to learn other than being taught in their mother tongue
(UNESCO, 2011).

1.2.2 Benefits of Mother Tongue as MoI

The school use of L1 is claimed to be beneficial to cognitive development. Illustrative of this
is the research of Trudell and Shroeder (2007) as regards African students in their study. One
notable explanation to the academic success of students in the study gained when instructed in
their L1 is alluded to the idea that when classrooms do not cut off children from their home
language, instead nurture it, their language as well as culture finds a place inside the classroom
which become resources they can capitalize on and take advantage for learning (Orwenjo,
2012). In teaching mathematics problem, a similar perspective is expressed by Robertson
(2009) when he claimed that integration of real-life example, the kind that is immediate to the
child, makes mathematics problems comprehensible. One good example is the finding of Cook
(2001 in Tabari & Sadighi, 2004) who informed that the use of L1 have been claimed by
teachers to help students become conscious of the differences and similarities between their
own language structure and that of another language which paves way for accurate translation.

Moreover, the practice that allows the language of children along with their culture to
occupy essential space in the basic curriculum enables children to learn context, ideas and
concepts known to them and later would be bridge to a wider world. It must be noted that
educational processes that account children’s immediate environment and experience is
supreme in so far as learning of children is concerned (Mackenzie, 2009), and because of this
cognitive development happens more efficiently in children taught in their own language
(Kembo, 2000).

Furthermore, instructions in the MT have been found to facilitate the affective

development among children. The development of the affective domain among children is
realized effectively because it was found that L1 education affirms children’s self worth and
identity which are bedrocks of learning (MacKenzie, 2009). Cummins (2000) maintained that

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the use of L1 inside the classrooms allows not only the language of the home to find place in
school but also the culture accompanying it which is a form of empowerment, and is a powerful
instrument to be used in determining societal roots which forms part of one’s identity (Indele,
2002 in Ngunga, 2011) boosting esteem and self pride as result of the feeling that one’s culture
and background matter. Consequently, multilingual education “supports maintenance of
cultural identity” (Burton, 2013, p.43).

Apart from the potency of L1 instruction on children’s cognitive and affective

development and academic achievement, the delivery of early education in MT is found to
succor language acquisition and learning. Skutnabb-Tangas and Toukomaa (1976 cited in
UNESCO, 2011) postulate that the treshold of competence in children’s L1 must be first
attained before successful L2 learning can materialize which is the main assumption of their
“threshold level hyphothesis.” Constructing on this, Cummins (1984) developed his
“interdependence hyphothesis” avowing the dependence of L2 competence on the proficiency
level of the L1. This means that foregrounding children in MT facilitates the learning and use
of other languages. This being the case, proficiency in the L1 is a predictor of the proficiency
in L2 (Cummins, 2000). Mackenzie (2009) and Orwenjo (2012) echo the same contention and
explains that as learners have solid foundation in their first language learning of other
languages becomes easy. Conversely, failure to develop children’s proficiency in the L1
compromises linguistic proficiency in the additional languages children are learning
(Igboanusi, 2008).

1.2.3 Mother Tongue and Mathematics

Anstrom (1997) contends that “…the importance of language in mathematics instruction is
often overlooked in the mistaken belief that Mathematics is somehow independent of language
proficiency… (p.25). Therefore, by way of implication, the linguistic demand of the LoI in
teaching mathematics is discounted by many educators. This practice is worth lamenting
considering that students fail not because of weak mathematical ability or inability to perform
operations or solve problems, but because the LoI served as a barrier proving to be too difficult
to hurdle for many leaners.

Secada (1992) argues that central to the process of mathematical reasoning and
activities such as explaining, making claims and providing proofs is language. This implies not
only that language is important to fulfill different activities realized inside a mathematics class,
but also the necessity for students to possess proficiency in the LoI for them to get passing or

138
better grades in mathematics. It is therefore not a surprise that learners with limited LoI
proficiency have difficulties learning mathematics and are eventually poor performers.
Rollnick (2000) explains a similar contention for learning another content subject like
mathematics, science. He notes that “It is acknowledged that expecting students to learn a new
and difficult subject through the medium of a second language is unreasonable, giving them a
double task of mastering both science content and language (p. 100)”.

In the context of first language or MT being important in Mathematics, the study of

Dawe (1983) ,which enlisted as participants 11-13 years old children who are bilingual Punjabi,
Mirpuri, Italian and Jamaican, found that competence in L1 is an essential factor in developing
children’s ability to reason in mathematics when the same is taught in English. This finding
provides a considerable support that the use and benefit in other language can only be fully
achieved if the first language is founded well. In a similar vein, Skutnabb-Tangas and
Toukomaa (1976 cited in UNESCO, 2011) postulated that the treshold of competence in
children’s L1 must be first attained before successful L2 learning can materialize. This means
that foregrounding children in MT facilitates the learning and use of other languages.

Moreover, Mackenzie (2009) and Orwenjo (2012) echo the same contention and
explained that as learners have solid foundation in their L1, learning of other languages
becomes easy. Conversely, failure to develop children’s proficiency in the L1 compromises
linguistic proficiency in the additional languages children are learning (Igboanusi, 2008).
However, the hard truth remains that children across the world often master mathematics
through a L2 or L3 (Gerber et.al., 2005) which is regarded as a common situation especially
to developing countries (Clarkson, 1992).

There are studies that examined languages other than English that might affect
mathematics learning in that particular language. In the study of Han and Ginsburg (2001), the
result proves that using Chinese terminology makes concepts of mathematics “clearer’ as
compared to discussing the same concepts with English. This study lends proof that counters
reported beliefs that indigenous languages are linguistically limited, and could not deliver the
teaching of modern concepts which the English language can (Orwenjo, 2012).

1.3 Research Questions

The study mainly purposes to determine the relationship between the respondents’ Mother
tongue proficiency and mathematics achievement. Specifically, this study sought to answer the
following questions:

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1. What is the MT proficiency level of the respondents?
2. What is the level of mathematics achievement of the respondents?
3. Is there a significant relationship between the level of MT proficiency and level of
mathematics achievement of the respondents?

Hypothesis of the study

Ho: There is no significant correlation between the level of MT proficiency and the level of
mathematics achievement of the respondents

2. Methodology

2.1 Research design

The study employed a descriptive, correlational, non-experimental, and cross-sectional

research design. Johnson (2000) claimed that a study with a primary objective of describing
the phenomenon is classified as a descriptive study. The current study involves no use treatment
or intervention but intends simply to describe the variables involve, and no comparable groups
were established hence characterized as descriptive and non-experimental (Thompson, 2007).
Moreover, the gathering of the data was done for a relatively short period of time, hence
regarded as cross-sectional (Setia, 2016).

2.1 Participants and Setting

A total of 71 second graders with age ranging from 6 to 8 were enlisted to form part of the
sample of the study. The students were enrolled in an elementary public school which is in full
compliance on the use of MT as dictated by the K-12 curriculum. Forty (40) or fifty six percent
(56%) are females. The mean age for the female subjects is 7.071 (SD = 0.539) and for the
males is 7.156 (SD = 0.601).

2.2 The Data

The data sources of the study were the report cards of the students. The level of proficiency in
the mother tongue is determined through the grades of the respondents in the subject MT.
Likewise, the mathematics achievement of the students is identified through their grades in the
subject math. To determine the average grades for mother tongue and mathematics,
computation of the grades in the two subject areas for four (4) rating periods was done.

140
2.3 Procedure

Permission to collect data from two (2) class advisers was secured from the elementary school
principal. Upon approval, a meeting was set for the researchers to discuss the nature of the
study with the concerned teachers. The teachers were then instructed to furnish copy of the
consolidated grades of the respondents. Only the grades in mother tongue and in mathematics
asked to be provided. Further, the teachers were informed to identify no names of the students
in the list for ethical consideration. Instead, a code should be assigned to be used simply for
referencing purposes. After two weeks, the researchers returned to the research site for the
collection of the data. The data then were then transferred to SPSS for analysis.

2.4 Method of analysis

The average for the grades of the respondents in the two subjects was computed. In order to
produce the general mother tongue proficiency level of the respondents, the mean grade was
computed.

To give interpretation to the grades, the following descriptions as provided by the

Department of Education (Ronda, 2012) were used: Grades below 75% are described as
beginning level (B), grades ranging from 75% to 79% are noted as developing level (D), grades
from 80-84 are characterized as approaching proficiency level (AP), grades from 85 to 89 are
labelled as proficient (P), and grades 90 and above are designated as advanced (A).

Moreover, to determine whether there was a significant correlation between the

respondents’ proficiency in mother tongue and mathematics achievement, Pearson r
Correlation was employed.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 General Mother tongue proficiency level of the respondents

The mean score of the grades of the respondents in the Mother tongue was computed and
presented in Table 1. The Standard Deviation (SD) and interpretation are also provided for
reference. The grade of the respondents in the subject mother tongue ranges from 83 - 97.

141
Table 1

General Mother tongue proficiency level of the respondents

Variable Mean SD Interpretation

Mother tongue proficiency level 91. 324 3.617 Advanced

Note: Below 75% - Beginning; 75 to 79 – Developing; 80 to 84 – Approaching Proficiency;
85 to 89 – Proficient; 90 and above – Advanced

Table 1 shows, on the average, the students are ‘advanced’ with regard their level of
proficiency in MT. As evidenced by the finding showed, the students are performing very well
in learning the MT. The possible explanation for the high level of MT proficiency among the
respondents is the cyclical reinforcement that occurs.

The school is reinforced by the home, and the home is assisted as regards the learning
of MT by the school. Because the school does not disconnect children from their MT as the
same is used as a medium of instruction and as a content or subject area, the home becomes an
avenue for the further use and development of competence in the MT. Similarly, language
learning in school as regards MT is strengthened by home because language use and practice
does not end in school, as what usually happens to L2 or L3 as in the case of African students
reported by Graham (2010), instead continued at home and to an extent in the community.

Another reason for the high level of proficiency of students in MT is the empowerment
that occurs in school. When students’ MT is accepted, students’ culture is also recognized. This
results to the boosting of students’ self worth accounted to be a form of empowerment in itself
(Cummins, 2000), and is considered as a bedrock of learning (MacKenzie, 2009).

Furthermore, one is generally positive in learning one’s own language ( González-

Riaño, Hevia-Artime & Fernández-Costales, 2013). This positivity can be inferred to be
influenced by ethnic loyalty (Ndhlovu, 2010). It is therefore predictable to find that students in
this study are doing well in learning their L1.

3.2 General mathematics achievement level of the respondents

Grades in Mathematics from four rating period were computed for average. To determine the
general mathematics achievement level of the respondents, the mean was computed for the

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average grade of the students. Table 2 presents the Mean, SD and interpretation as regards the
students’ achievement in math. The grades of the respondents in math ranges from 81 - 97.

Table 2

General mathematics achievement level of the respondents

Variable Mean SD Interpretation

Mathematics achievement level 90.803 3.991 Advanced
Note: Below 75% - Beginning; 75 to 79 – Developing; 80 to 84 – Approaching Proficiency;
85 to 89 – Proficient; 90 and above – Advanced

As presented in Table 2, the respondents, in general, are with remarkable standing in terms of
their mathematics grades. For students able to achieve well in mathematics according to Gerber
et.al. (2005), understanding the mathematics concepts discussed or taught must be well
grasped. Further, they need to be able to express effectively what they have understood, written
or spoken.

The mean grade described as ‘advanced’ can be taken to imply that students are able to
understand math ideas presented by their teachers. The understanding of these concepts became
possible because the language used for instruction is known to the young learners. This
corroborates with the views that learners’ first language can be capitalized by them to be able
to communicate mathematically (Moschkovich, 2002).

Furthermore, since the language being used is the children’s mother tongue, the learners
are relieved of one difficulty and that is learning another language that Jhingran (2005, in
MacKenzie, 2009 ) claimed to be a task difficult to fulfill by young learners when set alongside
with the expectation of learning concepts. In the case of the respondents of this study, their
favourable performance in Mathematics can be taken to mean that because the language of
instruction did not serve as a barrier of learning (Orwenjo, 2012) instead facilitated
understanding and learning.

MacKenzie (2009) reported educational outcomes of students whose language is not

used as MoI to be described to be inferior as conpared to those whose language are used in
schools. This study corroborates with the said findings in the sense that since students of this
study are instructed in their L1 they are able to perform well because they are able to relate
with discussion in class (UNESCO, 2011) and able to communicate among peers and their

143
teacher ( (Ejieh, 2004) resulting to strong classroom participation (MacKenzie, 2009) making
the subject interesting and attendance to class inviting.

3.3 Correlation between the respondents’ Mother tongue proficiency level and mathematics
achievement level

The mean grades for the MT and mathematics were computed. The relationship between the
mother tongue level of proficiency and mathematics achievement level was determined. Table
3 provides the correlation matrix between the determined variable.

Table 3

Correlation: Mother tongue proficiency level and mathematics achievement level

p- r-
Variables Interpretation
value value

Mother tongue proficiency level and mathematics

.000** 0.827 significant
achievement level

Note: **significant at alpha = 0.01

Table 3 shows the correlation between the variables mother tongue proficiency level and
mathematics achievement. The data (p-value = 0.000) shows that there is a significant
correlation between MT proficiency level and mathematics level achievement. Therefore, the
null hyphothesis is rejected. Moreover, the relationship (r-value = 0.827) is described as ‘high
correlation’. This pronounced relationship means that proficiency in MT predicts mathematics
achievement when the language of instruction for math is MT. This finding means that students
who have high MT level of proficiency are also the ones who have attained high level of
mathematics achievement. Conversely, those who gained low proficiency in MT are also the
ones who have low mathematics achievement.

This result is taken to mean that because children are taught in a language known to
them, they are able to make sense of the concepts discussed in the classroom. Moreover,
because as children’s language finds place in the classroom, the culture that comes along with

144
language is given an essential space during class activities (Cummins, 2000). This is to mean
that contexts and examples used inside mathematics classes are within the immediate
experience of children, making such educational experience supreme (Mackenzie, 2009). In
addition, this the makes all discussions and lessons afforded to students relatable.

On the other hand, this finding opposes the ideology that mother tongues are
linguistically limited, and that the English language is the best medium to use for presentation
of concepts and ideas to different subjects areas such as mathematics (Orwenjo, 2012). This
result provides a contrary result to such belief. As evidenced by the result, the study confirms
that mathematics concepts can be well presented and discussed in languages other than English.
This finding supports the claim of Han and Ginsburg (2001) that for their Chinese respondentst
math concepts are sometimes more clearly explained in the language of the students than in
English.

4. Conclusions

Although the study was conducted in the context of a specific locale in the Philippines, the
concern and issue on language-in-education is true and relevant to all.

The study provides promising finding with respect to the benefits of teaching
mathematics in the mother tongue of young learners as provided by the result that students with
high level of proficiency in the mother tongue perform well in mathematics when it is taught
in the L1 of students. This study lends proof that MT as medium of instruction, contrary to
beliefs overrating English and devaluing mother tongues, is a plausible choice as language of
instruction.

Further, although the language shift is noted to be unpopular to parents and even to
learners themselves because of prevalent preference for English due to its perceived economic
value (Tupas, 2015), the study provides empirical result that points to an academic gain that is
possible when children’s Mother tongue is utlized as LoI. This further implies that the
reshaping of the educational linguistic landscape in the country which has provided
opportunity for MTs to take important spaces in the early education curriculum is an
educational reform that is both long overdue and promising.

Overall, the finding of the study add to the literature that supports L1 as a more potent
language to be used in the instruction of young learners.

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5. Pedagogical Implications

The finding of the study provides educational implications, the primary are as follows:

One, the result of the study supports that mother tongues are linguistically sufficient to
serve as LoI. It means that their use in content subjects such as mathematics unloads students
with the burden of the task of mastering a language set alongside the task of learning the
concepts taught in the subject areas which results to better academic performance. This further
means that the founding of L1 proficiency becomes a bedrock upon which future academic
sucesses would be founded. Therefore, basic education teachers, specifically the primary
educators must labour to develop the level of MT proficiency of the learners.

Two, efforts must be set not only to merely translate versions of reading materials of
foreign context. Instead, develop teaching resources that allow the culture and immediate
experiences of students to be discussed and learned inside the classroom. This would make the
concepts both concrete and relatable. This practice would mean capitalizing and giving merit
to the knowledge students obtain before going to school, and to the information continously
attain from the home and environment which is a hallmark of quality of early education.

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Researchers’ Note: This is an original publication which has not been published elsewhere and
is not under consideration elsewhere.

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 A Corpus-Based Analysis of “For Example” and “For Instance”

Ariane Milagrosa Pantaleon

[email protected]

Introduction
A. Background of the Study
English speakers, due to some degree of the overlapping meanings of some words and
phrases in the English language, are said to encounter some confusion with respect to the
proper utterances. On the part of language learners, this is said to present some problematic
issues in their study of language. These issues have been the source of inducement for some
language scholars to focus on such problems and, in the process, conduct studies that
examine the linguistic intricacies of this phenomenon in relation to the greater social
phenomena, i.e. the social aspect of language use. An emerging approach on this matter is
the use of corpus linguistics. This approach is defined by Richard Nordquist1 as the “study
of language based on large collection of ‘real life’ language use stored in a corpora—
computerized databases created for linguistic research.” As can be gleaned from the
definition, corpus linguistics, in a nut shell, studies language based on their actual usage.
While corpus linguistics presents interesting ways and possibilities in studying language,
its use remains rare, especially in educational institutions in the Philippine provinces.
The rationale for this will no longer be the concern of this study”UH_) Nevertheless, it
is in light of such circumstance that this study chose to delve into this field in examining
confusing instances. For this purpose, the study chose to analyze the perceived2 confusing

1
“Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms.” (2017). Available URL:
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-corpus-linguistics-1689936

2
This term was used so as not to draw conclusions as to the nature of “for example” and “for
instance” as “confusing instances.” At the onset, it should be clarified that this study does not
argue, as a matter of fact, that said phrases are confusing instances indeed. Instead, the study
chose the same because of the common perception of their alleged confusion by language users.

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 instances of “for example” and “for instance.” According to Crystal (2012), between “for
example” and “for instance,” the former is older than the latter. “For example” was first
used in the year 1447 while “for instance” was used in the year 1657. He argues that the
former is more frequent in terms of usage as evidenced by various existing corpora. He
further argues that such expressions have developed further usages where they do not easily
substitute with each other (such as “I’ll give you an instance” and “by way of example”).
However, in most contexts, “for example” and “for instance” were held to be
interchangeable.
This study hopes to contribute to, and pave the way for, the use of corpus linguistics as
an approach in language studies in the Philippines, especially in the provinces. The
possibilities of its application are numerous, even in language teaching. On this aspect, the
study hopes to serve as a model on the application of the approach for language teachers
and, in the process, inspire them to come up with concrete approaches in using corpus
linguistics in language teaching.

B. Statement of the Problem

The use of corpus linguistics in studying linguistic phenomena provides endless
opportunities for the examination of interesting topics of inquiry. An examination of
confusing instances is one of such opportunities upon which such an approach can be used.
With this consideration, the study poses the main question: How are the [perceived]
confusing instances of “for example” and “for instance” used by language users?
Corollary, the study also poses the following sub-questions:

1. What are the instances in which the conjunctive adverb “for example” is used?;
2. What are the instances in which the conjunctive adverb “for instance” is used?;
3. What are the various features and patterns in the usage of such conjunctive
adverbs?; and
4. Based on the answers in the preceding questions, are there marked differences in
the usage of such phrases to justify the perception in their confusion?

Thus, it is the perception that induced the study to choose such phrases and not the actual
nature of the same. After all, the thrust of the study relates to actual language use, and not
prescriptive norms, and the corresponding phenomena, relating to it.

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C. Significance of the Study
The study’s significance primarily dwells on its being a contribution to the greater body
of linguistic research in the Philippines, especially on corpus linguistics. On a more general
aspect, the study provides an ongoing examination on the efficacy of corpus analysis as an
approach in studying a particular linguistic phenomenon. This is in light of its relatively
novel nature as a research approach especially in educational institutions in the Philippine
provinces. On a more specific aspect, the examination of such phenomenon through the
lens of corpus linguistics provides evidentiary patterns of language use as reflected in the
corpus and, in the process, allow for the revelation of underlying factors that lead to such
phenomenon of usage.
Language scholars, teachers, and even students may find utility in the findings of this
study in examining and uncovering linguistic features and patterns based on actual usage,
and in doing so, allow for the construction of more concrete approaches in using corpus
linguistics in language teaching. In other words, this study provides a model for teachers
and learners on the use of corpora in understanding how words are used in certain
contexts—thereby allowing for a more critical and objective approach in teaching and
studying language use based on actual usage. This allows for the formulation of methods
and approaches (particularly classroom activities that involve the use of concordancing
programs by students) that are geared towards data driven learning which, in turn, allows
learners to draw their own conclusions on language use. This exposes the learner to a
substantial deal of authentic data in a structured way. Thus, corpus analysis allows teachers
and learners to identify the meaning of words and phrases, not in isolation, but in relation
to one another through collocations (as demonstrated by the methodology used in this
study). Collocational knowledge, it has been argued, specifies which lexical items co-occur
frequently with others and how specifically do they combine within a sentence. This being
the case, the findings of this study can serve as a model in teaching collocations in order to
facilitate learner competency through exposure to a stock of prefabricated units, which, in
turn, helps speed up language processing in terms of comprehension and production leading
to fluency.

D. Scope and Delimitation

The central topic of inquiry that this study deals with is the usage of “for example” and
“for instance,” particularly in determining their patterns and their similarities and
differences. In order to do this, the corpus chosen to be the source of the data is the Brown

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 Corpus which is available online. The concordances were limited only to instances of the
noun phrases “for example” and “for instance” both of which were seen to occur within
and between sentences. The study limited the data only to such concordances of the
aforementioned phrases and not to isolated instances of their noun counterparts. In order to
understand the usage of such concordances (i.e. the manner of its use), words collocated
with them in the sentences were also examined and taken into account. This was done in
order to understand the context in which the concordances appear and, in the process, allow
for a more accurate interpretation of their meaning based on such usage.

Methodology
A. Research Design
Quantitative and qualitative research paradigms have been used in the interpretation
and analysis of the concordances in the study. The quantitative aspect was visible in the
computation of the number of occurrence(s) of the concordances “for example” and “for
instance” as they appeared in the Brown corpus. The qualitative aspect was visible in the
interpretation and analysis of the quantitative data gathered, as well as the interpretation of the
various usages of the aforesaid confusing instances in relation to the collocations in the
sentences. The integration of quantitative techniques used in corpus analysis with qualitative
techniques in linguistic researches is a strategy adopted by various language scholars and
researchers to put more objectivity into the findings of such studies and researches, and in doing
so, adopt a more scientific way of analyzing language and language use so as to produce more
credible findings.

B. Instrumentation and Data Gathering

The data used in this paper were gathered from lextutor, an online corpus concordance
software. It has various corpora which one can choose to study in doing a corpus analysis. This
paper chose the Brown Corpus (an online corpus) because it is one of the most used and most
accepted in corpus linguistics (Dita, 2011).
The concordances of the phrases “for example” and “for instance” were identified by
typing such phrases in the search bar of lextutor. After entering the said phrases, the
concordances were immediately extracted and gathered. They were then classified based on
the definitions as provided by the built-in dictionary feature of lextutor. This was done in order
to provide a more objective definition of the concordances. Furthermore, this was done to aid

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the interpretation of the data so as to avoid issues of human error that may attend the same if a
resort to the contrary is made.

C. Procedure for Data Analysis

The concordances were counted based on the number of their instances. The
quantitative data derived from such procedure were tabulated. The concordances were then
classified according to their types:

a. Conjunctive adverbs BETWEEN sentences;

b. Conjunctive adverbs WITHIN sentences.

They were further classified based on their respective usages as provided by lextutor’s
built-in dictionary. This was done through the interpretation of the concordances with respect
to the words co-occurring with them (both the preceding, and the sentence in which it occurs).
This was done so as to determine the context of their usages/occurrences and to establish logical
links needed for the derivation of patterns of meaning. After such, the instances of such
concordances were tabulated and quantified. The quantitative data were then tabulated and
interpreted so as to establish common features and patterns that may determine the similarities
and difference between “for example” and “for instance” based on their actual usage as
manifested in the corpus. The quantitative and qualitative data were then consolidated. These
data were analyzed and interpreted and conclusions based on such findings of pattern were
drawn.

Results and Discussions

This chapter presents the findings uncovered in the course of the study.
Table 1. Total number of instances of “For Example” and “For Instance” in the corpus.
“Confusing Instances” Total No. of Instances
1. For Example 169 (76%)
2. For Instance 52 (24%)
TOTAL 221 (100%)

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 The table above shows the total number of concordances in the corpus. There were a
total of two hundred and twenty-one (221) concordances of “for example” and “for instance”
that were derived in the corpus. Of the two hundred and twenty-one (221), one hundred sixty-
nine (169) or seventy-six percent (76%) accounted for the total number of instances of “for
example” while fifty-two (52) or twenty-four percent (24%) accounted for the total number
of instances of “for instance.” This yields the initial finding that between the two
concordances, “for example” is much more numerous and more common of the two—thus
indicating the preference given to it by language users over “for instance.” This confirms
David Crystal’s assertion that “for example” is more commonly used than for instance given
its relatively higher frequency in any corpora (2012).

Table 2. Total number of instances of “For Example” and “For Instance” based on their
location and function.
“Confusing As conjunctive adverbs As conjunctive adverbs TOTAL
Instances” BETWEEN sentences WITHIN the sentence.
1. For 64 (29%) 105 (48%) 169 (77%)
Example
2. For 17 (6%) 35 (16%) 52 (23%)
Instance
TOTAL 81 (36%) 140 (64%) 221 (100%)

Table 2 above shows the total number of instances of “for example” and “for instance”
with respect to their location and function as they occurred in the corpus. In the case of “for
example,” there were sixty-four (64) instances or twenty-nine percent (29%) of the total
number of instances in which it was used as conjunctive adverbs BETWEEN sentences while
there were one hundred-five (105) instances or forty-eight percent (48%) of the total number
of instances in which it was used as a conjunctive adverb WITHIN a sentence. This in contrast
to that of “for instance” where fifteen (15) instances or six percent (6%) were used as a
transitional device BETWEEN sentences and thirty-seven (37) instances or sixteen percent
(16%) were used as conjunctive adverbs within sentences. On the other hand, in the case of
“for instance,” there were fifteen (15) instances or seven percent (7%) of the total number of
instances in which it was used as a transitional device BETWEEN sentences while there were
thirty-seven (37) instances or seventeen percent (17%) of the total number of instances in which

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it was used as a conjunctive adverb WITHIN a sentence. It can be seen from the data that there
is consistency in the commonality of usage of both confusing instances as conjunctive adverbs
WITHIN a sentence than as transitional devices BETWEEN sentences. Likewise consistent is
the dominance of “for example” in both functions over “for instance.”

Table 3. Distribution of the concordances occurring WITHIN sentences according to their

respective classifications based on usage.
“Confusing As sample As pattern As As TOTAL
Instances” illustration punishment
1. For 37 (26%) 0 68 (49%) 0 105 (75%)
Example
2. For 10 (7%) 0 25 (18%) 0 35 (25%)
Instance
TOTAL 47 (33%) 0 93 (65%) 0 140
(100%)

Table 3 presents the total number of instances of “for example” and “for instance”
according to their respective classifications based on usage. The classifications provided by the
lextutor’s built-in dictionary feature are the following: (a) as sample, (b) as pattern, (c) as
illustration, and (d) as punishment. In the classification ‘as sample,’ the confusing instances
were used as a specimen that is typical of a group, class, or set of which it forms a part. In the
classification ‘as pattern,’ the aforementioned instances were used to refer to persons, actions,
things, etc. that exhibit behavioral patterns that are either worthy of emulation and/or
condescension. Lastly, in the classification ‘as illustration,’ said instances were used to provide
illustration or explanation of a concept, an assumption, or a principle referring to precedents or
models that help qualify generic topics. The classification ‘as punishment’ never occurred in
the corpus.
Based on the data above, the most dominant usage for both “for example” and “for
instance” is ‘as illustration’ with sixty-eight (68) and twenty-five (25) instances respectively.
This is followed by ‘as sample’ accounting for thirty-seven (37) and ten (10) instances
respectively. There were no instances of “as pattern” and “as punishment” in the corpus. While
this appears to be significant, one should take note that the non-occurrence of patterns in a
particular corpus does not account for its non-existence as a pattern in language in general. On

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this account, the study did not give much weight on these aspects of the findings given their
corresponding relative numerical insignificance.

“For Example” and “For Instance” that occur WITHIN sentences

I. For Example

A. As Illustration
As previously mentioned, this accounted for the most dominant usage of
“for example” whereby it appeared as a conjunctive adverb WITHIN sentences in
the corpus. This usage provides elaboration of a concept, assumption, proposition
or principle as embodied in a previous clause to which another clause relates. In the
following extracts, “for example” is placed in the subjective position of the clause
as evidenced by its being placed proximately to a noun. The noun-subject bears a
relation to the assumption or proposition embodied in a previous clause, and its
being foregrounded in the structure by way of its being disjointed from its
corresponding verb, allows for its being focused upon by the reader thereby
foreshadowing and highlighting the incoming elaboration or justification being
provided in the clause in which it is a part. It is a rhetorical strategy that reinforces
a previous proposition contained in a preceding clause by focusing attention of the
reader to a specific instance or model of the same contained in the succeeding
clause. In other words, the foregrounding of the noun-subject gives highlight to its
being a model of a generic proposition contained in the preceding clause. The
relationship established in this strategy is one of consonance and highlights the
complementarity of propositions contained in both clauses where the preceding
contains a generic proposition and the succeeding contains an illustration of the
same. Consider the following examples:

17. The justification in Christian conscience of the use of any mode

of resistance also lays down its limitation- in the distinction between
the persons against whom pressure is primarily directed, those upon
whom it may be permitted also to fall, and those who may never be
directly repressed for the sake even of achieving some great
good. In these terms, the "economic withdrawal" of the Negroes

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 of Nashville, Tennessee, FOR EXAMPLE, was clearly justified,
since these distinctions do not require that only people subjectively
guilty be singled out.

18. It is generally an inaccurate method of rating, for the

horsepower is that of the compressor motor, and many other
components beside it determine how much cooling you'll get. A 1-
hp conditioner, FOR EXAMPLE, may vary in effectiveness from
under 8,000 BTU to well over 10,000 BTU.

83. This "grand division" permits many costs to be assigned in

their entirety to some one class, such as street lighting, or at least
to be excluded completely from some important class or
classes. High-tension industrial power service, FOR EXAMPLE,
would not be charged with any share of the maintenance costs or
capital costs of the low-tension distribution lines.
When placed in the objective portion of the clause, there arises interesting
results. Consider the following examples:

10. It permits referrals under certain circumstances even when

there is a labor dispute, provided the individual is given written
notice of such a dispute. Assume, FOR EXAMPLE, a situation
where a farm has a packing shed and fields.

19. The Draft Program was interesting in other respects, too. It

contained, FOR EXAMPLE, a number of curious admissions about
the peasants, who enjoy no sickness benefits, no old-age pensions,
no paid holidays they still benefit far less than the "other" 50 per
cent of the nation from that "welfare state" which the Soviet Union
so greatly prides itself on being.

In extract No. 10 above, the verb contained in the clause is one of a

command addressed to the reader. This is stressed by the omission of the
corresponding subject with respect to the verb in question. The employment of

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this strategy directly engages the reader with respect to a proposition contained
in a preceding clause to take a more active part in investigating its illustration
as further elaborated in the succeeding clause of which the verb is a part.

In extract No. 19, on the other hand, there is no subject omission in the
structure. What stands out is the objective location of “for example” in the
clause. In this instance, it serves as an emphasizer of the truth value of a previous
proposition by highlighting its corresponding reinforcing illustration contained
in the subsequent clause by way of its corresponding object with which it is
located.

There were also instances where “for example” is placed in between

verbs and adverbs—creating a parenthetical structure. Consider the following
example:

14. There are, nevertheless, several things that the president

can do to stimulate participation and to enhance the prestige of
those who are willing to exercise their privilege. He can,
FOR EXAMPLE, present significant university-wide issues to the
senate.

79. The method of selection Fromm uses achieves exactly

that. Furthermore, the list is interesting for its omissions. It
omits, FOR EXAMPLE, practically the whole line of great
nineteenth century English social critics, nearly all the great writers
whose basic position is religious, and all those who are with more or
less accuracy called Existentialists.

In extract No. 14, “for example” is placed in between verbs making it a

parenthetical insertion therein. These verbs are usually modal or auxiliary verbs
and main verbs. Despite this, such a conjunctive adverb is located in the
subjective position of the clause and has for its effect, the disjointing of the verb
phrase, isolating the subject noun and the auxiliary verb from the main verb and
its component structures. This isolation, however, is merely a rhetorical strategy

160
 so as to highlight and focus attention to the subject. In doing so, its proximate
relation to “for example” highlights its illustrative function with respect the
proposition embodied in a previous clause by way of intensification.

In extract No. 79 above, the conjunctive adverb “for example” is

preceded by a verb and a parenthetical adverb. Since it is located after a verb,
this placed the said conjunctive adverb in the objective location of the clause.
The parenthetical adverb is a stance adverbial that indicate an aspect of the
addresser’s attitude toward a particular proposition. Nevertheless, the use of the
conjunctive adverb “for example” in this instance is also to provide an
illustrative demonstration of a proposition contained in a preceding clause.

What is consistent with “for example” with respect to this usage is that
it helps create a logical relationship between clauses wherein certain
propositions or assumptions embodied in a previous clause finds elaboration
and illustration in the subsequent clause where such conjunctive adverb appears.
Those components in the clause which are in proximate location with it usually
contain such elaboration as has been demonstrated above.

B. As Sample

In this usage, “for example” helps create a logical link in which concepts,
assumptions, or propositions were used as a specimen that is typical of a group,
class, or set of which it forms a part. Consider the following examples:

18. By accepted definition, a 1-ton conditioner will provide 12,000

BTU of cooling in one hour. You may find a conditioner rated by
horsepower. It is generally an inaccurate method of rating, for the
horsepower is that of the compressor motor, and many other
components beside it determine how much cooling you'll get. A 1-
hp conditioner, FOR EXAMPLE, may vary in effectiveness from
under 8,000 BTU to well over 10,000 BTU.

161
 29. Because of the means of publication- science-fiction magazines
and cheap paperbacks- and because dystopian science fiction is still
appearing in quantity the full range and extent of this phenomenon
can hardly be known, though one fact is evident the science-fiction
imagination has been immensely fertile in its extrapolations. Among
the dystopias, FOR EXAMPLE, Isaac Asimov's The Caves of Steel
(1954) portrays the deadly effects on human life of the super-city of
the future James Blish's A Case of Conscience (1958) describes a
world hiding from its own weapons of destruction in underground
shelters Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451 (1954) presents a book-
burning society in which wall television and hearing-aid radios
enslave men's minds Walter M.

In the above examples, the genus or class of which a certain assumption or proposition
is embodied in a previous clause. The specie or subclass that helps qualify or elaborate such a
genus or class is found in proximate location to “for example.” These are embodied in the
noun-subjects immediately preceding the said conjunctive adverb. Similar to the strategy
employed in “as illustration” as previously discussed, this placement allows for the
foregrounding of the component specie or subclass so as to put focus thereto with respect to
the addressee. This foregrounding strategy helps establish the genus-specie relationship that
the previous clause and the subsequent clause share and, in doing so, allows for the
specification of a generic scope found in the former. This has for its effect the provision of a
clarification in favor of the addressee—contributing to its desired rhetorical effect. A similar
effect is achieved in the following examples:
75. Often, too, the social institutions are housed in these pavilions and
palaces and bridges, for these great structures are not simply "historical
monuments" they are the places where Persians live. The promenade,
FOR EXAMPLE, continues to take place on the ChaharBagh, a mile-long
garden of plane and poplar trees that now serves as the city's principal
street. ?t takes place as well along the terraces and through the arcades of
the Khaju bridge, and also in the gardens of the square.
The logical relationship in the previous and subsequent clause in this usage is
established by an innate feature that is common to both propositions found in both clauses,

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where one is a genus to which the other belongs. These are usually found in the corresponding
subjects of such clauses.
II. For Instance

A. As Illustration
The function of the phrase “for instance” as an “illustration” accounts for
the most number of instances of the said phrase in the corpus. The following
examples provide illuminating findings with respect to the nature of this
conjunctive adverb. As demonstrated below, it will easily be noticed that the same
pattern and the same strategy employed in the ‘as illustration’ usage of “for
example” find equal application and parallelism for “for instance.” Consider the
following:
2. Almost the whole experience of mankind pointed toward suspicion,
not trust, as the safest and sanest attitude toward all outsiders. Yet
there was some precedent for it. The history of disarmament
agreements, FOR INSTANCE, had been unreassuringly dismal but the
United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics nevertheless
did eventually agree on an atomic bomb test ban, and a sort of
provisional acceptance of each other's good intentions on this limited
question.
3. Anthropologists, housewives, historians and such by profession, they
approach their discipline as amateurs, collectors, commercial
propagandists, analysts or some combination of the four. They have
widely varying backgrounds and aims. They have little "esprit de
corps". The outlook for the amateur, FOR INSTANCE, is usually
dependent on his fondness for local history or for the picturesque.
11. A reporter restricted to the competing propaganda statements of
both sides in a major labor dispute, FOR INSTANCE, is unable to tell
his readers half of what he knows about the causes of the dispute.

