The Asian EFL Journal

November 2019
Volume 23, Issue 6.3

Senior Editor:
Paul Robertson
Published by the English Language Education Publishing

Asian EFL Journal

A Division of TESOL Asia Group
Part of SITE Ltd Australia

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ISSN 1738-1460

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 Table of Contents

Ramli, Endry Boeriswati and Emzir ………………………………………………………………………………. 4

The Effect of Metaphorming Teaching Method on Field-Independent/Dependent Learners in Writing Essay

Ikhfi Imaniah, Ilza Mayuni and Ninuk Lustyantie …………………………………………………………….… 15

The Influence of Self Esteem and Reading Habits on Student’s English Essay Writing

Irawinne Rizky Wahyu Kusuma, Rosvita Flaviana Osin and I Made Arry Anggabawa ………………........... 27
Impact of Tourism Industry- driven Media Communication in Students’ Speaking Ability

Nor Yazi Khamis ………………………………………..………………………….…………………………..……. 46

A New Competency-based Framework for English for Specific Engineering Purposes (ESEP) Practitioners

Azwin Arif Abdul Rahim ...……………………………………………………….………………………………… 66

Development of Mobile Learning Framework for ESAP for Technical and Engineering Context

Afif Rofii, Fathiaty Murtadho and Aceng Rahmat …………………………………...………………………… 82

The Effectiveness of Contextual-Based Academic Writing Learning Model

Kammer Tuahman Sipayung and Tagor Pangaribuan ...……………………………………….…………..…….. 94

Developing Teaching Materials on English for Specific Purpose on Tourism Program of HKBP Grade Eleven

Rafi’ah Nur, Ammang Latifa and Aqilah Luthfiah Busman …………….………………………………………. 107
Utilizing the Instagram Videos to Enhance the Students’ Language Acquisition on Writing Composition

Elfiondri, Nova Rina, Zaitul, Faisal Mustafa, Mariati and Irma ………………………………….….….……… 129
English and Indigenous Mentawai Tradition: The Case of Using English Phatic Communion Spoken by Ojek
Drivers in Siberut Mentawai, Indonesia

Lamhot Naibaho………………………………………………….….…………………………………………….… 142

The Effectiveness of Independent Learning Method on Students’ Speaking Achievement at Christian University of
Indonesia Jakarta

Jennifer Yphantides ………………………………..……………………………………………….….…………… 155

Women in TESOL Leadership Roles in Japanese Higher Education

Masruddin ………………………………..……………………………………………….….……………………… 173

The Efficacy of Using Spelling Bee Game in Teaching Vocabulary to Indonesian English as Foreign Language
(EFL) Students

Maulina, Nurdin Noni and Muhammad Basri …………..……………………………………….….…………… 181

WhatsApp Audio and Video Chat-Based in Stimulating Students’ Self-Confidence and Motivation to Speak English

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 23 Issue No. 6.3 November 2019

The Effect of Metaphorming Teaching Method on Field-Independent/Dependent

Learners in Writing Essay

Ramli1,2, Endry Boeriswati1 and Emzir1

1
Postgraduate of Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
2
English Education Department, Universitas Lakidende Unaaha, Konawe, Indonesia
Corresponding e-mail: [email protected]

Bio-Profiles:
Ramli is a lecturer at the Faculty of Teacher and Training Education, Universitas Lakidende
Unaaha. His researches focus on applied linguistics and language skills. His other research
interests include language teaching and discourse analysis. He is now taking his Doctorate at
Universitas Negeri Jakarta.

Prof. Dr. Endry Boeriswati, M.Pd. is an active professor at Postgraduate of Universitas

Negeri Jakarta. She has been assigned to the Head of the Doctorate Program of Applied
Linguistics of Postgraduate of Universitas Negeri Jakarta. Her researches focus on language
teaching and educational evaluation. Language curriculum and educational research are her
other research interests.

Prof. Dr. Emzir, M.Pd. is a senior and active professor at Postgraduate of Universitas Negeri
Jakarta. He was the former Head of the Doctorate Program of Applied Linguistics of
Postgraduate of Universitas Negeri Jakarta. He experienced and conducted several researches
on language education. His popular book is “Metodologi Penelitian Pendidikan”.

Abstract
English writing skill is important for learners’ academic performance. However, it is
challenged to teach as a second language since several factors possibly affect it. Teaching
methods and learners’ cognitive styles are among them. The compliance of the teaching method
with the learners’ cognitive style encourages the learners to develop a well-written essay. This

4
present study explores the effect of the metaphorming method and cognitive styles on learners’
performance in writing an essay. It involved two classes randomly chosen as an experimental
group received metaphorming teaching and a control group received discovery teaching. The
GEFT test was used to identify the participants’ cognitive styles (field-independent or field-
dependent), and a five-paragraph essay writing test to measure their writing performance. The
data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA with t-test. The findings suggested that the
metaphorming teaching method and cognitive style significantly affect the learners’ writing
performance. Furthermore, the Scheffe test was carried out to investigate which cognitive type
learners performed better. The result suggested that field-independent (FI) learners performed
better than field-dependent (FD) ones. This study recommends the lecturers to align the
teaching method with learners’ cognitive styles in promoting the performance in writing an
essay.

Keywords: Metaphorming; Essay Writing Skill; GEFT; Cognitive Style; Field-independent/

dependent

Introduction
Writing skill facilitates the academic performance of the students (Zhang, 2013) either
as a medium of learning and/or a tool to express and communicate their ideas about what they
experienced and develop knowledge and academic field (Coffin et al., 2005). It implies that
writing skills not only useful for the academic field but also for social lives. Writing also
involves the cognitive process (Nishino & Atkinson, 2015) requiring one to be creative
(Nosratinia & Adibifar, 2014) and critical (Smirnov, 2015; Zhang, 2013).
Learners experienced some problems in learning writing English as a foreign language. It
is a complex process (Hajan, Castillo-Hajan, & Marasigan, 2019) and the most difficult among
the language skills (Flynn & Stainthorp, 2006; Richards & Renandya, 2002; Zhang, 2013). The
difficulty involves the content and the target of the information. In addition, it should align
with rules applied in the language learned.
It is challenging to teach writing as a foreign language since several factors possibly
affect it. The teaching method (Ka-kan-dee & Kaur, 2015; McMullen, 2009) is one of them.
Commonly, the writing classes implement a conventional approach, teacher-centered learning,
that hampering the students in exploring their idea and knowledge. This practice brings less
advantage for students to freely develop their writing based on what they want and understand.

5
 The learning process success involves matching the method the lecturers use and the
way the students learn. This association will facilitate students to participate actively and make
them interested to learn. As Gojkov, Stojanović, & Babić (2013) found in their study that the
students’ satisfaction with the method was significantly influenced by the students’ cognitive
style.
Some scholars have tried to investigate the effective teaching methods encouraging the
students to maximally be active and activate their cognitive skills which can promote them to
think creatively and critically (Tinajero & Páramo, 1998) and addressed on how to improve the
learners’ performance in writing by considering the two mentioned factors (McMullen, 2009;
Rusyaidi, 2018).
To engage students dominantly participate in the learning process, the student-centered
learning approach is possibly suitable to apply. This approach, rooted in the constructivism
approach, views students as the central actors and should be provided with plenty opportunities
to experience the learning process and explore their knowledge on one hand. On the other hand,
lecturers act as facilitators and mentors during learning activities for the class.
Cognitive style is another issue in the writing performance. Some scholars have studied
that cognitive style has implications for academic performance. Witkin and other scholars have
studied FI-FD as cognitive styles and their implications for educational activities. Their studies
reported that FI-FD affects the academic matters (Rayner, 2015; Rezaee & Farahian, 2012;
Witkin & Goodenough, 1977). Researches into cognitive styles’ effect on academic
performance have been also reported by Khodadady & Zeynali (2012) which confirmed that
field-independent learners benefit from taking IELTS listening comprehension.
Field-independent (FI) learners are capable to identify and analyze a specific and
separated object effortless and are less influenced by the environment surrounding (Richards
& Schmidt, 2010; Slavin, 2006). Besides, they have the competence to solve problems related
to counting and scientific issues. Contrary, field-dependent learners view an object as a whole
and are much influenced by the surrounding.
Based on the discussion above, this study implemented metaphorming method (Siler,
1999) by considering the learners’ field-independent/dependent cognitive styles. Considering
the above discussion, this present study aims at analyzing and the following research questions:
1) Do teaching methods significantly affect the students’ essay writing?
2) Which type of cognitive styles has a greater effect on students’ performance in
writing an English essay?

6
Methods
Respondents
This research involved two classes consisting of 44 students as participants. One class
was an experimental group consisting of 21 learners and another one was a control group
consisting of 23 learners. Both classes were selected using a purposive sampling method.
Before the treatment, the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) instrument (Witkin, Oltman,
Raskin, & Karp, 1971) was administered to the respondents aiming at identifying their
cognitive style type.

Design
This quantitative research implemented an experimental method by a 2 x 2 factorial
design. It aimed to analyze the effect of the teaching methods taught to two classes. One
received a metaphorming method as the experimental group and one received a discovery
method as the control group. Each group consisted of field-independent and field-dependent
students and were treated for eight meetings. Upon completing the experiment, a five-
paragraph essay writing test was administered with the students.

Instruments
This research used two instruments, the GEFT and writing essay in English tests. The
former is purposed to identify the learners’ cognitive styles, whether they were field-
independent learners or field-dependent learners. The test challenged the learners to recognize
a simple graph embedded in the complex figure. It consists of three sections within 20 minutes.
Section one consisted of 7 questions intended for training and adapting the respondents to the
test. Section two and three each consisted of 9 questions. One score for the right answer and
zero for the false answer. Thus, the participants can gain score ranging from 0-18. The higher
the score, the more likely the students identified as FI learners. On the contrary, the lower the
score, the more likely the students recognized as FD learners. The latter is used to ask the
respondents to write a five-paragraph essay consisting of 250 – 400 words in 100 minutes. The
test aims to measure their writing performance. The scoring was based on 5 aspects: content,
organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics ranging from 1 to 5.

Results and Discussion

Table 1 provides descriptive statistics of the essay score performed by the experimental
group treating by the metaphorming method in the learning process. The details are as follows.