In the above extracts, like in “for example,” the conjunctive adverb “for
instance” is placed in the subjective position of the clause as evidenced by its being
placed proximately to a noun. The noun-subject bears a relation to the assumption or
proposition embodied in a previous clause, and its being foregrounded in the structure

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by way of its being disjointed from its corresponding verb, allows for its being focused
upon by the reader thereby foreshadowing and highlighting the incoming elaboration
or justification being provided in the clause in which it is a part. It is a rhetorical strategy
that reinforces a previous proposition contained in a preceding clause by focusing
attention of the reader to a specific instance or model of the same contained in the
succeeding clause.
The parallelism of this feature that is shared by both “for instance” and “for
example” with respect to the ‘as illustration’ usage suggests of non-exclusivity thereby
eliminating any distinctive feature that may distinguish one from the other. Thus, “for
example” is not precluded from substituting “for instance” and vice versa when it comes
to this usage.
B. As Sample
In this usage, “for instance” facilitates the creation of a logical link in which
concepts, assumptions, or propositions were used as a specimen that is typical of a
group, class, or set of which it forms a part. Consider the following example:

13. In the first place, a good many writers who are said to use
folklore, do not, unless one counts an occasional superstition or
tale. Robert Frost, FOR INSTANCE, writes about rural life in New
England, but he does not include any significant amount of folklore in his
poems.

Once again, a parallelism is found to exist between “for example” and

“for instance” as demonstrated in the above. Like in “for example” as discussed
previously, the genus or class of which a certain assumption or proposition is
embodied in the previous clause. The specie or subclass that helps qualify or
elaborate such a genus or class is found in proximate location to “for instance,”
particularly in the noun-subject immediately preceding the said it. Similar to the
strategy employed in “as illustration” as previously discussed, this placement
allows for the foregrounding of the component specie or subclass so as to put
focus thereto with respect to the addressee. This foregrounding strategy helps
establish the genus-specie relationship that the previous clause and the
subsequent clause share and, in doing so, allows for the specification of a
generic scope found in the former. This has for its effect the provision of a

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 clarification in favor of the addressee—contributing to its desired rhetorical
effect. This exactly the same as that established in this usage in “for example.”
The same conclusion as drawn in the previous usage likewise finds
application in this instance. The parallelism of features imply interchangeability
and synonymity and therefore does not preclude the substitution of one with the
other.
“For Example” and “For Instance” that occur BETWEEN SENTENCES

Table 4. Distribution of the concordances occurring BETWEEN sentences according to their

respective classifications based on usage
Confusing As sample As pattern As As TOTAL
Instances illustration punishment
1. For 20 (25%) 14 (18%) 30 (38%) 0 64 (81%)
Example
2. For 4 (5%) 0 11 (14%) 0 15 (19%)
Instance
TOTAL 24 (30%) 14 (18%) 41 (52%) 0 79 (100%)

Table 6 presents the number of instances of “for example” and “for instance” across the
different types of their usages where they occur BETWEEN sentences. One may argue that this
spatial placement is the most known and most manifest form of their nature as conjunctive
adverbs.

Based on the table above, it can be seen that there were more instances of “for example”
than “for instance” with sixty-four (64) instances or eighty-one percent (81%) and fifteen (15)
instances or nineteen percent (19%) respectively. In the case of “for example” it can be
observed that the most number of instances of its usage is that of “as illustration” with thirty
(30) instances or thirty-eight percent (38%), followed by “as sample” with twenty (20)
instances or twenty-five percent (25%), and “as pattern” with the least number of instances
with only fourteen (14) instances comprising only eighteen percent (18%) of the entire sample.
In the case of “for instance” it can be seen that the most number of instances is also that of “as
illustration” with eleven (11) instances or fourteen percent (14%), followed by “as sample”
(which also has the least number of instances) with only four (4) instances or five percent (5%).

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It can thus be observed that in both “for example” and “for instance,” the most dominant type
of usage was that of “as illustration.” This is consistent with the trend that unfolded in their
counterparts that occurred WITHIN sentences as previously discussed.

I. For Example

A. As illustration
As previously remarked, this figured as the most dominant usage of “for
example” as a conjunctive adverb BETWEEN sentences. Similarly to its
counterpart in the conjunctive adverbs WITHIN sentence, this usage provides
elaboration of a concept, assumption, proposition or principle as embodied in a
previous clause to which another clause relates. Consider the following examples:
1.The difference between the sequence of Onset of ossification for
the sexes governs the numbering sequence in Figures 3 and 4. This
difference is readily clarified by referring to Table
1. FOR EXAMPLE, arrow 17 in Figure 3 portrays the proximal
radial epiphysis for boy 34, whereas the same epiphysis for girl 2 is
portrayed by arrow 18 in Figure 4.
2. The movement to end Negro slavery began before 1815 and
mounted after that year until, as a result of the Civil War,
emancipation was achieved. Long before 1815 the Christian
conscience was leading some to declare slavery wrong and to act
accordingly. FOR EXAMPLE, in 1693 the Philadelphia Yearly
Meeting of Friends declared that its members should emancipate
their slaves and in 1776 it determined to exclude from membership
all who did not comply.

4.Smith's first workout with stresses, pitches, and junctures was

based on mother, which spells, in our culture, a good deal more than
bread alone. FOR EXAMPLE, if you are a reasonably well-
adjusted person, there are certain ways that are reasonable and
appropriate for addressing your mother.
The logical link between the propositions in the clauses is facilitated by “for
example” in this kind of usage by allowing the subsequent clause provide elaboration

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and consonance to a previous assertion or proposition established in an earlier clause.
This elaboration is embodied in the components that immediately follow this
conjunctive adverb. This allows for the strengthening of prior assertions founded on
previous clauses.
B. As Sample
This follows ‘as illustration’ in its dominance in the number of instances of
usages in the corpus. This usage facilitates the creation of a logical link in which
concepts, assumptions, or propositions were used as a specimen that is typical of a
group, class, or set of which it forms a part. Consider the following examples:
30. Thus, in the last few years, a number of programs which
looked very promising at the time their development was
commenced have since been completely
eliminated. FOR EXAMPLE, the importance of the Regulus
2,, a very promising aerodynamic ship-to-surface missile
designed to be launched by surfaced submarines, was greatly
diminished by the successful acceleration of the much more
advanced Polaris ballistic missile launched by submerged
submarines.”

19. One is impressed with the dignity, clarity and beauty of this
new translation into contemporary English, and there is no
doubt that the meaning of the Bible is more easily
understandable to the general reader in contemporary language
than in the frequently archaic words and phrases of the King
James. FOR EXAMPLE, in the third chapter of Matthew,
verses 13-16, describing the baptism of Jesus, the 1611 version
reads "Then cometh Jesus from Galilee to Jordan unto John, to
be baptized of him.

In the above examples, the genus or class of which a certain assumption or

proposition is embodied in a previous clause. The species or subclass that helps qualify
or elaborate such a genus or class is found in proximate location to “for example,”
particularly the clause that immediately follows it. An assumption or proposition of a
more generic scope finds specification in the succeeding clause and reinforces internal

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 similarities that are inherent in both thereby galvanizing the logical link established
between them. As a rhetorical strategy, this allows the addressee to visualize specific
instances of generic propositions introduced in a previous clause.
C. As Pattern
This turned out to be the least dominant usage of “for example” occurring in
BETWEEN sentences. This usage is used to refer to persons, actions, things, etc. that
exhibit behavioral patterns that are either worthy of emulation and/or condescension.
Consider the following examples:
15. Don't insert your components into fixed openings, they may
or may not fit position your components before you close them
in. FOR EXAMPLE Don't wall in your kitchen before you
hang the wall cabinets and set the appliances.

25. “In the adult world, there are a number of rather general and
diffuse sources of ideological diffusion that further compound the
adolescent's search for meaning during this particular identity
crisis. FOR EXAMPLE, some contemporary writing tends to fuse
the "good guys" and the "bad guys", to portray the weak people as
heroes and weakness as a virtue, and to explain (or even justify)
asocial behavior by attributing it to deterministic psychological,
familial, and social experiences.”

In this usage, a propositional commitment relating to an ideal conception is

provided further information and qualification through the exemplification of an act or
a series of acts.
II. For Instance

A. As Illustration

Similar to “for example,” this usage also dominated over all the other usages of
this conjunctive adverb. Parallel patterns from “for example” also emerge in
this usage. Consider the following example:

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 3.Yet to determine precisely to what extent and exactly in what ways
any individual showed the effects of Christianity would be
impossible. At best only an approximation could be arrived at. To
generalize for the entire nation would be
absurd. FOR INSTANCE, we cannot know whether even for
church members the degree of conformity to Christian standards of
morality increased or declined as the proportion of church members
in the population rose.

5. In most cases we recognize certain words, persons, animals or

objects. But these are dreamed in original action, in some
particular continuity which we don't remember having seen in real
life. FOR INSTANCE, the dreamer sees himself seated behind
neighbor Smith and, with photographic realism, sees Smith driving
the car whereas, it is a matter of fact that Smith cannot drive a car.

B. As Sample

There were also parallelisms found in the instances of this usage of “for
instance” that is consistent with those of “for example.” Consider the following:

13. “BETTER ASK BEFORE JOINING AMERICANS are a

nation of joiners, a quality which our friends find endearing and
sometimes amusing. But it can be dangerous if the joiner
doesn't want to make a spectacle of himself. FOR INSTANCE,
so-called "conservative" organizations, some of them secret, are
sprouting in the garden of joining where "liberal" organizations
once took root.”

For Example vs. For Instance

From the findings that were uncovered in the course of the analysis, one can easily
establish the glaring similarities and parallelisms that existed between “for example” and “for
instance” whether the same occurred WITHIN sentences or BETWEEN sentences. The only
semblance of a difference that can be derived from the same would be (a) on the frequency of

169
instances and usages, and (b) the appearance of the usage ‘as pattern’ in “for examples”
occurring BETWEEN sentences. While it is tempting to draw conclusions based on these
findings, one must be wary that such differences do not, in any way, indicate grammatical nor
semantic differences. At best, they are merely indicative of the speaker’s stylistic choices as
far as the corpus is concerned. These stylistic choices relate to speakers’ or writers’ preference
with respect to which of the two conjunctive adverbs is more appropriate or more enticing On
the matter of discourse patterns, it can easily be observed that the patterns as those found in
“for example” were also derived in “for instance.” The earlier conclusion drawn with respect
to parallelism of patterns, as previously argued in the preceding discussions, also finds
application on this aspect. There is no conclusive proof of exclusivity so as to derive distinctive
features that could set one apart from the other. Corollarily, this suggests non-preclusion of
features in both conjunctive adverbs and, as such, allows for interchangeability and synonymity
of both in any possible pattern as well as in any of the corresponding established usages. For
the ordinary reader, s/he can put this to the test by simply substituting one with the other in any
possible utterances. A similar conclusion as those being proposed herein is more likely to be
arrived at with utmost certainty. Another interesting finding is the confirmation of the fluidity
and universality of such conjunctive adverbs. This is proven by the fact that both conjunctive
adverbs can be placed anywhere in the sentences (i.e. subjective or objective positioning, or
within and between sentences) without any significant change in their meanings. This indicates
that positioning and/or placement within or between sentences (or clauses) do not determine
function. Discourse meanings (i.e. relationship between and/or among clauses) remain
unchanged despite variances in position and/or location. Spatial predetermination of function
therefore does not find application in these conjunctive adverbs.

Conclusions and Recommendations

I. Conclusions
The conclusions derived from the conduct of the study are discussed in the context
of the questions posed anterior thereto. The instances of “for example” and “for instance”
where found in WITHIN and BETWEEN sentences. Between such instances, there was a
stark contrast with respect to their corresponding frequency with the former being more
numerous than the latter (64% as opposed to 36% respectively). From such instances, the
following usages and/or meanings were derived: (a) ‘as illustration, and (b) ‘as illustration.’
As an extraordinary case, the usage ‘as pattern’ appeared in “for example” occurring
BETWEEN sentences only but not in the same frequency as those of ‘as illustration’ and

170
‘as sample.’ Between the two instances, ‘as illustration’ dominated across the instances,
whether in WITHIN or BETWEEN sentences.
The usage ‘as illustration’ is characterized by its provision of an illustration,
elaboration, or qualification of a concept, assumption, principle embodied in the
propositional content of the clause. It was also used to refer to models that help qualify
generic topics and provide reinforcement thereto by way of consonance and congruence.
On the other hand, the usage ‘as sample’ is characterized by the establishment of a logical
relationship between a genus and a species found in a proposition. It was used to establish
a specimen to be typical of a group, class, or set of which it forms a part.
When it comes to their features and patterns, both “for example” and “for instance”
exhibit parallel patterns with each other, thereby leading to the conclusion that both are
synonymous and interchangeable with the other. In their usage ‘as illustration,’ both were
able to facilitate the logical link of propositions occurring in a previous and a subsequent
clause. In the case of those occurring WITHIN sentences, this was materialized through the
foregrounding of the noun-subject, or through its (conjunctive adverb’s) proximate
positioning with the other components of the clause within the structure so as to draw the
addressee to the intended elaboration or illustration being done in the subsequent clause
with respect to the proposition it is referring to in the previous clause or clauses. In their
usage ‘as sample,’ a logical relationship of genus-specie or class-subclass was found to
exist in components of a previous clause and that of a subsequent clause in which such
conjunctive adverbs were found. Cues and clues as to this relationship were found in the
subject of such clauses—where common and inherent qualities were found and served as
the reference point in the establishment of such a logical link. In conjunctive adverbs
occurring BETWEEN sentences, the same patterns were also established for both usages.
The reference point upon which the logical relationship was initially found is with respect
to the subjects of the clauses.
The above parallelisms of the features and patterns that were mutually present in
“for example” and “for instance” suggest synonymity and interchangeability whereby one
can substitute the other in any given utterance, regardless of placement and/or location.
There is no conclusive proof of exclusivity so as to derive distinctive features that could set
one apart from the other. The only semblance of a difference that was derived from the
conjunctive adverbs in question primarily lies on the frequency of their instances and
usages. However, these prove to be insufficient to establish semantic and grammatical
differences. At best, they are merely indicative of the speaker’s stylistic choices as far as

171
the corpus is concerned. These stylistic choices relate to speakers’ or writers’ preference
with respect to which of the two conjunctive adverbs is more appropriate or more enticing
for usage. Hence, the difference lies more on stylistic choices and preferences rather on
semantic and syntactic dimensions. This is supported by the finding of the conjunctive
adverbs’ universality and fluidity with respect to location in, or between, clauses and/or
sentences.

II. Recommendations
Based on the findings derived from the course of the analysis as elucidated in
the previous sections, the following are some of the recommendations that are deemed
appropriate for further studies in order to arrive at more extensive and exhaustive
conclusions:

1. This study only accounted for Brown Corpus. In order to arrive at more
conclusive findings with respect to the instances and patterns of “for
example” and “for instance,” it is recommended that other corpora be
accounted for so that a more comprehensive data can be analyzed so as to
account for features and patterns that seemed to be absent in the Brown
Corpus;
2. This study only analyzed the discourse aspect of the usage of “for example”
and “for instance.” It is recommended that the stylistic aspect be accounted
for since their usage appears to be at the discretion of language users based
on their preferences. As such, it is also recommended to adopt and integrate
any theoretical frameworks that can help bolster the claims and conclusions
made herein, as well as those that can account and explain speakers’ choices,
behavioral patterns in relation to such usage among others so as to expand
such conclusions to new frontiers of linguistic inquiry;
3. Although this study incorporated quantitative techniques (usually used in
the methodology of corpus linguistics), it is still recommendable to use
textual analysis software and harness its full potential in analyzing other text
patterns through other corpus analysis software features. A comparison of
keyness features of different corpora in relation to confusing instances such
as “for example” and “for instance” is also a recommended method for
linguistic inquiry. Furthermore, it was found out that there are also

172
 recommended improvements on the computer software used in the study.
For the purposes of future research, this study recommends that computer
software that accounts for the pragmatic and semantic context be developed
and/or incorporated to existing computer programs in order to yield more
meaningful results regarding the corpora being studied.

Pedagogical Implications
This study was conducted in order to examine perceived confusing instances, i.e.
whether there are differences in their usage, their meaning, and functions. While the subjects
of this study yielded little variances in meaning, the findings revealed that there are differences
in terms of stylistic and usage preferences. These findings are usually not found in traditional
textbooks used in classroom teaching in the Philippines as such materials only account for
grammatical use and functions. Corpus linguistics, as an emerging trend in language teaching
has proven a variety of benefits. Almutairi (2016) has argued that language taught in textbooks
is, more often than not, derived from native speakers’ intuition on their usage of language rather
than the actual evidence of such usage. What this study has demonstrated is how corpus can
present evidence based on statistically proven data of language as it is actually used in varying
contexts. As opposed to structure-based approaches used in textbooks, as well as classroom
activities based and found on such an approach, corpus linguistics accounts for actual usage of
language—taking into consideration the context of their usage by presenting actual instances.
An approach to teaching language based on corpus linguistics can thereby reconcile form-
focused and meaning-focused activities by allowing students to actively take part in the
learning process in their examination of the linguistic data as it is actually used. The learner’s
judgment of how certain linguistic elements are to be used would not be founded on rigid
structuralist and form-based perceptions but on a more liquid and versatile perception that
caters to their communicative needs and experiences.
Savignon (1983) has argued that learners focus best on grammar and learn more
effectively in the process when it relates to their communicative needs and experiences. True
enough, a corpus-based approach to teaching would allow focus not merely on sentence-level
morphosyntactic features but also on the broader features of discourse, sociolinguistic rules of
appropriacy, and other communicative strategies, among others (ibid). By presenting to
language learners the varying corpora on language use, they will be able to see for themselves
how the usage of certain elements varies based on the circumstances attendant to it. This will

173
train them not only on the established rules of grammar structure but on the broader
sociocultural contexts of language use.
What makes corpus linguistics an attractive approach for language teaching is its ability
to adopt more interactive approaches in its use. The interactive aspect of a corpus-based
language teaching approach can be best seen by allowing the learners to gather corpora
themselves based on their individual and interactive environments. In the case of the study of
Akpınar, Aşık, and Vural (2015), computer technology can be integrated to the process in
various ways such as using corpus for a better comprehension and acquisition. Learners would
eventually find out more interesting features of certain linguistic elements and, in the process,
understand how certain contexts influence the meaning and usage of such elements thereby
allowing them to have a fuller appreciation thereof. This may be best applied in group activities
so as to induce increased opportunities and motivations for communication. The language
teacher would therefore be marginalized into the sidelines—no longer would s/he be an active
source of information, but merely a facilitator of the learning process in which the learners
themselves would take the more active role in discovering the features and patterns of language
as it appears and is used in different contexts.

Bibliography
Akpınar, K. D., Aşık, A., & Vural, A. S. (2015). The Relationship between the Effectiveness
of Vocabulary Presentation Modes and Learners’ Attitudes: Corpus Based Contextual
Guessing, Dictionary Use, and Online Instruction. The Asian EFL Journal Quarterly
March 2015 Volume 17, Issue, 90.
Almutairi, N. D. (2016). The Effectiveness of Corpus-Based Approach to Language
Description in Creating Corpus-Based Exercises to Teach Writing Personal
Statements. English Language Teaching, 9(7), 103-111.
Compleat Lexical Tutor. (n.d.). (University Du Quebec a Montreal) Retrieved from Lextutor:
http://lextutor.ca
Crystal, D. (2012). On for example and for instance. Retrieved March 12, 2013, from Official
blog entry: http://david-crystal.blogspot.com/2012/04/on-for-example-
forinstance.html
Dita, S. (2011). The semantics and grammar of disjuncts in Philippine English. Studies in
Philippine English: Exploring the ICE- Philippines .
Fairclough, N. (2001). Language and Power: 2nd Edition. London: Pearson Education
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Flowerdew, J. (2009). 19 Corpora in Language Teaching. The handbook of language teaching,
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Hymes, D. (1972). Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach. London:
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Online, O. E. (2013). For Example and For Instance. (Oxford University Press) Retrieved
March 12, 2013, from Dictionary Entry: http://oed.com
Online, M.-W. (2013). For Example and For Instance. Retrieved March 12, 2013, from
Merriam Webster Incorporated: http://merriam-webster.com
O'Conner, P. T., & Kellerman, S. (2012). "For example" vs. "For instance". Retrieved March
12, 2013, from Grammarphobia: http://www.grammarphobia.com/blog/2012/07/for-
example-vs-for-instnace.html
Mautner, G. (2010). Time to get wired: Using web-based corpora in critical discourse analysis.
Retrieved February 16, 2012, from http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/papers/techpaper/vol6.pdf
MyEnglishTeacher.net. (2001). Lesson Topic: Introducing Examples (Using "For Example"
and phrases like "For Instance). (Advanced Learning Center) Retrieved March 12,
2013, from http://www.myenglishteacher.net
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Reading. Mass.: Addison–Wesley.

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 Helping Islamic Higher Education Students Learn Listening Skills by
Using Video-cast

Sahraini
([email protected])
Syamsudarni
([email protected]

Abstract
Using educational technology in English language classrooms is still a major concern
to enhance language teaching and learning processes. A key part of this is ensuring that students
is relaxed, happy and engaged in learning during the process. This collaborative action research
is design to enhance students’ listening skills using technology in current practices. The
researcher and collaborative teacher actively designed lesson plans, implemented the action,
observed the action, and made reflection, which were conducted in two cycles in State Institute
for Islamic Studies (IAIN) Palopo, Indonesia. The research instruments include note taking,
questionnaires, and observation sheets which are used to collect data during the implementation
of action research procedures, such as plan, implementation, observation and reflection. The
study shows that the use of video-cast can enhance the students’ listening skill and engage
students to learn. The findings may contribute to EFL learners particularly in Indonesia, and
EFL students in general around the globe.

Keywords: Listening skill, video-cast, classroom action research

Introduction
For many years, the use of technology in classrooms has become a factor affecting the
teaching or learning process in many aspects, such as system, policy, teachers and students’
quality. Some researchers have involved in those aspects to find out why the use of ICT
(Information and Communication Technology) can lead to the higher quality in education. The
education history indicates that the use of computers is successive innovation pursuing

176
effective, efficient and satisfying pedagogical practices. In order to realise the potential of ICT,
secondary school in which students and teachers are taking into account to utilise technology
during the teaching and learning practice. Teachers have firm demand to dig up the information
technology from the online websites as media to facilitate classroom teaching process. Students
can learn in many ways ranging from conventional to modern approach using technology-based
learning approach, for example they may learn using various ways from the traditional-based
approach to the more recent digital-based technology approach.
Nowadays, educators can begin to perceive the significance of computers as tools for
teaching. Instructional software, for example, is a part of computer tools can be used to solve
problems along with drilling, practicing, and tutorials. The progression of multimedia
computers and the internet have dominated the function of technologies at schools. The
learning from technology stands as a teacher.
The mission of English Education Program of IAIN Palopo is to train and prepare
students to be competent English teachers. The objective of the teaching listening
comprehension is based on its curriculum. It provides materials that involve four skills: writing,
reading, listening and speaking skills. The language skills aim to improve communicative
competence both oral and written forms. Listening comprehension is designed to focus on some
micro skills. This is designed to develop the students’ capacity to understand spoken English
at intermediate up to pre-advance level, such as finding main ideas and details information;
literal and inferential and critical narrative, descriptive and expository English; note taking and
summarizing.
Based on the observation, the students still have difficulties to get the objective of the
study successfully. Several factors are addressed to the problems faced by the students are the
lack of students’ linguistic knowledge and background knowledge. They have difficulties in
grammatical knowledge including stress, intonation, and vocabulary mastery. The preliminary
study revealed that the students were not provided with activities to help them apply their
background knowledge in listening activities. The students get difficulties in understanding
native speakers’ speech and could not control the speaker’s speech speed, and the majority of
students are not very excited in listening activities. The students just listened to the cassette or
CD that provided limited authentic and old fashioned material, the students are not actively
involved in teaching listening process and also in selecting the material or self-learning style.
It is essential that in certain circumstances with certain students can make the learning
and the teaching process more effective (Kennedy, 1983). Video that we usually watch as a
technology product, not only has function as media for fun in our leisure time but also as media

177
for teaching English (Cahyono, 1997). In addition, Cahyono also states that using video and
film can support interesting teaching-learning experience for teachers and learners as long as
the application of the media are implemented constructively in various activities. The video
will be used as students-centred. The use of video-cast from the Internet as a technological
media is an alternative way of teaching English.
Kennedy (1983) points out that learning environment can make the teaching and
learning process to more effective. The use of video plays an important role to motivate
students learn, engaging them in a technology product. Teachers will experience positive and
interesting activities using video integrated with various constructive activities (Cahyono,
1997).
This study is intended to give theoretical and practical contributions to the teaching of
listening at IAIN Palopo through the use of video-cast. Theoretically, the data and information
gained in this study will be useful for the learners and the teachers in the teaching and learning
of listening inside and outside the class. Practically, the study result study is expected to give
positive contribution to overcome the problems dealing with the teaching of listening through
video-cast. The students who are involved in the process of using such a media could enhance
their listening skill through a learning technique that can raise their motivation in improving
their achievement in the listening.

Literature Review
Technology is regarded as a golden key to enhance an educational innovation. Ruggiero
& Mong (2015). states that computers integration used in English classrooms can enhance the
teaching activities in order to support better learning environment. According to the author,
teacher and students can access tools and resources facilitating the construction of knowledge
to understand new information that usually expand day by day. With the advanced technology,
teachers and students can access any kinds of information they need.
Zhu and Kaplan (2001, cited in Shih, 2013) introduce a teaching model utilising technology
described as following figures:

178
 • Learning • Cognitive
Styles Levels
• Technology • Discipline

Student

Instruct Content
or
Technol
• Role as
ogy • Technology
Teacher Types
• Technology • Technology
Skill Level Uses

Teaching
With Technology

Figure 1 A Teaching Model with Technology

The figure above can be described as follows. Student, instructor, course content and
technology tools are four major components of teaching with technology. In order to integrate
technology successfully, the teachers need to consider the relation of the components. For
example, the teachers can examine the content of the discipline and learning outcomes of
certain topics. A teacher is able to manage their own experience using technological tools, their
role and the time availability during the teaching process. They need to think carefuly about
the students’ learning style, technology skill level and also technology access. The types and
the use of technology also should be considered as important to think in order to get successful
teaching and learning.
Another reason why technology is essential to support education quality is the
integration of streaming multimedia such as RealPlayer and Windows Media Player. These
are very helpful as they play automatically when they are encountered. What will we do with
the power offered us by many kinds of Web and Internet? Current point of evidence is that the
professional teachers are the teacher who can utilize the internet as a learning tool.
In this industrialized era, the teachers are required to use the Internet as media for
getting authentic materials to prepare then to be lifelong learners. The use of internet, for
example, it provides easy access to obtain various authentic learning materials that enable
learners to interact with the real content and environment. Authentic materials from internet
can be effectively used in class (Pinter, 2017). This can lead the students’ motivation and

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interest. A good example might be the students can gain deeper sense about culture around the
world through visualizing through recorded materials in the Internet. The ability of teachers in
using technology such as the Internet will develop learning autonomy. It can create self-study
in and outside classes.
Technology also offers flexibility when delivering materials. The advent of material
from the Internet places a new emphasis on the audio-visual in language teaching and learning.
The teacher can set up the teaching materials and appropriate technique by using visual
material, so the students can achieve good proficiency in understanding any subject learnt, and
perhaps it can motivate them during collecting materials this interested in (Rivers, 2018). The
teacher and students can collaborate in utilizing this media, so it can be used in and outside the
classroom followed by assignments. The material designed should be short dialogue or
monologue. For example, the use of Video-cast as supporting media such as audio, visual and
technology that can be accessed through the Internet can help the learners improve their
listening skill. It provides many materials in the form of video which can be downloaded
through internet, so the students can play back on a portable device at a time convenient to
listener (Erben, Ban & Castaneda, 2009).
To conclude, technology has largely been used in education to learn since years ago. It could
convey information effectively for teachers and students which is building students’ self-access
or self-study. The integration of multimedia in the pedagogical process can enhance the
education quality in higher education.
A. Teaching Listening Skill
When theorists defined learning and language in observable behaviour, the language
model hypothesis was so different from now which is commonly accepted. Ghovanlou (1994)
states that it was regarded that when listening processes could not be observed, listening was a
passive skill. At that time, speaking was viewed as an active skill because the result of students’
cognitive language process could be experienced.
In more recent theoretical models, the mind is viewed as an information processing
system so that listening can be considered as an active process. Ji (2003) argues that a good
listener is one who has good capability in interpreting. The students involved in the process of
listening are actively processing and interpreting what they hear.
In language learning process, the students can get input when listening. If the students
understand the input, the learning process will begin. The teachers mediate students to improve
listening skill by developing useful listening strategies. It is very helpful for the students’

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achievement when the teacher practices some activities given to the student (Vandergrift,
1999).
According to Saricoban (1999), to understand speech, it involves some basic process;
some depend upon linguistic competence, previews knowledge, and psychological variables.
The listeners need to have a continuous set to listen and comprehend as they hear the utterance.
They may be assisted by several kind of set in processing and remembering the information
transmitted. Its competence on linguistic allows him to acknowledge the heard utterances
formatives.
The bottom-up and top-down processing are two main views have been dominating
language pedagogy for several decades. Nunan (1997) explains that “the bottom-up processing
model assumes that listening as a process of decoding the sound that one hears in linier fashion,
from the smallest meaningful units (phonemes) to complete texts”. This idea describes that
phonemic units are decoded. It is linked together in order to form words, words to form phrases,
phrases to form utterance, and utterances to form complete meaningful texts.
The other view is top-down process. This view suggests that the listener is actively
constructing or reconstructing the source/original meaning of the speaker. It uses incoming
sound as a clue. The listener can use prior knowledge of situation and context within which the
listening takes place to make sense of what the listeners hear (Nunan, 1997).
Vandergrift (2002) states that the process of bottom-up, top-down, and interactive are involved
in listening comprehension.
Instead of the two processes, interactive process is becoming the alternative of listening
process. The listener can use bottom-up processes when using linguistic knowledge to get the
meaning of a message. It is beginning from the lower level of sounds to words then to
grammatical relationship to lexical meaning in order to arrive at the conclusion of the message.
Interactive process refers to the use of both bottom-up and top-down process. In order words,
the learners use their linguistic knowledge and prior knowledge to understand message.
B. Video-cast
The use of technology is a challenging issue. It depends how teachers utilise the
technology to facilitate teaching-learning process. Education system has utilised technology
since years ago. Now, constructivist believes that technologies are more effectively used as
media in constructing knowledge. The point is that technologies is a tool to consider and to
learn with (Jonassen, 2003).
Videocast, sometimes called vod-cast, is digital file that contains authentic materials in
the form of video (Herreid & Schiller, 2013). Video-cast with supporting media such as audio,

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visual and technology that can be accessed through internet can help the learners to improve
their listening skill. It provides many materials in the form of video which can be downloaded
through internet, so the students can play back on a mobile device or personal computer at a
time convenient to listener. Usually, video-cast is formatted in the digital format such as MP3
or MP4, which is published online and some of them is free to download. The audio-visual
materials can be transferred or synced to portable device (McElearney, 2006).
Videocast offers flexibility and conveniently to support in or out of classroom activities.
The advent of video-cast emphasise on the use of audio and visual researches during the
pedagogical activities. The content is visual based (video) rather than audio (video or vod
stands for video and cast stands for broadcast). The teacher can set up the listening teaching
materials and appropriate technique by using videocast, so the students can achieve good
proficiency in English, and perhaps it can motivate them during collecting materials this
interested in. The teacher and students can collaborate in utilizing this media, so it can be used
in and outside the classroom followed by assignments. The material designed should be short
dialogue or monologue. Krashen (1983) reminds that learners may find difficult comprehend
aural file of 30 minutes. Teacher and students can download the material has short duration
and choose the appropriate students level of competency.
Finally, the use of video-cast as teaching learning media applied in and outside the
classroom can motivate teachers and learners in improving teaching quality and students in
improving the quality of teaching-learning listening. It is also flexible material that can be
played back any place and any time. The setting of time frequency and the level students’
ability provided in video-cast will help the students easy to learn. The use of video-cast covers
the use of technology such as internet, computer, MP4, visual elements and authentic materials.
Some examples of internet websites about video-cast are: www.vodcastion.ning.com,
www.elllo.org, www.videocast.com, www.youtube.com, www.lullabot.com/videocast,
www.video.podcast.com, www.videocast.nih.gov, www.voanews.com, www.eslvideo.com,
and so on.

Methodology
The research design is action research that is grounded on problem-solving approach.
The research study is also called classroom-based research that is applied in the classroom
setting. The research steps start from the problem encountered by a teacher in his/her classroom
followed by a teaching process in repeated cycles (McTaggart, 1993).

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 The linking of the terms action and research shows how essential the approach in the
future is, that is practicing the ideas as a means of development and as a means of empowering
knowledge regarding teaching-learning activities. The outcome can improve quality of
teaching at schools. Theory and practice is linked together. The ideas-in-action is the concept
of action research (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988).
There are some characteristics of action research in this study. The first, the design is
to cope the problems in English classroom. The second, it is conducted in a cycle and will
continue to the next cycle if the criteria of success have not been achieved yet. The third, it is
conducted by applying a certain action that is the use of video-cast to develop the teaching of
listening quality in the classroom. The action is intended to gain insight, reflective practice
development, and affirmative contribution in the classroom environment, improving students’
outcomes, and increasing students’ motivation to learn. Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh & Sorensen
(2006) state that action research can interpret events and enable individuals or groups to
formulate a solution to local issues.
Implementing of the research, the researcher works together with the collaborative
teacher to observe the action procedures. The collaborative work would improve the
performance of the teaching and achieve the success of teaching requirements. The researcher
acts as a teacher who teaches listening using video-cast, while the observer observes the
activities during the action.
This research study entails of planned and systematic procedures that unfold through a
several stages: i.e. plan, implementation, observation, and reflection in participatory and
collaborative manner between the researcher and the teacher.

Findings
Overall Findings
Based on the data of the students’ quizzes, it is found out that the students’ listening
skill was gradually improving. It shows there was a positive influence of video-cast toward the
increase of students’ skills in answering the quiz based on the listening video playing. Most of
the students gradually gained good score at the end of meeting in each Cycle. The average
score in preliminary analysis was 66.23; in the first quiz the average score was 69 and the
average score in the second quiz was 74. More specifically, it turned out that the score of most
students also improved. There were 19 students (63.33%) whose scores improved equal to or
more than 61 in Cycle 1 and 26 (86.67%) in Cycle 2, there were 11 students (36.67%) whose
score below 61 in Cycle I and 4 (13.33%) in Cycle 2.

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76.00% 74%
74.00%
72.00%
70.00% 69%
68.00% 66.23%
66.00%
64.00%
62.00%
Preliminary Study Quiz 1 Quiz 2

Figure 2 Students’ Progressing Average Score

Regarding the students’ response and actively involvement in 1st cycle, it has been
revealed that the average score of students’ responses was 81.87%. In Cycle 2, It was found
that the average grade of participants’ responses was 86.27%. The students’ participation was
73.7 % in cycle 1 and 80.3 % in cycle 2. Those can be described in the following figure.
100.00% 86,27%
80.3% 81,87%
80.00% 73.7%

60.00%
Cycle 1
40.00%
Cycle 2
20.00%
0.00%
Students' Involvement Students' Response

Figure 3 The Average of Students’ Involvement and Total Number Students’ Responses
Cycle Revision
There was slight revision in terms of teaching procedure and the way of students answer
the worksheets using video-cast related to the note taking, finding main ideas and detail
information, and summarizing. This was made by the researcher and his collaborator after
conducting the cycle 1.
In cycle 1, the teacher asked students questions about the video screen of the topic
including finding some important words and brainstorming on topic learned. Most students
were difficult to relate the vocabulary with the topic discussion. Thus, adding some sentences
in worksheets for listening exercises consisting of some important words or phrases related to
the topic was a good way to activate students’ schemata in pre-listening of cycle 2. The students
would guess boldfaced phrases meaning and words then match every words or phrases with a
definition or synonym from the list. The students worked in pair with their friend and did
comparison work among them to check their answer.

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 In the whilst-listening in cycle 1, the teaching procedure were started by playing an
English video from notebook (laptop) using LCD then distributing the worksheets after playing
the video, then discussing and finding the main idea, detail information, and summarizing the
topic then checking students’ answer. These procedures were revised because most students
were difficult to answer the questions. In the whilst-listening of cycle 2 was started by
distributing the worksheets. This was intended to help students focus on the listening to find
the possible answer. The next, the teacher played the video for the first time while asking
students to make note taking. The students or groups listened to the video-cast while making
notes then finding the main idea of the topic. The second video playing, the students or groups
added their note and then used their notes to answer the detail information provided in
worksheets and then summarize the information. The last activity in whilst-listening of cycle
2 was checking students’ answer. It was possible to replay many times of the video as long as
the students needed more clearly information.
The Teaching and Learning Process
This section elaborates three steps of listening process during the use of video-cast in
the activity of listening skill. They are pre-listening, whilst-listening, and post-listening. This
section provides detail finding in cycle 2, considered as the successful process compared to
cycle 2. This research was conducted in six meetings, three in cycle 1 and three in cycle 2.
Pre-Listening
This activity focused on activating students’ background knowledge. Some activities
that were conducted in pre-listening are described in Table 4.
Table 4. The Description of Students’ Performance in the Pre-Listening Activities
Meeting
Focus Students’ Activity
1 2 3
Activating ✓ Giving responses to the video screen 50% 60% 70%
Students’ ✓ Expressing their ideas about the
Background topic/brainstorming 60% 65% 75%
Knowledge ✓ Finding the meaning some important words
about the topic 60% 75% 80%

The table shows that the percentage of students gave responses on the video screen
increase 10% for each meeting. The figure on brainstorming and finding meaning activities

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gradually increased. Some students still expressed their ideas in Indonesian. The teacher
always reminded them to express their ideas in English. During the study from the cycle 1 until
the end of cycle 2, the students got many vocabularies improvement.
Whilst-Listening
This activity focused on the improvement of the listening skills. The activities include
note taking, finding main ideas, looking for detail information, and summarizing. Some steps
were conducted in this Cycle consisting of five main students’ activities, they were drawing
attention to the video being played, answering the questions covering the four skills, asking
question on difficulties, expressing opinions/arguments about the topic, and getting involved
and shared ideas in group discussion. Table 4.5 showed the data findings in whilst-listening.

Table 5 The Description of Students’ Performance in the Whilst-Listening Activities

Meeting
Category (skills) Focus and Activity
1 2 3
• Taking notes • Paying attention to the video being played 80 80 80
• Identifying • Answering the questions covering four % % %
main ideas skills: taking notes, identifying main ideas, 50 60 70
• Identifying identifying detail information, and % % %
detail summarizing.
information • Asking questions on difficulties
• Summarizing • Expressing opinions/arguments about the 50 30 25

topic % % %

• Getting involved and shared ideas in group 35 45 50

discussion % % %
50 60 70
% % %

Table 5 indicates that the students had good attention in all meetings. There were 80
percent of the students were enthusiastic to understand the messages through the video being
played. Other 20% relied on their friends’ answer, so they did not have full attention to the
video. Related to the students’ activity in answering the questions covering the four skills, there
was significant improvement. Ten of the groups (50%) in meeting 1, six groups (60%) in
meeting 2, and seven groups (70%) in meeting 3 could answer the questions.

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 During the study, the significant improvement also showed when 25% of the students
in meeting 3 found it difficult during the listening activities. They could minimize the
difficulties from the beginning of the study until the end of the study. Some students still found
it difficult to find the main ideas of the topic.
When the students were told to express their ideas/arguments about the topic, 35% of
the students could express their ideas in meeting one, 45% in meeting 2, and 50% in meeting
3. The students’ ability in speaking skill was still low. This also proved that some students still
used Bahasa during the group discussion. Although some of them speak Indonesian, the
students’ involvement and students’ participation in sharing ideas showed good improvement.
Based on the results, it was found that the majority of the class followed the listening
activities without encountering serious problems. The lowest achievement was found in the
ability of the students in expressing their ideas/arguments.
Post-Listening
This activity also provides chances for the learners to strengthen what they had learned.
The teacher reviewed the grammatical rules and asked the students’ feedback on the topic
discussion during the study. The teacher also asked students to download two topics from
websites and answering the questions about the four skills, they were note taking, finding main
ideas, looking for detail information, and summarizing. The discussion is described in Table 6.
Table 6 The Description of Students’ Performance in the Post-Listening Activities in Three
Meetings of Cycle 2
Amount
Focus Students’ Activity
Meeting 1 Meeting 2 Meeting 3
Reinforcements ✓ Reviewing the 80% 80% 80%
and Follow up grammatical/structure
activities rules
✓ Giving feedback 85% 80% 85%
✓ Listening to the materials 70% 70% 80%
as extensive listening
✓ Download the materials 40% 40% 40%
from internet
✓ Answering the questions in 80% 85% 80%
worksheet

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 Table 6 shows that 80% of the students in three meetings had good understanding on
grammatical/structural rule. A few students still got difficulties in analysing the
grammatical/structural rules about the topics. They still confused to differentiate between
perfect and past tense. A good improvement also found in the terms of students’ feedback.
They looked enthusiastic through the use of videocast, there were 85% in Meeting 1, 80% in
meeting 2, and 85% in meeting 3.
As follow-up activities, 70% of the students in Meeting 1 and Meeting 2 did teachers
order to listen the materials as extensive listening. There was an improvement in meeting three
which was 80%. The lowest students’ participation showed in downloading the material from
internet. In all meetings, only 40% of the students got the material through internet, other
students copied only from their friends. Although some of them copied only from their friends,
generally they answered the question in worksheets. Eighty percent or more of the students did
the assignment.
In the end of the study, the questionnaire distributed to know the students’ responds. It
was found that the average score of students’ responses was 86.27%.
The Result of the Students’ Learning
Referring on the result of the quiz, there was an improvement in listening skill. There
were 41.95% of the students in preliminary study got the score below 61 and the average score
was 66.23. The result of the students’ learning showed an improvement. From the total number
of the students, 26 students (86.7%) got higher than or equal to 61 and the rest 4 students
(13.3%) got lower than 61. The average score was 74 (range 0-100). Based on the test score, it
was further analysed that the improvement of the students’ achievement in listening was
satisfactory.
Reflection
This section presents reflection concerning the findings in the implementation of the
teaching and learning using video-cast. The reflection is conducted to make a judgment
whether the criteria of success defined in the study have been attained or not. The reflection is
based on the observation of the pedagogical process and students’ learning result.
The teaching and learning process indicated that the students had positive response and actively
involvement during the study. The average score of participants’ responses was 86.27%.
Furthermore, the average score of students’ involvement was 80.3%. This indicated that the
students actively involvement in the teaching-learning process. The positive response and
involvement were categorized whether success or not if the mean score of students’
involvement was 61% through the observation during the teaching and learning process and

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70% of the students had positive response through the questionnaires given in the end of study.
Finally, the criteria of success in terms of response and involvement were achieved.
Based on the students’ learning results, it was reflected that they have improved their
listening skill. The criteria of success defined in this research is met, meaning that the learning
result was satisfactory. This was proved that from the total number of the students, 26 students
got (86.7%) higher than or equal to 61. The average score was 74 with range 0-100.

Discussion
The success of the teaching of listening is determined by some aspects, one of them is
the types of materials. The use of video-cast could be an alternative medium that provides
intensive and extensive listening materials. In this study, the researcher conducted intensive
listening activities in the classroom and the extensive listening was conducted as follow-up
activities outside the class. As Harmer (2007) states, the use of materials as extensive listening
can help the students to increase their listening skill because the learners can listen the materials
for as many times as they want. This classroom action research, the researcher provided 12
topics, 6 for practices in the classroom as intensive listening and 6 outside the class as extensive
listening. The various topics and frequencies of listening using supporting media such as video-
cast can help the students to develop their listening skill. This is in line with Cahyono and
Widiati (2009) who state that giving students opportunities repeatedly to listen to the listening
materials can help the learners to recognize the spoken English sounds, as well as convey the
message sounds from the listening materials.
The use of media supports the success of the teaching of listening. videocast as one of
technological media has a good contribution in motivating students to learn. This was proved
by the students’ responses on the use of videocast. They became enthusiastic to learn. The
study which was conducted by Yumarnamto and Wibowo (2008) and Hager (2009) found that
the use of video-cast makes students highly motivated and enthusiastic to learn. Similarly,
Kusumarasdyati (2008) claimed that the use of videos as a teaching tools is able to motivate
students and engaged them in some activities associated with aural perception to a target
language.
The use of videocast which is the combination of audio, visual, and technological tools
implemented in this study showed positive achievement in motivating students to learn. In
other words, the use of audio, visual, and technological tools should be considered as important
to think in order to get successful teaching and learning (Santoso 2008). This is supported by
Jonassen et al. (2003) who state that the use of technology can facilitate learning. Furthermore,

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the research on visual technology conducted by Reid (2002) shows that the use of digital video
can enhance students’ speaking and listening skills and also increase pupils’ motivation. Video-
cast is intrinsically motivating, the sound and picture lively captures our attention. Willis
(1983) states that video is an obvious medium to help students interpret visual cues and relates
to visual element with interaction effectively.
The teaching procedure in using video-cast in this study consists of pre-listening,
whilst-listening, and post-listening activities. The pre-listening activity is intended to lead the
students or activate students’ schemata to the topic. This was started by discussing difficult
words, and then brainstorming the topic while showing the video screen. In this activity, it is
important conducted that the teachers should trigger the students’ attention to focus on what
they are going to have. It is relevant to Kusumarasdyati’s (2004) arguments that the teacher
should spend sufficient amount of time to help students construct their appropriate schemata to
facilitate comprehension in the beginning stage. By introducing the topic and elicit some
vocabulary and expression from the students, it could make them focus on the topic.
The whilst-listening activity provides students with some activities. The video-cast was
played two times for answering some questions in the worksheets and then the students
discussed their answers. This is the core activity in which the teacher must engage the students
to view the video-cast. This core activity should be carefully done and prepared by the
instructor since the students can take advantage to learn the target language from the video-
cast.
The post-listening activity was conducted to review the grammatical or structural rules
and to know students’ feedback. In the follow-up activities, the students listened the material
the material many times and they answer the worksheets given consisting of taking notes,
finding main ideas, looking for specific/detail information, and doing summary. In addition,
the listening activities were set up in three phases; pre, whilst, and post-listening. The teaching
of listening using Pop Songs with the three phases has effected on students’ achievement in
listening comprehension and students’ motivation.
To know whether the teaching and learning process has achieved the objectives or not,
it is necessary to conduct evaluation. Two kinds of evaluation used in this study were the
evaluation during the process of implementation of the action which was conducted by
observing the learning-teaching activities and the evaluation in the end of implementation of
the action by listening test or quiz. The test was focusing on identifying the students’ listening
skill in finding main ideas, taking notes, looking for detail information, and summarizing. The

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average score of students’ responses was 81.87% in Cycle 1 and 86.27% in cycle 2. The
average score of students’ involvement was 73.7 % in cycle 1 and 80.3 % in cycle 2.
Kusumarasdyati (2008) and Reid (2002) found that the use of video can develop
listening skills. Reid conducted her research in 50 schools from across the UK. Research by
Herron, et al. (1995) the use of language videos aid in information retention and increased
students’ comprehension scores as the descriptive pictures in the form of visual support help
UK’s students learn French. The study shows that extensive listening can facilitate richness
context that visual organisers offer.
Some of the video-cast contributions are that it provides the students many
opportunities to view the authentic language use particularly in listening from serving as the
language input of target language. The input is an external factor that facilitates language
learning in understanding spoken language (Ellis, 1997). This might show that without the
input the language learning cannot occur.
Video-cast which therefore considered as a teaching medium for English that is an
essential tool to teaching resources. To sum up, some factors that video-cast can help the
students improve their listening skills are through communication, the aspects of non-verbal
communication, motivation, and cross cultural comparison. These ideas are supported by
Stempleski and Tomalin (1990).
Through communication, the communication activities encourage students find out
things on the bases of video-cast. The tool sequence applied in classroom make learners ready
to communicate in the target language. Such a media provides students to see non-verbal
communication such as gestures, expression and posture, dress and surroundings are as
eloquent as what the messages delivered. Through motivation, the movement, sound, and
visual can make language more comprehensively and realistically. By using a video-cast
sequences in class is best thing to experiencing the sequence in real-life, exploit the students’
motivation and guide to successful language learning. While through cross-cultural
comparison, the media can provide the different cultures, so the video-cast exploits cultural
comparison which is adequate for learners in class.
In addition, video-cast can enhance both the students’ listening skill and their
involvement in the teaching and learning process. Therefore, as shown in this study, video-cast
can be used whether in the classroom as intensive listening or outside the class as extensive
listening. The provision of variety options on the Internet help teachers to prepare abundant
materials used as the instructional media in listening activities.

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 Based on the results, pedagogical implications include the provision of authentic
materials for English language teaching materials, an alternative language teaching
methodology using technology into practices whether in or outside class activities, and helping
students to engage more in learning using audio-visual aid tools. Although this classroom
research study specifically belongs to specific people or areas, such an issue may be
experienced by other teachers and students, particularly in English Language Teaching as a
Foreign Language, and then would become a role teaching and learning model.

Conclusion
This study has examined the use of video-cast to enhance listening skill of English Department
students of IAIN Palopo. Pre-listening, whilst-listening, and post-listening are the three
activities integrated with video-cast in and out of class. Pre-listening plays an important role to
activate prior knowledge (students’ schemata) and language by asking students to discuss some
difficult words or phrases and by brainstorming the subject matter learnt while watching on the
video screen. In whilst-listening, the learning process focuses on the note taking, finding main
ideas, finding detail information, and summarizing through the video playing twice. Post-
listening was done by conducting a review on structural or grammar rules and asking feedback
from the students. For more practices, the follow-up activities were done by requesting students
to listen to the two new topics downloaded from internet as extensive listening.
The application of video-cast, whether in the classroom or outside the classroom, gives
positive responses to the students. The use of audio-visual media containing native speakers’
voices as input, can attract students to engage in learning. The sound and video combination in
the multimedia can improve students’ skills in listening. The students can gain information
faster and feel more confident using technological tools in their lesson. The variety authentic
materials for listening instruction help teachers to design and utilised intensive and extensive
listening materials. Teachers have many choices to construct lesson plan for listening activities
to help students listen to message in the target language.

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 Factors Influencing Polytechnic English as Second Language (ESL)
Learners’ Attitude and Intention for Using Mobile Learning

Harwati Hashim, Melor Md. Yunus* and Mohamed Amin Embi

Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Biodata:
Harwati Hashim is a Senior Lecturer/Assistant Professor at the Department of Teaching and
Learning Innovations, Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). She is
an educational technology enthusiast and an e-learning practitioner. Her areas of concentration
are ESL, mobile learning, Mobile-assisted Language Learning (MALL), technology
acceptance as well as language pedagogy and the use of technology in teaching English as
Second Language (ESL).

Melor Md Yunus is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan

Malaysia and is currently the Deputy Dean (Research and Innovation) at the Faculty of
Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). She holds a B.A. in English (Linguistics)
from the University of Nevada-Reno, USA and an M.A. in TESL from the Arizona State
University, USA. She then earned her Ph.D. in Education (TESL) from the University of
Bristol, UK. Her areas of concentration are TESL, language pedagogy and the use of
technology in TESL. Her expertise is in the area of Technology-enhanced Language Learning
(TELL).

Mohamed Amin Embi is a professor of technology-enhanced learning at the Faculty of

Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. He is a leading a consultant, expert and master
trainer on e-Learning in Malaysia and in the Asia-Pacific region. Presently, he is the President
of the Mobile Learning Association of Malaysia.

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Abstract
This study examined the factors that influence polytechnic ESL learners’ attitude and intention
for using mobile learning. In order to quantify the factors and test research hypotheses, a data
collection instrument adapted from previous studies was developed and administered.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) were used to
analyse the data. The results indicated that performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social
influence, perceived language learning potential and learning preference are significant
predictors of the learners’ attitude towards mobile learning which in the end influenced their
intention; while, self-management of learning was found to be insignificant. Based on the
findings, performance expectancy was found to be the most significant factor which influences
polytechnic ESL learners’ attitude towards mobile learning while perceived language learning
potential was found to be the least significant factor. The components presented in this
research could help practitioners and policy-makers to understand what factors need attention
when it comes to the use of mobile learning for ESL initiative.

Keywords: Attitude, intention, factors influencing the use of mobile learning, UTAUT, ESL
learners, Structural Equation Modelling (SEM).

Introduction
In English language teaching and learning, there is a growing research trend, reflecting the
adoption of technology to support English language learning. Many researchers have proven
that technology holds great potential for significantly improving second language learning
(Beatty,2013; Chapelle, 2016). Language educators have looked into electronic technologies
for some time as a way to enhance second language development (Chapelle, 2016; Kim, 2008;
Salaberry, 2001). The fast growth of new generation of mobile devices such as mobile phones
and tablets has increased the great potential of the use of this technology in becoming an
effective tool for learning (Balakrishnan & Mubarak, 2016; Supyan et al., 2012). Today,
mobile learning has been seen as the predominant area which has impacted language
acquisition, distinguishing a modern language classroom and a traditional language classroom
in language teaching and learning and has increasingly attracts the attention of scholars (Viberg
& Grönlund, 2012).

In Malaysia, since learning using mobile device is a brand-new trend emerging from e-learning
and that it has been identified as one of the Critical Agenda Projects (CAPs) and Key Result

196
Area (KRA) of Ministry of Higher Education, using portable technologies such as mobiles and
tablets as learning enhancing technologies, in the context of a developing country like Malaysia
often remains unrealized (Embi, 2013). Moreover, the sparse amount of recent research on the
topic of mobile learning provides further evidence of the need for this type of research.
Nonetheless, even though mobile learning could be a potential support to cope with the
students’ language learning needs, the support could be ineffective if the students are not
interested of using it (Sharples et al., 2005). Teachers should also consider many factors when
designing mobile learning activities such as the ability to access the internet of the students,
the adequate time to interact with the students, the participation of the students as well as the
learning styles of the students (Patoomporn Chairat, 2018). It appears that it is an urgent
requirement, for educational institutions, to understand the factors influencing students' attitude
and intentions to use mobile learning in order to make the mobile learning services acceptable
and to be used (Huang, 2014).

Therefore, there is a need to investigate the factors that influence ESL learners’ attitude and
intention for using mobile learning before deciding to adopt the technology. To this end, this
study addressed the following research questions: (1) Do the factors (Performance Expectancy,
Effort Expectancy, Social Influence, Perceived Language Learning Potential, Learning
Preference and Self-management of Learning) have a significant effect on ESL learners’
attitude towards mobile learning?; (2) Does ESL learners’ attitude towards mobile learning
have a significant effect on their intention for using mobile learning?

In this study, UTAUT model is adapted to investigate polytechnic ESL learners’ attitude and
intention for using mobile learning. Even though there are various studies which contribute to
the understanding utility of UTAUT in different contexts, there is still the need for a systematic
investigation and theorising of the salient factors that would apply to ESL learners and their
intention for using mobile learning. Therefore, as an extension to the UTAUT model,
perceived language learning potential, learning preference and self-management of learning
are added in this study. This study contributes to the literature in mobile learning in three ways.
Firstly, this study contributes to the body of knowledge in the fields of mobile learning by
providing the fundamental aspect where ESL learning is concerned. Secondly, given the
preceding discussion, it is clear that the use of mobile learning to enhance ESL learning must
be tied to current theory and research. This study shows that learning theories, second language
learning acquisition and technology acceptance should not be ignored but embedded and drawn

197
on this existing body of knowledge. Thirdly, the model in this study is developed from
relationships established in previous theoretical and empirical research and it incorporates
previously validated measurement scales as well as new ones which are developed and
validated.

Research Model and Hypotheses Development

Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) resulted from a review and
synthesis of eight theories or models of technology use (Venkatesh et al., 2003). It is a unified
theory consists of eight theories/models which are Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA),
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), Motivational Model (MM), Theory of Planned
Behaviour (TPB), model combining the technology acceptance model and theory of planned
behaviour (C-TAM-TPB), model of PC utilisation (MPCU), Innovation Diffusion Theory
(IDT) and social cognitive theory (SCT). UTAUT has four key constructs (performance
expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions) that influence
behavioural intention to use a technology and/or technology use. According to UTAUT,
performance expectancy, effort expectancy, and social influence are theorised to influence
behavioural intention to use a technology, while behavioural intention and facilitating
conditions determine technology use. However, the findings of the research related to the
UTAUT relationships have shown many inconsistencies which probably due to many factors
such as environment, location, organization, and event. Venkatesh et al. (2016) proposed
UTAUT2 as an extension of UTAUT and recommended that UTAUT2 is used as the baseline
model to different individual outcomes as to identify the new context: environment, location,
organization, and event.

Some researchers find a positive effect of performance expectancy on behavioural intention.

Conversely, Jairak et al. (2009) found no such effect. On the other hand, more consistencies
were found on a positive impact of effort expectancy. Even though some report a positive
relationship of social factors, Jairak et al. (2009) and Nassoura (2012) found no such effect.
Additionally, perceived language learning potential, learning preference and self-management
of learning which were derived from the learning theories, theory of Second Language
Acquisition (SLA) and the theory of ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development), are added to the
model. Perceived Language Learning Potential refers to the degree of opportunity present for
beneficial focus on form (Hashim et al., 2016).

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Language learning could be moderated or navigated by individual differences. This led to the
conclusion that there is a significant effect of learners’ learning preferences on their attitude
towards using mobile learning (Hashim et al., 2016). Self-management of learning refers to
the extent to which an individual perceives he or she is self-disciplined and enables to engage
in autonomous learning (Huang, 2014). Successful learning is derived from learner’s control
of the learning activity, exploration and experimenting, asking questions, and engaging in
collaborative argumentation. Apart from that, the influence of attitude towards the use of the
technologies on behavioural intention was also being investigated. Figure 1 depicts the
proposed adoption model followed by the hypotheses of this study.

Performance
Expectancy

Effort
Expectancy

Social
Influence Attitude towards Intention for using
Mobile Learning
Perceived Language Mobile Learning
Learning Potential

Learning
Preference

Self-management of

Learning

Figure 1. Proposed Model adapted from UTAUT (Venkatesh et al., 2003)

H1: Performance expectancy (PE) positively influences the ESL learners’ attitude towards
mobile learning.
H2: Effort expectancy (EE) positively influences the ESL learners’ attitude towards mobile
learning.

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H3: Social influence (SI) positively influences the ESL learners’ attitude towards mobile
learning.
H4: Perceived language learning potential (PLLP) positively influences the ESL learners’
attitude towards mobile learning.
H5: Learning preference (LP) positively influences the ESL learners’ attitude towards mobile
learning.
H6: Self-management of learning (SML) positively influences the ESL learners’ attitude
towards mobile learning.
H7: Attitude (A) towards mobile learning positively influences the ESL learners’ intention (I)
for using it.

Methodology
Participants and settings
In this study, a total of 400 ESL learners comprises of four polytechnics were chosen as
respondents and this amount is above the recommended size as suggested by Hair et al. (2006)
and also sufficient to present the populace. One hundred semester one students were chosen
from each four polytechnics and respondents were chosen to represent each group which are
technical and non-technical comprising of male and female students.

Data Collection
The questionnaire consisted of 44 items measuring seven constructs. The items were derived
from different research areas and were adapted to orient them to mobile learning in ESL
context. The instrument was validated in a pilot test using Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)
as well as in terms of face and content validities and internal consistency reliability. The
coefficient value for all constructs range from 0.808 to 0.971 which were higher than the
acceptable limit. Hair et. al (2006) recommend that a value of 0.60 is acceptable, and therefore
is adapted as a cut off value for this study. In order to gain some critical insights into the data
characteristics and analysis, the data should be examined in terms of data entry and handling
of missing data14.

The data entries of the 400 samples were examined and it was found that 14 cases had at least
20% or more of the overall questionnaire unanswered. Those cases should be omitted from the
preliminary analysis as they could cause dramatic effects on the research results (Hair et al.,
2006). Therefore, upon deletion of 14 cases, 386 usable samples were retained for further

200
examination of normality and outliers. The results from the statistical diagnostics revealed that
z scores were found below 3.00, but eight cases were found as extreme multivariate outliers
(Mahalanobis d2 > 40.998, p<.001). Therefore, these eight cases were excluded from the data
set and finally, 378 valid cases with 8 variables and a total of 44 items were used for
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) testing. This
sample size also satisfies recommended minimum sample size of 200 samples to guarantee
stable SEM results.

Data Analysis and Results

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

The data were analysed via Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), allowing for the removal of
scale items that did not meet the loading criteria (factor loadings). After removing those items,
reliability alpha was again examined and revised. Table 1 shows the revised reliability ranged
from 0.759 to 0.918, which met the research requirement.

CR AVE
Construct Item Factor Loading
(above 0.6) (above 0.5)
PE pe1 0.88 0.867 0.766
pe2 0.87
pe3 0.82
pe4 0.82
pe5 0.79
pe6 0.86
EE ee1 0.84 0.909 0.715
ee2 0.86
ee3 0.87
ee4 0.81
SI si1 0.62 0.836 0.565
si2 0.53
si3 0.68
si4 0.80
PLLP pllp1 0.85 0.918 0.692

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 pllp2 0.90
pllp3 0.87
pllp4 0.76
pllp5 0.77
LP lp1 0.59 0.874 0.550
lp2 0.64
lp3 0.49
lp4 0.64
lp5 0.78
lp6 0.76
lp7 0.83
SML sml1 0.82 0.810 0.681
sml2 0.83
A a1 0.81 0.829 0.556
a2 0.79
a3 0.84
a4 0.49
I i1 0.86 0.880 0.653
i2 0.86
i3 0.70
i4 0.77
i5 0.52

Table 1. Results of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

To examine the discriminant validity, this study compared the square root of the average
variance extracted for each construct and the correlation between this construct and any other
construct. In summary, the measurement model exhibits adequate reliability, convergent
validity, and discriminant validity. The fitness indexes model has also met the required level
(RMSEA=0.082, CFI=0.891; ChiSq/df=2.722). The results of the discriminant validity are
shown in Table 2 below.

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Table 2. The Discriminant Validity Index Summary
PE EE SI SML PLLP LP A I
PE .928
EE .65 .846
SI .53 .70 .752
SML .65 .70 .70 .825
PLLP .48 .53 .68 .39 .832
LP .72 .52 .68 .47 .53 .742
A .58 .59 .65 .78 .46 .66 .746
I .80 .54 .66 .63 .62 .68 .69 .810

Based on Table 2, the discriminant validity for all constructs is achieved when a diagonal value
is higher than the values in its row and column. Thus, it can be concluded that the discriminant
validity for all constructs is achieved.

Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) and Hypotheses Testing

After the issues of unidimensionality, validity and reliability of the constructs have been
addressed, the constructs were analysed in one full structural model using Structural Equation
Modelling (SEM). In SEM, the multiple relationships among the constructs are analysed
simultaneously. All three index categories have achieved the required level (RMSEA=.051;
CFI=.902; Chisq/df=2.008). Hence, the model was judged to have an acceptable fit. Table 3
presents the regression path coefficient results and its significance;

Estimate S.E. C.R. P Result

A <-- PE .669 .209 3.208 .001 Sig. at 0.01
A <-- EE .200 .071 2.805 .005 Sig. at 0.01
A <-- SI .657 .264 2.490 .013 Sig. at 0.05
A <-- PLLP .106 .060 1.759 .079 Sig. at 0.10
A <-- LP .454 .264 1.720 .085 Sig. at 0.10
A <-- SML .257 .222 1.156 .248 Not Sig.

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 I <-- A 0.931 0.445 2.092 0.036 Sig. at 0.10
Sig. = Significant

Table 3. The regression path coefficient and its significance

The results presented in Table 3 indicate that all constructs have significant effect on the ESL
learners’ attitude towards mobile learning, except self-management of learning. From the
analysis, it is also shown that the path coefficient between attitude and intention is statistically
significant with the regression coefficient of 0.931.

Discussion
Performance expectancy was found to influence polytechnic ESL learners’ attitude towards
mobile learning. This is consistent with the result obtained in other previous studies (Davis,
1989; Jairak et al., 2009) which indicates that students find mobile learning useful due to
convenient access to information without the restriction on physical locations and time. It
appears that students with high performance expectancy (who believe that using mobile
learning will be beneficial to them in learning English language) have a tendency to have
positive attitude towards mobile learning and later have a higher intention for using it. Effort
expectancy was found influence the learners’ attitude towards mobile learning and this is in
agreement with the studies done by Jairak et al. (2009). Therefore, it is very important mobile
learning application to be easy to be used in the early stage. Attention should be paid to guide
the students on how to fully utilise their mobile devices for the purposes of learning ESL.

As far as the social influence is examined, the result indicates that social influence influences
attitude. The results indicate that social influence (lecturers and peers) will strongly influence
ESL learners’ attitude towards mobile learning (Jairak et al., 2009). Perceived language
learning potential was found to influence the learners’ attitude towards mobile learning. This
suggests that it is important for the learners to believe that they would likely to get enough
practice for learning English language. The finding also supports the studies by Furuya et al.
(2016) which have shown that mobile devices allow students to access practical exercises and
allow students to review, listen and practice speaking, and provide services such as phrase
translation, quizzes and live coaching (Yuen & Wang, 2004).

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Most importantly, this implies the concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which
was found to be also successful in other settings where technology devices could serve as
scaffolding support. The result suggests that learning preference does influence learners’
attitude towards mobile learning. This indicates that the lecturers should use mobile learning
more effectively for ESL learners with different learning preference, so that students can meet
their different needs and improve performances.

On the other hand, the result is not consistent with previous research as it reveals that self-
management of learning does not influence ESL learners’ attitude towards mobile learning.
This is probably due to the challenges that the students might face in using mobile learning
which one of them is the high level of English used in many of the materials. Complementary
to this, it is suggested that more studies are needed in order to verify the role of self-
management of learning in influencing attitude towards mobile learning. It is important that
more efforts should be made not only to facilitate learners to have better self-management of
learning, but also to properly give them recommendations for future usage of mobile learning
for the purpose of learning ESL.

Based on the hypothesis’s tests and regression analysis, performance expectancy, effort
expectancy, social influence, perceived language learning potential, learning preference and
attitude were considered as important factors impacting ESL learners’ intention for using
mobile learning. Altogether, they explained significant portion of the variance in attitude
towards mobile learning (R2=0.95) and intention for using mobile learning (R2=0.95).

Figure 2. Factors affecting intention for using mobile learning (p<0.10)

205
To conclude, mobile devices have the potential for supporting the learning of English Language
and would bring added value. Many innovative applications incorporating mobile technology
have been attempted in the subject of English language learning. Various studies have shown
an explosion of interest in using mobile devices for English language teaching and learning.
Undeniably, mobile devices have the characteristics which allow them to be suitable tools for
modern education in terms of providing exploring and sharing learning contents and these
characteristics have definitely a lot to offer for learners of English as Second Language (ESL).

Implications and Conclusion

The results of this study indicate that performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social
influence, perceived language learning potential, learning preference and attitude are
significant factors which influence ESL learners’ intention for using mobile learning. On the
other hand, self-management of learning was not found to be significant. Therefore, students
with more positive perceptions about the usefulness (performance expectancy) of mobile
learning, who find them easier to use (effort expectancy), influenced by the people surround
them (social influence), aware of the potential for their English language learning (perceived
language learning potential) and meet their learning needs or preference (learning preference),
have more positive attitudes towards the use of mobile learning; which in the end influence the
learners’ intention for using mobile learning. Based on the findings, performance expectancy
was found to be the most significant factor which influences polytechnic ESL learners’ attitude
towards mobile learning while perceived language learning potential was found to be the least
significant factor. As the contribution to the body of knowledge in technology acceptance, this
research extended UTAUT in the ESL mobile learning context and provided a foundation for
similar research in the future. The components presented in this research can help
administrators, policy-makers and ESL lecturers to understand what factors need attention
when it comes to a mobile learning initiative.

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Venkatesh, V., Morris, M.G., Davis, F.D., and Davis, G.B. (2003). User Acceptance of
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 Flipped Classroom Approach to make the Best Utilization of ESL Classes
at Mepco Schlenk Engineering College – A Try Out

M.Sarpparaje1, Dr.V.R.Jeyasala2, Dr. K.Rathiga3, Dr.K.Sasirekha4

1, 3, 4
Department of English, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, India
2
Department of English, Alagappa Government Arts College, India
1
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
3
[email protected]
4
[email protected]

Abstract
Technology in education is an ever evolving process and demands the students and
instructor to always upgrade themselves to the emerging technology in education. Teachers
today have transformed from ‘sage on the stage’ to ‘guide on the side’. Throughout, technology
has helped this transformation immensely. According to the Horizon Report, which focuses on
exploring and reporting emerging technology in education, the flipped classroom has been
highlighted as an emerging technology for higher education which is very important to use at
the college level (Johnson, Adams Becker, Estrada, & Freeman, 2014).A flipped classroom, as
its name suggests, is a class where the lecture and homework have been reversed. The direct
instruction given to students as homework can take the form of a video, an article, a book, a
power point, a handout, or a combination of these and the class time which is normally spent
lecturing, is used for in-class activities such as discussions, problems, and group projects.
Replacing direct instruction (the explicit scripted presentation or delivery of information or a
task) from the class time with video lectures observed outside of the classroom allows for more
class-time to be used for active learning.One of the most compelling reasons for the adoption
of flipped classrooms has been poor language competence even after spending many years in
ESL classes being simply a passive listener, especially due to disproportionate teacher-to-
student ratio and the one-size-fits-all method of education. Flipped classroom rectifies this
challenge to make learning balanced—in theory as well as in practice.

209
 This Flipped Classroom Approach is chosen to be the thrust area of this paper as it has
the prospective to prove that how the creation of a piece of communication goes beyond
traditional features such as simply learning the grammar and syntax in ESL classes. In this way,
the paper gives the overview of the Flipped Classroom Approach which has been adopted as a
language teaching pedagogy in Mepco Schlenk Engineering College and explores its potential
with the experimental study having two groups (one as Focused and the other as Controlled)
to enhance the communicative competence in English among engineering students. The
investigation is limited to any two randomly selected I year engineering branches of Mepco
Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi. The quantitative data collection and analysis involved
random sampling technique and the assessments included the posttest scores of the selected
students. The SPSS analysis software tool was utilized to evaluate the quantitative data and to
compare the scores. For the qualitative data analysis, the researcher collected Students’
Perception Survey through a Google Form questionnaire which consolidated the students’
review of the effect of Flipped Classroom Approach.

The results clearly indicate that students have a preference over this Flipped Classroom
Approach and that this approach proved to contribute a lot to their communicative experience
as well as there was a relatively better performance on post test scores of focused than the
controlled ones. It is hoped that the results of this study will ultimately lead to better
understanding of technology use in teaching-learning activities and to deeper understanding of
Flipped Classroom Approach.

Keywords: Technology, Flipped Classroom Approach, Language learning.

1. Introduction

Language proficiency is one of the prime prospects of professional students to tackle

the odds of current cut-throat job market, however, appropriate teaching /learning methods to
achieve the expected proficiency, how to introduce them in Technical English curriculum of
Engineers remains a myth and a little literature refers to these issues. To explore the ways of
getting students proficient in English, educators around the world have been trying to adopt
any new pedagogy to help their students achieve commendable communicative competence
(Jehma, 2016). With the increasing interest in learner-centred approaches in the field of foreign
language education, how to promote autonomous language learners has become a prominent
concern of many researchers (Benson, 2001 as cited in Şenbayrak, M., Ortaçtepe, D., &
Trimble, K., 2018).

210
 Despite the expansion of technology applications and capabilities in recent decades,
traditional lecture-based teaching continues to prevail (Bishop &Verleger, 2013; Butt, 2014;
McLaughlin et al, 2013 as cited in Al-Zahrani, A. M., 2015) where little time is available in
class for modeling and demonstration of the desired practice skills by the instructor and large
class sizes often prohibit significant individual modeling, assessment or interact with students
(Redekopp, M& Ragusa, G., 2013). As a reaction against the traditional view, many educators
have advocated a more authentic, holistic education based on the constructivist view (Brooks
and Brooks, 1999; Roblyer, Edwards, & Havriluk, 1997 as cited in Clark, 2012). This pursuit
of a new approach and technological breakthrough have resulted in the use of blended learning
environments where traditional classroom interactions and e-learning and/or m-learning are
utilized in various combinations, where teachers increasingly become designers of constructive
learning (Laurillard, 2012; Mwanza-Simwami et al., 2011; Pegrum, 2014 as qtd. in Howitt, C.
and Pegrum, M. 2015). Instructors can capitalize on the students’ aptitude for technology and
use that to enrich the learning experience (Alexander, M. M. 2018). One such effective way to
engage the students and put them in control of their learning environment is to implement a
flipped classroom (Alexander, M. M. 2018). Significantly, both the 2014 and 2015 Higher
Education Horizon Reports list flipped classrooms among their six key technological
developments to watch, in both cases with a time-to-adoption horizon of one year or less
(Johnson, Adams Becker, Estrada, & Freeman, 2014, as qtd. In Howitt, C. and Pegrum, M.
2015). This educational strategy adds spatial and temporal flexibility as students can access to
the contents whenever and wherever they want, improving the quality of educational
experiences making them more accessible and flexible. (Estriegana, R., Medina-Merodio, J.A.,
Barchino, R., 2018). A well-planned and executed flipped classroom is an experience that will
resonate with the students and ideally inspire them to take greater responsibility for their own
learning (Alexander, M. M. 2018).
This study aims to encourage more teachers and those in charge of educational
institutions to apply active and participatory learning methodologies and to use online learning
tools, because this kind of learning environments developed both inside and outside the
classroom, help students acquire, in addition to knowledge, competences essential for their
future social and professional life. With this precise introduction, the rest of this study is
organized as follows. Section 2 contains the proven literature review. Section 3 presents the
research model and objective. Section 4 presents the qualitative analysis. Section 5 provides
quantitative analysis and the findings are discussed in section 6 and 7. Section 8 provides
pedagogical implications. The paper ends with the conclusions segmented as section 9

211
suggesting the summary of the study (Estriegana, R., Medina-Merodio, J.-A., & Barchino, R.
, 2018).