7
 Table 1. Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: Essay Score
Method Cognitive Style Mean Std. Deviation N
Metaphorming Field-Independent 20.64 3.722 11
Field-Dependent 15.17 4.469 12
Total 17.78 4,908 23

Table 1 shows that there are 23 respondents consisting of 11 FI students and 12 FD

students. FI students’ mean score is 20.64 with SD 3.722 and FD students’ mean score is 15.17
with SD 4.469. The data suggest that FI students performed higher in writing an essay than FD
students.
The assumption of normality and homogeneity were examined since ANOVA analysis
requiring the distribution of data to be normal and the variance of data to be homogeny.

Normality testing
Normality testing used Kolmogorov-Smirnov using SPSS Ver. 22 for Windows. The
output in Table 2 confirmed that the significance values (Sig) for the four groups of essay
scores (0.200) which was higher  = 0.05. Thus, it is concluded that the data of the research
are normally distributed. It implies that the parametric statistical analysis can be carried out.

Table 2. Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk
Groups Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
Essay scores A1B1 .192 11 .200* .900 11 .185
A1B2 .154 12 .200* .961 12 .793
A2B1 .131 10 .200* .974 10 .927
A2B2 .151 14 .200* .967 14 .838
*. This is a lower bound of the true significance.
a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

Homogeneity testing
Test of homogeneity was conducted for four groups of data using the Bartlett test. The
requirement is the data variance is homogeny if the value is based on mean significance > 0.05
and the data variance is not homogeny if the value is based on mean significance < 0.05.
Table 3 suggests that the significance value 0.153 was higher than 0.05. Thus, it can be
determined that the variance of the data across the groups is homogeny.

8
 Table 3. Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variancesa
Dependent Variable: Essay Scores
F df1 df2 Sig.
1.849 3 43 .153
Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of.
a. Design: Intercept + A + B + A * B

The assumption testing of normality and homogeneity of the data suggested that the
data were normally distributed and supported by the homogenous variance. Consequently, the
hypothesis testing using ANOVA can be conducted.

Testing of ANOVA
The hypothesis testing was carried out by using a two-way ANOVA for the main effect
and continued with the Scheffe test for the simple effect. ANOVA testing was used to assess
the main and interaction effects between teaching methods and cognitive styles on writing
essay scores. The test results were presented in Table 4.

Question one: Do teaching methods significantly affect the students’ essay writing?
Table 4 presents that the variance of the columns group (Fo) 4.740 is higher than (Ft)
4.067 at a level of significance  = 0.05. It suggested that the null hypothesis (Ho) was rejected
and the alternative (Ha) one was accepted. It means that there was a significant difference
between the column groups. The mean of students received metaphorming was 17.78 higher
than the ones received discovery 15.58.
Table 4 also confirmed that the variance of the row group (Fo) 8.292 was higher than
(Ft) 4.067 at a level of significance  = 0.05 which means that the null hypothesis (Ho) was
rejected and the alternative (Ha) one was accepted. It can be concluded that there was a
significant difference between field-independent (FI) learners and field-dependent (FD)
learners’ mean scores. The mean of FI students was higher than FD students.

Table 4. Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable: Essay Score
Type III Sum Mean
Source of Squares df Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 230.227a 3 76.742 6.085 .002
Intercept 13009.674 1 13009.674 1031.512 .000

9
 Method 59.783 1 59.783 4.740* .035
Cognitive 104.582 1 104.582 8.292* .006
Method * Cognitive 70.222 1 70.222 5.568* .023
Error 542.326 43 12.612
Total 13817.000 47
Corrected Total 772.553 46
a. R Squared = .298 (Adjusted R Squared = .249)
* = significant at  = 0.05
In addition, the interaction effect result suggests that the value of (Fo) 4.568 was higher
than (Ft) 4.067 at a level of significance  = 0.05 which means that the null hypothesis (Ho)
was rejected and the alternative (Ha) one was accepted. It confirms that the teaching method
and cognitive style significantly have an interacting effect on students’ writing performance.
Therefore, the post hoc test using Scheffe (number of samples in each group not equal) was
conducted to examine which students perform better in writing an essay whether FI students
or FD students for the experimental group treated with metaphorming teaching.

Hypothesis testing
Question two: Which type of cognitive styles has a greater effect on students’ essay writing?
The result of the Scheffe test proved that (to) 5.470 is higher than (tt) 4.067 with a
significance level a = 0.05 (Table 5). It means that in the group receiving metaphorming
teaching FI students performed better in writing an essay than FD students.

Table 5. Multiple Comparisons

Dependent Variable: Essay Scores
Scheffe
Mean 95% Confidence Interval
Difference (I- Std. Lower Upper
(I) Group (J) Group J) Error Sig. Bound Bound
A1B1 A1B2 5.470* 1.482 .008 1.16 9.78
A2B1 4.736* 1.552 .036 .22 9.25
A2B2 5.279* 1.431 .008 1.12 9.44
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Field-independent students tend to easily study separate information (Witkin et al.,
1977; Zhang, 2004). They can identify small parts in a complex pattern. In addition, they are
not easily affected by the environment and tend to have high independence. So that they can

10
solve the problem independently without much help from others, pay less attention to social
relations.
On the other hand, FD students are strongly influenced by the environment. They look at
things as a whole. They are reliable to work in groups. They also like to establish social
relationships so that help from others is needed by them. A thorough explanation of the lecturers
will help them understand the subject matter.
Since metaphorming teaching emphasizes how one part is associated with another part
requiring the students to activate their cognitive processes, they are freely encouraged to think
rationally and creatively. Regarding the ability to write an English essay, FI students get more
opportunities to put their ideas and thoughts into writing. With independence characteristics, they
benefit more from and easily put their idea into paragraphs when taught by metaphorming
learning methods. It also provides the students with more chances to explore their experiences
and knowledge as well as practicing their cognitive skills (Siler, 1999; Sutino et al., 2013).
Consequently, the field-independent students scored higher than field-dependent
students did. This finding confirms the previous research reports (Limbong, 2018; Lin &
Davidson-Shivers, 1996; Luck, 1998; Nosratinia & Adibifar, 2014).

Conclusion
The teaching writing skills aims to develop the students’ communicative competence,
the metaphorming teaching method is reasonable to apply by the lecturers to promote the
students’ performance in writing an English essay as well as to develop the students’ cognitive
competence playing a crucial role in the writing process. The findings confirm that students’
performance in writing essay relates to the teaching method and learners’ way of receiving,
processing, and responding to information. The findings also reveal that the field-independent
students benefit more than the field-dependent students when they are taught using
metaphorming method. Besides, the ANOVA test showed that the metaphorming method
significantly affects the students’ writing performance.

Pedagogical Implication
In addition, the current study has pedagogical implications. It contributes to providing
one of the effective methods in the teaching writing class. It also encourages the lecturers to
engage the students to be more active in the teaching-learning process and the lecturers put the
students as the central actors in the classroom. Providing students with more chances to practice

11
their cognitive competence contributes to developing their skills to organize ideas into a
reasonable essay.

Acknowledgment
This research was supported by a Doctoral Thesis Grant (Penelitian Disertasi Doktor), year
2018 from the Director of Research and Society Service (DRPM) of Ministry of Research,
Technology, and Higher Education (RISTEKDIKTI), Indonesia.

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 23 Issue No. 6.3 November 2019

The Influence of Self Esteem and Reading Habits on Student’s English Essay Writing

Ikhfi Imaniah1 Ilza Mayuni 2 Ninuk Lustyantie 3

1 2,3
University of Muhammadiyah Tangerang, Universitas Negeri Jakarta Universitas Negeri
Jakarta,
Email: 1 [email protected] / [email protected] ,
2
[email protected], [email protected]

Bio-Profiles:
Ikhfi Imaniah is head of English Education Study Program of University of Muhammadiyah
Tangerang. She concerns to the education, language methodologies and techniques, curriculum
and material development, linguistics and gender studies. She has a Master of English
Education from University of Prof. Dr. Hamka, Jakarta and is on the final stage of her Doctor
of Education from Universitas Negeri Jakarta.

Ilza Mayuni is a professor as well as director of post doctorate program at Universitas Negeri
Jakarta . She is interested in English Education, curriculum and material development,
psycholinguistics and teaching skills.

Ninuk Lustyantie is an associate professor of post doctorate program at Universitas Negeri

Jakarta. Her research focuses on culture, literature and teaching skills.

Abstract
Reading habits will affect the personal development of each individual’s social life.
Thus, reading habits that are built from an early age will have a positive impact on the social
life of each individual. This also relates to the positive self-esteem of each individual, because
it has instilled the habit of reading in themselves. Furthermore, reading habits are also
correlated with their reading abilities, the more often individuals read books the more
information they get and this affects their academic performance. In this correlation study, the
effect of self-esteem and reading habits on English essay writing was tested. The significance

15
of the relationship shown by the results of the F test is 0.005. This value is smaller than the
critical value required which is 0.05, so it can be concluded that there is a significant
relationship between self-esteem and reading habits on student’s English essay witing.
However, due to the background of students who in fact read novels or magazines gives low
results on the influence of their English essay writing. Based on the results of the correlation
test obtained a coefficient of 0.317 where the relationship of self-esteem and reading habits on
student’s English essay writing is low. So, students need to choose appropriate reading themes
of academic books for the level of education at the University.