2. Literature Review
To ensure the authentic review of this approach, recent and relevant studies were
located. For the purpose, a wide variety of databases were searched and scanned for their
contents. The key words searched in all the databases included “flipped” and “engineering” or
“flipped” and “engineering education” or “inverted classroom” and “engineering” or “flipped
classroom” and “engineering.” (Karabulut-Ilgu, A., Jaramillo Cherrez, N., &Jahren, C. T.,
2017).There were many successful experiences in flipped classroom implementation in
engineering courses that confirmed the benefits and effectiveness of this active learning
strategy and some examples showed student satisfaction and grade-improvement (Estriegana,
R., Medina-Merodio, J.-A., &Barchino, R., 2018).
Figure 2.1 displays the publication of journal articles published from 2000 to first half of 2015
that are included in this review.
The first article on flipped learning using the term “inverted learning” was published
in 2003. From then on, research in this area was very limited, with zero to two or
three publications a year until 2013. From 2013, flipped learning started sparking
more interest amongst engineering education researchers, and 53% of the articles
included in this literature review were published in 2014. In addition, six studies
included in this review were published in the first half of 2015 and they were all
journal articles. This trend indicates an increase in the number of engineering courses
being converted into a flipped format after 2012. (Karabulut-Ilgu, A., Jaramillo
Cherrez, N., &Jahren, C. T., 2017).
Table 2.1: Findings of articles comparing flipped approach to traditional approach
Studies
Flipped is more effective 1. Amresh, Carberry, &Femiani (2013);
2. Chao, Chen, and Chuang (2015);
3. Chiang and Wang (2015)*;
4. Fowler (2014);
5. Kalavally, Chan, and Khoo (2014);
6. Lemley et al. (2013);
7. Mason, Shuman, and Cook (2013)*;
McGivney-Burelle and Xue (2013);
8. Ossman and Warren (2014)*;
9. Papadopoulos and Roman (2010)*;
10. Redekopp and Ragusa (2013);

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 11. Schmidt (2014)*;
12. Swithenbank and DeNucci (2014);
13. Thomas and Philpot (2012);
14. Yelamarthi, Member, and Drake (2015)*
Flipped is more effective 1. Baepler, Walker, and Driessen (2014);
2. Cavalli et al. (2014);
3. Chetcuti, Hans, & Brent (2014);
4. Choi (2013)
No difference 1. Buechler, Sealy, and Goomey (2014);
2. Davies et al. (2013);
3. Love, Hodge, Grandgenett, and Swift (2014);
4. Mason, Shuman, and Cook (2013b);
5. Olson (2014);
6. Swift and Wilkins (2014);
7. Talbert (2014);
8. Velegol et al. (2015)
Flipped is less effective 1. Hagen and Fratta (2014);
2. McClelland (2013)
Flipped is less effective and/or no 1. Lavelle, Stimpson, and Brill (2013)
difference
*Indicates statistical significance.

Note.Karabulut-Ilgu, A., Jaramillo Cherrez, N., &Jahren, C. T. (2017). A systematic review of

research on the flipped learning method in engineering education. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 49 (3), 398–411. doi:10.1111/bjet.12548
The above mentioned 30 studies/researches compared student learning in traditional
classrooms to learning in flipped classrooms (Table 2.1). Fourteen studies exclusively reported
that students in the flipped classroom out-performed their counterparts in the traditional
classrooms. Of these, six studies reported the statistical significance of their findings. In others,
the authors reported an increase in average scores, but did not report a statistical analysis
investigating the significance of the observed difference. Four studies concluded mixed
results in terms of learning gains. In eight other studies, researchers did not find any
statistically significant difference between flipped and traditional approaches in terms of
student learning.

Two articles reported that students in the flipped classroom did not perform as well
as their counterparts learning in a traditional environment. Hagen and Fratta (2014) observed
that even intrinsically motivated students under-performed in the flipped environment.
Students had negative perceptions toward the course and felt unprepared for the exams
because they had to manage their own learning. Similarly, McClelland (2013) indicated that
the average final score for students in the traditional format was significantly higher than the
students in the flipped sections. Other researchers, on the other hand, did not find any

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statistically significant difference between the two formats in terms of exam scores; however,
more students failed the course in the flipped section when compared to the average of
previous years’ traditional offerings, and this difference was statistically significant as cited
in Lavelle et al., 2013. In contrary to Lavelle et al research, the current study shows that there
are no failures in the flipped approach applied class, whereas traditional class having more
number of failures on a relative scale. A huge benefit of flipping is that the students who
struggle get the most help (Altemueller, L., & Lindquist, C., 2017). Nevertheless, studies to
prove the approach’s validity are still limited, also when any new approach is implemented
for the first time, it is very likely that an innovation will be successful because of its novelty,
or will fail because of insufficient experience. Therefore, this study calls for more researches
examining the acquisition or development of key competences using this active learning
approach investigating students’ performance and experience should be assessed over a
longer period of time, together with other factors such as the variety of learning styles, genre,
relationships or their willingness to different learning environments (Estriegana, R., Medina-
Merodio, J.-A., &Barchino, R., 2018).
3. Research Model and Objective
The implementation of the Flipped Classroom approach aims to investigate if it is effective
in making students take up the assimilation tests with better understanding and receive the new
approach of the teacher/researcher with high satisfaction. Totally, One hundred Twenty five
students in this study were trained by the researcher, control group (65) with the traditional
approach and focus group (60) with the chosen approach. The focus group accessed their video
contents posted on Google site repository, having the following link:
https://sites.google.com/view/icsea, which was created by the teacher before coming to the
class (Jehma, 2016). Accurately 8 video lessons were prepared and produced, accompanied
with student resource packages, exercises, quizzes, as well as plans for classroom activities.
The video lesson contents were similar to any traditional lecture, but were condensed to 10-20
minutes in length. The videos were made using the technical support of the researcher’s college
camera man for better resolution and stability with supporting materials as power point slides
on the projector screen. There was also the usage of microphone to fine tune the voice clarity.
The video was uploaded to YouTube and the video URL was embedded on the Google site
repository. Google sites allowed students to access the lectures anytime and anywhere and the
alert was given to students to mandatorily watch and complete the pre-works to get ready for

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an enriching class time activities. This provided students the flexibility to plan ahead and to
take responsibility for their own learning.
Fig. 3.1 below shows a screenshot of 8 lessons which were made available in the
repository; Fig. 3.2 and Fig.3.3 confirm the lesson package with videos and worksheets. There
is also a flow chart presented as Fig.3.4, illustrating the varied teaching style adopted by the
researcher for handling both the experimental groups.
Fig. 3.1 – Home Screen showing list of resources created in Google Sites

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Fig. 3.2 – Kinds of Sentences Video LessonFig. 3.3 – Tenses Resource Package

Fig. 3.4 – The Unit completion by the researcher using conventional and flippedclassroom
approach.

Technical Engish I (I unit Coverage)

Flipped
Conventional Classroom

Pre-class Activity: Watching Video

Listening Class Lectures (with Recorded Lectures and taking Pre-
chalk&talk/ppt/video/notes) Activity

Homework/Assignment In-Class Activity: 1.Discussion

/Interation between/among peer/faculty
2. Gamifying Exercises/Quiz
Formative Assessmnet
Post-Class Activity:1. Feedback
Collection
2. Taking up more Quiz/Online Testing
END TEST

Note: The above illustration is the teaching design as referred in Al-Zahrani, A. M. (2015).
From passive to active: The impact of the flipped classroom through social learning platforms
on higher education students’ creative thinking. British Journal of Educational Technology,
46(6), 1139. doi:10.1111/bjet.12353
As shown above, the teacher can implement tiered activities in the flipped classroom.
The illustrated 3 Tiered activities (pre, in and post-class) allow students the opportunity to work

216
with the same content, essential ideas and skills, but with varying degrees of ability and
complexity (Altemueller, L., & Lindquist, C., 2017). Students who are ready for more
advanced content or who learn faster can proceed while others can watch multiple times as
needed until the concepts become clear, which gives the students control over their learning.
(Fulton, 2012 as cited in Altemueller, L., & Lindquist, C., 2017).
4. Qualitative Analysis

The data collection instrument for the qualitative analysis was a questionnaire to assess
the students’ perception of the effectiveness of the specific components of flipped approach.
The survey questionnaire was composed of two sections (Refer Fig. 4.1 & 4.2) with the
following factors: (1) demographic information about the participants (Refer table. 4.3), (2) a
scale of readiness for learner autonomy, (3) learners’ attitudes toward the flipped classroom
approach, and (4) suggestions of the learners regarding the adopted approach. Items in the
second section were adapted from recognized studies and were modified to fit the context of
this study that is indicated in the table 4.4 (Aldunate& Nussbaum, 2013; Chopdaret al., 2018;
Khan et al., 2018; Lee, Lim et al.,2017; Shaw et al., 2018; Venkateshet al., 2003). A five-point
Likert scale was used as the measurement scale for 10 questions in the second section as
following: “Strongly Disagree,”“Disagree,” “Neutral,” “Agree,” to “Strongly Agree.”
(Şenbayrak, M., Ortaçtepe, D., & Trimble, K., 2018) and 4 polar questions (yes or no) were
also included. The fifteenth item was a descriptive, open-ended question and thus, the
questionnaire was meticulously prepared with both the closed set and open-ended questions
(Redekopp, M& Ragusa, G., 2013). The questionnaire was administered online through Google
Forms and the calculation of students’ responses is presented in table 4.5.
Fig.4.1- First Section View of the Form Fig.4.2- Second Section View of the Form

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Table 4.3 – Demographic information of the student participants

Groups n=59 %

Gender Male 31 52.5

Female 28 47.5
Age 16–17 3 5.1
17–18 34 57.6
18–19 22 37.3
Medium in School State Board 56 94.9

CBSE 2 3.4
ICSE 1 1.7
Day scholar or Hosteller Dayscholar 19 32.2
Hosteller 40 67.8

Table 4.4 – Number of Components and Sources Adapted

Component Source adapted from Number of items

a scale of readiness for learner autonomy Johnson,2013 6

learners’ attitudes toward the flipped

classroom approach Barua et al., 2018 8

Note: Şenbayrak, M., Ortaçtepe, D., & Trimble, K. (2018). An exploratory study on Turkish
EFL learners’ readiness for autonomy and attitudes toward self-access centers. TESOL
Journal, e401. doi:10.1002/tesj.401

Table 4.5 – Calculation of Questionnaire’s closed-set items based on students’ responses

Items on Questionnaire Mean Mode SD
(in %)
1. Pre-class materials (i-Lecture/others) were available on e-learning 1 100 NA
repository (Google Sites) before the flipped classroom activity.
2. Adequate time was provided to spend on the pre-class materials (i- 1 100 NA
Lecture/exercises etc.) before the flipped classroom activity.
3. Pre-class materials and exercises were interesting and relevant to 4 67.79 0.69
the flipped classroom module.
4. I did the pre-class tasks embedded in the video/repository myself. 1 99.73 0.27
5. Flipped Classroom pre-class materials gave me a good learning 4 61.01 0.72
experience.
6. I participated lively in the group activities organized during the 4 78 0.57
class hours.
7. The Flipped Classroom gives me greater opportunities to 4 67.72 0.88
communicate with other students.
8. The activities during flipped classroom session increased my 4 72.88 0.64
understanding of the key concepts.
9. The flipped classroom session inspired me to pursue further 4 71.81 0.64
learning for the module.
10. The flipped classroom is more engaging than traditional classroom 4 72.88 0.69
instruction.

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 11. I totally agree to the idea/method of Flipped Classroom Design of 4 59.3 0.65
my teacher.
12. More lectures can be conducted in the flipped classroom mode. 1 88.1 0.79
13. I am willing to take responsibility for self-learning and self- 4 76.27 0.68
managing the contents of e-material posted in flipped classroom
repository (Google Sites) .
14. The Flipped Classroom has not improved my learning of 2 54.23 0.92
Technical English.
Note: Likert scale items measured on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 =
strongly agree and 1 (yes) & 2 (no) for polar questions. SD- Standard Deviation, NA- Not
Applicable, Mode = maximum median respondents value / total population response numbers.

Refer Fig.4.6 for the screenshot of the students’ responses to the last open-ended
question (15. Kindly state any other comments you wish to make about the Flipped Classroom
like its advantages, disadvantages and further recommendations to improve learning via
Flipped Classroom). Each student’s free response to the question was coded into common
themes that were drawn from significant similar multiple responses that had more than one
student answering in the same way. All the responses were coded into generic themes; even
the miscellaneous ones, as listed below in the table 4.7.

Fig.4.6 – Screenshot of Open-Ended Question Responses

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 Table 4.7 - Thematic Representation of Students’ Perception of Flipped Classroom Approach

Theme Frequency Response Examples

(Percent,
n=59)
1.Interesting and 24 1. It helps to improve my English knowledge. It is more
Useful (40.67%) interesting and easy to learn English.
2. Flipped Classroom teaching is a whole new level
advanced teaching methods.
In this method students don’t have to sit and listen to
boring lectures instead they can study whenever they are
interested to study.
3. Flipped classroom are very interesting and very useful to
me.
4. This method of teaching is more energetic as it involves
active participation of us in the classrooms. i personally
enjoy this method as it is no more the same normal lectures
but something more interesting.
5. Flipped classroom is so interesting. I wish to go ahead.
6. Its more interestingthan the boring lectures.
2. More Flipped 18 1. The concepts they teach in flipped classrooms are more
Class Materials (30.50%) basic. Still more advanced lectures can be added for better
Needed learning.
2. More lectures and worksheets can be posted in the site.
3. I like the flipped and pre-class materials very much. I hope
you will provide many lectures and materials in future.
4. Advanced level worksheets can be included to improve
ourselves in the concept.
5. The flipped classroom methodology is quite interesting. If
more worksheets are added with some difficulty would do
this one a more interesting way.
6. Flipped classroom method is very handy and impressive
,extra worksheets can be given for extra practise.
7. Its good method of teaching as it makes students to interact
more in classes. Higher level worksheets can be given and
tests can be conducted frequently.
8. Great...This learning methodology seems quite
innovative...
Still many more exercises can be given to improve our
skills..That'sit..Thank you Mam!...
3. Suggestions 8 (13.55%) 1. Improve the sound quality.
2. Groups can be shuffled even more so that we can
communicate with entire classroom. Its good.
3. Need for interesting lectures with a few native language
content.
4. Mam, kindly send more lecture vidios on the file you send
me.
5. Pleasant morning mam,i may be happy if you provide
answer to worksheet below the question for my answer

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 checking. More than that the flipped classroom is
awesome.

4. Downsides 5 (8.47%) 1. Still there are some students in the class who are having
technical issues in using this method.
2. Flipped class good but another person go to the other
websites. You have create only go to website not go
another websites.
3. The flipped classroom methadology can still be more
advanced.
4. Some technical issues should be rectified so that many
tasks can be done.
5.Miscellaneous 4 (6.77%) 1. No regrets.
2. No comments.I like the class the way it is right now.
3. Good.
4. Very good type of experience for students.
Largely, about 77.94% of the students recognized the advantages of flipped classrooms, which
resonated with their comments in the open-ended questions, where they clearly appreciated the
aspects of flipped classroom. The results were consistent with Forsey et al., 2013 as cited in
Hao, 2016 study, which showed that students can understand the merits of flipped learning.
5. Quantitative Analysis

It is hoped that the focus group’s overall readiness levels and the motivation dimension
positively impacted their course grades. This phenomenon absolutely confirms the previous
studies of Mega, Ronconi, & DeBeni, 2014 as cited in Hao, 2016 who confirmed that higher
motivation levels will contribute favourably to better student achievement as students with
lower motivation and lower achievement levels even would have acquired interactive
instruction and achieved more success due to the flipped classrooms. Confirming that,
improved scores of students in a flipped classroom versus a traditional lecture has also been
demonstrated in this study involving the focus group - first year Computer Science and
Engineering undergraduate technical English students who received 100% pass percent (Refer
table 5.1) against 90.77% (Refer table 5.2) of the control group- Electrical and Electronics
engineering students, thereby showing approximately 9% of substantial increase, proving its
validity that low achievers are indeed a lot benefited from this approach.

Table 5.1- Focus Group’s Marks Analysis

Internal marks No. of students

0- 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-49 50-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91- Attended AB Total
10 100
0 0 0 0 0 18 32 10 0 0 60 0 60

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Pass Percentage : (60/60) : 100%
Marks
Max. Min. Mean Median
76 50 63 63

Table 5.2- Control Group’s Marks Analysis

Internal marks No. of students

0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-49 50-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100 Attended AB Total

1 0 1 4 0 12 37 10 0 0 65 0 65
Pass Percentage : (59/65) : 90.77%

Marks
Max. Min. Mean Median
77 8 61 64

6. Findings

Both the concept inventory (qualitative analysis) and final exams (quantitative analysis)
show a significant difference in student performance and perception between the flipped and
traditional approaches, with students being highly satisfied and positive about their perceptions
of flipped classroom approach and above all, the flipped classroom benefited lower achievers
more than high and average achievers as same as that of Bhagat et al., (2016) and Altemueller,
L., & Lindquist, C., (2017) reflected in their studies. While a firm conclusion cannot be drawn

222
from this data alone, it does suggest that the increase in learner autonomy and engagement
resulting from a flipped approach provides improvement in low achievers in one or the other
ways which was also the exact finding of Redekopp,M & Ragusa,G.,(2013).

7. Limitations

This research was limited because it was conducted with often more motivated and
enthusiastic fresher’s batch, and in small-sized classes, where more group/peer interaction is
possible effortlessly. Second, since the course-in-charge was also the researcher, students may
have wanted to satisfy their teacher by providing positive responses. Thirdly, focus group’s
better scores could have been due to their inherent ability and flipped classroom approach
might not be an attribution for the same. However, as a pilot study with a small sample size,
this inquiry can still provide some indications of students’ positive perceptions of working in
a Flipped Classroom and may also establish some foundations upon which further research
may be undertaken.
8. Pedagogical Implications

The idea of flipping the classroom is not new and the above mentioned pedagogy is
already handled by researches worldwide as already stated in the literature survey of this study.
But at Tamilnadu level, no report on Flipped Classroom is available yet and ours may be the
maiden attempt to the pedagogical practice of Flipped Classroom Approach at the Indian state
of Tamilnadu, that too in ELT context. Inspired by the view that flipping the classroom just
means students doing work at home that they once did in classrooms is simplistic,
revolutionising conventional teaching and learning, this FC approach was implemented in the
state of the art Engineering college in Tamilnadu, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College and the
results of this study indicate that the flipped classroom model seems to offer promising ways
to engage students in more effective, supportive, motivating and active learning, especially for
low achievers and those students who struggle with traditional lectures. Without indirect
repercussions, the study results are simply clear and direct proving the flipped classroom to be
more advantageous than the teacher-centered approach of the conventional method of teaching.
Although flipped materials can promote student autonomy and learning differentiation, it is the
overall flipped structure that is potentially most transformative, because of the way it frees up
classroom time for interaction, collaboration, and co-construction of understanding – which, if
well-structured by teachers as part of their pedagogical redesign, can be very much utilised

223
effectively by students along with their own evolving needs and interests contributing to better
learning experience altogether.

9. Conclusion

In order to meet out the educational demands of 21st century students, it is important
to use innovative approaches in teaching learning process. Since the number of researches
regarding flipped classroom approach is increasing day by day throughout the world, this study
can attract attention of educators about the possibility of this approach and can form a point of
view on how to plan, organize and use it in their courses. Undoubtedly, the positive
development in desire, interest and motivation of educators using technological equipments
will increase the effective use of this approach (files.eric.ed.gov. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2018).
No longer does a teacher need to provide a synchronous lesson to his or her students.
Technology can liberate the teacher to move towards an asynchronous student-centered
learning environment where each student receives a personalized education program and the
same can be disseminated through ubiquitous technological features, in order that any global
audience (may be teachers or learners) can be benefited from the flipped classroom approach
with a view to enhance their knowledge and skills. Similarly, this research calls for more
researches to be conducted globally with a larger sample, in different courses, and at different
levels of education, so that it will be possible to generalize the findings. Moreover, using
different data collection tools in addition to the pre-test, post-test, and focus group interview
may yield a more in-depth and multi-faceted analysis of the students' opinions and academic
achievements as far as this promising 21st century pedagogy is concerned.

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 English Language Pedagogy for Engineering Students through Domain
Specific Literature – Classroom Experiments and Experience

Dr.K.Sasirekha 1, Dr. K.Rathiga2, Ms. M. Sarpparaje3 Mr. G.S.Suresh4

1, 2, 3, 4
Department of English, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, India
1
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
3
[email protected]
4
[email protected]
Abstract
English language acquisition is demanded across the world for several purposes.
Advancement of computer, internet, e learning, e governance, etc have made English language
as a machine language. Machine language refers to the language which the computer can
understand and customarily it is the English language. With such an acceleration of the
development of computer technology and its adaption everywhere, including the
classrooms, the redefining of the English language pedagogy becomes an absolute necessity.
Today almost all engineering works in corporates, multinational companies and industries are
associated with English language skills. Hence mandatorily English language proficiency is
needed for all engineering students, the classroom pedagogy for English language teaching will
have to talk about the materials and methodology. Unfortunately, existing engineering English
course in technical universities and engineering colleges in Tamilnadu, India do not cater the
English language needs of industries. To amend the gap, English pedagogy has also to be
redefined along with the growth of science and technology so as to reach the learners. Teaching
materials in English language teaching for specific purposes have evolved several changes in
the recent years. Computer and internet opened rich language resources and free access to
relevant teaching materials. Understanding the importance of English language skills for
engineering students, the researchers conducted few class room experiments. The class room
try outs demanded relevant material selection and appropriate methodology. Such materials
were identified based on the needs analysis.

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 The prime aim of this research paper is to share the researchers’ classroom
experience on selection of language materials and the methodologies adapted to enrich the
language skills of the engineering students. Integration of all the four language skills (LSRW)
and the linguistic skills are the natural way to teach/learn the language for communication.
Linguistic skills are referred to as language competency which is the requisite for
understanding and interpreting the language functions. Hence the paper attempts an in
depth study on the following objectives:
• Engineering English Courses in Tamilnadu, India and its Limitations
• Needs analysis on material choice and methodology
• Research Design
• Interpretation of needs analysis and identification of materials based on the needs
analysis
• The naturalness and usefulness of integration of skills for language pedagogy
• What is domain specific literature and how it was experimented to teach learn language
skills and linguistic skills
• Findings
• Limitations
• Pedagogical Implication
• Conclusion
Key words: Pedagogy, material selection, LSRW skills and linguistic skills (understanding and
interpreting, ESP, EST, DSL)

Engineering English Courses in Tamilnadu, India and its Limitations

At present, English language teaching for specific learners has been gaining momentum
across the world. However, teaching English language to engineering students is becoming
more complex since students are joining technical institutions from diverse background in
Tamilnadu, India. Every academic year more engineering students are coming out with limited
English language skills. Thus, many researches are going on about selection of relevant
materials and exploiting various methodology to teach English language successfully to
engineering learners. Academicians, language teachers and linguists are researching and
experimenting how and what literature should be incorporated in ESL / EFL curriculum.
Following the same line this paper elucidates why the English language teachers at engineering
colleges should select Domain Specific Literature (DSL) to teach language skills to engineering

230
students. The authors of this research paper have pertinent teaching experience in different
premier engineering colleges Tamilnadu. This relevant work experiences gained has given
enough understanding about the Engineering English Courses followed in Technical
Universities, Tamil Nadu,India. For a perusal the course objectives of Mepco Schlenk
Engineering College (Autonomous) where the author and et al working are furnished.
Technical English – I (Regulation 2015), course objectives of Mepco Schlenk Engineering
College (Autonomous), Sivakasi are as follows:

• enable the students of Engineering and Technology build up vocabulary

• improve grammatical accuracy
• develop language functions
• understand the basic nuances of language
(http://www.mepcoeng.ac.in/index.php/academics/academics-3)
All engineering colleges and technical universities is coming under Anna
University (the highest educational body), Tamilnadu, India. Hence as an another example,
Communicative English – HS8151, Anna University (Regulation 2015), course objectives are
presented below for further more understanding:
• to develop the basic reading and writing skills of first year engineering and
technology students.
• for help learners develop their listening skills, which will, enable them listen to
lectures and comprehend them by asking questions; seeking clarifications.
• to help learners develop their speaking skills and speak fluently in real contexts.
• for help learners develop vocabulary of a general kind by developing their reading
skills (https://www.annauniv.edu/academic_courses/curr_ud.html)
Above mentioned objectives of the institutions are presented here with a notion to
comprehend it clearly. Course objectives are framed to help learners, learn and improve
language skills and to develop their communicative ability. The Technical English Course or
Communicative English Course of first year engineering followed in Tamilnadu engineering
colleges and technical universities affiliated were examined for this research paper. It was
found that almost all technical universities and engineering colleges affiliated to Anna
University have similar types of syllabi which depends on grammar items and technical
writing. It is evident the emphasis is more on grammar and usage. It involved students in mere
repetitive grammar drills only. These grammar drills and the time spent by learners did not
guarantee the proficiency level of students, as mentioned in objectives. To realise the

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objectives, appropriate course materials with suitable teaching methodologies should be
incorporated is the belief of the author and et al.
Communication can be successful and complete with the integration of LSRW skills.
Unfortunately listening comprehension is neglected and due importance is not given by course
designers, because of several factors. One of the factors is insufficient language laboratory and
resources. No adequate space to practise speaking skills also. Identification of the limitations
in the skill sets made the authors to redesign an alternative trial syllabus with domain specific
literature. Larsen – Freeman(1983) advocates “…teaching material design has a central role in
the process of educating student teachers and in guiding them to make informed
choices..,(267)” Researchers of this paper with their teaching experience understood materials
included for the teaching of listening and speaking can make the syllabus need-based and
complete. In the minds of English language teachers at engineering colleges and students there
has been an expectation for a change in the syllabus. Albert P‘Rayan, the senior English teacher
and a columnist in The Hindu (Daily – English Newspaper) felt the same and opinionated the
same in his Ph.D. dissertation entitled Engineering English: A Critical Evaluation, as
follows:
There are a number of factors which contribute to engineering students’ lack of
proficiency in English and deficiency in communication skills. The need for
enhancing engineering students’ communication skills and prepare them to the
workplace has been addressed in a number of forums and questions regarding
the effectiveness of the Engineering English curriculum too have been raised.
What is the role of institutes of engineering and technology in developing the
students‘ employability skills? Should the Engineering English course be
modified or redesigned? What measures should be taken to make the students
‘industry-ready’? (20)
The expansion of commercial and social needs create unprecedented demand for
engineering professionals in India. Industries, multinational companies expected engineering
students to be technically proficient and good at English communication, so that they can apply
their expertise in a wide range of organisational, cultural, legal and functional engineering
industrial environments. But most of the Indian engineering students who are learning English
do not learn to communicate. Engineering English Courses prescribed in the curriculum should
help the learners to acquire language skill sets and as a resultant they should be communicative.
The grammar drills included in the syllabus teach them more about the language structure

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instead of giving them practice in the language as such. The mismatch pertained between
Engineering English curriculum and corporate expectations are well realised.
The existing engineering English courses exercised in Tamilnadu, are not completely
reflecting students’ language need and do not help them for effective communication. Thus
language teaching material used should consider the needs of the engineering students and the
required industrial communicative practices is understood by the authors. Engineering students
want to improve their language skills for employment chances, higher studies and afterwards
for career up gradation. Therefore a systematic research was done about the inclusion of
teaching material in Technical English Course. Based on the needs of learners English language
pedagogy should be redesigned. Hence, it is decided to conduct needs analysis on material
selection and methodology adapted for integration of language skills and linguistic skills.
Domain specific literary material inclusion in the Technical English Course and suitable
teaching learning methodology based on the needs assessment will be useful and effective, is
the finding of these classroom experiments. In addition a review of how materials were chosen
and practised also recorded.

Needs Analysis on Material Choice and Methodology through Questionnaire

Needs analysis is a suitable analytical technique mandatory for curriculum development
and it is to be done before a syllabus redesign/development for language teaching. The opinion
of stakeholders are essential to understand the diverse language needs of learners. This
scientific approach is infused in language curriculum. Communicative needs of the learners
and the techniques of achieving specific language objectives can be identified through needs
analysis.
Thirty five students with good CGPA from both pre- final year and final year were
identified. A questionnaire was distributed to III and IV year B.E., B.Tech students of Mepco
Schlenk Engineering College, Sivaksi, Tamilnadu, India. The idea pertained in the selection of
sample group was logical. First they would remember what they have studied in Technical
English I and II in their first year Technical English Course and the placement trainings they
have started attending should have created language awareness and exposure. The students
were variedly chosen from different branches of engineering: Computer Science and
Engineering, Electronics and Communication Engineering, Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, Information Technology, Bio Technology and Mechanical Engineering. It is to
appraise the Technical English Course which the respondents had during their first two
semesters of engineering programme. Evaluation and needs analysis components were

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compressed in a questionnaire (Annexure I) for the respondents’ convenience to give their
details. Out of thirty five, thirty one students only submitted the questionnaire on time.
The data collected were analysed objectively by spending required time, it facilitated
the author et al to understand the engineering students’ communicative needs and the
limitations in the existing course. Teaching/Learning materials are “anything which is used to
help language learners to learn” (Tomlinson, 2011:xiii). Hence language learning materials
identified should help the learners to communicate in all formal and informal situations. N.S.
Prabhu in his Second Language Pedagogy (1987) states in the “Syllabus and Materials” as
follows:
The language in which tasks are presented in a collection is similarly
subject to teachers’ simplification in the classroom, including, when necessary,
a complete reformulation. Although the same task can, within limits, be
presented and attempted in more or less complex language, there is, in general,
a minimum level of linguistic ability which a given task demands of the learner,
and different teachers may assess that minimal level differently, depending on
the degree of simplification they consider feasible and on their earlier
experience of trial and error (94).
The opinion derived from the data was analysed carefully. Interpretation of needs
analysis helped the author et al to identify the domain specific literature to experiment it for I
year B.E and B.Tech students at Mepco Schlenk Engineering College.

Research Design
The data collected from senior students were helpful and it facilitated the teachers to
detect the conditions that are faced by the engineering students. Their practical insight helped
the teachers to identify domain specific literature to teach all the language skills required for
communication. The material selection and teaching methodology integrated all the four
language skills (LSRW) and the linguistic skills. Linguistic skills are referred to as language
competency which is the requisite for understanding and interpreting the language functions. .
Hence an excerpt from the Wings of Fire (Appendix II) by Dr. Kalam & Arun Tiwari and a
video about Autonomous weapon (autonomousweapons.org) were identified as lessons to
teach the select topics prescribed in Technical English I. Topics identified are presented below:

1. Vocabulary - Compound words - Word formation and Word expansion.

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 2. Listening - Watching videos/documentaries and responding to questions based on
them and giving personal opinion
3. Speaking - Responding to questions – Giving impromptu talks, Making
presentations on given topics – group interaction
4. Reading - Skimming and Scanning and Making inference from the reading passage
and Predicting the content of a reading passage
5. Writing – Free writing on any given topic and Process description
The above mentioned topics were assembled as a trial module to experiment it in
Technical English Course for I year B.E & B.Tech students (2018- 2022). Ten periods in the
timetable earmarked for Technical English is used by the authors to try out the identified LSRW
activities. Therefore, it is proposed to use the select teaching material as sample lessons to
improve language and linguistic skills. Logically speaking, inclusion of domain specific
literature alone is not enough for the learners to improve communication. It has been illustrated
in the P.hD thesis entitled Redesigning the Anna University Technical English Course
through Select Literary Material: an Attempt - “ Method of teaching/learning is to be
tailored to make the learner active in their environments” (Sasirekha,15). The central point is
not about the introduction of domain specific literature to the engineering students but helping
them to enhance their language efficiency. Henceforth, the classroom experiments were
conducted to impart communication skills based on the requirement and to administer the
language focus activities based on the select materials. The below sections elaborate the
interpretation of needs analysis and the language activities conducted in detail.

Interpretation of Needs Analysis and Identification of Materials Based on the Needs

Analysis
Questions provided in the questionnaire are self-explanatory and relevant. They are the
combination of both closed and non-closed patterns. All the respondents were asked to provide
their personal details for the reliability. Very few questions were open ended and it was to
collect the opinion and information appropriately. Appropriate and different scales are used
suitably to collect the information. Lickert scale, Ordinal scale and Multi-dimensional scale
were used relevantly.
As expected, the meticulous analysis of data collected revealed the communicative
needs and expectations of the engineering students. Questionnaire for the sample group
(Appendix I) was prepared with the focus on the following dimensions:
1. Need for communication skills to engineers

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 2. Respondents’ level of LSRW and communication level in English.
3. Review of Engineering English Course and the need for integrating LSRW skills.
4. An introduction to domain specific literature and its usefulness to promote
communicative competency.
5.
Select Questions from the questionnaire and its Interpretations
Technical English Course and its limitations have to be reviewed and it has to be amend
suitably for the following regulation. The students were asked to tick their opinion on a three
point scale namely: Partly Agree (PA), Agree (A) and Disagree (DA). Tab. 1.0 illustrates more
details about their opinion.
Limitations of Technical English Course
Statements PA A DA
1.1 Technical English helps to improve English proficiency. 17 1 13
1.2 Technical English Course alone developed listening skills for 15 - 16
academic and professional purposes.
1.3 Technical English Course alone helped the students acquire the 11 3 17
ability to speak effectively in English in real-life situations.
1.4 Technical English Course alone helped the students read and 13 7 11
comprehend on their own.
1.5 Technical English Course alone helped the students write their 12 18 1
letters, reports and mails on their own.
1.6 Technical English Course appraised the LSRW skills 16 6 9
Table 1.0 and its Interpretations
The prime objective of language learning process to be realised is fluency and then
accuracy, together they enable an individuals’ proficiency. Therefore the first item taken for
needs analysis is whether Technical English Course helps to improve English proficiency. It is
implied from the table that 17 respondents show slightly positive attitude towards the course
by selecting partly agree in realising this aspect. Only one has completely agreed and 13
respondents disagreed. In the process of interaction, listening happens to be the very first
activity. Hence, the next item is namely: Technical English Course alone developed listening
skills for academic and professional purposes, no member has expressed positive attitude
towards the Technical English Course in fulfilling this aspect whereas near about fifty percent
of the respondents only partly agree on this aspect. More than fifty percent 16 disagreed. It is
quite true that oral communication always precedes written communication. An individual’s

236
personality and calibre is reflected in his/her speech. Recognising the importance of oral
communication, the next item for analysis was whether Technical English alone helped the
students acquire the ability to speak effectively in English in real life situations. From the
analysis, it is evident that more than fifty percent of the senior students disagree on this aspect
whereas nearly about forty percent of them do not agree at all. Yet 3 respondents were
satisfactory and opted agree. Reading is a much sought after skill in the process of
communication. A good reader is the one who reads with good comprehension, has the ability
to read critically and retain what is read. The next item taken for analysis is whether Technical
English alone helped the students read and comprehend on their own. It is evident from the
table that near about equal number of respondents partly agree and agree on this aspect. When
it comes to writing, an individual is left alone with no one else to talk to or with, except with
his/her mind and imagination. Therefore, the next aspect taken for analysis is whether
Technical English Course alone helped the students in writing letter, reports and mails on their
own. In this connection, from the tabular column, it is implied that a good majority of the
respondents ‘18’agree on this aspect and they are followed by 12 respondents who partly agree.
Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing are the four basic skills of any language.
Among them, Listening and Reading are the primary skills or receptive skills whereas Speaking
and Writing are the complementary skills or productive skills. The next aspect is an analysis
on the impact of Technical English Course on the LSRW skills. More than fifty percent of the
respondents – ‘16’, partly agree on this aspect. ‘6’ of them are agreed and ‘9’ of them disagreed.
It is understood that more than fifty percent of the respondents perceive an unhappy attitude
towards the Technical English Course fulfilling this aspect.
The perception of the senior students is varied in all the six items taken for analysis. On
the whole, it is evident that there is a limitation in the existing Technical English Course.

The next key data analysed was on the proficiency of LSRW skills
The following fig 2.1 represented the self-assessment of respondents’ LSRW skills. Out
of thirty one students, “1” alone felt excellent, “14” of them felt above average and for “15” of
them it was average. It cannot be implied as a good sign because the sample group consists of
class toppers also.

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 16 15
14 14
12
10
8
6
4
1 0
2
1
0
Don’t
Below
Know Average
Average Above
Excellent
Average

Fig. 2.1 LSRW Assessment

Level of English proficiency after joining B.E/B.Tech Course

15 14
10
6 9
5
0
0 2
Don’t Know
Below
Average
Average Above
Average Excellent

Fig. 2.2 Level of English proficiency after joining B.E/B.Tech

From Fig. 2.2, it is understood that around fifty percent of the respondents opined that
they were able to acquire an average level of English proficiency after joining B.E/B.Tech.
courses. They are followed by nearly thirty percent of the respondents who say that they have
acquired above average level of English proficiency. Mepco Schlenk Engineering College is a
premier institution in Tamilnadu, India and a good majority of its students are from creamy
layer hence they may feel comfortable with their communicative skills. However, the insight
developed from Fig 2.1 and 2.2 made it clear that notable proficiency level was not attained
after B.E/B.Tech. courses. Quite contrary to this finding, these students faced hitches during
their presentation and in other communicative situations. Hence respondents themselves felt
the need for modifying the syllabus and welcomed the idea of including domain specific
literature.

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Inclusion of Domain Specific Literature
The below fig. 2.3 clearly presents the opinion on including domain specific literature.

Fig. 2.3 – Inclusion of domain specific literature

It is evident that more than sixty percentage of them stated that it ‘Should be included’
and around forty percent of them expressed as it’ Can be included’ and Only One responded
‘Do not know’. The positive response of the stake holders is considered as an encouraging sign
to experiment the select material.
Language teaching materials should provide situations, scope and space for learners to
interact. There should be various interaction patterns which they regularly need, for societal
communication. Materials selected should ensure the sufficient scope for the learners to extend
their practice patterns from class room practice to various life time situations. Hall (1995) in
his Materials production: Theory and practice mentions three pointers which he believes
are necessary to stimulate real communication: they are the need to “have something we want
to communicate”, “someone to communicate with”, and most importantly, “some interest in
the outcome of communication” (9).

The Naturalness and Usefulness of Integration of Skills for Language Pedagogy

Like mother tongue, language acquisition in any language will take place in a collective
way. LSRW skills cannot be taught/learned in aloof. English needed for engineers in Indian
context and the various details collected via questionnaire made it imperative to integrate the
LSRW skills. Integration of skills in language teaching is an appropriate way to gain progress
in communication skills and language learning attitude. Engineers in India are needed for the
industry with a variety of communicative practises. Work place demand them to communicate,

239
update their work based technical qualification, carry out their projects work with their team
members, send/ receive and review reports, conduct presentation session and board meetings
and work in a multi-cultural set up. So any language material selected for teaching learning
should consider the language needs of engineers and ensure a space to integrate the mentioned
skill sets. To a large class or to a heterogeneous class, language components or language drills
taught without a context and without an integration of skills are unnatural, meaningless and
irrelevant.
Linguists, academicians, teachers of English and researchers affirmed that teaching of
language skills cannot be taken place unconnectedly. In any communicative settings, language
skills are not used separately. For e.g., speaking cannot be spared without listening. Over all
language comprehension is needed in a conversation and in few contexts, reading and writing
is also needed to complete the conversation. Widdowson (1978) was the foremost linguist to
demand integration of the four language skills in teaching- learning process to raise learners'
proficiency levels. He deliberated that practically all language practises take place in the form
of dialogues in social settings.
In 1980s and 1990s, much development took place in communicative and integrated
teaching of the four skills. However, accounting the fact exists in the language classroom, the
opportunities for meaningful communication is very limited. Language acquisition is a
continuous process and it cannot be acquired in fits and starts. According to Krashen (1982)
quoted from Second Language Acquisition an Advanced Resource Book (2005).
… people acquire a second language, much in the same way as they acquire a
first language not only talking about the language, but by talking in the
language. In other words, to acquire a language one needs a great deal of
meaningful input. He also argued that explicit rules that were ‘learned’ did not
lead to ‘acquisition’. The implication is that languages were best acquired by
use without any formal study of structure and form (79 – 80).
Hence that “great deal of meaningful input” for engineering graduates is the domain specific
language.

What is Domain Specific Literature and How it was Experimented to Teach Learn
Language Skills and Linguistic Skills
Domain Specific Literature (DSL) is nothing but the literary material which is
suitable for engineering students to develop their English language proficiency. DSL is used in
this article to refer to literature pertained to science and technology. It is needed to

240
systematically hone the communication skills. For the communicative purpose, the materials
and methodology were systematically selected from the significant domain that focus on the
language acquisition. DSL is viewed by the author and et al as a convergence of English for
Specific Purpose (ESP) and English for Science and Technology (EST). However, ESP and
EST have a major drawback of including less impressive material content and language
exercises. Hence in this paper, the limitation of ESP and EST is averted and an alternate DSL
was experimented. Utmost care was given to select more learner-centric and communicative
material. Lessons identified were an excerpt from Wings of Fire : An Autobiography - (99-
101) (Appendix II) by Dr. Kalam & Arun Tiwari and a video about Autonomous weapon
(autonomousweapons.org) to teach the select topics prescribed in Technical English I. Topics
identified are presented below:
1. Vocabulary - Compound words - Word formation and Word expansion.
2. Listening - Watching videos/documentaries and responding to questions based on
them and giving personal opinion
3. Speaking - Giving impromptu talks and Making presentations on given topics
4. Reading – Skimming, Scanning and Making inference from the reading passage
5. Writing – Free writing on any given topic
The above mentioned topics were assembled as a trial module to experiment it in Technical
English Course for I year B.E & B.Tech students (2018- 2022).

Experiment – 1: Vocabulary - Compound words - Word Formation and Word Expansion

Words are indispensable for communication. Hence the first classroom try out was on
word formation and word expansion. Grammatical structure of compound nouns with examples
were discussed. Same way word expansion using prefixes and how it can formulate compound
words were also stated. With the select excerpt from Wings of Fire: An Autobiography
learners’ were allowed to identify the compound words and list out the contextual meaning. In
addition to fixing the contextual meaning, learners identified the grammatical structure. This
task oriented word build exercises are not only helpful to develop vocabulary learning skills
but also kindle the reading habit. Adding prefix or suffix in the base word and how more words
generation possible, were practically realised by the learners.

241
Skills Integrated
Reading, comprehending and writing.
Experiment - 2: Listening - Watching Videos/Documentaries and Responding to
Questions Based on them and Giving Personal Opinion
Autonomous weapon (Appendix II), the short video was played with clear instructions.
The presenter in the video uses a simple language with neutral accent further subtitles were
also scrolled. However as while watching activity, students were asked to prepare a glossary
list to comprehend it clearly for further language tasks like responding to questions and giving
personal opinion. The suitable material provided with instructions motivated the learners. The
listening task was successful and meaningful. The focused listening activity was well received
and for the first time learners volunteered their personal opinions about the latest weapon
technology. It was evident, if suitable material and methodology was exercised, language
learning will take place.
Skills Integrated
Watching, Listening, responding to questions- oral and giving personal opinions.
Experiment -3: Speaking - Giving Impromptu Talks, Making Presentations on Given
topics
Students were allowed to form small groups. Since the video content was simple and
appropriate, students did not feel any hitches. Students with good articulation were asked to
begin the impromptu. The familiarity with the material helped the students to make
presentations on different topics about weapons, technology and war. Every presentation was
reviewed by the learners and followed by a group interaction. Almost all presentation, had a
clear structure of proper beginning, middle and end.
Skills Integrated
Listening, speaking – impromptu, presentations and review of presentations was
integrated.
Experiment -4: Reading – Skimming, Scanning and Making Inference from the Reading
Passage
The same excerpt from Wings of Fire: An Autobiography was used again. It was
conducted as a group activity, learners were directed to frame activities to skim, scan and
making inferences. The class prepared and exchanged the activities like crossword puzzle,
riddles, quiz, hangman, cloze exercise, etc. Author et al ensured the correctness of answers for
all exercises.
Skills Integrated

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 Reading, comprehending, writing, group interaction for various language tasks with the
focus on skimming, scanning and making inference.
Experiment -5: Writing – Free writing on any given topic
Learners’ autonomy was experimented and revealed the best on writing activity.
Students were allowed to write 150 words article from the DSL material. Variety of write ups
were produced by the learners. Hence in a practical way language skills and linguistic skills
were tried out using DSL.
Skills Integrated
Thinking, mind mapping, writing and presenting the answers.
Findings
The above integration of language skills activities assured the place for DSL in
Technical English Course. It made the author et al to understand the pressing need for learner
centric literary material. To sort out the shortfall analysed in the Engineering English Course,
DSL appears to be right the choice. Both teachers and learners found the tasks were appealing
and useful for language production.

Limitations
Selection of material and planning of language activities are time consuming. Teachers
should have a better understanding about the choice of material and how it is to be taught.
Space and usefulness to include literary texts/literary materials in the course is to help the
engineering students to improve their communication. DSL is a customised edition of language
through literature. The idea can be materialised at present in technical education only with the
help of curriculum developers and academicians. It’s a lengthy procedure.

Pedagogical Implications
Research on including DSL in engineering colleges indicates different perceptions
across the world. The implementation of DSL in Technical English Course involves needs
assessment, evaluation, analysis of learners’ goals and skills. In any adult education, research
ideas cannot be included immediately but later on, relevant pedagogical practices will abridge
the gap. In Indian context, English in engineering curriculum is aimed to ensure communicative
competency. However, authors et al realised the limitations and did an action research of using
DSL material with suitable methodology which is acceptable to any nonnative speakers. Non
native speakers’ language proficiency their need, want, demand and scope to be identified
thoroughly based on the above discussed pedagogical implications.

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Conclusion
The class room experiments are well received. It is so pertinent that communication
skills can be acquired through right kind of material, methodology and evaluation. Role of
Teachers of English in engineering colleges, Tamilnadu is manifold and DSL are
complimentary for integration of language and linguistic skills.
Across the world, the non-native learners learning Engineering Courses in technical
universities and colleges have similar language problems with their language courses. Hence,
teachers of English working in engineering colleges and technical universities across the world
should be willing to do needs analysis to help the adult learners. Considering their diverse socio
– environ, material and methodology have to be identified and exploited by language teachers.
Growing needs of industry need engineers with strong language and linguistic skills in English.
These sample classroom testing conducted in Indian context and the successful result derived
assure its global relevance.

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http://www.mepcoeng.ac.in/index.php/academics/academics-3
https://autonomousweapons.org/

Appendix - I
Questionnaire for Senior Students
Dear students,
The objective of this research paper is to enhance the Communication Skills of the Engineering
Students, India by introducing “Domain Specific Literature”. Please provide your opinion and
feedback on the Technical English Course to conduct classroom experiments for I year
B.E/B.Tech students.
The details provided by you will be strictly used only for research purpose and it is
assured that it will be kept confidential.
I. Personal details
1. Name :
2. Branch and Department:
3. Batch :
II. A) Review on Technical English Course
4. Give your opinion for the following statements. Tick your choices.
PA – Partly Agree A- Agree DA- Disagree
Statements PA A DA
5.1 Technical English helps to improve English proficiency.
5.2 Technical English Course alone developed listening skills for
academic and professional purposes.
5.3 Technical English Course alone helped the students acquire the
ability to speak effectively in English in real-life situations.
5.4 Technical English Course alone helped the students read and
comprehend on their own.
5.5 Technical English Course alone helped the students write their
letters, reports and mails on their own.
5.6 Technical English Course appraised the LSRW skills
III. Needs Analysis in English Proficiency
Answer the following questions by choosing the appropriate numbers

247
 0 = Don’t Know 1= Below Average 2=Average
3=Above Average 4=Excellent
5. Assess your Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing Skills in English.
0 1 2 3 4
7. How much have you improved your communication skills, after HSC?
0 1 2 3 4
8. How well did you communicate in English before joining Engineering Course?
0 1 2 3 4
III. Language through Domain Specific Literature
9. What type of literary lessons did you expect in Technical English Course?

Short story

Excerpt from autobiography

Video/audio materials

Articles from Print Media

All
10. Tick your opinion about the inclusion of Domain Specific Literature

Can be included

Should be included

Don’t know

Thanks for your co operation

248
 Appendix - II

Lesson – 7 -Wings of Fire: An Autobiography - (99-101)

In the early hours of the next day, 18 July 1980-at 0803 .hrs to precise, India's
first Satellite Launch Vehicle, SLV-3 lifted off from SHAR. At 600 seconds before take-
Off, I saw the computer displaying data about stage IV giving the required velocity to
the Rohini Satellite (carried as payload) to enter its orbit. Within the next two minutes,
Rohini was set into motion in a low earth orbit. I spoke, in the midst of screeching
decibels, the most important words I had ever uttered in my life, "Mission Director
calling all stations. Stand by for an important announcement. All stages performed to
mission requirements. The fourth stage apogee motor has given the required velocity to
put Rohini Satellite into orbit". There were happy cries everywhere. When I came out of
the Block House, I was lifted onto the shoulders of my jubilant colleagues and carried
in a procession.
The whole nation was excited. India had made its entry into the small group of
nations which possessed satellite launch capability. Newspapers carried news of the
event in their headlines. Radio and television stations aired special programmes.
Parliament greeted the achievement with the thumping of desks. It was both the
culmination of a national dream, and the beginning of a very important phase in our
nation's history. Prof. SatishDhawan, Chairman ISRO, threw his customary guardedness
to the winds and announced that it was now well within our ability to explore space.
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi cabled her congratulations. But the most important
reaction was that of the Indian scientific community-everybody was proud of this
hundred per cent indigenous effort.
I experienced mixed feelings. I was happy to achieve the success which had been
evading me for the past two decades, but I was sad because the people who bad inspired
me were no longer there to share my joy-my father, my brother-in-law Jallaluddin and
Prof. Sarabhai.
The credit for the successful SLV-3 flight goes, first, to the giants of the Indian
space programme, Prof. Sarabhai in particular, who had preceded this effort; next to the

249
hundreds of VSSC personnel who had through sheer will-power proved the mettle of
our countrymen and also, not least, to Prof. Dhawan and DrBrahm Prakash, who had led
the project.
We had a late dinner that evening. Gradually, the din and clatter of the
celebrations calmed down. I retired to my bed with almost no energy left. Through the
open window, I could see the moon among the clouds. The sea breeze seemed to reflect
the buoyancy of the mood on –Sriharikota island that day.
Within a month of the -SLV-3 success, I visited the Nehru Science Centre in
Bombay for a day, in response to an invitation to share my experiences with the SLV-3.
There; I received 'a telephone call from Prof. Dhawan in Delhi, asking me to join him
the next Moring We were to meet the Prime Minister, Mrs.Indira Gandhi. My hosts at
the Nehru Centre were kind enough to arrange my ticket to Delhi, but I had a small
problem. It had to do with my clothes. I was dressed casually as is my wont and wearing
slippers-not, by any standards of etiquette, suitable attire in which to meet the Prime
minister! When I told Prof. Dhawan about this problem, he told me not to worry about
my dress. “You are beautifully clothed in your success,” the quipped.
Prof. Dhawan and I arrived at the Parliament House Annexed the next morning.
A meeting of the Parliamentary Panel on Science and Technology chaired by the Prime
Minister was scheduled. There were about 30 Members of the LokSabha and
RajyaSabha in the room which was lit by a majestic chandelier. Prof. MGK Menon and
Dr.NagChaudhuri were also present. Shrimati Gandhi spoke to the Members about the
success of the SLV-3 and lauded our achievement. Prof. Dhawan thanked the gathering
for the encouragement given by them to space research in the country and expressed the
gratitude of the ISRO scientists and engineers. Suddenly, I saw Shirmati Gandhi smiling
at me as she said, “Kalam! We would like to hear you speak,” I was surprised by the
request as Prof. Dhawan had already addressed the gathering.
Hesitantly, I rose and responded, “I am indeed honored to be in this great
gathering of nation-builders. I only know how to build a rocket system in our country,
which would inject a satellite, built in our country, by imparting to it a velocity of 25,000
km per hour. “there was thunderous applause. I thanked the members for giving us an
opportunity to work on a project like the SLV-3 and prove the scientific strength of our
country. The entire room was irradiated with happiness.

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 English Language Needs in Listening and Speaking Skill
of Police Officers in Vietnam: Basis for ESP Syllabus Design

Tran Thi Thu Huong

People’s Security Academy of Vietnam (PSA), Vietnam

Biodata:
Tran Thi Thu Huong is a teacher of English at People’s Security Academy of Vietnam (PSA),
Vietnam, a syllabus and module designer as well as curriculum evaluator as consultant/advisor
position and a curriculum developer in the same university.
Her publications include: Article “The study of Grammar Instruction for Communication
Purpose in High Schools of Vietnam”. European-American Journals.Vol.3, Issue. 8, December
2015; Article “Using Android Operating System Applications in Teaching and Learning
English”. Security Science and Education Review. Vol. 18, October 2017; Project (2017)
“Enhancement of English teaching and learning Effectiveness through Android Applications”,
Code: SA.2016T31.212. People’s Security of Vietnam, Vietnam.
Certificates/diploma: Bachelor of Teaching English; Master of TESOL, IELTS, and English
Courses. Email: [email protected]/ [email protected]

Abstract
This study aimed to identify the English language needs of the police officers in
Vietnam by looking into their actual English activities along listening and speaking skills in
their workplace and determining their strengths and weaknesses in the use of the English
language along speaking.
The descriptive method was used in this study. It involved both qualitative and
quantitative research design. The quantitative design was used in describing the profile of the
respondents as to age, sex and rank. It was also used in getting the frequency and percentage
of respondents performing a task in the listening-speaking skill in the English language in the

251
actual work place. Furthermore the quantitative design was used to determine the frequency
and percentage distribution of strengths and weaknesses of the respondents along speaking.
On the other hand, the qualitative design was utilized in describing the activities of
the police officers in their actual workplace using the listening and speaking skill in the English
language based on the observation, and also the interview conducted by the researcher. It was
also used to describe the strengths and weaknesses of the respondents in speaking using the
interview the researcher had administered.
The findings revealed that the police officers perform activities along listening and
speaking in their actual work place. In listening-speaking, the typical activities includes
listening to the foreigner complaints/ statements/ explanations, asking personal information
from foreign visitors/ immigrants, giving directions to foreign tourists/ visitors, or reminding
and explaining to foreigners about rules/ regulations and punishments in Vietnam.
It was also found out in this study that police officers have strengths and weaknesses
in speaking by way of analyzing the interview transcripts. Typical strengths under English
speaking of the police respondents as found in the interview transcripts are presented in the
terms of responding appropriately/ correctly, using complete sentence, and confidence. On the
other hand, major weaknesses of the police officer along speaking are speaking gaps,
interlanguage in pronunciation, mistakes of preposition as described in the terms of misuse,
insertion, and omission, non-mastery of other types of sentence – e.g. simple sentence, complex
sentence, and compound sentence, and word choice.
The findings on the activities in the listening-speaking skill being performed by the
policemen in their actual workplace and their strengths and weaknesses in speaking then were
the basis of the researcher in designing the ESP syllabus for the future policemen in Vietnam
enrolled in the Police security Academy (PSA).

Introduction
To serve and protect. This is what every policeman in whatever part of the world
promises to do. To perform these duties, a police officer must be equipped not only with the
physical and analytical skills, but also with good communication skills.
The People’s Security Academy of Vietnam (PSA) where the researcher teaches is not
exempted from this observation. However, students who take this course and will become
policemen in the future are seemingly not interested to study and learn English. Sometimes
students are not motivated to participate in classroom activities unless being forced. They also
do not recite unless informed that they will be graded.

252
 The first thing that the researcher did was to examine the topics taken up in class.
Since the English offered to the students is the General English, most of the topics being studied
are very normal contents – e.g. Rainer’s difficult day, David talks about Portuguese, a story
from your country, History of landmark, etc., and also grammar lessons – e.g. nouns, pronouns,
tenses of verbs, subject and verb agreement, adjectives, etc., and more often than not, these
topics are taught traditionally through written and oral drills and exercises.
However, the researcher observes that when students are given activities that will
require them to apply their grammar knowledge to activities that they think they will actually
do in their future workplace, like mock interrogation of subjects or just a simple interview
between a reporter and a policeman, the students become active and suddenly, the classroom
becomes alive.
This observation gave the researcher the idea that something might really be wrong in
the kind of English Syllabus given to students taking up police studies. Similarly, Sudarto
(1999) who made a study on the syllabus design of English for Secretarial course said, “The
unsatisfactory result of English language teaching in secretarial academics maybe due to
inappropriate way the syllabus has been designed and the way teaching materials and activities
has been designed.”
In the advent of functional English, every English teacher must understand that
English learning can only be appreciated if students could relate with the activities given to
them to perform in class. Having said that, activities then should be real – life in nature and the
vocabulary to be used in class are exactly the words to be used in the workplace.
To do this, there must be a revision of the syllabus used in People’s Security Academy
of Vietnam. But before starting the revision, two things must be done: first, consider what kind
of syllabus should be prepared and next, what the basis of designing the syllabus is.

Literature Review
This study was based on the concepts developed by Munby (1978), Hutchinson and
Waters (1987), and Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998) emphasizing that ESP is an approach to
language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s
needs for learning.
Munby (1978) makes up an overall model of language needs analysis based on the
Communication Needs Processor (CNP) or the Communicative Competence Model which
covers the seven following elements: Participants (the information identification of age, sex,
nationality, present command of the target language, other languages), Communication Needs

253
Processor (the investigation of particular communication needs according to communicative
channels to determine the communication topics and skills needing to focus on), Profile of
Needs (actual needs of the target language gathered through the CNP), Meaning Processor (the
identification of communication needs in the pragmatic competence), the Language Skills
Selector (the identification of special language skills required), the Linguistic Encoder
(purposive domain of the target language), the Communicative Competence Specification (the
investigation of the target communicative ability of the participant). The CNP developed aims
to find as thoroughly as possible learners’ linguistic needs as used in various communicative
situations in their working environment.
As succeeded Munby’s the CNP model, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) provide a
comprehensive target situation needs analysis framework as an approach which consists of a
list of 5 wh/h-questions such as “why is language needed”, “how will the language be used”,
“what will the content areas be”, “where will the language be used”, and “when will the
language be used”. The analysts appreciate this model of Hutchinson and Waters because the
elements in Munby’s the CNP model are presented in detail through stating questions.
Meanwhile, Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) encompasses the approaches
developed by Munby (1978), and Hutchinson & Waters (1987) to propose a modern and
comprehensive concept of language needs analysis which includes the following categories:
Target Situation Analysis (the focus on objective, perceived and product-oriented needs),
Strategies or Learning Needs Analysis (the focal point on subjective, felt and process-oriented
needs), Present Situation Analysis (the assessment of strengths and weaknesses in language,
skill, learning experience), Means Analysis (the determination of the environment which the
language course will be run), Register Analysis (the focus on vocabulary, and grammar of the
text), Deficiency Analysis (the consideration of learners’ present needs and wants), Discourse
Analysis (the investigation of how sentences combine into the discourse), and General Analysis
(the focal point on regularities of structure that distinguishes one type of text from another).
Furthermore, in order to get the findings of the weaknesses in the use of the English
language, this study was based on the theory of the error analysis developed by Corder (1967).
Error analysis is a vital approach in teaching language which directs teachers, curriculum
developers to have right decisions on the content, method for designing syllabi, modules, lesson
plans, and worksheets. Linguistic error is classified according to three basic types comprising
“omission”, “insertions”, and “substitution”. In relation to the level of the language, errors may
be classified as “phonological error”, “lexical/vocabulary error”, “syntactic error”. Besides,
error analysis can deal effectively only with learners’ production in speaking, not with the

254
learners’ perception in listening. Therefore, for this study the researcher addressed only errors
made in the respondents’ production in speaking, not in listening.
The survey on ‘sex’, ‘work station’, ‘field of specialization’, and ‘rank’ of the police
officers as respondents has very big significance in acknowledging English topics, activities,
grammar, vocabulary, and skills which now police officers and future policemen’s interests.
This was the basis for designing an ESP syllabus for future policemen of Vietnam.
Especially, in the face of the increasing requirements of learning English for security,
policing, law enforcement goals, a number of researches have been conducted to respond such
needs as well as helps educationists to plan for sound policies in teaching English and teachers
to improve their teaching approach. Some of such researches are: the study by Alhuqbani
(2014) of the English language needs, motivations, and attitudes of police cadets at King Fahd
College in Saudi Arabia, Aldohon (2014) with the study of examining the English needs,
functions and problems of 46 Jordanian policemen working in the field of tourist in different
workplaces, Michael Guest (2016) with a case report from Japan namely “Overcoming
Institutional barriers to establishing an ESP programme”, Kazar and Mede (2014) with the
investigation of the target needs of the students in an ESP program offered by the Faculty of
Fine Arts at a private university in Turkey, the study carried out by Qaddomi (2013) for
determining EFL cadets’ English needs at Al-Istiqlal in Palestine, Khamkaew (2009) with the
study about Needs and Problems in English Listening and Speaking Skills of the metropolitan
police officers (MPOs) at counter service at Chana Songkram police station in Bangkok, the
study by Sezer (2004) of investigated English needs of Turkish police officers who was being
trained in General English Language Course.
In a capacity as an educator, the researcher realizes how important assessment of
English needs at workplaces of Vietnamese police officer is so that creates effective and
successful sessions. Especially, the learner’s interest in learned language is the adequate
direction for the teachers, educators, educationist, and syllabus designers to develop their
language courses so that every language course is no more stresses, but friendly with learners.
Correspondingly, after reviewing the theories, ideologies, studies of language and language
education mentioned in a nutshell above, this study will be succeeded the previous studies in
evaluations of learner’s language needs. On the other hand, the study will be developed to
analyze the English language needs of not only real police officers but also PSA’s students who
will be policemen in future so that has a comparison of the English demands between at the
school and real workplaces of police officers. An English syllabus for specific purposes
whereby will be proposed.

255
Methodologies
Research Design
The descriptive research design was used in this study. This design was used primarily
to describe the profile of the police officers, actual English activities along listening and
speaking skills, and then the police officers’ strengths and weaknesses in speaking.
For this study, the qualitative research method enabled the researcher to conduct
observations of the police officers while performing their duties in their work stations,
interviews with them. These processes made possible the identification and classification of
strengths and weaknesses of police-respondents along speaking.
Alternatively, the quantitative methodology was used to elicit frequency count and
percentage distribution of the English activities performed by the real policemen along the
listening-speaking skill, as well as the weaknesses in the use of English language along
speaking that were identified from the police-respondents’ outputs in interview transcripts.
Locale of the Study
The study was conducted in two cities in the North of Vietnam namely, Hanoi and
Hai Phong. Hanoi is the capital and the second largest city by population of Vietnam where is
a popular tourist destination. Hai Phong is known as the Phoenix Flower City, also is a bustling
port city where is the second largest centre of economy, culture, and trade in the north part of
the country. Hai Phong has plenty of nice beaches, islands, and resorts such as Cat Ba Island,
Do Son beach, or Tien Lang resort, etc. According to the Tourist Department, these cities, then
have attracted over ten million turns of foreign visitors from various parts of the world
Further, the study was conducted to the police officers of the five various police
stations in Hanoi city: Noi Bai International Airport, Vietnamese Criminal Science Institute,
Vietnamese Bureau of Immigration, Investigation Police Department, and Traffic Police
Department; and another in Hai Phong city which is Patrol Police Department.
Respondents and Sampling Procedures
The respondents in this study were 12 policemen selected from a provided list of
police officers of each police station. The respondents who are the police officers were in the
25 to 35 age. The researcher picked up randomly two policemen from the existing list of police
officers which was provided by the six police stations. Consequently, there was a sample size
of 12 respondents.
In order to be convenient for the process of data analysis, the six police station and
twelve respondents were labeled as following:

256
 Labels
Noi Bai International Airport PS1
Respondent 1 PO1
Respondent 2 PO2
Vietnamese Criminal Science Institute PS2
Respondent 1 PO3
Respondent 2 PO4
Vietnamese Bureau of Immigration PS3
Respondent 1 PO5
Respondent 2 PO6
Investigation Police Department in Hanoi PS4
Respondent 1 PO7
Respondent 2 PO8
Traffic Police Department in Hanoi PS5
Respondent 1 PO9
Respondent 2 PO10
Patrol Police Department in Hai Phong PS6
Respondent 1 PO11
Respondent 2 PO12
Instruments and Data Gathering Tools
The study is descriptive and qualitative, so the instruments used were interview,
observation. The interview instrument is particularly useful for the researcher to get factual
things from the participants’ experiences, so the researcher can pursue in-depth information
around the topic. (McNamara C., 1999). In accordance with Kvale S. (1996), interviews enable
the interviewer understand the meanings of what the interviewee says in both factual and
meaning level, though it is usually more difficult to interview on a meaning level.
Therefore, the interview was the main tool in this study to get the profile information
of respondents along the workplace, actual English listening-speaking activities in the
workplace, and it was the basis of the data on the strengths and weaknesses of the police officers
in speaking. The interview was divided into two part. The first part included six items for
discovering the personal information of the twelve respondents. The second part consisted of
10 interview questions.
The second instrument of data collection is non-participant observation which the
observer watched acts and phenomena without taking part in the event. In this study the non-
participant observation was used to see into English activities along listening and speaking
skills at policemen’s work place. It took the researcher at least five days to observe English

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activities along listening and speaking skills, as well as these English activities were carefully
taken notes down in a diary. Additionally, an observation checklist was made to gather more
data on the English activities in the listening-speaking skill of the police officers in their
workplace. The observation checklist had been passed to the police officers for checking its
content before it was used to be the official instrument of collecting data.
The data gathered provided reasonable information of real English language of police
officers to help the research to define correctly strengths and weaknesses of English language
of policemen at their workplace.
Analysis of Data
As mentioned above, this study involved in both quantitative and qualitative
methodologies to determine the needs of police officers in the use of English language through
the analysis of their strengths and weaknesses along speaking, thus covered qualitative data
and quantitative data.
The frequency and percentage were used to analyze the quantitative data including the
profile of the police-respondent, real English activities along listening-speaking in the police
officers’ workplace, and weaknesses of the respondents in the use of the English language
along speaking.

Results and Discussions

This part presents the results of the observation and interview conducted by the
researcher in the actual workplace of her police-respondents to determine their needs in the use
of English language along with the English activities in their work.
Profile of the Respondents
The profile of the twelve respondents in terms of Age, Sex, Work Station, Field of
Specialization, Rank are altogether presented in table 1.
The age of the respondents distributed in table 1 shows that most respondents belong
to the age ranging from 25 to 36. The youngest is 25 years old which accounts for 25 percent
of the respondents, while the oldest respondent is 36 years old which makes up 8.3 percent.
There are 24.9 percent of respondents who are in the age ranging from 27 to 30. On the other
hand, 16.7 percent comprises respondents is between 32 and 35 years old. Furthermore, 8.3
percent of the respondents is 33 years old.
The police respondents are relatively young as manifested by the mean age of 30 years
which implies that the respondents are dynamic, active and vigorous in performing their job as
police officers.

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 Table 1 also shows the profile of the respondents in terms of sex. It can be deduced
from the table that there are seven male respondents and five female respondents. No male
respondent is found at PS2-Vietnamese Criminal Science Institute and PS3- Vietnamese
Bureau of Immigration. This is probably because these stations require employees to be more
capable of frequent communication and able to show patience to guests, which females usually
exemplify. Some studies suggested that males and females have different ways in their
performance when they communicate, in particular females were found to perform better in
most verbal ability tests (Halpern’s, 2000).
Likewise, the investigative tasks in PS4- Investigation Police Department in Hanoi
has no lady police officer. This is probably because the station needs employees who are adept
in technology and computer technique. These skills are usually exemplified more by men in
Vietnam.
The other stations such as PS1- Noi Bai International Airport, PS5- Traffic Police
Department in Hanoi, and PS6- Patrol Police Department in Hai Phong where the most of the
tasks are relevant to the field of “State Management” have balanced male and female
employees.
The Field of Specialization of the respondents is further presented in table 1.
Vietnamese Police specializes in six categories: National Security Insurance, Social Order
Security Insurance, State Management, Information Security Insurance, Investigation, and
Reconnaissance.
Based on the data collected from the respondents, the work of police officers in the
six police station are Informative Security Insurance, Investigation, Social Security Insurance,
and State Management.
There are five respondents (41.7 percent) who specialized in the field of State
Management; three respondents (25 percent) specialized in Social Security Insurance; two
(16.7 percent) respondents specialized Informative Security Insurance and also two (16.7
percent) respondents specialized in Investigation.
In the police force of Vietnam, “rank” denotes experiences of the police officers.
Therefore, it is important to know that the higher the rank is, the more experienced the police
officer is.
In table 1, the respondents who took part in this study are in the lieutenant level where
the rank ranges from First Lieutenant to Captain. Respondents who are the Senior Lieutenant
were four or 33.3 percent; Respondents in Captain rank were three or 25 percent of the
respondents; Lastly, there were two of the respondents at the First Lieutenant. Generally

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speaking, the respondents hold high positions hence are also experienced in their fields of
specialization.
Table 1. Profile of the Police-respondents
Variables Frequency Percent

Age
25 3 25
27 1 8.3
28 1 8.3
30 1 8.3
32 2 16,7
33 1 8.3
35 2 16.7
36 1 8.3
Total 12 100
Mean Age = 30
Sex
Male 7 58.3
Female 5 41.7
Total 12 100
Field of Specialization
Informative Security Insurance 2 16.7
Investigation 2 16.7
Social Order Security Insurance 3 25
State Management 5 41.6
Total 12 100
Rank
Captain 3 25
First Lieutenant 2 16,7
Second Lieutenant 3 25
Senior Lieutenant 4 33,3
Total 12 100

English Language Activities along Listening-Speaking

Table 2 indicates the frequency and percentage distribution of the police officers on
the English activities as observed in actual workplace. Activities in speaking and listening were
merged in the description and analysis.

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 As can be seen in the table, the highest percentage distribution of the police officers
(100 percent for every item) is on the activities of “Greeting”, and “Asking foreigner’s personal
information”, followed by the activities of “Requesting foreigners to show their personal
document”, “Asking the victim’s information”, “requesting the foreign victim to show his/he
personal papers/document”, and “Asking the foreign victim to report information of the
incident” with 83.33 percent of the police-respondents per item. As empirically observed by
the researcher, such activities were not found in the PS2 – Vietnamese Criminal Science
Institute.
The frequency of the activities relevant to the expiration of visa and the reason of
visiting Vietnam consist of items “Asking the reason why the foreigners visit Vietnam”, and
“Reminding the number of days the visitors are allowed to stay in Vietnamese comprises 9 of
the police-respondents, accounting for 75 percent. As observed, most of police officers at the
police stations perform such activities except for the PS2 – Vietnamese Criminal Science
Institute. However, these activities as observed, were implemented very frequently in the PS3
because the police officers in Vietnamese Bureau of Immigration have to be responsible for
regulation of the entry/arrival, stay, and exit/departure of foreign visitors in the country;
controlling the entry and exit of Vietnamese citizens in compliance with Vietnamese laws;
extending stay of temporary visitors; addressing the circumstance of losing passport;
investigation and handling foreigners in violation of immigration regulations of Vietnam, and
so on.
The table presents a considerable distribution with at least 50 percent of the police
officers on the activities related with reminding, explaining the foreign visitors of the
Vietnamese rules/ regulations like “Explaining the rules of entering Vietnam such as the limited
time of stay, the procedure of visa extension, punishments/ penalties on violation of
immigration; “Reminding the foreign tourists not to throw wastes on the seaside or streets like
cigarette butts, plastic bags, cans, plastic bottles, etc.”; or warning them of keeping their
personal things such as “Warning the foreign tourists to keep their personal things like money,
passport, or valued things with them among strangers”.
These activities were also not seen in the PS2 – Vietnamese Criminal Science Institute
and PS4- Investigation Police Department in Hanoi. Such activities as observed, were
conducted regularly by the police officers in the PS6- Patrol Police Department in Hai Phong,
in which police officers has responsibility for patrolling, watching, protecting tourists, and
preventing anti-behaviors occurring in streets, on the beaches and seaside resorts.

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 The percentage distribution on the activities on the field of information security
include “Sharing points of view/ acknowledgements of technologies, applications”, and
“Talking about how to use the computer applications, or the digital and electronic machines”
make up the same 16.67 percent of the police officers. It is observed that these activities were
performed only by the police officers in the PS2- Vietnamese Criminal Science Institute. These
activities are only conducted through the use of the computer technology, modern machines
and equipment imported from the developed countries like America, Russia, and Japan.
Accordingly, the policemen in the PS2 need English language as a communicative means to
address the assignments.
It is important to note that there are 3 police officers on the amusement activity in the
English language such as “Listening to music”, but no distribution on the activities “listening
to news”, or “chatting with friends” is found. As observed, the police officers in the PS1- Noi
Bai International Airport, PS3- Vietnamese Bureau of Immigration likes listening to music
during their break time at noon.
As can be seen in the items from number 11 to 18 in the table 2, the percentage of
police officers who take charge of the activities relevant to giving the direction, reminding
traffic violators, accounts for 33.33 percent of the police-respondents for each item.
Accordingly, only the police officers in the two police stations including the PS5- Traffic Police
Department in Hanoi and the PS6- Patrol Police Department in Hai Phong performed such
activities in English language.
Every day, the police officers in PS5 and PS6 must carry out tasks as controlling
traffic, addressing traffic jams, dealing with traffic accidents, or vehicle collisions, preventing
traffic violations, helping foreign tourists find the lost things, and even giving correct
directions. In accordance with the 2017 report of Vietnamese Tourist Service, Hanoi welcomed
over 5 million foreign tourists in the first five months of the year. Around 74 thousand
foreigners who have been working in Vietnam, mainly in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City.
(Vietnamese Employment Department, 2017). Additionally, traffic attention of the foreigners
counted by the Traffic Police Department in Hanoi and Patrol Police Department in Hai Phong
is quite frequent and they often have traffic violations in streets of Hanoi and Hai Phong.
Examples of violations are: no helmet, not stopping when the traffic light switches to red,
driving or parking in the restricted areas, setting on the other road line, and so on. That being
so, the policemen in these police stations do frequently such English activities in listening-
speaking: “Asking the foreign riders/drivers to show their passport, driving license, and the
registration”; “Telling the riders/drivers about the reason why they are stopped”; “Asking the

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riders to wear the helmet when riding motorbike’; “Requesting the riders/drivers to sign in a
citation (an invitation to visit the judge)”; “Reminding the foreign riders/drivers not to park
their motorcycle/car in the forbidden zone”; and “Reminding the foreign riders/driver to stop
at the red sign”.
As observed, the police officers in the PS4- Investigation Police Department in Hanoi
rarely use English language in their work. Every province of Vietnam has a private
Investigation Police Department, and is accepted as the leader of the province’s Police Station.
The police officers are concerned with missions of criminal investigation. They seldom have
foreign visitors except for situation of stolen passport, stolen luggage, lost relatives or friends.
The English activities in this station, hence are not many and unusual. Fortunately, the
researcher captured an activity in speaking performed the policemen here, that is “Asking the
foreign victim to report the information relevant with the incident such the suspect, the witness,
the proofs, and the extra things lost”.