Keywords: Self Esteem, Reading Habit, English Essay Writing, EFL Students of University

Introduction
Education is basically to prepare individuals to become independent members of
society. In this sense, individuals are expected to be able to think, find, and create something
new, see problems and find new ways of thinking that are reasoned and more accountable.
Independence as a result of education is formed through the ability to think reason and the
ability to think creatively that embodies creativity, in accordance with the principles of
managing education namely developing students’ creativity in the learning process. The results
of the learning process are not only in the form of understanding concepts, but more important
are changes in individual character and the application of knowledge applied in everyday life.
The application of science applications is closely related to the level of education that is
occupied by each individual. The highest level of education is the University level, where
individuals experience the emerging adulthood period, that is, individuals experience changes
in life and changes in ways of thinking. (Munsey, 2006)
Therefore, students need to adjust to these changes to be able to overcome the
problems faced in their academic life. In academic life, students need to prepare themselves to
learn well. In the process of preparing themselves students need self-esteem, which is the result
of evaluating an individual’s self-concept towards himself positively or negatively (Harter in
Manning, 2007). Individual self-concept will distinguish one individual from another who later
will be difficult to change during his lifetime (Ikhfi and Nurul, 2018). Therefore, parents play
an important role in the development of one’s self-concept; if the child receives a positive
assessment from the parents then he will also judge himself positively while the child who gets
negative ratings from parents, he will also assess himself negatively (Jourard and Remy in
Pervin and John, 2001).
16
 Every individual need self-esteem to be able to achieve success from others for the
achievements he has achieved. This recognition will make the individual feel rewarded which
will then be a source of strength, ability, expertise and self-confidence for the individual to be
able to achieve his achievements or goals and face everything that happens in his life.
Therefore, it does not rule out the possibility that if students have negative self-esteem, they
will not be confident in the work and work they have done. Meanwhile, students who have
positive self-esteem will find it easier to achieve and achieve success.
So, the success achieved by students must have supporting indicators of the
achievement. One indicator of its achievement is lecturer support for the work assignments
produced by students. As in academic writing courses, assignments given to students usually
require students to produce a writing or product. However, not all students produce the
expected writing product. This is because each student has a different reading habit. Students
must be accustomed to reading not only to be able to make good writing, but they also need to
criticize Elbow (1998).
Moreover, reading habits will affect the personal development of each individual in a
social life (Loan, 2012). Reading habits that are built from an early age will have a positive
impact on the social life of each individual. This also relates to the positive self-esteem of each
individual, because it has instilled the habit of reading in themselves. Furthermore, reading
habits also correlate with their reading abilities, the more often individuals read books the more
information they get and this affects their academic performance (National Endowment for the
Arts, 2007).
Reading as a habitual activity is unfortunately confined to a relatively small segment
of adolescents (Ukoha, 2015). Reading habit does not appear to be a prominent feature in
adolescents’ lives who have different background and life experiences. It caused great impacts
on their ability to read. In spite of a small group of adolescents who are curious about many
things and are aware of their own need for information are usually eager to read.
How many Indonesian read the daily newspapers or magazines from time to time? It
arises as a result of a poor acquisition of reading skills and culture. The shocking and sad truth
is that Indonesia was the 60th ranked of 61st reading interest countries. A number of factors
have been blamed for the dying reading culture. Moreover, psychological factors such as lack
of enthusiasm and motivation to read are the main factor of reading interest. The attitude and
interest of students towards reading has been negative.
Libraries play an important role in the promotion of reading habits. In University of
Muhammadiyah Tangerang, the library is non-existent or are very poorly equipped. It is not
17
sited where it is needed, while other universities are not properly equipped. Libraries are not
available to a greater proportion of the population at large, nor in university. Where they exist,
many of their materials are outdated. This inhibits the development of a good reading habit for
students.
The students need to have reading habits in order to be success in their academic life.
In the fifth semester, the students of English Department of University of Muhammadiyah
Tangerang will pass the academic writing process, so they have to accustomed in reading
academic book to accomplish their study. Therefore, those elements influenced the quality of
student’s academic writing. Academic writing is designing and criticizing (Whitaker, 2009), it
means that by having read many academic books the students have wide knowledge about
something, they can criticize their academic writing.
Academic writing for University students will be different in every university,
whether it is argumentative writing, scientific writing, or essay but still have the same objective
(Whitaker 2009). In this study, the appropriate subject was essay writing for the fifth semester
of English Department in University of Muhammadiyah Tangerang.
Based on the possibility correlation among self-esteem, reading habits and essay
writing, the researcher tested those variables to determine whether it has low or high
correlation.

Research Methodology
This study used a quantitative approach, a survey method with correlational
techniques. This method was chosen based on the research objectives designed to obtain
information about the research variables. In addition, this method can detect variations in the
relationship of one other factor based on correlation coefficient scores, as well as can be
presented as a basis for testing hypotheses. Correlation research is often said to be descriptive
research because the criteria of each variable are interconnected, but will still be different from
other descriptive studies. Because the correlation research will involve two or several
quantitative variables that are interconnected which will then be calculated based on the
correlation coefficient (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2007).
In accordance with the problem and research objectives, the research data needed in
this study includes data about self esteem (X1), data on reading habits (X2), and data on English
essay writing (Y). To be able to collect these data requires the instruments that depend on the
form of variables. To obtain data on self esteem and reading habits, researchers distributed
questionnaires to 103 students of fifth semester . Questionnaire of self esteem was adopted
18
from Coopersmith (1967) in Dummond and Jones (2010) and reading habits questionnaire was
adopted from Gleed (2013). Whereas in order to obtain data on English essay writing skills, a
test used was assessed using Brown and Bailey’s assessment rubric (2003).

Research Finding and Discussion

The hypothesis in this study there is a positive relationship of self esteem (X1) and
reading habits (X2) with English essay writing. Statistic description will be explained below.
Tabel 3.1
Regression coefficient of X1 and X2 toward Y variable
Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardized Standardized T Sig.
Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 71,312 4,016 17,758 ,000
Self Esteem ,068 ,027 ,240 2,501 ,014
1
Reading
,076 ,041 ,176 1,831 ,070
Habits
a. Dependent Variable: Essay Writing

Based on the coefficients table, the Unstandardized Coeffients column with sub column B
is the coefficient that shows the constant value of a and b. From these two coefficients, the
regression equation becomes Ý = 71,312 + 0, 068 X1 + 0,076 X2.
A constant of 71.312 states that when self esteem is zero then the value of English essay
writing is 71.312. Furthermore, if each increasing in one point of self esteem, it will improve
English essay writing by 0.068 points of English essay writing (because of the + sign) and also
every increasing in one point of reading habits will improve English essay writing by 0.076
points of English essay writing (because of the + sign), so it can be concluded that there is a
positive two-way correlation. Thus there is a positive relationship of self esteem and reading
habits with English essay writing.
Another interpretations of the table above explain that the partial correlation between self
esteem (X1) on English essay writing (Y) by controlling reading habits (X2) shows a
significance value of t test of 0.014. This value is smaller than the critical value required, which

19
is 0.05, so H0 is rejected and Ha is accepted. Thus partially there is a significant correlation
between self esteem towards English essay writing by controlling reading habits.
Then the interpretation of the relationship between reading habits (X2) partially on English
essay writing (Y) by controlling self esteem (X1) shows the significance value of t test of
0.070. This value is greater than the required value of 0.05, so that H0 is accepted and Ha is
rejected, there is no significant correlation between reading habits on English essay writing by
controlling self esteem.
Tabel 3.2.
Anova Prediction Table of Relationship of X1 and X2 toward Y Variable
ANOVAa
Model Sum of df Mean F Sig.
Squares Square
Regression 111,146 2 55,573 5,584 ,005b
1 Residual 995,242 100 9,952
Total 1106,388 102
a. Dependent Variable: Essay Writing
b. Predictors: (Constant), Reading Habits, Self Esteem

The significance of the relationship shown by the results of the F test (Anova) is 0.005.
This value is smaller than the critical value required, which is 0.05, so H0 is rejected and Ha is
accepted. Thus, there is a significant correlation between self esteem and reading habits with
English essay writing.

Tabel 3.3.
Determination Coefficient of X1 and X2 toward Y Variable
Model Summaryb
Model R R Adjusted Std. Error Change Statistics
Square R Square of the R F df1 df2 Sig. F
Estimate Square Change Change
Change
1 ,317a ,100 ,082 3,155 ,100 5,584 2 100 ,005
a. Predictors: (Constant), Reading Habits, Self Esteem
b. Dependent Variable: Essay Writing

20
 In the Model Summary table column R shows the value of correlation coefficient of 0.317.
This value means an interpretation of the correlation coefficient is low. Thus, there is a low
correlation between self esteem and reading habits with English essay writing.The coefficient
of determination is D = R square multiply by 100%. The value of R square of self esteem and
reading habit is 0.100, the determination coefficient is 100%. This means that 100% of changes
in English essay writing can be explained by self esteem and reading habits.

Conclusion
Hypothesis test results state that there is a correlation between self esteem and reading habits
with English essay writing. This can also be explained that changes in English essay writing
can be explained by self esteem and reading habits. In its development, self esteem is strongly
influenced by internal and external factors such as gender, ethnicity, personality, ability to
control themselves, health and the income they have (Erol and Orth, 2011). This will affect in
determining whether he has high or low self esteem. Personality is one of the determinants of
the high and low self esteem that a person has. While personality can be formed through habits
that are often done by someone.
Every student who experiences the learning process, his habits will appear to change.
According to Burghardt in the Shah, the habit arises because the process of shrinking the
tendency of the response by using repeated stimulation (Shah, 2005). It can be understood that
the formation of a habit cannot occur in a short time, but the formation is a development process
that takes a relatively long time. Like the habit of reading, as well as other habits, forming
reading habits also requires a relatively long time. Therefore, in an effort to establish reading
habits, two aspects need to be considered, namely, interest (a combination of desire, will and
motivation) and reading skills.
In other words, it can be concluded that the correlation between self esteem and one’s
reading habits is directly related. This has to do with the personality that a person has formed
because of a habit. So, it is assumed that someone who has high or positive self esteem is
directly familiar with reading activities. Whereas someone who has low or negative self esteem
will not be motivated to get used to reading.
Measurement of reading habits in this study is the habit of reading academic books.
According to Gleed there are several aspects that can measure the scale of reading habits, one
of which is the selection of reading themes (Gleed, 2013). So, students must be accustomed to

21
reading academic books because they are required not only to produce good writing but they
also need to criticize the writing.
The findings of this study provide reaffirmation of the importance of the habit of reading
academic books for students to improve their English essay writing skills.

Implication and Recommendation

Implication
The result of the study shows that self-esteem and reading habits influenced student’s
English essay writing skill, so there are several points need to be considered:
1. The students need to accustomed with reading activity, particularly reading academic
book in order to improve their essay writing skill.
2. The university library does not support the reading activity for students, so the students
can utilize the online library and download or reading the online book for free.

Recommendation
1. Reading habits will affect English writing skills, so students need to read various types
of reading resources related to academic writing material. In this case, lecturers are
advised to provide the habitual activity of reading academic books for their students
before undertaking academic writing assignments in either college material or online
journal handouts.
2. One of the supporting factors of student’s reading habit is the existence of a library in
University. However, the facilities and availability of academic books that are still
inadequate to support this. It needs to be considered for university to increase the
existence of library by completing the various books that are needed for the teaching and
learning process. Moreover, the utilize of electronic / online library need to be maximized
considering to the industries 4.0 era.

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 23 Issue No. 6.3 November 2019

Impact of Tourism Industry- driven Media Communication in Students’

Speaking Ability

Irawinne Rizky Wahyu Kusuma

Akademi Komunitas Manajemen Perhotelan Indonesia, Indonesia
Rosvita Flaviana Osin
Akademi Komunitas Manajemen Perhotelan Indonesia, Indonesia
I Made Arry Anggabawa
Ganesha University of Education, Indonesia

Bio-Profiles:
Irawinne Rizky Wahyu Kusuma is a Lecturer in Akademi Komunitas Manajemen Perhotelan
Indonesia at the Food and Beverage Products Department, and a Postgraduate of the Master of
Communication Science at the Mercu Buana University, Jakarta. Current research interests
include Communication, Media, and Customer Service. She can be reached at
[email protected]

Rosvita Flaviana Osin is a Lecturer in Akademi Komunitas Manajemen Perhotelan Indonesia

at Food and Beverage Service Department. Research interests include Hotel Management,
Tourism and Humaniora. She can be reached at [email protected]

I Made Arry Anggabawa is an undergraduate student at the Ganesha University of Education

at Informatics Engineering Education Department. Research interests include Computer
Networks and Communications, Web Programming, Robotic, Graphics Design, and Cinematic
Video Editing. He can be reached at [email protected]

Abstract
This study aims to determine the cognitive impact for lecturers and students, the
affective impact of communication, and social-behavioral impacts. Technological
developments in the industrial revolution 4.0 help students construct science in the world of
education globally. Various learning media technologies that have emerged have also become

27
one of the trends that help study references cross the boundaries of regions to countries.
Globalization has increased competition in tourism markets. English language among students
studying tourism looking at the importance of communication skills (speaking, reading,
listening, and writing). Speaking English must be possessed by every student because when in
the tourism industry guests who come not only come from residents but also from international
tourists who can only speak English. Speaking ability is a very important element of the
hospitality industry. Many ways students do to be able to improve its quality as a candidate
labor force, one of which is namely debriefing or speaking skills training English. With the
ability to speak English, then communication can run smoothly, English plays an important
role as a medium of communication global. Technology will form a new culture in which media
saves creative potential but also has the potential to be misused. From communication media,
students can not only be able to speak according to textbooks but can be broader in honing their
speaking skills in the tourism industry, especially in learning pronunciation. In learning English
pronunciation is one of the factors that support the success of communication. Pronunciation
errors can cause a communication breakdown. This type of research classified as qualitative
descriptive with the research approach used in the scientific approach and the media
communication approach. The source of data in this study divided into two, namely, the
primary data source is data sourced from field research, while secondary data sources are data
obtained from the results of documentation and results of the literature review. Data
management and analysis techniques are carried out by conducting observations and field
interviews. The results of this study indicate online-based media communication students with
media specifications and objectives, media strategies, in-class organizations, and lecturer
feedback to students. While the impact of media communication is the cognitive impact, the
practical result of the interaction, and social-behavioral impacts. The implications of this study
expected that media communication would become a beneficial medium in the teaching and
learning process.
Keywords: Media Communication, Speaking Ability, Tourism Industry

Introduction
Communication is an activity of transferring information both verbally and in writing.
Humans are social beings who always interact with each other. Therefore, communication is
one of the most important things in human life. The main purpose of communication is to send
messages through the media chosen so that the recipient of the message can understand them.
Effective communication occurs when something (message) that is communicated by the
28
communicator can be received properly or equally by the communicant, so there is no
misperception. So that communication between humans is effectively intertwined requires the
right communication techniques. Communication technique is a method used in conveying
information from communicators to communicants with certain media. With this technique, it
is expected that everyone can effectively communicate with each other and properly use it.
According to Nurgiyantoro (1995: 276), speaking is the second language activity that
humans do in language life, that is, after listening activities. Based on the sounds that are heard,
then humans learn to pronounce and finally be skilled at speaking. Speaking is defined as the
ability to say sounds of articulation or words to express, express, and convey thoughts, ideas,
and feelings (Tarigan, 1997: 15). Every speaking activity carried out by humans always has a
purpose, with the main purpose of talking is to communicate.
Jack C. Richard (2002: 201) states that the biggest presentation for students learning
languages in the world; they learn English is to develop their speaking skills. English is used
as a second language, both in the process of formal and informal activities. The use of foreign
languages as an oral communication tool is often found in everyday communication.
Madrazo (2019) Skills tests are measures of acceptance (understanding) and production
(speaking/ writing) designed to determine the level of bilingualism and trilingualism of
participants. Many factors that make students difficult to communicate include the lack of the
role of the lecturer in facilitating students with appropriate learning models and media.
Noon-ura (2008) Less-able students from coping with too many skills because they use
very few strategies in language learning. For them, listening and speaking skills seem to be
more motivating to acquire because they can use these skills for everyday communication.
In addition to these factors, other factor influence students' speaking abilities include the
low mastery of vocabulary, the difficulty of students in composing good sentences, and the
inability of students to develop ideas, because of their habit of using mother tongue in
communication, both in the school, family, and community.
Now entering 2019 is the era of the 4.0 industrial revolution marked by the cyber-physical
system. The industrial world began to touch the virtual world, in the form of connectivity
between humans, machines, and data. The industrial revolution 4.0 also changed the way of
view about education which was carried out not just a way of teaching, but rather a change in
perspective on the concept of education itself. The dominance of knowledge in education and
learning must be changed so that students can compete with technological intelligence while
being able to be wise in using machines for the benefit of them.

29
 In the world of education, social media is one of the media used in learning
communication or educational communication. The use of social media in the world of
education is increasingly increasing to support learning. This is because social media has the
characteristics of learning media or the characteristics of learning media that are easily
accessible, interactive, and so on. The use of social media, in general, can have an influence,
both for individuals and organizations. Likewise, with the use of social media in the world of
education that needs to be considered related to some of the effects of using social media in the
world of education that is both positive and negative.
Learning materials must provide a more authentic design to go through challenges where
students can collaborate to create solutions to problem-related learning. Problem-solving leads
to questions and looks for answers by students who can then find solutions to problems in the
context of learning using available information resources (Trilling and Hood, 1999: 21).
Students also need to know the framework described regarding skills, knowledge, and
skills that must be mastered so students can be successful in their lives and work:

Figure 1. 21st Century Learning Framework

The Ministry of Education and Culture formulates the 21st-century learning paradigm,
emphasizes the ability of students to find out from various sources, formulate problems, think
analytically and collaborate and collaborate in solving problems (Litbang Kemdikbud, 2013).
The explanation of the 21st-century learning framework according to (BSNP, 2010) as
follows: (a) Critical-Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills, capable of thinking critically,
laterally, systemically, especially in the context of problem-solving; (b) The ability to
communicate and collaborate skills, able to communicate and collaborate effectively with
30
various parties; (c) Creativity and Innovation Skills, is able to develop its creativity to produce
innovative breakthroughs; (d) Information and communication technology literacy, capable of
utilizing information and communication technology to improve performance and daily
activities; (e) Contextual Learning Skills, capable of undergoing contextual independent
learning activities as part of personal development; and (f) The ability of information and media
literacy, able to understand and use various communication media to convey various ideas and
carry out collaborative activities and interactions with various parties.
To face learning in the 21st-century, everyone must have critical thinking skills,
knowledge, and digital literacy skills, information literacy, media literacy, and master
information and communication technology (Frydenberg & Andone, 2011). This condition is
contrary to the implementation of current education and learning, which is limited by the walls
of the classroom that do not allow students to explore the educational environment.
Hermann et al. (2016) added, there are four industrial design principles 4.0. First,
interconnection (connection), namely the ability of machines, devices, sensors, and people to
connect and communicate with each other through the IoT (Internet of Things) or the IoP
(Internet of People). This principle requires collaboration, security, and standards. Second,
information transparency is an information system's ability to create virtual copies of the
physical world by enriching digital models with sensor data, including data analysis and
information provision. Third, technical assistance which includes; (a) the ability of the
assistance system to support humans by combining and evaluating information consciously to
make the right decisions and solve urgent problems in a short time; (b) the ability of the system
to support humans by carrying out various tasks that are unpleasant, too tiring, or unsafe; (c)
includes visual and physical assistance. Fourth, decentralized decisions are the ability of the
virtual physical system to make their own decisions and carry out their tasks as effectively as
possible.
Current education must be able to prepare its students to face three things, namely: a)
completing their work faster; b) resolve the problems to be faced, and c) prepare children to be
able to use future technology. To be able to face these challenges, there are important
requirements that must be met by the world of Education, namely how to prepare qualified
teachers' qualifications and competencies.
So that technology-based education must be implemented immediately by utilizing the
widest possible technology in teaching and learning activities. Technology that is widely
developed in the world Education in the field of electronics such as computers and the Internet.
In the use of technology in the education process, it has become a very basic requirement.
31
Countries with the best education system compete with each other to create and develop
technology to support the education process.
Tourism has become the largest industry and shows consistent growth from year to year.
The World Tourism Organization estimates that in 2020, there will be a 200% increase in the
number of tourists visiting the world today. Today's modern tourism is also accelerated by the
process of globalization of the world, causing interconnection between fields, between nations,
and between individuals living in this world. The development of information technology has
also accelerated the dynamics of the globalization of the world, including the development of
the world of entertainment, recreation, and tourism. Humans have made media technology "a
window to the world" and can know events far away without us being present directly at the
scene (Noegroho, 2010: 4).
The rapid advancement of tourism requires academic graduates as described above,
requiring an increase in English language skills for the tourism service industry such as
receptionists, waiters, waitresses, ticket sellers, chefs, tour guides, and others. In general,
English is very much helping tourism workers to be able to communicate directly to consumers,
namely tourists/travelers. To improve language skills/competence, a person's progress can be
seen through their way of producing and understanding sentences based on their knowledge.
The ability to speak is the ability to say words to convey or express the intent and purpose
of even feelings that are compiled and developed according to the needs of listeners can be
understood. Speaking is also a form of conveying information by using words and sentences
because communication is built through sentences that are conveyed to show different
behavioral differences from different societies.
According to Harris (1974), there are five components of speaking skill concerned with
comprehension, grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, fluency. With the following explanation:
a) Comprehension for oral communication it requires a subject to respond, to speech as well as
to take the initiative; b) Grammar It is needed for students to organize a correct sentence in a
conversation. The function of grammar is also to learn the correct way to obtain competence
in a language in written and oral form; c) Vocabulary means the appropriate diction which is
used in communication. Without having a sufficient vocabulary, one cannot communicative
effectively or express their ideas, both oral and written form; d) Pronunciation is the way for
students‟ to produce clearer language when they speak. e) Fluency is the ability to speak, read,
or write easily and expressively.
Measuring, scoring, and evaluating, must be done for the three learning domains, namely
cognitive, affective, and behavioral. In some educators, some understand that what can be
32
measured is the cognitive aspect of students because it is easy to do through giving a test and
easily given a score. If the educator evaluates only in the cognitive domain, then the process
and results of learning can be said to have not been measured comprehensively or
comprehensively manner, which ideally should be measured by the three aspects of cognitive,
affective, and behavioral of the students.
Aderson (1981) argues that human characteristics include typical ways of thinking, acting,
and feeling. Typical feelings related to the affective domain. Eagly & Chaiken (1993)
Behavioral is "a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with
some degree of favor or disfavor.” Santrock (2001: 40) that psychologists discuss child
development is a pattern of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional changes that begin at
birth and continue throughout life.
This study aims to determine: (1) cognitive impact for lecturers and students, (2) the
affective impact of communication, and (3) social, behavioral impacts.