Table 2. English Activities observed in the police officers’ workplace along

Speaking-Listening
Activities in English along Listening-Speaking Frequency Percent

1. Greeting 12 100
2. Asking about personal information such as name,
age, date of birth, nationality, the number of 12 100
passport, etc.
3. Requesting to show personal papers/document
like ID, Passport, the Certification of Embassy, Visa, 10 83.33
etc.
4. Asking the reason why the foreigners visit Vietnam 9 75
5. Reminding the number of days the visitors are
9 75
allowed to stay in Vietnam (the expiration of visa)
6. Explaining things the guests are allowed to bring in
2 16.67
the airplane
7. Explaining the rules of entering Vietnam such as
the limited time of stay, the way of visa extension,
7 58.33
punishments/penalties on violation of immigration,
and so on
8. Questioning the personal information of the
10 83.33
foreign victim like name, age, passport number,

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cellphone number, the hotel’s name, the hotel’s
telephone number, etc
9. Requiring the foreign victim to show personal
10 83.33
papers like driving license, ID card, etc
10. Asking the foreign victim to report the
information in relevance with the incident such the 10 83.33
suspect, the witness, the proofs, the extra things lost
11. Asking the foreign riders/drivers to show their
4 33.33
passport, driving license, and the registration
12. Telling the riders/drivers about the reason why
4 33.33
they are stopped
13. Asking the riders to wear the helmet when riding
4 33.33
motorbike
14. Requesting the riders/drivers to sign in a citation
4 33.33
(an invitation to visit the judge)
15. Explaining to the riders/drivers travelling
4 33.33
regulations on the road in Vietnam
16. Reminding the foreign riders/drivers not to park
4 33.33
their motorcycle/car in the forbidden zone
17. Reminding the foreign riders/driver to stop at the
4 33.33
red sign
18. Directing the foreign tourists to the hotel or the
4 33.33
resort
19. Reminding the foreign tourists not to throw
wastes on the seaside or streets like the cigarette 6 50
butts, plastic bags, cans, plastic bottles, etc.
20. Warning the foreign tourists to keep their
personal things like money, passport, or valued things 7 58.33
with them among strangers
21. Exchanging with the foreign tourists about the
lost things or even their friends or relatives who are 6 50
lost their way
22. Sharing points of view / acknowledgements of
2 16.67
technologies, applications
23. Talking about how to use the computer
2 16.67
applications, or the digital and electronic machines
22. Others:
- Listening to music 3 25

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 In short, the findings reveal that all police officers in the six police station as the
respondents of the study had distribution on the English activities along listening-speaking
skill. The highest percentage distribution of the police officers is found on the activities
belonging to the field of State Management and the field of Social Order Security Insurance.
These kinds of authentic activities now can become a guide for the researcher to include these
kind of activities in the English syllabus for specific purposes.
Strengths of the Police Officers in the Use of the English Language along
Speaking Skills
Table 3 reflects the strengths of the police officers in the use of English language along
speaking. The police-respondents have the ability to do the following: Responding
appropriately/correctly, Using complete sentence (Subject and predicate present in the
sentence), Pronunciation, and Confidence.
As seen in table 3, all or 100 percent of the police- respondents have the ability to
respond appropriately and correctly to greetings and questions being given to them. This can
be further proven from the evidences taken from the transcript of interview between the
researcher and the respondents. As seen from the table, the respondents are able to respond
with the greetings given by the interviewer. For example, with PO1, when the interviewer
started the conversation with “Good morning sir”, PO1 responded “Hello”. This means that
PO1 is able to understand that when somebody greets him, he also has to reply with another
greeting. He may not be able to say “Good morning too” which is the exact answer for “good
morning sir”, but in a communicative situation, responding “hello” can be an accepted
response.
In another situation, PO9 responded to the question appropriately when she was asked
by the researcher. As an illustration, when asked “What are the things/activities you do in your
field of assignment?, she answered correctly “I have duty dealing anti-social behaviors and
performing community policy.”. Much as she made an error in grammar, more significantly
she has given a correct answer to the question. In another question, she was asked “Is the
English language important in your job?”, she immediately said “Yes. It is very important to
my job, although I do not use English regularly.”. It can be seen that P09 showed correctness
in answering, but also honesty in responding which is a very important quality of a speaker to
have a fruitful communication.
Table 3 also shows the second strength of the police officers in speaking which reaches
the absolute frequency distribution of 12 of the police-respondents. Transcripts from the

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interview shows the ability of the respondents to use complete sentences. This means that, the
respondents understood and mastered the presence of subject and predicate in a sentence. For
example, when PO2 also made a complete sentence with a subject and predicate in her utterance
when she was asked “Is English language important in your job?”, she answered “English is
very important with me.”. A misuse of preposition is found in her answer, however she
demonstrated a sentence with a subject “English” and predicate “is very important”.
PO4 also utilized complete sentences when he was asked “How often do you use
English in your job?”, he gave a complete sentence feedback “I use English every day in my
job.”; and in another instance when he was asked “Can you tell me some English topics that
you learned before?”, he said “I don’t remember.”. Although PO4 is likely to answer briefly,
he is be able to answer in complete sentences with clear and sufficient information.
With PO10, the question was “Is the English language important in your job?”, he
replied shortly “Yes, it is.”. This means that he absolutely understood the question and knew
how to make a right answer on a Yes/No question type, and instead of just using a short answer
“Yes.”, he completed his answer.
Moreover, the table 3 shows that 50 percent of the police-respondents on the
‘pronunciation’. Based on the interview transcripts, police officers assigned in Noi Bai
International Airport Station, Vietnamese Bureau of Immigration, and Hanoi Traffic
Department are good in pronouncing words in English.
It is very significant to note in table 3, that the percentage distribution among the
respondents along ‘confidence’ is 100 percent. This means that all the police- respondents have
exhibited comfortability in facing the researcher. Even if they sometimes find it hard to grasp
English words as determined in the interview recordings, these police officers still show
confidence during the interview.
Table 3. Strengths of police officers in the use of the English language along
speaking
Strengths Speaking Frequency Percent

Responding appropriately/correctly 12 100

Using complete sentence 12 100
Pronunciation 6 50
Confidence 12 100

In a country like Vietnam where English is a foreign language, sometimes correct

grammar, choice of words or arrangement of words in a sentence do not matter as long as the

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speaker can express his idea and the listener gets the idea. The responses of the respondents to
the interview questions being given to them are evident with some grammar lapses, but the
respondents clearly manifested correctness in their ideas despite these errors. Not just that, the
police - respondents’ responses manifested that they can be able to utilize complete sentences
in English language. The researcher believes that the respondents’ mastery of the presence of
subject and predicate in a sentence is a result of the emphasis of this lesson in their General
English class.
Weaknesses of the Police Officers in the Use of the English Language along
Speaking Skills
Table 4 shows weaknesses of the police-respondents in Speaking which were
described as follows: Speaking gaps, Mispronunciation, Misuse of Preposition, Omission of
Preposition, Insertion of Preposition, Omission of Auxiliary Verb, Omission of Verb Form,
Omission of to be Verb, Insertion of to be Verb, Misuse of Quantifiers, Misuse of Tense, Non-
mastery of Other Types of Sentence (e.g., simple sentence, compound sentence, complex
sentence, compound-complex sentence), and Vocabulary (such as the Form of Word, the Order
of Word, and the Choice of Word).
As indicated in the table, the weakness in the ‘Speaking gaps’ along speaking skill
gets an frequency distribution of 12 or 100 percent of the police officers from the six police
stations. This means that all police-respondents have speaking gaps while speaking in English.
One of the causes of the speaking gap which is defined is due to vocabulary limitation. In this
study, the term “speaking gaps” means hesitation phenomenon while speaking in the target
language. Hesitation can happen because of many reasons such as the lack of information about
topics spoken, the lack of knowledge about vocabulary and grammar of the target language, or
the lack of speaking skills. Blankenship, J. & Kay, C. (2015) cited in Maclay & Osgood (1959,
p40) that “Hesitation phenomena are clearly related to the dynamics of grammatical and lexical
selection.”.
As can be explored in the interview recordings, the respondents perhaps shorten words
to express the ideas that they were thinking in their mind, hence they got hesitations. For
example, PO11 and PO12 had speaking gaps while answering the interview questions. When
PO11 was asked “Can you tell me what situations you usually use English?”, he responded
hesitatingly “Well, I often read….d…err…um… order forms and ….err…information of the
products to define the origin or ….err…the source of the products.”. As can be seen from
PO11’s statement, he gets hard time to grasp for the right word like “order forms” – a kind of

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form used for writing ordered products or goods. Besides this, he has a confusion of using
English word.
In another situation, when PO9 was quested “Is the English language important in
your job?”, she responded “Yes. It is very important …err…to… to…my job.”. As can be
observed, PO9 is confused with selecting the preposition. This means that she was not able to
surely know the use of the sentence pattern “It is + Adjective + (for smb/smt) + to V”.
The hesitation phenomenon of lacking of information and knowledge is also indicated
in PO8’s statement. When he was questioned “What activities in your job are you required to
write in English?”, he was silent in a while, and then said “it’s nothing”. Maybe he did not
understand the question, so he stopped a while to think. In another sense, he perhaps had no
information about the question to say.
Next, the percentage distribution of weaknesses along ‘preposition’ was observed in
the term ‘misuse of preposition’ with 91.67 percent of the police-respondents, followed by the
‘omission of preposition’ with 66.67 percent, and concluded by the ‘insertion of preposition’
with 58.33 percent. As indicated in the interview transcripts, the police-respondents when
interviewed have problems of the use of preposition. For instance, when PO2 was asked about
the activities he does in his field of assignment, he replied “I have the duty for check the carry
luggage of the guests before they come into the boarding zone.”. As seen from his statement, a
mistake of the preposition “for” is sought, but in English language the noun “duty” goes with
the preposition “with”. Additionally, he used the preposition “into” after the verb “come”
which aims to expressing the direction, but in fact English language it must be “come in” or
“come to”.
Also, when PO9 was required to tell situations in her workplace which she uses
English language, she claimed “I remind foreigners for performing rules in the local.”. She
made a misuses of preposition of the phrasal verb that is “remind … for”, but in English
language the right preposition followed the verb “remind” must be “of”, so the correct phrasal
verb must be “remind smb of smt/doing smt”. Then, the sentence should have been “I remind
foreigners of performing rules in the local.”.
Still, PO11’s answers as indicated in the transcript has a problem of the use of
preposition. When he is suggested to tell some situations or activities in his field of assignment
that he often use English language, he speaks “I have the responsibility to ensure that those are
not smuggled products.”. It sounds an interference between Vietnamese and English language
in this sentence. It is because he uses the preposition “to” after the noun “responsibility”, but

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in English the correct preposition is “for”. Hence, his statement needs not have been as “I have
the responsibility for ensuring that those are not smuggled products.”.
The transcript further presents that when PO12 is questioned “What activities in your
job are you required to speak in English?”, she answers “that’s similar as in Listening skill.”.
She makes an error of preposition in the phrase “to be similar to”, but she uses the preposition
“as” instead of. Then, the wright statement should have been “that’s similar to in Listening
skill.”.
Also, table 4 shows the shortcomings of ‘pronunciation’ among police officers which
have the percentage distribution of 66.67 percent of the police-respondents. Taking account of
the interview transcripts, the police-respondents make incorrect pronunciation, even without
placing stresses while responding the interview questions in English. In some instances, sounds
pronounced similarly to Vietnamese sounds. For example, when PO3 was required to tell about
activities in English that he speaks at his work place, he said “… only when there are ek-s-per-
ter-s from abroad to the institute.”. As seen, the word “experts” is pronounced in [ek-s-per-ter-
s], then it should have been /ˈɛkspəːt/.
With PO7, when he was interviewed how often he uses English in his job, he said “I
am in-vet-ti-ga-ter, so I deal to social order problems and street security.”. As seen in his
statement, an omission of the unit “-s-” in the word “investigator” is made. It should have been
pronounced like so /ɪnˈvɛstɪɡeɪtə/. In similarity to this, PO8 pronounced the word
“investigating” in [in-ve-ti-get-ting] when he was quested about the activities he often does in
his field of specialization. Yet, he ought to have pronounced the word in /ɪnˈvɛstɪɡeɪt/.
In the consideration of the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH), if the elements of
L2 is similar to L1, the L2 learners would obtain the knowledge of that language in the way
that L1 transfers. Al-Saidat E. M. (2010) claimed that the native language phonetics and
phonology are powerful influences on L2 pronunciation (as cited in Odlin, 1989:112). In other
words, Cook (1992) states that the L2 knowledge created in the mind of the learners is involved
in all aspects of L1 including knowledge of phonetics, pronunciation; therefore, L2 learners
may create interlanguage or interferences to L1, which the knowledge of L1 would be
transferred partly to L2 in a way that L1 is used.
Moreover, the police-respondents had the shortcoming in speaking along the “non-
mastery other type of sentence” which is observed in three types of sentence, in which the
percentage distribution on the weakness of ‘compound sentence’ is 50 percent of the police
officers, followed an equivalent distribution of 33.33 percent of the police officers on the
weakness of ‘simple sentence’ to that of those on the ‘complex sentence’. As seen in interview

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transcripts, the simple sentence was used more regularly in the respondents’ statements,
however mistakes in the use of this type of sentence is still found.
For example, when PO1 was asked for what skills he usually use in his workplace, he
replied “I use usually Listening and Speaking skill.”. This is a simple sentence because it
includes a subject and a predicate, but he placed the frequency adverb “usually” wrongly. He
might forget the use of the frequency adverb. However, when he was asked about the
difficulties he has in the use of English, he said “I am too old, so I can’t remember words.”. It
means that PO1 is capable to join two sentences by using the conjunction “so”. The complex
sentence was also evident in the PO1’s statements, when he was asked to recall the activities
in his job which require him to speak in English. He stated “I communicate with foreigners
who passing through my office every day.”. It can be deduced from this sentence that PO1 has
the tendency to use a complex sentence because his statement consisted of an independent
clause (I communicate with foreigners) and a dependent clause (who passing through my
office), but he committed a mistake by not using “are” after the word “who”. This sounds that
PO1 does not know the use of the complex sentence though he would like to use this type of
sentence to express his idea.
As recorded, PO5 also has a tendency to use simple sentences to express their opinions
in English. Exactly, when PO5 was questioned “Which English skills do you usually use in
your job?”, she replied “I use all English skills.”. Besides, compound sentences was sought out
in PO5’s answers. For example, as questioned “What are the difficulties you experience in the
use of English?”, PO5 replied “Listening and Speaking are not difficult with me, and I have to
study it myself so much.”. She might want her answer to be meaningful and informative, so
she used the conjunction “and” to add the independent sentence “and I have to study it myself
so much.”. Additionally, PO5 was possible to use the complex sentence as seen in the table;
indeed, when she was asked “In what instances/situations do you usually use English?”, she
reacted “I read information of immigrants, investigate why immigrants travel to Vietnam.”.
She was capable of joining the main clause “I read information of immigrants, investigate...”
and the dependent/noun clause“…why immigrants travel to Vietnam.” to be a complex
sentence even if she got a mistake of word choice on the word ‘immigrants’ while it should
have been ‘foreign visitors/travelers/tourists’. The above description proves that PO5 may
consider the strength of use various types of sentence in English to enrich her responses. Yet,
no attempt of using compound-complex sentences is sought in her answers as indicated in the
transcript.

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 According to the transcripts, the police-respondents makes some errors of vocabulary
which involve Word Form, Word Order, and Word Choice. In linguistics, Word Form refers
the phonological or orthographic sound or appearance of a word that can be used to describe
or identify something. Then, an error of word form happens when a speaker or writer uses the
wrong part of speech. As presented further in the table 4, the frequency distribution on
weaknesses in the ‘vocabulary’ is detected in which the first is the ‘word choice’ with the
distribution of 5 (41.67 percent) of the police officers, the next is the ‘word order’ with the
distribution of 3 (25 percent) of the police officers, and followed by the ‘word form’ with the
distribution of 2 (16.67 percent) of the police officers.
As seen in the interview transcripts, three errors of the word from made in turn by the
respondents PO1, and PO2. For example, when PO1 is questioned “How often do you use in
your job?”, he answers “I communicate oftenly with the foreign visitors in my work”. As seen
from the PO1’s statement, a mistake of form of word occurs when he inserts the suffix “ly”
after the word “often”. Similarly, PO2 makes an error of word form by insertion of the suffix
“ly” in the answer like this “it’s not oftenly” when she is required to state activities in English
which she often does in her job, so her answer seems to be not matched with the question. In
English language, the word “often” belongs to the group of frequency adverbs such as never,
seldom, sometimes, often, usually, always, etc, and it is no need to be inserted any suffix or
prefix.
The interview transcripts also indicate that the main errors of word order are the wrong
position of adverb, especially the frequency adverb, and the wrong position of noun in a noun
phrase. For instance, when PO1 is questioned “Do you usually use Listening skill, Speaking
skill, Reading skill, or Writing skill in your work?”, he answered “Ah, yes. I got it. I use usually
Listening and Speaking skill.”. He places the frequency adverb “usually” after the regular verb
“use” in the sentence, while in English language the frequency adverb must go before the
regular verbs or after to be verb. The accurate sentence should have been “Ah, yes. I got it. I
usually use Listening and Speaking skill.”. Likewise, with PO2, when she was required to tell
about the skills in English language which she usually us in her workplace, she said “I use
Listening and Speaking only.”. As seen from the statement, she orders the adverb “only” in the
end of the sentence, while in English it ought to have been after the regular verb “use”. Then,
the right sentence should be “I use only Listening and Speaking.”. By which, it sounds that
PO1 and PO2 need to be learned about the use of frequency adverbs in a wright English
syllabus.

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 Alike, PO3 committed two mistakes of the word order including the wrong order of
frequency adverb and noun of the noun phrase. Indeed, when PO3 was inquired “Is the English
language important in your job?”, he replied “Yes. English technique in police is very
important for me. I need English to repair them.”. As can be seen that the statement is unclear,
even can makes misunderstanding; it is because the order of words in the noun phrase “English
technique in police” is not correct. May be, PO3 refers to English that is used in techniques for
police purposes or techniques that are used to learn English for police purposes. For all that,
basing on the context (what were discussed around the question), it is supposed that he refers
to “Technique English for police” that means English that is used in techniques for police
purposes. Through which, the correct order of words in a sentence in English is very important
because it directs the listener or reader to understand accurately the meaning of a sentence or
whole paragraph. PO3 should have taken a right English course like ESP syllabus, in which
the use of the noun phrase would be conveyed.
The limitation of the police officers in the use of English tense accounted for 3.86
percent which the weaknesses were mainly focused on misusing between the present and past
tenses. The discussions below about evidences of weaknesses along speaking made by the
police-respondents will help to detail these results.
Furthermore, as recorded in the interview, the police officers seem to be divided in
mind to choose a suitable English word for making up the answer. Selection of word plays a
very important for making up a sentence, statement, or even a paragraph, and then affects the
way the reader or the listener understand the sense of the sentence. Additionally, a sentence or
paragraph is informative.
For example, PO6’s answer as shown in the transcript of her recording is
uninformative and intelligible. Indeed, when she was asked “What activities in your job are
you required to write in English?”, she answered “I write information, statements of immigrant
in my note to track of.”. Three errors of the choice of word are found from the statement which
includes “information”, “statement” and “track of”. Basing on what recorded in the interview,
it seems that PO6 would like to express that she wrote down the personal information likes
name, age, address, phone number, etc…, and complaints/compliments on something by
immigrants on her note-book. Concretely, the words “information” and “statement” in this
context are obscure and insensible, then they should have been “personal information” and
“statements of complaints or compliments”. Additionally, PO6 uses the verb phrase “track of”
wrongly because in English language the correct phrase must be “keep track of” which means
the action of monitoring or following something. Then, the right sentence should have been

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said “I write personal information such as name, age, phone numbers of immigrants, and
statements of complaints or compliments on something (spoken by the immigrants) on my note
to track of.”.
Alike, PO8 as recorded makes a mistake of the word choice. For instance, when he
was questioned “What activities in your job are you required to write in English?”, he
responded “It’s nothing.”. The answer like this may get puzzled to the listener because PO8
chooses wrong word to express his opinion that is “nothing”. This word is quite abstract to
understand in this situation. Maybe, PO8 might imply that there is no activities in his job which
is required to write in English. He ought to have said “I don’t have any English writing activities
in my job.” Or “There isn’t any writing activities in English in my job.”.
On the other hand, table 4 presents the weakness in speaking along the ‘misuse of
tense’ whose the frequency distribution is 6 of the police officers. It cannot be denied that L2
learners often get mistakes in using tenses while speaking. In Vietnamese language, although
there is the distinction of time among present, past and future, the verb of sentence is not
changed like in English language. As the evidences presented in the written version of the
recordings, most of the respondents use wrongly tenses in English, especially
misunderstanding of the use between the present and past tense.
For instance, PO4 made a misuse of tense at the beginning of the interview as the
recording. For instance, when the interviewer said “Sir, you must know the reason why I come
here today.”, PO4 responded “Yes. I am informed before.”. As seen obviously from the
response, the sign of time “before” is able to be the foundation to define the correct tense used
in the sentence should have been the past simple tense. Yet, PO4 used the present simple tense
instead of. In another instance, PO4 committed a similar error of tense. Besides, when PO4
was questioned “Can you tell me some English topics that you learned before?”, he answered
“It’s about 15 years ago, so I don’t remember.”. According to the statement, the identification
sign of time is shown clearly by the adverb “ago” to help to define the tense for the sentence,
but PO4 could not distinguish that the past simple tense should have been used in this situation.
These above proofs prove that PO4 does not really understand the use of tenses in English
grammar, so he need not have taken part in a wright English syllabus in which has detailed
explanations about the use of tenses.
As can be found in PO10’s statement, there are two errors of the use of tense which
are mainly related to the misunderstanding of the usage between the present and past tenses.
Indeed, when PO10 is quested “Can you recall any topic or activities in your English classes?”,
he responds “Yes, I learn English many years ago when I study at People’s Security Academy,

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that is general English course.”. As seen from PO10’s sentence, the identification sign of time
“many years ago” is very obvious; as well as the verb “recall” of the question itself means the
action of remembering something in the past. But despite that, PO10 uses the simple present
tense for his answer. Additionally, PO10 knows a very popular sentence pattern in English
grammar, which combined a main clause and a noun clause. This structure is used to express
an action which is happening, another barges in. Particularly, both verbs used to describe these
two actions are conjugated in the past tense; concretely, the action happening is conjugated in
the continuous past, and the action barging in is conjugated in the simple past, as follow:
[Subject 1+ Verb past simple + When + Subject 2 + was/were + Verb ing + …]. However, he
uses wrong tenses for both two actions of his answer. This seems that PO10 learned about this
pattern, but he has not known how to use it. That being the case, the statement should have
been “Yes, I learned English many years ago when I was studying at People’s Security
Academy, that was a general English course.”.
In English language, there are five basic verb forms consisting of the base, -ing, -
s/-es, past, and past participle. As can be referred to the data from the table 4, 33.33 percent of
the police-respondents commits the error of the ‘omission of verb form’, followed by the
distribution of 16.67 percent of the police officers on the error of the ‘insertion of verb form’.
For example, in instance of omission of the base “to”, when PO2 was asked “How
often do you use it in your job?”, she responded “I usually have use English to remind the
passengers.”. The to- verb form is omitted from the verb “use”, while in English language after
the verb “have” is a base verb or to- verb form. Then, the right statement ought to have been “I
usually have to use English to remind the passengers.”. In another situation, when PO2 is
inquired “Can you recall any topic or activities in your English classes?”, she replies “English
I have now can be apply in my job.”. As can be sought out from the sentence, PO2 would like
to use passive voice to express her idea; yet, the –ed verb form is omitted from the verb “apply”.
Whereas, in English language if a sentence is passive voice, the verb form after to be verb must
be past participle. Thus, the sentence needs not have been “English I have now can be applied
in my job.”. By which, the respondents need learning more about the use of passive voice, as
a result this grammatical category ought to be marked for the ESP syllabus design later.
Withal, PO5 makes an omission of –s form of verb in her statement. Concretely, when
she was quested “What are the activities you do in your field of assignment?”, she gave her
feedback “My major field include management and identification of illegal immigration.”. PO5
uses a simple sentence whose main verb is conjugated in the present simple tense. As well as
the subject of the sentence is the third-person plural pronoun, so the verb form must be –s form.

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It follows that the correct sentence should have been “My major field includes management
and identification of illegal immigration.”.
The error of insertion of verb form found is just adding the base or to- form to verb.
As referred to the evidences from the written version of the recordings, there are only two of
the respondents who commit this type of error including PO1 and PO2.
With PO1, when he was inquired “Is the English language important in your job? How
often do you use it in your job?”, he replied “Yes, yes, it is very important to me. You know, I
must to communicate with the foreign visitors in my work.”. As can be seen from the second
sentence, to- infinitive form is inserted after the auxiliary verb “must”. In English language the
auxiliary verb always goes with a bare verb, so the sentence should have been “I must
communicate with the foreign visitors in my work.”.
A similar fault also is found from the PO2’s statements is that an insertion of to- form
after the auxiliary verb. In addition to this, PO2 created a wrong sentence because
misunderstand the use of the auxiliary verb “must” in narrative form or “mustn’t”. Indeed,
when she was asked “What activities in your job are you required to read in English?”, she
responded “I mustn’t to read anything.”. In English, “mustn’t” comes with bare verbs and refers
to actions of forbidding, so it is not like “don’t have to do”. Whereas, PO2’s statement implies
that she has to read nothing in English. Therefore, PO2 should have said “I don’t have to read
anything.”, or “I have to read nothing.”. As a result, PO2’s answer makes the listener
understandable due to errors of both insertion of verb form and misuse the auxiliary verb.
In English grammar, quantifiers are words or phrases which refer to number or
amount. Quantifiers come before countable nouns/noun phrases such as many, few, a few, a
number of, a majority of, several, etc, or non-countable nouns/noun phrases such as much,
little, a little, a (little)bit of, a (large/small) amount of, a great deal of, etc, and many quantifiers
in English language goes with both countable and non-countable nouns/noun phrases such as
all, enough, more/most, less/least, no/none, some, any, not any, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, etc.
The table also inflects the frequency distribution of 2 of the police officers on the type of error
‘misuse of quantifier’ which as seen in the evidence of the interview transcript includes PO6
and PO9. In fact, there is no quantifier in Vietnamese language. Vietnamese people use
numerals or digits to speak about the quantity. Normally, non-native speakers often get wrong
the use of quantifiers on when they do not define which nouns are countable or non-countable.
As can be seen in the evidences from the transcript, PO6 and PO9 misunderstand the
use of quantifier “much”. For example, when PO6 is asked “Do you have any difficulties?”,
she replies “With grammar, there are too much phrasal verbs to remember, I often make

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mistakes.”. As seen from the statement, the phrase “phrasal verbs” is a countable noun phrase.
In accordance with the English grammar in use, the quantifier “much” is used to indicates the
amount, so it comes before non-countable nouns or noun phrases. Hence, the correct quantifier
in this instance should have used “many”.
Table 4. Weaknesses of police officers in the Use of the English Language along Speaking
Weaknesses along Speaking Frequency Percentage

Speaking gaps 12 100

Mispronunciation 8 66.67
Preposition
Misuse of Preposition 11 91.67
Insertion of Preposition 7 58.33
Omission of Preposition 8 66.67
Omission of Auxiliary Verb 3 25
Omission of Verb Form 4 33.33
Insertion of Verb Form 2 16.67
Misuse of Quantifier 2 16.67
Misuse of Tense 6 50
Non-mastery of Other Types of Sentence
Simple Sentence 4 33.33
Complex Sentence 4 33.33
Compound Sentence 6 50
Vocabulary
Word Form 2 16.67
Word Order 3 25
Word Choice 5 41.67

To sum up, the findings indicate that the police-respondents have evident weakness in
the use of English language along speaking. Besides the weakness in speaking gaps, almost of
the police-respondents have the tendency to omit the preposition in their answers on the
interview questions. Their omissions of preposition often occur on the phrasal verbs which
many of omitted prepositions are very common and used regularly in daily English activities.
Some of them are likely to interfere or interlanguage of the use of preposition between
Vietnamese and English language. This reflects a limitation of preposition knowledge as well
as usual phrasal verbs given in the General English Syllabus that the respondent learnt before.

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 Moreover, the police officers also commit the mistake of the use of auxiliary verb
which is a basic knowledge part of English grammar. In different situations auxiliary verb will
have different use and function; thus, the use of auxiliary verbs, especially “do/does” and “can”
will be mentioned in the ESP syllabus to be designed.
The finding likewise reveals that few of the police-respondents misused the
quantifiers while speaking English, this demonstrates that there is a weakness and limitation of
the use of quantifiers. This displays extra shortcomings of the General English Syllabus, and it
is in need of an ESP design for Vietnamese policemen.
It is very important to take notice on the finding that many of the police-respondents
are quite weak in using tenses in English grammar. Especially, they usually commit mistakes
of the usage between past tenses and present tenses, which the main cause of this circumstance
is that they cannot identify the sign of time in English such as adverbs “ago”, “before”, “after”,
“since”, “for”, “later”, etc. That being so, these results mirror a restriction of English tenses of
the General English Syllabus which the police-respondents ever learnt; as well as reveal that
designing an ESP syllabus for police officers of Vietnam is an urgent requirement.
In addition, weaknesses of the police officers in speaking as indicated in the table 4
are involved in the errors of form of verb. Verb form is very important grammatical knowledge
in connection with other grammatical categories such as tenses, types of sentences, kinds of
clauses, and so on. Accordingly, the usage of verb form in English language will be able to be
propounded for ESP syllabus design.
The above findings indicate that the police-respondents have the weaknesses of using
of different types of sentences. The simple sentence is used more than other while the
compound-complex sentence is not used in the statements of the respondents. They commit a
lot of mistakes and errors of the usage of these kinds of sentence, only when they have a chance
to take part in a right English course, their capability of English may be significantly improved.
Then, an ESP syllabus is necessary to convey different types of sentences in English language.
On the top of the weaknesses of pronunciation and grammar, many of the police-
respondents commit the mistake of vocabulary that mainly relates to frequency adverb.
Selecting word in such a way that it can be suitable with context and the sense of the question
is not easy for the police-respondents. This means that the General English Syllabus which the
police-respondents learned before, was not able to improve their English competence.
Therefore, an ESP syllabus design for Vietnamese police officers is really essential.

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 Conclusions and Recommendations
As reflected in the findings of the study, it is concluded that the police officers have
limited competence in the English language as they perform language tasks in the listening and
speaking skills. This limitation is attributed to their inadequate knowledge of grammatical
rules and vocabulary to describe the intended meaning suggested by the situations in the work
place. A drawback in the college education of these police officers is the fact that the activities
in the listening-speaking, grammar, and vocabulary usually required in the policemen’s
workplace are not reflected in the General English Syllabus presently being used in PSA to
train the future policemen in the country.
In the light of the findings and the conclusions, Vietnamese police officers really need
English for their work purposes. They need an English course which could respond to their
needs in English language as put on show in results of the identification of real English
activities in the listening and speaking skills and the assessment of weaknesses in the use of
the English language under the speaking skill.
A further study of English language activities in writing skill at police officers’ actual
works, along with strengths and weaknesses in the use of the English language under the
writing skill would be conducted so that the basis for designing an ESP syllabus for PSA’s
students – future policemen could be fulfilled.

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 Supporting the adoption of business case studies in ESP instruction
through technology

Rebekka Eckhaus
NYU School of Professional Studies Tokyo, Japan

Biodata:
Rebekka Eckhaus is a full-time English Lecturer and Program Coordinator at NYU School of
Professional Studies Tokyo. She holds an MA in TESOL and has taught in universities and
companies in Tokyo, New York City, Seoul, and Valparaiso (Chile). Her current research
interests include multilingualism, ESP, learner autonomy, and blended learning. She can be
reached at [email protected]

Abstract

This article suggests a research-based approach for designing a content relevant ESP unit by
adopting a business case study as the primary text. Since the early 1980s, research has
supported the use of business cases in English language learning, as cases can offer rich
language and business content that can encourage higher-order thinking. This paper will outline
a multi-lesson unit from a critical thinking course designed with the purpose of producing a
challenging yet dynamic and accessible lesson to high-intermediate or advanced English
language learners. Recommendations are included for the application of technology, such as
online discussion forums and a final group presentation designed using online collaboration,
which will help to further learning objectives and enhance students’ engagement with the
business content.

Keywords: ESP, CALL, business case study, materials development

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Introduction

Perhaps due to their popularity in MBA programs (Boyd, 1991), business case studies
have gained significant traction in business ESP classrooms. While case studies can be
challenging even for an experienced business teacher, they are substantially more daunting for
an English language teacher (ELT) who must teach English language skills while engaging
with dense business material whose subject matter may be more foreign to the teacher than to
the students themselves. How can ELTs incorporate business cases into their business English
classes in effective, meaningful ways? Could technology enhance student learning and
simultaneously alleviate the pressure of working with business content? This paper attempts
to address these questions through the example of a three-lesson unit for the course Critical
Thinking in Business, which uses a business case study as the primary text and incorporates
technology to enhance both the teacher and learner experience. The unit design and rationale
is based on ESP research and best practices from the field (preliminary investigations on this
topic were presented at the JALT CUE ESP Symposium, 2017).

Literature review

The case method is an established teaching method that was introduced to the field of
business by Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration in 1908 as the “problem
method” (Corey, 1980/1998). As early as 1982, Piotrowski proposed using the case method in
English language teaching, in particular with business executives who have advanced English
communication skills, in part because business cases are able to provide relevant and
motivating content for students of ESP. Since then, ESP research has offered guidance about
various aspects of business case instruction and the case method (Piotrowski, 1982; Grosse,
1988; Westerfield, 1989; Boyd, 1991; Boyce, 1993; Jackson, 2004, Almagro Esteban & Pérez
Cañado, 2004). Although cases can serve as material in both business and language teaching,
business English and MBA programs possess fundamentally different aims, which teachers
must take into account when determining how to best integrate cases into their syllabi (Boyd,
1991). Boyd clarifies this dichotomy, pointing out that the goal of an MBA program is for
students to learn “how to think like business managers” while business English must support
students as they are taught “how to communicate like business managers in English” (p. 731,
emphasis in original).

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 For the purpose of teaching English for business, the adoption of cases affords
compelling advantages. Business cases provide authentic materials containing business
concepts and embedded cultural information (Grosse, 1988), fostering a content-based, learner-
centered approach to problem solving with integrated skills and communicative activities
(Piotrowski, 1982; Grosse, 1988; Westerfield, 1989; Boyd, 1991; Jackson, 1998; Boyce, 1993).
Moreover, divers resources—the cases themselves as well as books and articles about the case
method—act as a support for ELTs experimenting with practical materials (Piotrowski, 1982;
Grosse, 1988). Rather than feel that they must become business experts, ELTs can select cases
with accompanying teacher notes (Westerfield, 1989) and seek assistance from business
experts and colleagues (Grosse, 1988).

Despite the benefits of utilizing case materials, business cases are often neglected in
the language learning classroom because of the challenges they present to ELTs who do not
have a business background. Cases do not often come with lessons and activities designed for
English language learners. Therefore, teachers may need to engage in the laborious and time-
consuming process of developing and/or adapting materials, taking into account the students’
levels and needs (Grosse, 1988; Boyd, 1991; Almagro Esteban & Pérez Cañado, 2004).
Another challenge is using the necessary teaching approach. ELTs are education professionals
(not experts in business content or case method), so they must cultivate a learner-centered
classroom in which the students provide the business experience and knowledge (Grosse, 1988;
Jackson, 1998). Success of the method depends highly on the teacher’s preparation and case
method competence, as well as students’ attitudes and buy-in (Piotrowski, 1982; Almagro
Esteban & Pérez Cañado, 2004). The number of variables that could affect the success of the
class deters many teachers from attempting to use business cases. However, the fact that
students may encounter the cases’ authentic content in the real world can spark their
enthusiasm, which makes it worthwhile for ESP educators to explore ways of making cases
more accessible to all language educators.

Rationale & background information

The unit descbribed below was presented as a finale to the course Critical Thinking
Skills for Business, which was developed for an EFL program targeting working professionals
with an advanced level of English. The course met for a total of 12 weeks, once a week for 90
minutes. Each class was highly individualized as there were only 5-10 students enrolled per

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term. Not only was technology readily available on campus, but the students also had
consistent personal access to computers, internet, and smartphones. The EFL program used
free services provided by Google as a learning management system (LMS) and was thus able
to provide a private website for each course. The instructor managed all content on the website
and gave students access to participate in an embedded online discussion forum. For this
critical thinking course, students purchased the business case study from Harvard Business
Publishing; however, other sources for business resources and additional cases are available
(for free or for purchase). The purpose of presenting this unit is to demonstrate a practical and
methodical application of ESP research, using technology to encourage learner autonomy and
to ease the teacher’s burden. Technology was deliberately selected to support the learning
objectives and add value to both the lesson and the learner experience.