Methods
This research uses the descriptive qualitative method the research approach used is
scientific to the language experience approach and the media communication approach. Satori
(2011: 23) reveals that qualitative research is carried out because researchers want to explore
phenomena that cannot be quantified that are descriptive, such as work steps, formulas for a
recipe, understanding of a concept that is based on the characteristics of an item or service,
pictures, styles, procedures for a culture, physical models of artifacts and so on.
Kuncoro (2003) descriptive research includes data collection activities to answer
questions about the final status of the research subjects. While descriptive research proposed
by Sugiyono (2009) defines that the descriptive method is a method used to describe or analyze
a research result but is not used to make broader conclusions.
Associated with the effects of mass media, namely messages and media related to the
effects of mass media. There will be a change in your mass communication audience. These
types of changes include cognitive, affective, and behavioral changes. The source of data in
this study is divided into two; namely, the primary data source is data sourced from field
research, while secondary data sources are data obtained from the results of documentation and
results of the literature review. Data management and analysis techniques are carried out by
conducting observations and field interviews.
Observation or observation is a technique carried out by conducting careful observations
and systematic recording (Sulistyorini, 2009: 85). In other words, observation can measure or
33
assess the results and learning processes such as student behavior at the time of learning,
student discussion activities, participation. Through observation, it can be seen how the
Behavioral and behavior of students, the activities they do, participation in activities, the
process of activities they do, the ability, and even the results obtained from their activities
Observation must take place during the process of the activity.
Furthermore, interviews can be conducted in a structured and not structured manner and
can be done face to face (face to face) or using a telephone (Sugiyono, 2006; 138-140).
Interviews are divided into two, namely: 1) Structured Interviews; these interviews are used as
data collection techniques. In practice in addition to carrying instruments as interview guides,
data collectors can also use tools such as tape recorders, pictures, brochures and other
instruments that can assist in interviews; 2) Non-structured Interviews, unstructured interviews
are free interviews where researchers do not use interview guidelines that have been
systematically and completely structured for data collection. The interview guide used is only
in the form of outlines of the problems to be asked.

Result
Based on the results of observations that the researchers conducted at the Akademi
Komunitas Manajemen Perhotelan Indonesia, there are still many students who are very
difficult to communicate in this matter to issue what they want to say. Students seem very
hesitant to issue ideas or express opinions. Also, the teaching methods applied in class,
especially in English subjects, make students less interested in these subjects. Lecturer often
uses lecture and audio methods in the learning process in the classroom.
The researcher assessed that aspects of speaking skills, there are six components of
speaking to be scored; in terms of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and
comprehension. Scores to be given starting from one score up to five scores.

Table 1. Aspects of Speaking Skills Assessment Scores

Aspects Assessment Criteria Score
Pronunciation Equivalent to and fully accepted by an 5
educated native speaker
Errors in pronunciation are quite rare 4
Errors never interfere with understanding 3
and rarely. The accent may be foreign.

34
 The accent is intelligible though often 2
quite faulty.
Errors in pronunciation but a native 1
speaker can be understood by.
Grammar Equivalent to that of an educated by a 5
native speaker.
Able to use the language accurately. 4
Errors in grammar are quite rare.
Able to speak the language, structural 3
accuracy to participate effectively, control
of grammar is good, in a most formal and
informal conversation on practical, social,
and professional topics.
Can usually handle elementary 2
constructions accurately but does not have
confident to control the grammar.
Errors in grammar are frequent, but a 1
native speaker can understand the speaker.
Vocabulary Educated native speakers fully accept speech in 5
all its features.
Can understand in any conversation 4
within the range of his experience with a
high degree of precision of vocabulary.
Able to speak the language with adequate 3
vocabulary effectively in most formal and
informal conversations on practical,
social, and professional topics.
Has speaking vocabulary adequate to 2
express himself simply with some
circumlocutions.
Speaking vocabulary to express anything 1
but the most elementary needs.

35
 Fluency Has complete fluency in the language such 5
as educated native speakers fully accept
speech.
Able to use the language fluently to 4
professional needs. Can participate in any
conversation with experience with a high
degree of fluency.
Can discuss the particular interest of 3
competence with reasonable ease. Rarely
has to grope for words.
Can handle with confidence but not 2
including introductions and casual
conversations.
No specific fluency description. Refer to 1
the other four language areas for the
implied level of fluency.
Comprehension Equivalent to that of an educated by a native 5
speaker.
Can understand any conversation with his 4
experience.
Comprehension is complete at a normal 3
rate of speech.
Can get the gist of most conversation of 2
non-technical subjects (i.e., topics that
require no specialized knowledge)
Within the scope of his minimal language 1
experience, can understand simple
questions and statements if delivered with
slowed speech, repetition, or paraphrase.

Below is the result of the assessment of the five aspects above using tables so that they
are clearer and easier to understand. With the results in the following table:

36
 Table 2. Rating Result
N N Pronunc Gra Voca Fl Comprehen
o a iation mm bular ue sion
m ar y nc
e y
1 P 3 3 3 3 3
. J
A
2 J 4 3 3 3 3
. M
A
3 K 3 3 3 3 3
. W
4 M 4 5 4 4 4
. S
5 N 3 3 2 2 2
. S
A
6 N 3 3 3 3 3
. F
T
7 P 2 2 2 2 2
. P
8 R 3 2 2 2 2
. A
B
9 R 3 3 2 2 2
. R
1 R 2 2 2 2 2
0 Y
.

37
 1 K 2 2 2 2 2
1 E
. S
1 F 2 2 2 2 2
2 S
.
1 I 3 3 3 2 2
3 M
.
1 M 3 2 2 2 2
4 A
.
1 D 2 2 2 2 2
5 N
. N

From the table above, the researcher can conclude that of the fifteen Akademi Komunitas
Manajemen Perhotelan Indonesia students who were interviewed and asked for presentations
using English about the world of hospitality, there were only two people who the researchers
considered sufficient to carry out English speaking skills. This shows that the English-speaking
ability of the Akademi Komunitas Manajemen Perhotelan Indonesia students is still minimal.
In the implementation of teaching language skills using the language experience
approach, there are several advantages and disadvantages to it. Therefore, it would be nice if
these weaknesses were overcome first. How to overcome these weaknesses include the
following: a) The lecturer must first know the level of students' language skills. After that the
lecturer can apply the Language Experience Approach in learning speaking skills; b) Because
the Language Experience Approach requires more time than the other methods, the lecturer
first makes the right method of learning to speak with the Language Experiences Approach, so
that in a relatively short time the learning objectives can be achieved; c) Because learning using
the Language Experience Approach involves all language skills such as listening, reading, and
writing, as well as a number of vocabulary words, the lecturer must be able to choose the themes
according to the child's thinking ability, and when to teach them to students; d) Objectives and
Assumptions of the Language Experiences Approach.

38
 Thus, the implementation of speech learning is always preceded by the excavation of
children's language experiences that are expressed verbally, then recorded into a written form
or in the cassette. These recordings are then used as tools for learning to speak. In principle,
the speaking skills test provides an opportunity for students to speak, not write, so the
assessment of speaking skills is more emphasized on the practice of speaking. The assessment
carried out should be aimed at efforts to improve student performance to foster motivation in
the next lesson.
So in this study, the authors offer using the media communication approach such as
electronic media and social media as an alternative to teaching English speaking skills.
Learning to speak English using communication media was able to improve students speaking
skills. Because students can learn many things related to languages in very limited industry
tourism given by the lecturer. The process of teaching and learning activities provided is to use
aspects of improving the ability to speak English, namely grammar, pronunciation, and
vocabulary.

Students Improvement
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Pronunciation Grammarly Vocabulary Fluency Comprehension

Pre-Test Post-Test

Figure 2. Students Improvement

Looking at the diagram above improves students' achievement in speaking after being
taught by this method. Students' improvement in speaking can be seen from the result of pre-
test and post-test. The results of the tests prove that students' speaking skills are better after
using the communication media approach. There is progress in students to improve their ability
to speak English, namely grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension.
Radio, television or film, and social media in various countries have been used as
educational media. From the media, it can be found how the impact of media communication

39
between lecturers and students in achieving learning goals is seen from the cognitive impact
for lecturers and students, the affective impact of communication, and the impact of social
behavior.
Cognitive means the ability to develop rational abilities (reason). Cognitive can be said
to emphasize how the process or effort to optimize the ability of rational aspects that are owned
by others. From the aspect of the teaching staff, and educator is required to have cognitive field
competencies. That is, a lecturer must have intellectual abilities, mastery of subject matter,
knowledge of how to teach, knowledge of how to assess students, and so on.
The cognitive domain includes the ability of students to repeat or restate the
concepts/principles that have been learned in the learning process that they have acquired. This
process deals with the ability to think, competence in developing knowledge, recognition,
understanding, conceptualization, determination, and reasoning. Learning objectives in the
cognitive realm are all learning activities with levels to the lowest to highest levels.
In the process of teaching and learning, it takes the right way to get maximum learning
outcomes. The following is the application of cognitive learning theory in a learning process:
1) Knowledge experience, also called observing understanding. In the learning process,
students should have the ability to observe, namely knowing the interrelationships of the
elements of an object or event; 2) Meaningful learning, in this case, the meaningful elements
can support the formation of insight in a learning process. This will help participants in
handling a problem. The things learned by students should have clear and logical meaning with
the process of life; 3) Purposive behavior, the behavior will be directed at the goal. The learning
process will run effectively if the students understand the goals they want to achieve. So, the
lecturer should help students to understand the direction and purpose; 4) Life space, individual
behavior has a relationship with the place and environment he is in. So, the material taught
must be related to the situation and conditions of the individual's living environment; 5)
Transfer in learning, namely the process of transferring behavior patterns in certain learning
situations to other situations. Learning transfer occurs by releasing the notion of objects from
one configuration to another in the right order. Learning transfer will occur if students have
captured the basic principles of a problem and found generalizations for later use in solving
problems in other situations.
Cognitive effects are the consequences that arise in the communicant who is informative
for him. In this cognitive effect, we will discuss how mass media can help students learn useful
information. Through mass media, share information about objects, people, or places that we
have never visited directly.
40
 Thus, the way of learning in cognitive frames involves three processes simultaneously.
First, by getting new information, it means that there is an addition to the information someone
has before. Second, information transformation, which means that the method is carried out by
someone in applying their new knowledge according to their needs. Third, examine the
relevance and accuracy of knowledge.
In addition to cognitive, there is an affective domain of learning outcomes consisting of
five categories as follows: 1) Receiving/ attending, namely sensitivity in receiving stimuli
(stimulation) from the outside that come to him in the form of problems, situations, symptoms,
etc. In this type, including awareness, to receive a stimulus, the desire to control and selection
of external stimuli; 2) Responding or answer, namely the reaction given by someone to
stimulation that comes from outside. This includes the determination of the reaction, the depth
of feeling, satisfaction responding, responsibility in responding to an external stimulus that
comes; 3) Valuing about the value or belief in the symptoms or stimulus it receives. In this case
it includes the willingness to accept values, background or experience to accept values and
agreement with those values; 4) Organizations, namely the development of values into one
organizational system, including the relationship of one value with another value, strengthening
and prioritizing the values it has; 5) Internalization of values, namely the integration of all the
value systems a person has that influence his personality and behavior patterns.
Four types of affective characteristics were found, namely: 1) Attitudes, it is expected
that students' attitudes towards subjects, especially speaking in English, must be more positive
after students take English lessons compared to before attending learning. This change can be
used as an indicator of the success of educators in carrying out the learning process. For this
reason, educators must make learning plans including student learning experiences on subjects
more positive; 2) Interest, an experience that encourages students to obtain special objects,
activities, understanding, and skills for the purpose of attention or achievement; 3) Self-
concept, educators evaluate the abilities and weaknesses of students. The target, direction, and
intensity of self-concept are basically like the other affective domains; 4) Value, the intensity
of value can be said to be high or low depending on the situation and value referred to.
Therefore, the education unit must help students find and strengthen meaningful and significant
values for students for positive contributions.
Other important affective domains include: a) Honesty, students must learn to respect
honesty in interacting with others; b) Integrity, students must attach themselves to the value
code, for example, moral and artistic; c) Fair, students must argue that all people receive equal

41
treatment in obtaining education; d) Freedom, students must be sure that a democratic country
gives freedom that is fully responsible to everyone.
Besides affective, there is also the realm of social-behavioral, which is the ability to
assess something, how individuals can bring themselves by the assessment. The assessment of
something can be indicated by the attitude of accepting, rejecting, or even ignoring it. During
the learning process, the attitude of students will determine the results of the learning. Students'
understanding of the learning process will bring it to the wrong attitude in learning. The wrong
attitude will bring students to feel unconcerned with learning again. The result, there will not
be a conducive learning process because student ethics begin to decrease.
The purpose of mass communication not to inform the public to become aware of
something; after knowing the information received, the audience is expected to feel it.
Behavioral is a person's internal state in the form of tendency or readiness to respond, including
cognitive, affection and behavioral towards a stimulus from the surrounding environment,
which must be underlined is the behavioral assessment does not stand alone.
Behavioral assessment is integrated with knowledge assessment and skills assessment.
Behavioral assessment is very important to do so that the success of learning can be known and
adjusted to the graduation standards that have been set in the Minister of Education. The object
of behavioral that need to be assessed in the learning process is behavioral toward the subject
matter, to the lecturer, to the learning process, to the values and norms related to a subject
matter.
Affective assessment includes, character, behavioral of interest and perception can be
concluded that behavioral is a person's internal state, in the form of tendency or readiness to
respond include cognitive, affection and behavioral towards a stimulus from the surrounding
environment, which must be underlined is the behavioral assessment does not stand alone.
Behavioral assessment is integrated with knowledge assessment and skills assessment. And
there is a social, behavioral effect that is a result that arises in the students in the form of
behavior, actions, or activities.
Besides many factors of uncertainty and unsuccessful students in speaking English, such
as limited time, students' interest in speaking is low, lack of creativity and innovation from the
lecturer. The results of this study indicate online-based media communication between
lecturers and students with media specifications and objectives, media strategies, in-class
organizations, and lecturer feedback to students. The implications of this study are expected
that online media will become a very effective medium in the teaching and learning process.

42
Conclusion
It can be concluded that good English language skills must support the ability to speak in
English and the participation of students as potential tourism actors outside of the facilities and
infrastructure provided as interrelated links without forgetting future opportunities. The more
tourists who feel happy and comfortable in carrying out their visits in a country, the tourists
will automatically promote the country they visit verbally (word to mouth) to their colleagues.
Students' improvement in speaking can be seen from the result of pre-test and post-test.
The results of the tests prove that students speaking skills are better after using the
communication media approach. There is progress in students to improve their ability to speak
English, namely grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. Practicing
is the best way to learn speaking skills; it will make them speak more fluently and increase
their confidence. The application of this method could improve students speaking ability. The
first purpose was accomplished well.
The approach to language experience and the media communication approach carried out
in this study. It can mean the starting point or point of view of the learning process or is an
overview of the general patterns of teachers and students. In the realization of learning
activities, which seek to improve cognitive, affective, and social behavior abilities, students in
processing the teaching-learning process.
The development of learning is oriented to students 'speaking skills which are developed
as an effort to improve the quality of learning and improve the quality of graduates and develop
Strengthened learning oriented to students' speaking skills in the era of industrial revolution
4.0.
Therefore, education has an important role in preparing students to be able to think
critically in solving problems in daily life. In this case, the support of various related parties is
very necessary to be able to prepare the next generation of the nation that can think critically
and creatively in facing the challenges of the global era (the era of industrial revolution 4.0).

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 23 Issue No. 6.3 November 2019

A New Competency-based Framework for English for Specific Engineering Purposes

(ESEP) Practitioners

Nor Yazi Khamis

Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia
[email protected]

Bio-Profile:
Nor Yazi Khamis is a senior lecturer at the English Department, Centre for Modern Languages
and Human Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia. She has an M. Ed. in TESL from
the National University of Malaysia. She has been in the field of education for more than 18
years and apart from her enthusiasm in technology integrated applications, her interests include
content development, instructional design, and continuous professional development programs
for language instructors.

Abstract
The English for Specific Engineering Purposes (ESEP) competencies of ESL
practitioners teaching English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) at Malaysian
engineering and technical (MTUN) universities is vital in ensuring quality learning and
teaching of language and communication skills at those institutions. This study aims to develop
a competency framework for ESEP practitioners at MTUN universities. The development of
the framework was conducted in two phases using the exploratory sequential mixed methods.
The first phase comprises qualitative data gathered from document analyses, related literature
and semi-structured interviews. This study is framed by the principles of Malaysian Teacher
Standards (MTS), i.e. the Professional Values, Knowledge and Understanding, and Skills of
Learning and Teaching. The principles are represented by Walker’s Professional ELT Service
Standards, Venkatraman and Prema’s Competencies for Teachers of English in Engineering
Colleges and BALEAP Framework. The second phase comprises quantitative data gathered
from three Delphi rounds with 14 ESEP experts and a survey of 101 MTUN ESEP practitioners.
Findings from the qualitative inquiry revealed evidence of the three principles in identifying
the practitioners’ required competency which implicates two types of professional

46
development training: Formal and informal. The quantitative analyses using SmartPLS
software identified the second principle (ESEP Knowledge and Understanding) and ‘patient
when learners have difficulties in learning’ as the prevalent principle and competency item for
ESEP practitioners. This confirms the importance of ESEP practitioners’ knowledge and
understanding in engineering to elevate their status and recognitions, as well as enhance
learners’ interest in learning the language. The competency framework for ESEP practitioners
was also validated in terms of its reliability and validity based on a measurement model
developed from the software. The framework could be a standard for the practitioners’ learning
and teaching practices and employed as a standard evaluation for quality enhancement,
professional development training and recruitment purposes. The findings also implicate the
need for the local quality agencies to specify a standard of competencies as a guideline for
ESEP practitioners’ qualifications teaching at MTUN universities.