Unit Design Considerations

When designing a unit, teachers should consider, among other factors, their approach
toward the students and material, the selection of the case, and the scaffolding of the unit.

Approach

As is usually the case with advanced English language learners in ESP, teachers
should approach their roles as facilitators and language learning resources, not as business
experts (Grosse, 1988; Jackson, 1998). Students are often working professionals or students
of business, so the content will give them an opportunity to apply the concepts in real life or to
explore a topic they may face in the future. Although the content is about business, the
objectives should be focused on communication (Boyd, 1991). Teachers should familiarize
themselves with overarching concepts so they can ask critical questions about the material and
encourage higher-order thinking; however, they must respect their students’ professional
knowledge and expertise. The actual students targeted in the design of this unit were working
professionals, aged 25-45. Therefore, approaching them as peers encouraged open discussion
and collaboration.

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Selection

Teachers must choose business cases wisely, selecting cases with appropriate content,
length, cultural relevance, and purpose (usually decision-making cases are best suited to the
language learning classroom) (Westerfield, 1989). For language teachers unfamiliar with
business cases, the selection process can seem daunting. However, business cases are simply
“stories” and can come from many sources, such as newspaper articles or trade journals.
Depending on the level of students and their industries, teachers can look for creative sources
matching their learners’ needs and interests (Boyd, 1991). Once selected, the cases can be
adapted for language levels using techniques appropriate for any English language classroom
(Westerfield, 1989; Boyd, 1991).

This unit utilizes a decision-making case from Harvard Business Publishing for
Educators, which will be anonymized as “Jane Doe” in order to maintain focus on the
methodology rather than on a particular case. Decision-based cases, to which the strategies
and techniques presented in this paper can be applied, allow students to evaluate/discuss the
facts and propose/defend their recommendations and solutions. “Jane Doe” was a relatively
short business school case study at nine pages, and the case presented challenging, authentic,
level-appropriate language. Since the students hailed from a variety of industries, the case was
selected to address topics that affect employees in a wide range of fields—management styles,
cultural conflict, age/gender issues, etc. Moreover, care was given to avoid topics that would
unfairly advantage particular students. For example, the case did not require complex
calculations or specialty knowledge, which meant that all students were able to engage with
the material.

Scaffolding

The general setup of a unit based on a business case study should follow the logical
structure of any interactive English language learning reading project unit. Cases can be
scaffolded by employing general reading strategies: prediction, pre-reading questions,
skimming for key words/ideas, re-reading for more detail, and breaking down complex
analyses into smaller steps (Westerfield, 1989). In the context of ESP teacher training, Jackson
(1998) suggests following a class sequence to improve the productivity of lessons based on
case studies. The unit presented here has been broken down into four sequential stages: pre-
reading/individual preparation & analysis, group work, project, and debrief. Pre-reading

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activities prepare students for business concepts and/or new language, while individual
preparation & analysis give students a chance to familiarize themselves with the case at their
own pace—before engaging in group or class work; group work, in- or out-of-class, creates
opportunities for students to reuse and recycle business concepts and language as they
collaborate on activities and in discussion; the project serves as an extension of the group work,
allowing students to apply concepts; and the debrief allows students to reflect on what they
have learned throughout the unit. Each stage will be described in more detail below.

Unit on Critical Thinking

1. Pre-reading/Individual preparation & analysis

Business cases are challenging for both native speakers and ELLs—not only because
of language considerations but also because of the higher-order thinking skills that they
demand, such as identifying relevant information, analyzing, evaluating, and proposing
solutions/recommendations. By allowing students time to prepare the case ahead of time and
guiding them through the material with clear scaffolding, students have greater opportunities
to be successful. Each assignment can optionally be broken down into smaller, more
manageable tasks depending on a course’s contact hours and the students’ language levels.
Language activities are useful but should be given in the context of content to draw immediate
connections between business and language points. Appropriate language focused activities
might present idioms and/or key grammar structures before teaching a case (Piotrowski, 1982;
Westerfield, 1989). A pre-reading activity can be given in class or as homework in order to
introduce the theme of the case and can consist of videos or group discussion connecting the
business theme to students’ personal experience. Ideally, pre-reading activities bridge concepts
from one unit to the next so that the units flow seamlessly to form a cohesive syllabus.

The individual preparation & analysis is given as homework and requires students to
first prepare the case individually by answering teacher-created comprehension questions.
Because reading and dissecting a case is a time-consuming process, the individual preparation
& analysis assignment for this unit was given two weeks in advance. The comprehension
questions guide students through the case material, building gradually from concrete to abstract
concepts. Suggestions for question creation include: 1) organizing questions in the order of
the case; 2) mainly asking for short answer and short description to demonstrate identification
of the facts; 3) including language questions, especially about difficult vocabulary and idioms;

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and 4) presenting discussion questions or extension activities (e.g., graphic organizers listing
pros/cons, cause & effect, or connecting characters with their roles within the case) after
students have identified key facts. Generally, the last section of a decision-making case directly
asks for analysis and solutions.

After students read the case and answer the comprehension questions, they begin
analyzing and sharing information by responding to a writing prompt via online discussion
forum. The online discussion is an opportunity for teachers to raise thought-provoking
questions while giving ownership to students in order to foster learner autonomy. Online
discussion can serve as writing fluency practice, requiring minimal teacher monitoring or
explicit language feedback, although students often appreciate some interaction with the
teacher. The forum allows students to use English to explore the business ideas and content,
rather than focus on language concerns. Setting two deadlines, one for posting a comment and
another for responding to classmates, is conducive to more active discussions.

Figure 1: Sample homework assignment (posted on course website) to prepare students for
Lesson 1

2. Group work

Group work allows students to reuse and recycle language and concepts that they have
explored during the pre-reading/individual preparation & analysis by means of collaboration

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and discussion. Mixing students with different skill sets creates an environment in which the
students can support each other in their understanding of the case (Almagro Esteban & Pérez
Cañado, 2004). The teacher can circulate as facilitator and clarify language and concepts
presented in the case as needed. In this way, the teacher can note common questions to later
address with the entire class; in other words, the teacher can find “teachable moments”
(especially regarding language) while the students engage with the material. In this unit, an
impromptu language lesson on reading large numbers in English was conducted. Not only was
this language point directly relevant in the students’ jobs, but also the ability to express large
numbers was needed in the project stage of the unit.

Figure 2: Sample Lesson 1 (posted on course website)

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Figure 3: Sample online discussion prompt that accompanies Lesson 1 in Figure 2

3. Project

For the culminating project of the unit, students presented their solution to the case in
groups and then led a class discussion based on the presentation. A unit project serves as an
extension of the individual and group work from prior lessons, and it provides students with an
opportunity to execute more difficult tasks. The purpose of the project is not to simply evaluate
students, but rather to give them a chance to demonstrate the skills and knowledge they have
gained throughout the series of lessons. In this way, the teacher is setting up students for
success and helping them prepare for the pressures of real-world business tasks. Projects can
incorporate techniques that will motivate business English learners, such as “small & whole
group discussions, role plays, simulations and problem-solving” (Grosse, 1988, p. 134).
Moreover, communicative activities included in the project can focus on functions that students
may encounter in their daily professional lives—e.g., negotiating, letter or email writing, guest

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lectures, on-site visits, pronunciation and presentation skills, simulated business meetings, etc.
(Boyd, 1991). Regarding assessment, the students in the critical thinking course receive
Pass/Fail grades, so specific letter or numerical grades were not required. Nonetheless, groups
received feedback about their language usage and their fulfillment of the project requirements
(see Figure 8). The most important factor related to the selected feedback method is that the
assessments and evaluations are directly connected to learning goals (Almagro Esteban &
Pérez Cañado, 2004).

Figure 4: Sample Lesson 2 (posted on course website)

Figure 5: “Final Project Guidelines” that accompany Lesson 2 in Figure 4

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Figure 6: Sample slideshow template that accompanies Lesson 2 (Figure 4) and the Final
Project Guidelines (Figure 5)

Figure 7: Sample Lesson 3 (posted on course website)

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 Jane Doe - Final Discussion Feedback

Presenting your solution

Background
1. Did the group accurately summarize the facts of the case?
2. Did the group explain in their own words (not read directly from the
case)?

Clarifying the Problem

1. Did the group identify the issue(s)?
2. Did the group identify the conclusion (answer the issue)?
3. Did the group use reasons to support their explanation? (Identify
support from the case, other reliable sources, or from your professional
experience/knowledge.)
4. Did the group summarize their solution in 1-2 sentences?

Action Plan
1. Did the group include a step-by-step action plan?
2. Was the group able to defend their solution?

Following discussion guidelines

1. Did the group prepare a PPT to support their solution?
2. Did every person in the group speak when explaining the background,
problem, and the solution (action plan)?
3. Did every person answer at least one of the audience’s questions.
4. Did the group offer at least one counterargument and refutation in their
reasons or action plan?
5. Did the group use the language and strategies we discussed in class to
help explain and defend their ideas?

Figure 8: “Jane Doe – Final Discussion Feedback” instructor assessment sheet mentioned in
Lesson 3 (Figure 7)

4. Debrief

Debrief provides students with an opportunity to self-reflect on their learning. The

debrief can consist of formal reflection or simple oral sessions in class to share their thoughts.
Moreover, the debrief encourages students to make content connections between units and
strategize ways to improve their learning process in future lessons. Because of time

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constraints, the debrief of the unit presented here was an in-class, round table discussion in
which all students discussed the questions orally together: What did I learn? What do I want
to learn more about? What was strong about my group’s presentation and discussion? What
would I like to improve for next time? Depending on their cultural backgrounds, students may
need coaching in how to give constructive feedback; Japanese students, for example, may want
to criticize their performance without identifying successful behaviors. A more objective and
methodical approach to feedback can lead to more positive outcomes, but students may need
training in methods of delivering effective self-assessments.

Student reactions

In order to collect feedback regarding the course, an anonymous computerized course

evaluation was conducted at the end of each 12-week course. One of the classes administered
a midterm evaluation because it was taught by different teachers for the first and second halves
of the term; however, numerical data from the first half of this class has not been included to
ensure that no students’ evaluations are counted twice. Comments from the midterm evaluation
are included as the qualitative data is relevant regardless of whether it has been sourced from
the same student. The course evaluation consists of 16 questions, measured on a four-point
Likert scale, with options specified under each question. Open comments about the course and
about the teacher are invited at the end of the evaluation. All comments have been included in
this paper and have been categorized by overarching themes: relevance, content, technology,
and facilitation.

While the evaluation of the entire course cannot directly indicate the success or failure
of a three-lesson unit, the students’ strongly positive responses must be taken into account.
Given that two of the units follow the same set up and that the total number of lessons covered
in two units is 6 lessons plus pre-reading/individual preparation & analysis (over half of the
coursework), some general conclusions about students’ reactions can be drawn. Table 1 shows
student responses to questions related to the relevance and quality of the language and business
content, the implementation of technology, and the teacher-as-facilitator approach. Six of the
16 total questions were included and all respondents completed each of the questions selected.
Students’ overall impressions indicate that 1) students found the business content challenging,
useful, and interesting, 2) the quantity of work was challenging but doable, 3) the technology
supported student learning, and 4) students felt satisfied about their progress in English.

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Table 1: Student responses to selected 4-point Likert course evaluation questions

Question as stated on course evaluation (1) (2) (3) (4) Total

How difficult was your textbook*? 1) too easy for me,

2) somewhat easy, 3) somewhat difficult, 4) too 0 2 14 3 19
difficult for me

Were the topics and contents of your textbook* useful

or interesting? 1) very much so, 2) somewhat, 3) not 16 3 0 0 19
so much, 4) not at all

Were the supplemental materials provided by your

teacher useful or interesting? 1) very much so, 2) 13 6 0 0 19
somewhat, 3) not so much, 4) not at all

The amount of homework required was… 1) too little,

I wanted more, 2) less than expected but sufficient for 0 1 14 4 19
learning, 3) more than expected but I was able to do it
with effort, 4) too much, I couldn’t finish it all

The course website was helpful for reviewing and

keeping up with class work. 1) Strongly agree 2) Agree 15 4 0 0 19
3) Disagree 4) Strongly disagree – Didn’t use enough
to know

Overall, did this course help you achieve your goals for
improving your English? 1) Yes, I was very satisfied, 16 3 0 0 19
2) I was generally satisfied, 3) I was somewhat
dissatisfied, 4) No, it was not what I expected at all
* The term “textbook” in this context refers to the business case studies, which were used as the primary text. No
other textbook was used for the course.

Relevance
Student comments categorized under relevance speak to the ability of the course
material to connect to the students’ learning goals and real world needs. The students discuss
whether the content and language skills could apply to their business contexts. While the
students express the challenging nature of the cases, they can see a direct connect between the
course content and their business needs.

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RC1: Even though I need more time to digest what I learned, this course was very helpful to
understand and think critically about some difficult business cases that I faced in my real life.

RC2: This is the third time for me to take classes at this school. This class is the most direct to
improve my business skills. Thank you.

RC3: I could use knowledges from this course to my business.

Content

Content refers to the students’ responses to either the language or business content
taught in the course. One student explains that s/he gained vocabulary; furthermore, the same
student describes how s/he handled difficult content and was able to be successful with
sufficient effort. Another student expresses appreciation of business cases.

CC1: I obtained a lot of new words. It was difficult to understand the general idea. However,
I studied the materials which were provided by the faculty every week and understood them.

CC2: HBR [Harvard Business Review, referring to the business case studies from Harvard
Business Publishing] is very interesting. I would like to learn more cases of HBR in the lesson.

Technology

Because technology can help or hinder a lesson, the category of technology seeks to
capture students’ impressions of the course’s use of technology and determine whether it
supported their needs and the learning objectives. Students found the implementation of
technology both “useful” and “interesting.”

TC1: Two-way communication with the teacher through internet material was very helpful and
interesting.

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TC2: The course website is updated after every classes and it's useful.

TC3: Posting my idea to Discussion board is effective to improve my writing skills and knowing
classmates' idea is very interesting.

Facilitation

Facilitation attempts to assess students’ reactions to the role of the teacher in the ESP
classroom. While the teachers were English language professionals, the students were all
business professionals seeking to improve both their English and business skills. The teachers’
approach reflected the principles explored in the unit design considerations. Reflecting on the
students’ comments helps gauge the teachers’ success with the role of facilitator, as well as the
students’ responses to the teacher-as-facilitator approach.

FC1: It was first time for me when I feel learning English is fun! I was motivated to discuss
with my classmates in my MBA school. Thank you for giving me such a wonderful opportunity.

FC2: Teachers had enough knowledge about the content and make me understanding it
effectively.

FC3: [The teacher] is truly a good teacher, [the teacher] explained very clearly and gave us
opportunities to think ourselves, in addition, [the teacher] gave me the right direction if there
is anything which we don’t know.

FC4: [The teacher] always encourages students, and explains difficult things by using
examples and the students can understand them easily.

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Conclusions

Utilizing challenging authentic materials like business case studies brings with it both
positive and negative consequences; however, research shows that the effort it takes to adapt
case studies can be beneficial to students’ language development, confidence, and engagement.
In the case of the Critical Thinking for Business course and unit design, students responded
with only positive reactions to the relevance of the cases, the course content and materials, the
implementation of technology, and teachers’ facilitation. Although students mentioned that
the content was challenging, they also expressed their ability to grasp the material with a
reasonable amount of effort in and out of the classroom. In short, language teachers can be
successful with cases if they familiarize themselves with the business content but focus their
energies on the teaching of their expertise, the English language. The students’ potential
enthusiasm toward the business cases should encourage language teachers to consider adopting
cases. The following principles of good lesson planning can be applied in the ESP classroom
in order for ELTs to successfully connect with the needs of English language learning business
professionals:

1. Use ELT strategies as with any content material.

2. Utilize technology to enhance student participation, especially regarding content.
3. Integrate communication strategies (paraphrasing, framing discussion questions,
counterarguments/refuting, etc.).
4. Structure lessons for students unfamiliar with using cases.
5. Take a back seat – facilitate, challenge, suggest.
6. Adapt to language level.
○ Choose short articles or business situations when necessary.
○ Adjust the language focus to target language learning objectives (describing,
agreeing/disagreeing, interrupting, etc.).

Through thoughtful selection of materials, as well as carefully structured lessons,

authentic business content can stimulate rich discussions and encourage critical thinking. Busy
students of business must see the immediate relevance of the language and content, in addition
to the practical application of the course information and materials, to maintain focus and
motivation throughout a course. Business cases provide a challenge that working professionals
can appreciate. With the purpose of supporting teachers new to adopting case studies in the

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language classroom, the unit design ideas presented in this paper can serve as either a
foundational structure for lesson planning or as an inspiration for the use of real-world content
in the ESP classroom.

References

Boyce, B. A., et al. (1993, March). The case study approach for pedagogists. Paper presented
at the Annual Meeting of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Recreation,
Education and Dance, Washington, DC.

Boyd, F. (1991). Business English and the case method: A reassessment. TESOL Quarterly,
25(4), 729-734. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587095

Corey, E. R. (1998, November 6). Case method teaching. Boston, MA: Harvard Business
School. (Original work published in 1980).
Eckhaus, R. (2017). A research-based approach to utilizing business case studies in ELT.
Poster session presented at the JALT CUE [The Japan Association of Language
Teaching, College and University Educators SIG] ESP Symposium, Yokohama,
Japan.

Almagro Esteban, A. & Pérez Cañado, M. (2004). Making the case method work in teaching
Business English: a case study. English for Specific Purposes, 23, 137-161.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0889-4906(03)00016-4

Grosse, C. U. (1988). The case study approach to teaching business english. English for
Specific Purposes, 7, 131-136.

Jackson, J. (1998). Reality-based decision cases in ESP teacher education: Windows on

Practice. English for Specific Purposes, 17(2) 151-167.

Jackson, J. (2004). Case-based teaching in a bilingual context: Perceptions of business faculty

in Hong Kong. English for Specific Purposes, 23, 213-232.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2003.05.001

Kleinfeld, J. (1990). The case method in teacher education: Alaskan Models. Charleston, WV:
ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. Retrieved from ERIC
database. ERIC Document ED321965.

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Mostert, M. P. & Sudzina, M. R. (1996, February). Undergraduate case method teaching:
Pedagogical assumptions vs. the real world. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting
of the Association of Teacher Educators, St. Louis, MO.

Nagel, G. K. (1991). Case method: its potential for training administrators. NASSP [National
Association of Secondary School Principals] Bulletin, 75(539), 37-43. Retrieved from
ERIC database. ERIC Document EJ437504.

Nathan, P. (2010). A genre-based study of pedagogical business reports. Unpublished doctoral

thesis. Birmingham UK: University of Birmingham.

Nathan, P. (2013). Academic writing in the business school: The genre of the business case
report. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 12, 47-68.

Nathan, P. (2016). Analysing options in pedagogical business case reports: Genre, process and
language. English for Specific Purposes, 44, 1-15.

Piotrowski, M. (1982). Business as usual: Using the case method to teach ESL to executives.
TESOL Quarterly, 16(2), 229-238.

Westerfield, K. (1989). Improved linguistic fluency with case studies and a video mehtod.
English for Specific Purposes, 8, 75-83.

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 Using Moodle in Improving Listening Abilities in English for Specific
Purposes of Vongchavalitkul University Students

Mr. Josemari V. Cordova1 and Asst. Prof. Thawascha Dechsubha2

1
MA in TEFL student, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences,
Nakhon Ratchasima Rajabhat University, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand
email: [email protected]
2
Lecturer, Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences. Nakhon Ratchasima Rajabhat
University, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The objectives of this study were: 1) to investigate the effects of using Moodle in
improving the ESP listening abilities of Vongchavalitkul University students; 2) to compare
the students pre-listening and post-listening tests results; and 3) to find out the students’ opinion
towards learning English for Specific Purposes using Moodle. The samples were 16 students
who are majoring in Bachelor in Occupational Safety and Health enrolled in English for
Careers during the second semester of Academic Year 2017 at Vongchavalitkul University,
Nakhon Ratchasima. The students-samples were selected by purposive sampling. The
instruments used in the research procedure were six lesson plans. The instruments used for
data collection were: (1) English listening pre-test and post-test; and (2) questionnaire of
students’ opinion. The data was statistically analyzed by using mean (χ̅), standard deviation
(S.D.), and t-test. The results showed that the students’ listening abilities in ESP post-test mean
score was significantly higher than the pre-test mean score at .05 level after learning through
Moodle. In addition, the students had positive opinion towards learning towards learning
English for Specific Purposes using Moodle.

Keywords: English for Specific Purposes – Occupational Safety and Health, Moodle,
Listening Abilities, Moodle Mobile.

299
Introduction
Moodle is an example of a virtual learning environment or VLE and stands for Modular
Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment. It is a free, open-source e-learning tool, and
a Learning Management System. It is developed on pedagogical principles and constructivist
approach (Dougiamas et al, 2002) and used for blended-learning, distance education, flipped
classroom and other e-learning projects in schools, universities, workplaces and other sectors
(Costello, 2013). It is a good alternative platform to offer an ocean of listening materials and
has plenty of modules for language learning (Tang, 2013).
Listening is one of the four language skills in English communications. It is a receptive
skill but considered a “Cinderella skill” and is not given much attention in the EFL studies
(Nunan 2002, 2014). Thai students’ problems in listening comprehension are due to many
factors: 1) It may involve the listener, 2) the speaker, 3) the content of the message, 4) any
accompanying visual support (Grognet and Van Duzer, 2003), and 5) listening problems
related to listening text (Cubalit, 2014).
English for Specific for Purposes (ESP) refers to teaching the English language to
university students or people already in employment, with reference to the particular
vocabulary and skills they need and will focus on one occupation or profession (Hewings,
2002).
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) adapted English as the medium
of communication. With the opening of ASEAN labor market, Occupational Safety and Health
(OSH) professionals are directly needed in engineering, surveying, and architecture. The
competition for OSH professionals is high favoring those who are adept in the English language
and communications while it is Thai workers’ weak points. Thai government is trying to
address this through technology and web-based applications. To tap the vast supplementary
listening activities in English in the internet, English for Specific Purposes through Moodle
and blended-learning needs to be utilized.

Statement of the Problem

This study tried to answer the following questions: a) What are the effects of using
Moodle in improving the listening abilities in English for Specific Purposes of Vongchavalitkul
University’s (VU) students? b) How will Moodle improve the VU students’ listening abilities
in ESP? c) Will the students agree that Moodle is a good tool in improving their listening
abilities in ESP?

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Conceptual and Theoretical Framework
The concept of this study is teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP) utilizing
technology wherein Moodle delivers Occupational Safety and Health listening lessons. The
respondents in this study are independent-learners, computer-literate, and have a basic
knowledge of the topics in their native language. Students’ opinion towards learning ESP
through Moodle is a primary source of data used in order to ensure authenticity. Figure 1 shows
the conceptual framework of the study.

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Students’ Listening Abilities

Teaching ESP through Moodle Students’ opinion towards learning
through Moodle

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the Study

The theories used in this study are: (a) The social constructivism pedagogy (Dewey,
Bruner, Piaget, and Vygotsky) which has been identified as the learning theory in the digital
age where educators and students jointly explore, inquire, critique, and build their own
knowledge effectively and efficiently (Lasic, 2011); and, (b) Input Theory (Krashen, 1981),
where second language (L2) data which the learner hears became intake as assimilated in the
inter-language system. It is viewed that acquisition takes place when the input is a little beyond
the learner’s current level of competence which is termed as “the i + 1 level” (Krashen, 1981).

Review of Literature
The studies on Moodle and ESP (Cedar, 2013; Despotović-Zrakić et al., 2012; and
Kavaliauskienė, 2011) showed that post-listening test results were higher than the pre-listening
tests and showed significant statistical difference. Not only does Moodle-based teaching, e-
learning, and online learning greatly improved students’ language competence (Ma Jing, 2016;
Banditvilai, 2016) but also absolutely beneficial for the students’ listening skills improvement
in English (Arzal & Tanipu 2014). In addition, learners with computer and technology skills
improved their open-mindedness in terms of English listening and speaking (Ya-Ting, 2012)
because Moodle provides many opportunities to develop their abilities through meaningful
activities uploaded in the platform (Diaz, 2012), and has positively influenced the students in
L2 listening (Spataro, 2011). Moodle also strengthened learner’s independence and self-
regulated learning skills (Wolters, et al., 2003; Barnard, et al., 2009 in Yamada et al., 2015 :
72) because (1) the students become more organized in doing the course requirements even

301
with no supervision (Alhotli, 2015); (2) each student can work on different tasks with the
“integrated learning environment” (Wu et al., 2012, in Soliman, 2014); and, (3) it had effects
on the students’ academic performance (Rymanova et al., 2015, Carbajal & Lopez, 2014, and
Arzal & Tanipu, 2014).
Krashen (1996) suggested that listening must be higher than the level of the target
learners, which suggests for pedagogical aspects of listening and proposed Narrow Listening
as an approach in teaching listening. This involves (a) repeated listening, (b) an interest in the
topic, and (c) a familiar context. According Matsuzawa (2012), this involves L2 learners’
repeatedly listening to the speech rate of Native English Speakers’ various accents and speech
rates.
Ellis (1984, 1997) contends that learning occurs when new information is linked to the
knowledge already held by the learners’ background knowledge. In the same manner,
Ratanapruks’ (2015) pedagogical approaches in teaching and learning listening in Thailand
was also used. The English for Specific Purposes in this study was focused on Occupational
Safety and Health (OSH). Increasing the amount of listening time in the second language
classroom is one of the principles for teaching listening (Celce-Murcia 2001 : 89).

Methodology
Population and Sample
The population of this study was 35 students (19 first year, 16 second year) of
Vongchavalitkul University majoring in Bachelor of Science in Occupational Safety and
Health during the second semester of Academic Year 2017. The 19 first year students were
used for try-outs. The samples were the sixteen (16) second year VU students selected using
purposive sampling.
Experimental Design
This study was pre-experimental research, one-group pre-test and post-test design. It
was conducted at Vongchavalitkul University, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand during the
second semester of 2017.

O1 X O2

Figure 2: The Experimental Design

O1 represented the pre-listening ability test before implementing the ESP listening
lessons through Moodle; X represented the experiment of teaching ESP through Moodle, and

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O2 represented the post-listening ability test after implementing the ESP listening lessons
through Moodle and the questionnaire.

Research Instruments

Experimental instruments were (1) six lesson plans in Occupational Safety and Health
delivered through face-to-face instructions and Moodle, (2) pre- and post- listening
comprehension tests, (3) a questionnaire of students’ opinion towards learning through
Moodle.

Data Collection and Analysis

The experiment was for six weeks at three hours per week. Access to listening OSH
lessons listening comprehension quizzes were automatically recorded in Moodle. The data in
comparison of mean scores from pre-test and post-test of English listening ability were
analyzed using Mean (χ̅), Standard Deviation (S.D.) and percentage. The comparison of
English listening scores were analyzed by using t-test for dependent samples. The data
collected from the questionnaire were analyzed using Mean (χ̅), and Standard Deviation (S.D.).
The results from the data were descriptively analyzed to indicate the students’ opinion.

Results

Table 1: Students’ pre-/post-tests listening activities raw scores, difference of scores and
percentage
Pre-test of Listening Post-test of Listening
Difference of Scores
activities (20) activities (20)
No. Raw Score Percentage Raw Score Percentage Scores Percentage
1 3.00 15.00 9.00 45.00 6.00 30.00
2 5.00 25.00 8.00 40.00 3.00 15.00
3 3.00 15.00 11.00 55.00 8.00 40.00
4 1.00 5.00 6.00 30.00 5.00 25.00
5 3.00 15.00 12.00 60.00 9.00 45.00
6 4.00 20.00 16.00 80.00 12.00 60.00
7 4.00 20.00 11.00 55.00 7.00 35.00
8 3.00 15.00 8.00 40.00 5.00 25.00
9 3.00 15.00 13.00 65.00 10.00 50.00
10 7.00 35.00 14.00 70.00 7.00 35.00
11 5.00 25.00 13.00 65.00 8.00 40.00
12 5.00 25.00 10.00 50.00 5.00 25.00
13 2.00 10.00 8.00 40.00 6.00 30.00
14 8.00 40.00 18.00 90.00 10.00 50.00
15 7.00 35.00 14.00 70.00 7.00 35.00
16 7.00 35.00 11.00 55.00 4.00 20.00
χ̅ 4.38 21.88 11.38 56.88 7.00 35.00
S.D. 2.03 - 3.22 - 1.19 -

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 Table 1 shows the students’ raw scores of pre- and post-tests, difference of scores and
percentage. The pre-test mean score (χ̅) is 4.38, S.D. of 2.03, and a percentage mean of 21.88,
while the post- test mean score (χ̅) is 11.38, S.D. of 3.22 and a percentage mean of 56.88. The
difference of post-test and pre-test mean (χ̅) scores is 7.00 points, S.D. of 1.19 and a percentage
mean difference of 35.00.

Table 2: Comparison of pre-test and post-test scores, standard deviation (S.D.), and t-
value of the listening activities to improve the listening abilities in ESP of VU students
Mode of Assessment N χ̅ S.D. T Df Sig.
Pre-Test 16 4.38 2.03 11.56 15 .000
Post-Test 16 11.38 3.22
* ρ < .05
Table 2 shows the comparison of pre-test and post-test mean scores (χ̅), standard
deviation (S.D.), and t of listening activities in improving the listening abilities in ESP of VU
students using Moodle. The result showed that the post-test mean score (χ̅) of 11.38 was
significantly higher than pre-test mean score (χ̅) of 4.38 at .05 level after learning through
Moodle.

Table 3: Mean value & interpretation of students’ opinion on ESP Lessons using
Moodle
ITEMS Mean S.D. Interpretation
11. The OSH course in Moodle was well-planned to allow all 4.31 .602 Agree
students to participate fully.
1. The Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) lessons’ learning 4.25 .683 Agree
objectives in Moodle were clear.
10. The online activities on OSH uploaded in Moodle are easy to 4.19 .981 Agree
accomplish.
15. I can use other features of Moodle like calendar, course 4.13 .719 Agree
filters, personal profile, external links etc.
3. The OSH topics in Moodle are relevant to my future career. 4.12 .885 Agree
13. I can access and submit my work and quizzes in Moodle 4.06 .772 Agree
without any glitches.
9. The topics, pronunciations, listening activities and OSH 3.99 .772 Agree
phrases in Moodle are new to me.
12. OSH lessons using Moodle has helped me to stay focused on 3.99 .929 Agree
listening abilities.
14. The OSH lessons through Moodle application challenged me 3.94 .772 Agree
to learn independently.
7. The OSH topics in Moodle are sufficient. 3.94 .772 Agree
2. The OSH listening topics in Moodle are interesting. 3.89 .885 Agree
8. There should be a higher OSH course uploaded in Moodle. 3.83 .834 Agree
5. I can use some useful expressions and common words and 3.75 .775 Agree
phrases related to OSH after the completion of the course in
Moodle.

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 ITEMS Mean S.D. Interpretation
6. I can understand the OSH listening activities in Moodle. 3.63 .885 Agree
4. My listening ability on basic OSH in English improved after 3.50 .730 Agree
the course completion in Moodle.
Total Mean 3.96 .100 Agree
Table 3 shows the mean value and interpretation of students’ opinion on ESP Lessons
using Moodle which was Agree (χ̅=3.96). This means students’ positive opinion that ESP
lessons in Moodle improved their listening abilities.

Moodle analytics and other findings

1) Access to each listening activities vary between 55 seconds and 11 minutes and
32 seconds.
2) Based from the mean scores of ESP listening activities in Moodle, the students
had difficulty listening and answering the following lessons: (a) Incidents, (b) Worksite
Communications, (c) Worksite Safety, (d) Fire Safety, (e) Personal Protective Equipment
(PPEs), and (f) The Right Tools for the Right Job.
3) The students’ complained that the audio activities in Moodle should be slower.
4) Glitches in internet connection were common but all the students were confident
using their smartphones than their laptop computers. Hence, Moodle Mobile was utilized by
the respondents.
5) Students were constantly conferring with one another of the OSH words and
phrases that they heard. They were also concerned with their scores rather than completing the
ESP listening activities in Moodle.

Implications
Self-regulated learning using Moodle and other mobile applications will be used in language
learning the future. However, online lessons among the students might lead to procrastination.
Based from Moodle analytics, some students just logged in to Moodle system but accomplished
few activities. According to Rymanova et al (2015), “students are not always ready to fulfill
all types of the activities developed in LMS Moodle, especially those that require academic
skills to analyze, compare and annotate.”

Conclusion
It is concluded that through the use of Moodle, the listening abilities in English for Specific
Purposes (ESP) of Vongchavalitkul University students improved. This study also proved that

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technology, online and mobile applications combined with the students’ collaboration and
independence played vital roles in the improvement of their listening abilities. Further, this also
confirmed that as long as specific lessons are provided and let the students study on their own
pace and time, there is a chance of improvement. The constant communication of OSH students
in their L1 should not be interpreted as impassive to answer the listening activities. Rather, this
can be interpreted as corroboration given their cultural background. In addition, they liked that
the system provided feedbacks after they completed the listening exercises. This helped them
learn by correcting their mistakes.

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 Teaching in multicultural classrooms: challenges and opportunities for
FEFU ESP students

Panushkina Tatyana
Far Eastern Federal University, Russia
Ilintseva Anna
Far Eastern Federal University, Russia

Biodata:
Tatyana Panushkina, Ph.D., is Associate Professor in the Academic English Department. Far
Eastern Federal University, Vladivostok, Russia. She has authored more than 20 articles on
methodology of teaching English. She can be reached at [email protected]

Ilintseva, Anna
Anna Ilintseva is senior instructor in the Academic English Department.Far Eastern Federal
University, Vladivostok, Russia. Post-graduate, research intrests are methоdоlogy problems of
teaching English. She can be reached at [email protected]

Abstract
We live in a global world with English rapidly expanding and penetrating into all
spheres of people’s lives. Educators all over the world try to look for new sources to teach
languages.
In a multicultural social context, it is obligatory that students learn how to intеract and
understand people who are ethnically and culturally different from themselves. Supporting and
engaging students from a variety of backgrounds and cultural experiences can be a challenge.
This study aims to present a teaching approach for ESP students with emphasis on cultural
diversity at the Far Eastern Fеderal University (FEFU), Russia. There are also some
speculations on cooperative learning and psycho-emotional dispositions of the international
students at the FEFU in learning a foreign language to meet the requirements of the classical
formative education.

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Keywords: Multicultural classrooms, teaching approach, International
students, diversity.

Introduction
If you try to spend even a minute wandering the halls of the Far Eastern Federal
University, you will be impressed with diversity of student body.
FEFU is at the center of international education in the Russian Far East. It is actively
integrated itself into global higher education and information environments .Based at a campus
(Russian Island) with world-class infrastructure, the university provides innovative educational
and research opportunities. FEFU is a gathering place for scientific communication between
Russian and international experts, and is an active participant in both socio-economic and
cultural development of the Russian Far East. The University’s location and personnel offer
opportunities for collaboration with leading research, education and innovative centers across
the Asia-Pacific region .For centuries people of 128 ethnic backgrounds have been living in
the Russian Far East together, sharing their values, achievements and cultures. Tolerance and
cohesion are the main principals of people living in this multicultural region. The same
principals are considered to be very important for educating multinational students at FЕFU.
FEFU has developed partnership projects and academic exchange programs with
approximately 100 universities all over the world. More than 3000 foreign students from 67
countries were enrolled to FEFU in 2017 year .The number of international students in FEFU
is constantly increasing and more than 7500 foreign students are planned to be enrolled to
FEFU in 2019. (www.dvfu.ru). The fact of increasing number of international students at FEFU
underlines the actuality and the importance of developing teaching approach in multicultural
classroom.