Keywords: English for Specific Engineering Purposes; practitioners; competency; framework;

engineering and technical

Introduction
Higher education (HE) pipeline has been responsible in creating a supply of highly skilled
human capital. The responsibility has instigated multi-faceted pedagogical skills and
multidisciplinary knowledge of university practitioners in generating graduates that meet social
and economic imperatives. As a result of this universally accepted market philosophy, the
reform in HE institutions has disposed more emphasis on high quality university practitioners.
A multiplied number and greater diversity of learners as well as heightened demands on
practitioners’ time are the specific impact of the reform (Schwab, 2017). High quality
university practitioners should then possess a broad range of competencies that set learners’
learning goal as the utmost priority.
In a parallel note, the crux for most Malaysian ESL engineering learners is that to be
successful in the field means acquiring the content knowledge while simultaneously contending
with the language difficulties. Much of the literature in this area has largely overlooked HE
ESL learners’ challenges in adjusting with the demands of English-medium and instructions
(Evans & Morrison 2011; Huang 2013). It is demotivating especially to the less proficient ESL
learners and became even more excruciating after years of learning the language. The language
learning consists of highly complex set of systems, structures and rules and the process to gain
control of this complexity differed from those required in content knowledge (Ramiah, 2008).
47
ESL engineering learners must show their understanding in the discipline to enable sound
engagement and participation in the discipline knowledge community (Wahi, 2013). When
these students were unsure of which specific skills they should be learning, they perceive the
classroom as the only place to use the language. (Wu & Wu, 2008). These have been a taxing
situation for the learners and a challenge to English for Academic Purposes (EAP) or English
for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) practitioners who are teaching in a specific field.
ESL EAP/ESAP practitioners in a specific field like engineering, need specific
competencies for effective learning and facilitation. George (2011) identifies scarce resources
and prevailing culture of institutions as two main barriers for HE practitioners’ engagement in
quality professional developments. First, the scarce resources dedicate to ESEP practitioners’
professional development is plausibly caused by the lack of empirical supports. The
practitioners’ competency needs to be addressed because it involves designing and developing
the language courses in the engineering HEIs (Wu & Badger, 2009; Lafford, 2012). Also, ESL
practitioners’ qualifications as required in the Malaysian Programme Standards: Engineering
and Engineering Technology (MQA, 2011) and Engineering Programme Accreditation Manual
(EAC, 2012) are too general. It needs to be explicit to the fields and emphasises more on
practitioners’ experience in research and inventiveness through empirical investigations
(Watson-Todd 2003).
In terms of the prevailing culture, firstly, the requirements from engineering faculties are
often challenging to accommodate as there are several engineering majors and each with its
own programme objectives (PO) and learning outcomes (LO) (Mohamed, 2015). This
necessitates ESEP practitioners’ competency in accommodating the distinctions and be
appropriated with the context (Kaewpet, 2009; Sloan & Porter, 2010). Second, iESEP
practitioners are required to conduct NA to understand learners’ needs (Brown, 2016) so that
it vouches for the practitioners’ continuous effort to improve the course and their competency.
Finally, it is a serious misconception to rely extensively on general proficiency test scores or
evaluation to determine ESEP syllabuses and contents. The scores are inadequate in depicting
learners’ actual linguistic and cognitive needs in academic contexts (Benesch 2001) which tend
to depict general English (GE) lacks.
To sum, the cited barriers have steered the study in investigating two aspects. One, the
juxtaposed of ESEP practitioners’ sparse resources and burgeoning multifaceted tasks has
highlighted the importance of ESEP competencies. The investigation needs to focus on
identifying ESEP practitioners’ competencies to elicit prolific resources for the practitioners’
professional developments. Two, the disparities in the culture has exerted questions on ESEP
48
practitioners’ competency. Instead of “jump onto the staff development bandwagon due to the
absence of any standard qualification” (Evans & Abbott 1998: 25), a specific ESEP
practitioners’ competency framework is reckoned to appropriate professional standards for the
practitioners. Hence, this study aims to develop a competency framework for ESEP
practitioners teaching the technical and engineering universities in Malaysia.

Review of Literature
The ESEP Effects on Language Teaching
Hyland’s (2007) five effects on language teaching are discussed in this study to support
the need for ESEP practitioners’ specific competency.
a. ESEP as a Study of Communication Skills
Recent practices in ESEP view learning materials associated with its social contexts. It means
ESEP practitioners now have more communication skills to tackle in facilitating their
engineering learners. It requires competencies that are beyond texts and genres to be able to
understand how it works meaningfully in that particular field. This directs ESEP practitioners
to focus on the specific ways of preparing suitable communicative activities that centre on
learners’ engineering context and purpose of learning the language.
b. The Role of Practitioner as a Researcher
The core of ESEP is the needs analysis (NA) of learners in learning the language for
professional, academic and job-related communicative purposes. This signifies the
practitioners’ role in customising the locality of ESEP design and classroom pedagogies by
conducting their own research i.e. through target situation analyses (TSA), present situation
analyses (PSA), pedagogic needs analysis, deficiency or lack analysis, strategy analysis or
learning needs analysis, means analysis, register, discourse and genre analysis.
c. The Importance of Collaborative Pedagogy
The tenet of specificity as a mean to contextualise ESEP course requires ESEP practitioners to
work collaboratively with subject specialists. Especially to novice practitioners, working in
tandem with those working in engineering fields warrant real communicative practices and true
understanding of authentic materials. The knowledge of learners’ field hence becomes the
context for learning, and the topics, contents and practices of profession become the modes to
teaching particular discourses and communicative skills in the ESEP course.
d. The Centrality or Importance of Language Variation
Hyland’s (2007) argument on the issue of specificity in ESEP lies in the view that each
professional and academic discourse has a variety of specific literacies. The variations in

49
engineering professional discourses are in terms of contents, topics and vocabularies. The
variations also differ in the way it relates to learners’ schemata i.e. knowledge of prior texts in
making meanings to what is appropriate to the field. This informs ESEP practitioners that their
learners’ language weaknesses may not only be due to their lack of literacy skills; it could be
caused by the language variations in engineering related field.
e. The View that Language Represents Broader Social Practices
Language used in ESEP is an indication of a membership of a particular social group. It focuses
on communication rather than language and with how texts are created and applied. The
frequent use of language in social context is an indicative of broader social connections. This
is also to negate the sole dependency on literacy in studying real communicative practices in
real contexts.
The Hyland’s five effects of EAP/ESAP on ELT underscore the distinctions of ESEP.
These distinctions have apparently led to the need for a specific ESEP competency-based
framework for ESL practitioners who are teaching in specific content fields. The competencies
need to be relevant with the type of language and communication skills that are required in the
engineering field.

The Roles of ESEP Practitioners

Several researchers have discussed the role of ESAP practitioners. ESAP practitioners play
a role as a course designer and material provider. Due to the variation and continuous changes
in technical and engineering fields, it is rarely possible to use a published material that meets
learners’ needs. Dudley Evans and St. John (1998) then, update the list by adding course
designers and materials providers, facilitators, collaborators, researchers and evaluators
because ESAP practitioners often have to provide the material for the course and evaluate the
effectiveness of the materials for learners’ learning. ESAP practitioners are expected to be an
evaluator because the practitioner is often involved in various types of evaluation such as tests,
course evaluation and materials vetting. The roles require a considerable amount of effort and
time in selecting, evaluating and adapting materials to support the teaching and facilitate
learners’ learning.
Savaş (2009) then characterises ESEP practitioners as individuals who have more than
pedagogical traits. ESEP practitioners are individuals who are willing to learn, possess some
knowledge of content subjects, work well in a team, listen to and motivate learners, and critical
in thinking. To add, ESEP practitioners have the responsibilities to keep context and
comprehensibility in their instruction, select and adapt authentic materials for lessons, provide

50
scaffolding for learners’ linguistic content learning, and create learner-centred classrooms. The
specificity of ESEP, which is in accordance to content field has implicated the needs to
differentiate the roles of ESEP and general English (GE) practitioners. EAP/ESAP
practitioners’ role is also different from EFL educators because ESEP concentrates more on
language in context than on grammar and language structures.
Interestingly, after years of studies conducted, employers’ expectations in communication
have also implicitly influenced EAP/ESAP practitioners’ role in preparing their learners for
workplaces (Lappalainen, 2009). The expectations do not merely emphasise on the
practitioners’ knowledge and skills in teaching ESEP, it anticipates the practitioners to integrate
some professional values that are required in the workplaces (Abdul Raof, Hamzah, Abdul
Aziz, Attan, & Mohd Omar, 2011). Correspondingly, Bracaj (2014) supports the inclusion of
attitude or value in the practitioners’ roles apart from the ones justified in the literature. The
roles of ESEP practitioners include some awareness of class or course objectives, possessing
good understanding of course content, flexibility and willingness to cooperate with learners,
and keeping some interest in their learners’ disciplines.
Mishra (2014) further specifies the values in the roles along with the shift of from pedagogy
to andragogy. The continuous expansion of EAP/ESAP has revealed that EAP/ESAP learners
are individuals who possess schemata in the language, already in the field of studies and are
driven by their need to know. This type of learners requires andragogical approach which has
different teaching practices than those prescribed by the pedagogical model (Minter, 2011).
Javid (2015) therefore contends it is the diversified nature of EAP/ESAP teaching that has
granted the term “practitioners” instead of educators or instructors. In other words, the role
emphasises EAP/ESAP pedagogy that requires more than teaching.

The Challenges of ESEP Abroad and Local Contexts

The main challenge for EAP/ESAP practitioners is interdisciplinary of EAP/ESAP with
other disciplines (Basturkmen, 2012). The challenge mandates sound knowledge of
terminology in engineering and study skills for learners’ academic language learning purposes.
It is also reported that most communication courses are often lowered to minimal priority by
engineering faculties. This is mainly because the courses are often perceived and taught in
isolation, detached from the realities of the engineering world (Collins, Li & Cheung, 2000).
Moreover, Slater and Mohan (2010) contend that interdisciplinary between language and
content knowledge is often impossible to attain and “results in the EAP/ESAP subordination
to a more prestigious disciplinary” (Morgan, 2009: p. 87). Furthermore, Borrego and
51
Newswander (2008) acclaim that they are not trained to work with ESL practitioners. This is
why the interdisciplinary of EAP/ESAP with engineering poses a challenge to materialise.
The practitioners are challenged with teaching unfamiliar disciplines and the need to
engage with the specialist language of those disciplines. The dealing with content areas has led
EAP/ESAP practitioners to face ‘subject knowledge dilemma’ (Wu & Badger, 2009). The
dilemma posits EAP/ESAP practitioners with unpredicted issue related to content knowledge
(Woodward-Kron, 2008). Within the practitioners’ own community, some EAP/ESAP
practitioners face tension in their desire to overcome the inferiority complex in proving that
they are ‘intellectually capable’ of coping with science subjects (Melles, Miller & Morton,
2005). The fact that EAP/ESAP practitioners serve mainly as supporting academic staff is
considered relegating and ‘deprofesionalise’ to most of them.
Another challenge concerns the aspect of specificity of EAP/ESAP curricula (Basturkmen,
2012). Hyland (2002) argues particularly for ESAP, different disciplines have its own ways of
communicating which reflect its own ideas or values of the disciplines. Kaewpet (2011) who
expounds the specific needs of engineering field recommended ESAP practitioners to at least
possess knowledge of technical terms and a general scope of engineering work for a more
effective teaching. Local empirical evidences specifically identified in two studies conducted
by Ming, Gobel, Mohd Nor, and Suppiah (2011) on learners’ attributions and Fei and Ming
(2008) on practitioners’ perception of the EAP courses, both involving the same university, are
local verifications of the need for this study. The study identified several mismatches between
instructions and assessments in the EAP/ESAP courses taught (Fei & Ming, 2008). The
practitioners were identified adopting a ‘touch and go’ approach in their teachings and some
misconceptions of testing and practice principles. The study has put forward a glaring need for
ESL educators to undergo EAP/ESAP training in properly addressing the NA of the target
language situation and in synergising a more effective collaboration between the ESL and
subject specialists.
The dismissed importance of NA among local ESL practitioners is substantiated by Shing
and Sim (2011). The study revealed that most Malaysian HE ESL practitioners overlooked the
importance of NA. It was identified that the learners’ learning provision was provided on
impromptu basis. They identified minimal numbers of local studies with NA which questioned
the quality of curriculum offered. Some local ESL practitioners are also influenced by their
experience teaching general English at secondary level education for proficiency purposes in
teaching EAP/ESAP. The teaching of the language was formerly taught in isolation, with little
or unspecific connection to other subjects. The intended outcome generally was to pass national
52
examinations or improve learners’ English proficiency. Consequently, the practitioners
resorted to a more general approach such as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) to
compensate the language deficiencies in ESEP course (Felder, Brent & Prince, 2011). The use
of CLT has the possibility to cause delays in meeting EAP/ESAP course outcomes because the
practitioners feel the necessity to concentrate on learners’ basic needs before coming to the
core of the syllabus (Felder, Brent & Prince 2011; Alexander 2012).