A teaching approach in multicultural classrooms at FEFU

The process of teaching of international ESP students (we have students from the
People’s Republic of China, the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Japan, Australia, Thailand, India
, Vietnam and other countries) involves more than intellectual ability. It also includes psycho-
emotional disposition of the students and teachers as well, and the environmental settings in
which teaching and learning take place.
I think a multicultural approach should help teachers fulfil the aims of enhancing
student’s confidence, personal motivation and competence. Thus, it creates in students a

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psychological state of readiness for learning which has a positive effect and education process
itself.
As a rule students who begin their education outside of Russia may need some time to
adjust to a different style of learning. We couldn’t expect students to arrive with relatively
homogenous experiences and views. We should consider some of the aspects that combine to
make up international students as individuals: their age, gender, ethnicity, race, intellectual
ability, language, culture, religion, learning styles, values and etc. For instance in my group of
students specializing in international studies among 14 there are 2 students from China, 3
students from Republic of Korea, 2 students from Japan and one person from Colombia
(Southern America). These students may be expected to challenge the ideas of their professors
and their peers as well as ask questions, engage in debate and be assertive and outspoken.
There is also a great deal of variability in some classrooms with some teachers
preferring a great degree of formality, and teaching in a lecture format, and other instructors
preferring a more casual style, with class discussions and group work being the norm .
The differences can confuse and frustrate some students who have grown up in other
countries. In many countries the role of teacher or the instructor is to ‘impart expert knowledge
and the student’s role is to absorb it…It would seem presumptuous for a novice to challenge
an expert.” (Recognizing and addressing Cultural Variations in the classroom, p.7)
Some authors think that international students that are accustomed to this dynamic may
be reluctant to engage in a debate in class to ask questions or volunteer answers. In every
learning environment, there are unspoken expectations governing classroom interaction and
communication.
‘If we remain unaware of such possible cultural influences, they can cause misunderstandings
in the classroom… In general, increasing your knowledge about and sensitivity to ethnic,
racial, and cultural groups other than your own will help you become a better teacher’ (
Teaching a Diverse student Body .p.2)
In today’s cultural diversity landscape the teaching and learning of foreign language
require effective ways to access and strengthen students’ individual skills as well as ways to
include the understanding they bring to learning based on their social experiences.
Students, coming to FEFU from other countries usually struggle for recognition of their
place in different community as they are pushed to move out of their comfort zones and into
vital but challenging intellectual community. This process can be rewarding but stressful.
We should underline that learning engagement is highly determined by emotions, which are
socialized through culture. For example, while giving the task to the international students in

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seminar session’s one student feels frustrated and stop working at it but another feels joy and
continues to implement it. For instance, after watching video materials concerning methods of
mastering different foreign languages some students in multicultural classroom at FEFU feel
admiration to the person who is quick at picking up 15 languages while other students feel
indifference and cannot understand the reason for learning so many foreign languages. What
may elicit that frustration, joy or determination may differ across cultures because cultures,
differ in their definitions of novelty, hazard, opportunity and gratification.
Sometimes teachers’ awareness of places and cultures that students come from and talk
about can help build necessary relationships in multinational classroom. For example, my
experience of teaching Korean students in one of the universities of Republic of Korea (2000-
2001, 2012-2013, Seoul) and awareness of some Korean traditions helped me understand the
behavior of these students in the classroom and made our contact closer and productive.
Taking into consideration all the differences that happen in a multicultural classroom a
teacher should find the ways how to build a positive, respectful, and supportive environment
that fosters learning for all international students.
Cultural relevance in teaching and instruction can help create a common culture within a
learning situation that all students can accept. May be for this the most relevant conditions are:
- creating a learning atmosphere in which students and teachers feel respected
and connected to one another;
- creating a favourable disposition toward learning through personal
relevance and choice in the multicultural classroom;
- creating thoughtful learning experiences that include students’ perspectives
and values.
We should recognize some broad ways in which students may differ from one another and
examine what effect these differences may have on students’ learning and teachers’ work.
Teaching international students at FEFU and enacting some principles in multinational
classrooms I recognize effective some general principles:

-making students comfortable in the classroom

- recognizing differences in their reactions and learning preferences
- teaching in a flexible manner
- varying the ways students participate in the classroom
-responding to students equitably and inclusively.
(Teaching a Diverse Student body.2004))

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Teachers should be aware of the fact that creating a classroom environment that fosters respect
and welcomes diverse viewpoints and approaches to learning supports the growth and
development of all students in the classroom. While teaching English for ESP students we,
teachers, should mind that the language should be presented not as a subject to be learned in
isolation from real use, nor as a mechanical skill to be developed. English should be presented
in authentic contexts to make students to be acquainted with particular ways in which the
language is used in functions that they will need to perform in their majoring fields of specialty.
The learning activities in multicultural classroom designated to accomplish the specific
learning objectives established by the teacher are main aspects in instructional process. For
example, I organized two-hour seminar sessions carried out in a group of 20 multinational
students majoring in Regional and International studies. The subject concerned the role of a
diplomat in modern society and secrecy in diplomacy. For the beginning, students are assigned
to small groups and encouraged to exchange and discuss their points of view, their expectations
and concerns about these research themes. Then each group shares its remarks and teacher
should record them.
The next stage is dedicated to developing students’ attitude to these research themes.
International students can express their own views based on their cultural background and to a
great extent these views can be different from others. Sometimes argues are too heated and
carrying discussions across the culture can be unpredictable affair. Still it increases the
relevance of the activity and contributes to a favourable atmosphere emerging in the seminars.
Throughout the seminar, the established groups develop a set of questions and a set of
observations to ask other students. At this moment students are involved in critical questioning
and predicting. So we try to create engaging and challenging learning experiences that develop
students’ perspectives and values.
The ending stage of the seminar is dedicated to self-assessment. It is necessary to affirm
understanding that students have effectively learned the material they value. I ask my students
to write some statements about what seminar activity has taught them from this process of
discussions and coming to certain conclusions. Then students can exchange their statements
and comments on their positions. In every learning environment especially multicultural one
there are unspoken expectations governing classroom interaction and communication.
Teachers should be in step with current research which informs us that “students who
interact with peers of different backgrounds or who take courses with diversified curricular
content show greater growth in their critical thinking skills than those who do not do so, and
they also tend to be more engaged in learning.” (Jeffrey Milem. 2000)

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 At the university level many students speak English as a second language. Mastering
course content and performing well on exams and assignments can be challenging enough
when English is your native language. But when you are struggling to master a new vocabulary
and writing style the volume and workload can quickly become overwhelming.
However, there are some tips I consider to be important for a teacher and some ways
to keep frustration to a minimum.
1. When reviewing assignments with the students make sure the instructions and requirements
were clearly articulated. Share any rubrics or grading criteria for the assignment.
2. Provide several examples. Providing models of expected style and structure will help
international students know what they should be working toward, as well as it demonstrates
the potential for diversity of approach.
3. Give students the opportunity to ask questions about the assignment in class or during office
hours. Schedule meetings with them during various points in the term to discuss their ideas,
organization, and planning to make sure, they are on the right track with assignments.
When providing feedback on student assignments it’s advisable

1 Minimize grammar mark-up .In the absence of explicit grammatical instruction, it is

difficult for students to deduce grammatical rules from a series of corrections.
2 Ignore language mistakes that do not obscure meaning, especially in the early stages
3 If students specifically request grammatical feedback it’s necessary to concentrate on errors
that severely obstruct meaning .Choose one or two types of errors to concentrate on focusing
on the most frequent or most important errors.
On the other hand international students reported that they felt more included in educational
environment when:
1. Course material was made more inclusive, representing a range of diverse traditions.
2. Pedagogical techniques were more varied and effective, presenting material in a variety of
ways and actively engaging students.
3. Instructors encouraged and showed confidence in all their students.
4. Instructors led open and guided discussions of some racial issues. (Adapted from : Supporting
ESL Students )
There are many challenges and specific activities for multinational students who come from
various linguistic and cultural backgrounds at FEFU .There is an Indian dance club, a Korean
drum club, taekwondo and Kung shou dao classes and other activities there. Every year
Multinational Festival which is called International Student Unity Day

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takes place at the campus of FEFU. On this day students communicate with each other about
their culture, origins and background, which is a very effective method of demonstrating
respect for cultural diversity as well as making the most of the richness of what it offers. The
slogan of this Festival is “Unity in Diversity” .The leader for this event is chosen among
international students. Usually all FEFU English teachers participate in this Festival and
international student’s special group makes video clip to be shown in the classroom.
.Discussion and appreciation of such students experience help harness the tension (sometimes
evident in the classroom) in productive and creative ways. As a faculty at FEFU we celebrate
many other different festivals from around the world and it can be enriching for all
international students. It’s reassuring to see that the prejudices that sometimes exist in the adult
world are non-existent in the multicultural classroom.

Conclusion
Teaching in a multicultural classroom is a great challenge for a teacher. Under modern
conditions the role of ESP teacher should reach a new dimension, expanding the social, cultural
and intellectual horizons of ESP students. Creating a common culture in the multicultural
classroom with atmosphere of respect, tolerance and cohesion is the main condition for
productive work there. After carrying some seminar sessions in FEFU multicultural classroom
we can state that cultural diversity determines the reconsideration of all educational decision-
making from designing curricula to selecting instructional material and appraising performance
in such classrooms. Conducting such academic seminars in multicultural classroom at FEFU
can be one of the effective way to make education of English language more successful.
Recognizing and responding to the increasing diversity of FEFU student body can help teachers
become more useful and effective, enriching multicultural classrooms in the process.
Nowadays, the multicultural perspective in education has imposed the multicultural
education’s goal of contributing to the personal development of students, which contends that
a better sense of self contributes to the overall intellectual, academic, and social achievement
of students .And teachers should be ready to meet the challenge of preparing the students for
the diverse world of 21 century.

315
References
https://www.dvfu.ru
Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence. Recognizing and Addressing Cultural Variations in
the Classroom. (p.7) Carnegie Mellon University.
Teaching Resource Centre. Teaching a Diverse Student body: Dealing with Conflicts. ( p.2
)University of Virginia.
Teaching Resource Centre. Teaching a Diverse Student body: Practical strategies for
Enhancing Our Students’ Learning. (2004) ( p.XI )University of Virginia.
Jeffrey Milem. Why Race Matters. Academe: Bulletin of the American Association of
University Professors, Volume 86, Number 5 (September-October 2000)
Inclusive Teaching: Supporting ESL Students. Marginalized Students. (p.3) University of
Virginia.

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Conversational Topic Preferences, Taboo Words and Euphemisms Used by
ESL Philippine Male and Female Students

Boyet L. Batang, Ph.D.

Isabela State University – Cabagan Campus
Vanessa Joy Dayag – Vecaldo, Ph.D.
Tuguegarao City Science High School
Ramon S. Medriano, Jr.
Pangasinan State University – School of Advanced Studies

Biodata

Boyet L. Batang, Ph.D. is currently the Dean and Full Professor 6, College of the Teacher
Education, Isabela State University System. He obtained his PhD degree in English Language
Studies at the University of Santo Tomas and his Master’s degree in English Language Arts at
the Philippine Normal University, Manila. He teaches both in the undergraduate and graduate
levels of Isabela State University and Cagayan State University, respectively. He is a national
senior accreditor of AACCUP and member of the Regional Quality Assessment Team (RQAT)
of the Commission on Higher Education, Region 02. [email protected]

Vanessa Joy Dayag – Vecaldo, Ph.D. is presenty teaching English at Tuguegarao City Science
High School. She obtained her PhD in Language Education at Cagayan State University. She
taught English at Al Musanna College of Technology, Sultanate of Oman.
[email protected]

Ramon S. Medriano, Jr. is the Sales Executive and Training Manager of TESOL Asia.
Concurrently, he is the Head Reviewer of the English Language Education (ELE) Journals and
editor of the Asian EFL Journal, a Scopus-indexed journal. He delivers lectures on Teaching
ESP (English for Specific Purposes) and Teaching Business English. He has been teaching

317
English for 15 years and he is currently on his graduate studies in Communication Arts –
English at Pangasinan State University – School of Advance Studies.
[email protected]

Abstract
This paper concentrated on the description and analysis of conversational topic
preferences, use of taboo words, euphemisms and cathartic words. Results of the study showed
that past activities is the most preferred topic by male students while love life and school
matters were ranked second and third respectively while love life topped the list of female
students while school matters and family came next. In terms of topics which should be kept
private, among them are those which concern the lives of other people, love life, bad
experiences, family problems, and secrets. Both male and female students spill improper words
as cathartic expressions to show anger and fright.
Similarly, both groups of respondents tend to utter harsh words to insult or hurt other
people. It can be noted that although both groups are capable of saying cuss words, there are
still those who do not utter such. When it comes to the use of taboo words, female students use
more euphemisms to cover terms used to refer to excretory process and those which are closely
associated to sexual intercourse. Since the respondents are in their teenage years and most of
their time is spent with their friends, friends is on the top list pertaining to the sources of cuss
words.

Keywords: conversational topic preferences, taboo words, euphemism, expletives

Introduction
The language of men and women has always drawn a magnetic line of interest among
language enthusiasts. Determining differences and noting similarities between them have been
their deliberate ends. Among those which present the greatest appeal are the topic preferences
during conversation, and the use of euphemism and taboo words of both genders.
Among the notable names whose direct association to this area is stressed are Lakoff,
Poynton, Cameron, Coates, Batibo & Kopi, Tannen, Hysi, Bakhtiar. Their studies revolved
around gender differences in language. According to Hysi (2011), as cited by Tajolosa (2012)
gender differences in communication cross linguistic borders and take cultural, ethnic and
psycho-social dimensions. For example, according to Jespersen (1925), women’s speech is a

318
deviant form from the average male speaking patterns. Women use ‘insipid’ and ‘ladylike’
language in an attempt to shrink from the ‘coarse’, but ‘virile’ usage of men. In his article The
Woman, four aspects of language related to women are presented. These are verbal taboo,
competing language, conversational language, and conservative language (Pacquing, 2010).
Lakoff and others have seen gender privilege in access to profanity as depriving women of
resources they need. In many contexts a woman using obscenity positions herself rather
differently from a man speaking the same way. Recognition of this different positioning is part
of what leads some women to seek substitutes for the tabooed forms (Eckert and Ginet, 2003).
In the study of Precht in 2002, the men recorded saying shit significantly more than women
while women are recorded saying gosh significantly more than men. Nonetheless, there were
no significant sex differences in the employment of damn and good.
Topic preference during conversation refers to the commonly and consciously chosen
subject during oral discourse. In this context, it is confined within the parameters of male-
female common or distinctive choice of topic. In the studies conducted by Holmes (1991) and
Eschholz, Rosa and Clark (1990), results yielded are the same. Women are very open in sharing
their feelings and the status of their relationships while men are not. Men’s concerns lie greatly
on anything else apart from emotions.
The use of euphemisms and taboo words in sociolinguistics is an interesting point to
consider in gender difference. Women’s utility of euphemism is a distinct linguistic feature. As
Hysi (2011) found out, women rally do stand for the intended purpose of euphemisms – to
cover offensive terms. Moreover, the use of such is affected by women’s social status including
their education and the culture they have accustomed themselves with and by situations where
their freedom of expression is concealed. The use of taboo words on one hand is seen in both
male-female discourse. Kuiper (1991) and Kiesling (1997) have both examined male-only
social contexts that are characterized by such ‘‘dirty language.’’ As they and others have
pointed out, this kind of talk often plays an important role in social bonding in such groups. It
signals shared freedom from the control of those who have criticized such language in the past:
mainly, mothers and schoolteachers who are mostly women (Eckert and Ginet, 2003). This
justifies why in many societies, men have a more prominent use of taboo words than women.
Locally, the exploratory study of Montenegro in 1982 dissected the male and female
language in Pilipino is very much linked with this. The study is divided into three parts - the
male and female language differences in written descriptions, analysis of conversational topic
preferences, topics considered not in good taste, taboo words, euphemisms, cathartic
expressions and cuss words, and male and female perception of each other’s language and their

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own. The study concluded that there really exist similarities in terms of topics in conversation
of male and female while differences in the inclusion of euphemisms and cuss words. Women
use less explicit utterances to reduce their impact in the people they are communicating with.
Men on one hand are very intense and strong in their expressions. The same findings were
extracted from the study of Tajolosa in 2012. Females prefer to talk about emotion related
topics while males go with sports. In consistency with other studies, females preserve the
delicateness of their language since they avoid the more insulting and derogatory cuss word
unlike males who frequently utter such. Taboo words are not often euphemized since they are
still vulgar and negative. These happenings are caused mainly by their friends.
In the educational context, it is imperative to take into account the students’ language
today. Banking on the Tajolosa’s study, private or public, male or female, students have an
immodest exhibition of language. This can be attributed to a number of sociolinguistic factors;
however, there should still be an intervention that has to be integrated in the system. Driven by
this concern, the researchers therefore delved into this study.

Review of Related Literature and Studies

Language and Gender
Robin Lakoff’s (1975) theories on women’s language suggest that females use a
language style that reflects diffidence, shyness, and lower self-confidence, indicating a lack of
commitment or strong opinion (Eckert and McConnell-Ginet, 2003). According to him,
women’s language represents an overall conventional politeness (Eckert and McConnell-Ginet,
2003). Likewise, traditional gender roles embody the male role as agentive, where action, self-
expansion, and individuality are the rules.
By contrast, traditional gender roles define the female role as communal, embodying
expressiveness and a focus on the needs of others. The work of Deborah Tannen (1995) as cited
by Pacquing (2010) suggests that the communication patterns of males and females often differ,
with males using a direct and forceful style while females use a more indirect and intimate style
of interaction.
Swearing is widely considered an expression of very strong emotion such as anger at
specific others or simply deep frustration, often manifest as anger directed at the closest
available target. It is viewed as potent language and can indeed sometimes achieve impressive
effects. Profanity is also considered unsuitable for women and children. Young women are
using taboo language in large numbers these days (e.g. Vincent 1982) but also that many men

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and some women still express discomfort at hearing tabooed words from women’s mouths or
in mixed company. There are still laws on the books in parts of the
US prohibiting the use of ‘‘foul” language in the presence of women and children. A
Michigan man was indicted and convicted under such a statute in the summer of 1999. Lakoff
and others have seen gender privilege in access to profanity as depriving women of resources
they need. In many contexts a woman using obscenity positions herself rather differently from
a man speaking the same way. Recognition of this different positioning is part of what leads
some women to seek substitutes for the tabooed forms. Euphemisms like ‘‘oh, piffle!” may
sound silly to others but may enable those using them to vent without crossing over into the
dangerous arena opened up by taboo language. Precht (2002), the recent corpus study of
conversations recorded in 1995 did find the men recorded saying shit significantly more than
the women and the women saying gosh significantly more than the men. But there were no
significant sex differences in the use of damn or god or, for that matter, of the positive
interjections wow and cool. Anger is the emotion most expected and tolerated (in some contexts
even encouraged) from men. Raised voices and abusive insults are part of expressing anger:
they can be frightening and thus function in social control. Anger is seen as heightening
someone’s power, their capacity to get others to respond as they want. The power of anger,
including the power of some swearing, probably arises primarily from its capacity to produce
fear, to intimidate. Of course, anger does not always intimidate. Women’s anger is often
repositioned as frustration or emotional ‘‘upset,’’ framed as nonthreatening and, indeed, as
rendering its subject vulnerable. ‘‘You’re so cute when you’re mad.”Women’s increased use
of obscene language in expressing anger can represent a repositioning that challenges male
dominance and that claims authority. Whether such a repositioning is indeed accomplished
depends on many factors. The woman whose anger and verbal abuse targets others (often
women) not responsible for the inequities that enrage her is not engaging in feminist politics,
no matter how much she draws attention to her disavowal of certain traditionally ‘‘feminine’’
positions. Anger directed at appropriate rather than simply available targets can be effective,
but identifying such targets is generally difficult and often impossible. Of course, anger need
not target individuals but can fuel action aimed at changing social structures.
Profanity probably does have a much wider range of uses in positioning and
repositioning than its euphemistic substitutes. Along with ritual insults, many of which also
involve taboo language, interjections like fucking are often liberally used in contexts where
there is not even the pretense of anger or attempted intimidation. Kuiper (1991) and Kiesling
(1997) have both examined male-only social contexts that are characterized by such ‘‘dirty

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language.’’ As they and others have pointed out, this kind of talk often plays an important role
in social bonding in such groups. It signals shared freedom from the control of those who have
criticized such language in the past: mainly, mothers and schoolteachers (mostly women). Its
connection with anger and intimidation often remains relevant, however. Exposure to such
language in play helps prepare people to position themselves effectively to deal with more
serious situations. Surface playfulness often coexists with the possibility, perhaps not explicitly
acknowledged, that the mock abuse and pretend intimidation might erupt into real violence,
verbal or otherwise. ‘‘Trash talk’’ on the basketball court is indeed intended to intimidate
though, of course, the intimidation is in the service of a game, a ritual context for displacing
many ‘‘strong’’ emotions. Finally, as has often been observed, profanity often draws on
metaphors of gender and sexuality that evoke misogynistic or homophobic attitudes and
practices. Not surprisingly, this can make its use problematic for those who are consciously
trying to counter such attitudes and practices (Eckert and McConnell-Ginet, 2003).

Methodology
Research Design
Descriptive survey method was utilized in this research in order to obtain relevant and
reliable information to give light to questions that this study sought to answer.

Respondents of the Study

A total of 93 students under the School of Arts, Sciences, and Teacher Education
(SASTE) of St. Paul University Philippines (SPUP) served as subjects of the study. The
students are enrolled in the fields of Teacher Education (Secondary and Elementary), Language
and Literature, Public Administration and Legal Management, Psychology, Social Work and
Biology. Only the respondents whose first language is the most dominant in the department
were asked to answer the questions in the interview.

Instrumentation
The interview consisted of eliciting answers to several questions which were
administered orally in order to elicit spontaneous responses and not to give students time to
think twice or to change their first response. It is important that the responses be spontaneous
since what is being studied is supposed to be the respondents’ actual language use (e.g. use of
cuss words, euphemisms, etc.) Another reason for administering the questions orally was for

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 the researchers to provide explanations while administering the questions. The interview
questions followed the list used by Montenegro’s (1982).

The questions consisted of the following:

1. Nu agitungtungtung kayu ti gayem yu, anya ti daganay pagsasaritaan yu?
Pag kakuwentuhan mo ang friends mo, ano ba usually ang mga topics na pinagkukuwentuhan
ninyo? (When you are exchanging stories with your friends, what topics do you usually talk
about?)
2. Anya ti naalas nga pagsasaritaan dagiti agaammu laeng?
Anong topic sa palagay mo ang hindi in good taste na pagusapan ng mga magkakakilala lamang?
(What topics do you think should be spoken about only with those whom one is intimate
with?)
3. Nu makalugsaw ka unay, anya ti gaganay maisawsawang mu? Kaspangarigan, bumama ka idyay
tricy, madi ka pay nga nakababa, timmaray yen ket neydaramudung ka?
Pag ikaw ay galit na galit sa isang tao o sa pangyayari, ano
ang una mong nasasabi sa pagkainis o pagkagalit? For example, bumababa ka ng jeep, tapos
biglang umandar, tapos nadapa ka. (When you are very angry with someone or at something
that has just happened, what is the first thing you say in irritation or in anger? For example,
you're getting off a tricycle then suddenly it moves.)
4. Anya dagitay baya nga saan mu maideretso nga maibaga, kaspangarigan, agisbu. Ilistam ti
sau nga ususarem.
Anong bagay/mga bagay ang hindi mo masabi ng tuwiran o matawag sa tunay nitong
pangalan, halimbawa-magjingle? Ilista mo at ibigay mo ang mga terms na ginagamit mo para
dito. (What are the things you cannot say directly or call by their real names, for example: to
urinate-mag-jingle? List these and give the terms you use for them.)
5. Kaanu ka nagsarita ti dakes? Anya ti kasakitan nga dakes nga sau ti naibagam o maibagam
ti maysa nga tao? Apay?
Kailan ka nagmumura? ano ang pinakamasakit na murang nasabi mo o masasabi mo sa isang
tao? Bakit? (When do you cuss? What is the worst thing you have used or you can use with a
person, Why?)
6. Sinu ti nakasursurwam nga agsarita ti dakes? Kenni nanang ken tatang mu, gagayem,
karruba, pinagbabasam, T.V., pelikula o radyo? Agpili ka ti tallu.
Kanino mo natutuhan ang pagmumura- sa magulang mo ba, sa barkada, kapitbahay,
pagbabasa, T.V., pelikula o radio? Pumili ng tatlo. (From whom did you learn to cuss- from

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 your parents, your gang/peers, neighbors, from your reading, TV. movies or radio? Choose
three.)
The subjects wrote down their responses as each question was presented to them.

Data Gathering Procedure

In pursuing this study, the following steps were undertaken:
1. The researchers sought permission from the Dean of the School of Arts, Sciences, and
Teacher Education (SASTE) of St. Paul University Philippines (SPUP) for the conduct
of the study.
2. The researchers did a class-to-class survey of the first language of the SASTE students.
They passed a paper in each class and asked the students to write their name, course
and year, and first language.
3. The researchers tallied the surveyed data to determine the first language which is
dominant among the respondents.
4. An interview was conducted to the sieved respondents.

Data Analysis
The data were analyzed and interpreted using the following statistical measure:
Frequency and Percentage Distribution. This was used to describe the profile of the respondents
in terms of gender and to determine the sources of cathartic words among the
respondents.

Findings and Discussion

1. Profile of the Respondents
Table 1 presents the frequency and percentage distribution of the respondents according
to gender.
Table 1
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Gender
Gender Frequency Percentage
Male 18 19.35%
Female 75 80.65%
Total 93 100%

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 As indicated in the table, 18 or 19.35% are male and 75 or 80.65% are female with a
total of 93 respondents in all from the different programs under the School of Arts, Sciences,
and Teacher Education.

2. Conversational Topic Preference of Male and Female Respondents

Tables 2.1 and 2.2 present the frequency and percentage distribution of the
conversational topic preference of male and female students.
Table 2.1
Conversational Topic Preference of Male Respondents

Topic Frequency Percentage

Past Activities 4 22.22%

Lovelife 3 16.67%
School Matters 3 16.67%
Computer Games 2 11.11%
Family 1 5.56%
Trending Issue (net) 1 5.56%

Food 1 5.56%
Dream 1 5.55%
Sports 1 5.55%
Celebrity 1 5.55%
TOTAL 18 100%

Table 2.2
Conversational Topic Preference of Female Respondents

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 The data in tables 2.1 and 2.2 show that past activities (22.22%) tops among the list of

Topic Frequency Percentage

Lovelife 20 26.67%
School Matters 15 20.00%
Family 8 10.67%
Past Activities 7 9.33%
Food 4 5.33%
Enemy 3 4.00%
Chism 3 4.00%
Friends 3 4.00%
Bad Experience 2 2.67%
Dreams 2 2.67%
Money 2 2.67%
Politics 2 2.67%
TV 1 1.33%
Celebrity 1 1.33%
Gadget 1 1.33%
Trending Issue (net) 1 1.33%
Total 75 100%

favorite topics in conversations with friends of male students from SASTE while lovelife ranks
first (26.67%) among the list of most favorite topics by their female counterparts. Both lovelife
and school matters ranked second in the topic preferences of male students with 16.67% while
computer games ranked third with 11.11%. School matters (20%) is also second in the list of
topic preferences of female students while family ranked third (10.67%).

3.Topics Considered Not in Good Taste by Male and Female Respondents

Tables 3.1 and 3.2 present the frequency and percentage distribution of the topics
considered not in good taste by male and female students.
Table 3.1

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Topics Considered Not in Good Taste by Male Respondents

Topic Considered Not in Frequency Percentage

Good Taste
Love Life /Relationship 7 38.89%

Bad Experience 3 16.67%

Topics About Neighbors,
Friends, and other People 3 16.67%

Family Problem 2 11.11%

None 2 11.11%
Entertainment 1 5.55%
Total 18 100%

Table 3.2
Topics Considered Not in Good Taste by Female Respondents

Topic Considered Not in Frequency Percentage

Good Taste
Topics About Neighbors, 38 50.67%
Friends, and other People

Love Life /Relationship 10 13.33%

Secrets 8 10.67%
None 6 8.00%
Sex 5 6.67%
Family Problem 4 5.33%
Bad Experience 3 4.00%
Enemy 1 1.33%
Total 75 100%

In terms of topics which should be discussed with intimates only, males ranked lovelife
or relationship first with 38.89% while females have topics about neighbors, friends, and other

327
people (50.67%) as the counterpart. Both bad experience and topics about neighbors, friends,
and other people are ranked second by the males with 16.67%. Secrets among females is ranked
second with 10.67%. It is notable to record that both males and females believe that all topics
can be discussed with anyone. Both males and females ranked none as third with 11.11% and
8% respectively and so with family on the part of the males.

4. Male and Female Use of Cathartic Expressions

Tables 4.1 and 4.2 present the frequency and percentage distribution of the favorite
cathartic expressions of male and female students.
Table 4.1
Male Respondents’ Commonly Uttered Cathartic Expressions
Cathartic Expression Frequency Percentage
Ukininam 5 27.78%
Anyametten 4 22.21%
Pesti 4 22.21%
Anya kitdin 1 5.56%
Animal Ka 1 5.56%
Alla apu/Ay apu 1 5.56%
Bwisit 1 5.56%
Nagalas nga aldaw datuyen 1 5.56%

Total 18 100%

Table 4.2
Female Respondents’ Commonly Uttered Cathartic Expressions
Cathartic Frequency Percentage
Expression
Ukininam 9 12.00%
Pesti 7 9.34%
Anyametten 6 8.00%
Shit/Shet 5 6.68%

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 Kaasar 5 6.68%
Bwisit 5 6.68%
Punyeta 4 5.33%
Alla apu/Ay apu 4 5.33%
Sal it 4 5.33%
Dambel 3 4.00%
Animal ka 3 4.00%
Di ka paylang matay 2 2.67%

Nagmalas met 2 2.67%

Grabe 2 2.67%
Adda ti modom? 1 1.33%
Pinagpirde ti pada nga tao 1 1.33%

Badtrip 1 1.33%
Leche 1 1.33%
Fuck 1 1.33%
Agunget nak 1 1.33%
May tikleb ka kuma 1 1.33%
Ay ukik 1 1.33%
Makapasurun 1 1.33%
Ay kabalyo 1 1.33%
Ukis ti saba 1 1.33%
Ay tukak 1 1.33%
Nagalas nga aldaw datuyen 1 1.33%
Agan-anad ka ti anyaman 1 1.33%
nga garaw ti tao
Total 75 100%

Tables 4.1 and 4.2 show that there are numerous cathartic expressions male and female
students use. It is interesting to note that the first three spots in both male and female statistics
are occupied by common expressions. Both groups ranked ukininam as the top commonly
uttered cathartic expression with 27.78% for the males and 12% for the females. Anyametten
is ranked second by the males together with pesti while the females have pesti as the second as
well and anyametten as the third.

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5. Male and Female Use of Taboo Words and Euphemisms
Tables 5.1 and 5.2 present the taboo words and their corresponding euphemisms which
are employed by male and female students.

Table 5.1
Taboo Words and the Corresponding Euphemisms Employed by Male Students

Taboo Word Euphemism Used Frequency No. Of Euphemisms

Used
to defecate agwidraw, agjebs, 9 5
agbawas,daras mu,agdeposit

to urinate CR, wiwi 6 2

Sex tsug tsug 2 1

Vagina bibingka 1 1
Total 18

Table 5.2
Taboo Words and the Corresponding Euphemisms Employed by Female Students

Taboo Word Euphemism Used Frequency No. of

Euphemisms Used
to defecate agdeposito,CR,ebak, 54 11
rumwar unayen,agibangko,
agbawas,agmula ti laya,agjebs,pooh-
pooh, tawag ti kalikasan,agriwar ti
sakit ti nakem

to urinate CR,wiwi,jingle,pippi 13 4

hungry tomguts,lamut 3 2
sex Jug 1 1
vagina Flower 1 1

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 sanitary napkin Pad 1 1

mens red alert 2 1

Total 75

As shown in the tables, taboo words which are common to both groups involve
excretory processes – to urinate and to defecate. Euphemisms to cover defecating have the
greatest number in both males and females with 5 and 11 respectively, followed by euphemisms
for urinating.

6. Male and Female Use of Cuss Words

Tables 6.1 and 6.2 present the frequency and percentage distribution of the
harshest/worst cuss words that male and female students can utter to anyone.
Table 6.1
Cuss Words Uttered by Male Students

Cuss Word Frequency Percentage

Ukinnam 5 27.77%
Dambel 4 22.22%
None 3 16.67%
Tanga 2 11.11%
Di ka paylang matay/Matay 2 11.11%
kan
Bwisit ka 1 5.56%
Laglag 1 5.56%
Total 18 100%

Table 6.2
Cuss Words Uttered by Female Students

Cuss Word Frequency Percentage

Ukinnam 19 25.33%
Di ka paylang matay/Matay 10 13.33%
kan

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 Dambel 10 13.33%
None 8 10.67%
Awan seserbim 5 6.67%
Animal ka 5 6.67%
Pesti ka 4 5.33%
Punyeta ka 3 4.00%
Tanga 2 2.68%
Puta 2 2.68%
Fuck you 1 1.33%
Garampang 1 1.33%
Naggalas ka 1 1.33%
Nagpangit ka 1 1.33%
Ulbud ka 1 1.33%
Oh my God 1 1.33%
Awan babain mu 1 1.33%
Total 75 100%

Worst cuss words ever spoken by male and female students are shown in tables 6.1 and
6.2. Expressed in Ilocano, the top three cuss words are the same in both groups. With 27.78%
for the males and 25.33% for the females is ukininam, which the Ilocano version of putangina
mo. This result shows resemblance with the results yielded in the studies of Montenegro (1982)
and Tajolosa (2012). Dambel, which means stupid gets 22.22% of the male responses while
13.33% from the males. It is the second commonly said cuss word by both groups, together
with Di ka paylang matay/Matay kan, which means “why don’t you just die” for the females.
Although there are many cuss words which have been used by the respondents as presented in
the tables, there are still those who do not utter any as proven by the statistics 16.67% and
10.67% from the male and female groups respectively; none is ranked third by both genders.
According to Timothy (1999), men curse more than women and men use a larger
vocabulary of curse words than women. Further, men use a larger vocabulary of curse words
than do women and men use more offensive words than do women. These are in contrast to the
findings of the study. The female respondents have a greater bank of cuss words compared to
men and both groups share common curses.
However, Coates (2004) is in support of this. Women use more taboo language than
men in some context to guarantee covert prestige which have always belonged to men.

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7. Sources of Cuss Words
Tables 7.1 and 7.2 present the frequency and percentage distribution of the sources of
cuss words used by male and female students.
Table 7.1
Male Students’ Sources of Cuss Words

Source of Cuss Words Frequency Percentage

Friends 12 66.66%
TV 2 11.10%
Family Members 1 5.56%
Neighbor 1 5.56%
Movie 1 5.56%
None 1 5.56%
Total 18 100%

Table 7.2
Female Students’ Sources of Cuss Words

Source of Cuss Words Frequency Percentage

Friends 51 68.00%
Neighbor 13 17.33%
Family Members 4 5.33%
Movie 3 4.00%
TV 3 4.00%
Schoolmates/Classmates 1 1.34%
Total 75 100%

As indicated in tables 7.1 and 7.2, friends (gagayyem in Ilocano) is the first source of
cuss words with 66.66% for the males and 68% for the females. These data are in congruence
with the findings of Montenegro (1982) and Tajolosa (2012) who both conducted studies in the
same line. Further, this is justified since students always go with and spend most of their time
with their friends. TV is second for the males with 11.10% while all the other sources are third

333
with 5.56%. For the females, neighbors (karruba) are the second source of cuss words with
17.33% while family members (nanang ken tatang) is ranked third with 5.33%.

Conclusion
This paper was produced not only to prove that there exists a difference in the language
use of both gender but to determine the implication of such in the educational system. Apart
from the linguistic findings, language is a reminder to sociologists and educators of the Filipino
youth’s attitude and behavior today. Greatly affected by their friends, students who are studying
in a Catholic university are already well versed with the use of improper expressions and
inappropriate words. Each student stands as a bad influence to each, to others. The current
status appears like a domino effect or transfer of negative values.
Amidst everything, education should not lose its place in the lives of students,
especially of teenagers. The school should serve its function to educate the minds and the hearts
of Filipinos for them to think, behave, and act the way they should; that is, to think sensibly,
behave properly and act rightfully. The use of improper expressions and inappropriate words
can be resolved if lessons on sociolinguistic functions of taboos and euphemisms are taught
well in school. Through the aid of the school, it must be inculcated in the minds of both male
and female students that impoliteness is not just borne out of the social context one is into, but
an implication of lack of education and bearing of bent values. Further it must be emphasized
that the ability to use euphemisms to replace a taboo word, the ability to control oneself from
outbursts of anger, and the ability to talk about the right topic with the persons, all speak of a
learned person’s characteristics.

Recommendations
In the light of the findings and the conclusions derived, the following recommendations
are forwarded:
1. Language teachers should include in the discussion the sociolinguistic functions of taboos
and euphemisms under the values integration strategy. The sociolinguistic competence of
students must be addressed as much as their linguistic competence is consciously developed
by employing techniques and strategies.
2. The administration should integrate sociolinguistic functions of taboos and euphemisms in
English classes to intensify the development of Paulinians’ sociolinguistic competence as well
their values.

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 3. The use of improper expressions among Paulinians should be eradicated by teaching them
proper language use especially in their English classes.
4. Students should focus on improving their language as Paulinians to improve their
communication competence.
5. A follow-up study can be conducted to determine the factors that can possibly affect
gender differences in communication.

References
Allan,K. and K.B.(2006) Forbidden words: taboo and the censoring of language. New York:
Cambridge University Press
Bischoping, K. (1993) Gender differences in conversation topics 1922-1990. USA: University
of Michigan
Cameron, D. and D.K. (2003) Language and sexuality. New York: Cambridge University Press
Dalzell, V. and T.V. (2008) Sex slang. New York: Routledge
Eckert, P. and S.M-G. (2003) Language and gender. New York: Cambridge University Press
Gao, G. (2008) Taboo language in Sex and the City: an analysis of gender differences in using
taboo language in conversation. Kristianstad University
Montenegro, C. F. (1982). An exploratory study of male and female language in Pilipino. In
M. L. Bautista (Ed.), Readings in Philippine sociolinguistics. Manila: De La Salle
University Press
Pacquing, E. (2010) Gender identify performance through Facebook status updates
Tajolosa, T. (2012) Conversational topic preferences, taboo words, and euphemisms: the case
of Philippine male and female university students. Philippines: Philippine ESL Journal

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