Malaysian Teacher Standards for ESEP Competency Framework

To begin with, competencies have been interchangeably used with different names and
causally linked to performance or as sets of desirable behaviours. Aparicio, Ruiz-Roqueñi and
Catalán (2015) assert that there is no unanimous agreement of the true definitions of
competency. Boyatzis denotes competency as “an underlying characteristic of a person which
results in effective and/or superior performance in a job” (1982: 97). Similarly, Spencer and
Spencer (1993) define competency as “an underlying characteristic of an individual that (is)
causally related to (causes or predicts) criterion-referenced effective performance in a job or
situation” (p. 9), comprising of several types of characteristics. The characteristics are
“knowledge, skills, abilities, attitudes and other characteristics that enables a person to perform
skilfully … in complex and uncertain situations” (Passow 2007: 1) in achieving targeted
results. ‘Competency’ in this study therefore includes personality traits rather than solely on
the overall achievement-oriented behaviour (Matulcikova & Brevenikova, 2015).
As such, developing competency-based standards require involvement from the individuals
who are affected by the standards. Tigelaar, Dolmans, Wolfhagen and Vleuten (2004) assert
that HE worldwide is becoming more learners centred and for that, the teaching requires vast
competency standards. This stipulates an adequate framework of teaching competencies to
standardise or benchmark the current teaching practices. However, most of the competency-
based standards have been criticised for the lack of says from the practitioners (Huntly 2008).
Ingvarson and Rowe (2008) suggest individuals who are affected by the standard must be
allowed to reach an agreement on the scope and content of the developed standards. Hence,
developing ESEP framework requires agreement from the experts in the fields as well as ESEP
practitioners and consists of values, knowledge and skills.
Among the recent national initiatives in ensuring practitioners’ quality was the Standard
Guru Malaysia or the Malaysian Teacher Standards (MTS) in 2009. The impetus of MTS is to
enhance Malaysian practitioners’ quality. It is a wave of transformation for Malaysian
practitioners, from pre-school to HE practitioners in striving for teaching excellence (Goh,
53
2012). MTS requires local practitioners to align their practices in accordance to three
principles: Professional Values, Knowledge and Understanding and Skills of Teaching and
Learning. When the intention is about improving teaching quality, Ingvarson and Rowe (2008)
assert that a quality control mechanism through standards must be made available. Teaching
standards, in particular, must aim to “articulate sound principles of instructional practice and
what [practitioners] should know and be able to do” (2008: 9). Correspondingly, MTS three
principles are adopted to reflect the required standard set for this study. Accordingly, values,
knowledge and skills are used as the principles to group the adapted competency indicators
gathered from the three studies i.e. Walker’s, Venkatraman and Prema’s and BALEAP.

Principle I (Professional Values): The Professional ELT Service Standards

The first principle on professional values for ESEP practitioners is adopted from an
inventory of expected behaviours and attitudes for New Zealand English ELT professionals by
Walker (2011). Walker (2011) develops an inventory of expected behaviours and attitudes for
New Zealand English language teaching professionals. It is a framework of ELT professional
values that were “vested in the specialised, complex knowledge, training, qualifications and
intellectual skills of professional staff and in the client-professional relationship” (p. 308). The
framework consists of 50 standards in ten dimensions of attitudes and behaviours that is defined
as being professional from the perspective of authorities at the country ELT centres.

Principle II (Knowledge and Understanding): The Competencies for Teachers of English in

Engineering Colleges
The second principle on knowledge and understanding of ESEP competencies is based
on the work by Venkatraman and Prema (2012) for Teachers of English in Engineering
Colleges. It was validated as a competency framework for EFL/ESL practitioners at
engineering colleges in India in three phases. A specific framework comprising of 65
competencies were categorised in two parts. Part I (General Competencies) had 17 competency
statements and 48 competencies for Part II (Subject-Specific Competencies). Part II was
grouped in seven domains.

Principle III (Skills of Learning and Teaching): British Association of Lecturers in EAP
(BALEAP) Competency Framework for EAP Teachers
The learning and teaching skills of ESEP is formulated from British Association of
Lecturers in English for Academic Purposes (BALEAP) Competency Framework for Teachers
54
of English for Academic Purposes (TEAP) (2008) The framework has a description of core
competencies as a standardisation of practice for professional EAP practitioners. The
framework consists of four core competencies with 11 subdomains of competency statements.
The competencies reflect the UK practitioners’ understanding in teaching EAP so that a precise
measure on recruitment, induction and professional development can be made available
especially for novice EAP practitioners.

To sum, the competency indicators gathered from the three studies are outlined in Figure
1. The competency indicators from Walker’s, Venkatraman and Prema and BALEAP were
adapted to operationalise the three MTS principles.

ESEP PRACTITIONERS' COMPETENCIES

Principle II Principle III

Principle I
Knowledge and Learning and Teaching
Professional Values
Understanding Skills

Competencies for
Professional Service
Teachers of English in BALEAP Competency
Standards for English
Engineering Colleges Framework for TEAP
Language Teaching
(Venkatraman & Prema, (BALEAP, 2008)
(Walker, 2011)
2012)

51 indicators 86 indicators 61 indicators

Fig. 1 The Outline for ESEP Practitioners’ Competency Framework

Descriptions of Methodology
Research Design
The study uses an exploratory sequential mixed method design (Figure 2). The design
involves collecting, analysing and combining or integrating both quantitative and qualitative
data at multiple levels of a research process (Creswell & Clark, 2017). The procedures are
relevant because ESEP is a specific area of investigation that requires qualitative explorations.
The qualitative findings from the documents, literature and exploration were generalised in a
quantitative form of data to develop a valid and reliable competency framework for ESEP
practitioners.

55
 Qualitative
Implementat
Data Framework Framework
Development ion &
Collection and Design
Evaluation
Analysis

Fig. 2 The Exploratory Sequential Mixed Method (Adapted from Creswell, 2017)

The research design had three phases:

Phase I Design Phase: Qualitative data collection i.e. document analyses, literature reviews
and interviews, and analysis of the first phase;
Phase 2 Development Phase: Instrument development and quantitative data collection i.e. a
Modified Delphi and survey technique, and analysis of the second phase; and
Phase 3 Implementation and Evaluation Phase: Quantitative and qualitative data collections
and analyses followed by the interpretation.

Respondents
The study focuses on the competencies for ESEP practitioners at four MTUN
universities in Malaysia. 14 experts in the fields and 101 ESL practitioners from the four
technological universities were involved in the development of the instruments (interview
questions and questionnaire), hence, the frameworks. Several methods were used to ensure the
validity and reliability of the instruments. Cohen Kappa Inter-rater reliability analysis was used
to check the themes and subthemes of the qualitative data. Cronbach’s alpha and Rasch
measurement approach analyses were applied on the quantitative data of the study.

Data Analyses
For the data analyses, thematic analysis was used in analysing interviews data with the
experts and ESEP practitioners at the first phase of study. Then, percentages and frequencies,
median scores and Interquartile Range (IQR) were used in analysing data gathered from three
rounds of the modified Delphi at the second phase. Using a set of questionnaires for each round,
the three constructs (principles) and 198 indicators (Figure 1) were refined throughout the three
rounds. Finally, PLS-SEM was applied to evaluate the measurement model for the developed
framework.

56
Findings and Discussion
Phase I (Analysis and Design Phase)
The qualitative findings revealed the importance of ESEP practitioners’ competencies
through the three MTS principles. Using the three MTS principles, the competency indicators
for ESEP practitioners were identified and categorised according to the needs in ESEP practices
i.e. Principle I (PI) Professional Values within the Teaching of ESEP; Principle II (PII)
Knowledge & Understanding of ESEP; and Principle III (PIII) Skills of ESEP Learning &
Teaching. In fact, the three principles were suggested to be used in measuring ESEP
practitioners because the principles cover the learning domains i.e. affective (professional
values), cognitive (knowledge) and psychomotor (skills).

Phase 2 (Development Phase)

This phase reports the quantitative findings from the experts during the three rounds of
modified Delphi technique. The analysis of data obtained from the experts was used to
investigate the required ESEP competencies for ESL practitioners teaching at MTUN member
institutions. Questionnaires on ESEP practitioners’ competency (QR1, QR2 and QR3) were
developed in the three rounds (R1, R2, and R3) of modified Delphi technique to gauge the
experts’ views.

Table 1 The Number of Indicators for each Principle Agreed by the Experts
Competency Indicators/ Rounds (R) Total
Principle R1 R2 R3 Accepted
Started Deleted Started Deleted Started Deleted Indicators
PI 51 10 41 21 20 0 20
PII 86 10 76 16 60 12 48
PIII 61 5 56 21 35 1 34
Total 198 (-) 25 = 173 (-) 58 = 115 (-) 13 102
The modified Delphi rounds with the experts had initially started with 198 indicators (51, 86
and 61 for each principle, respectively) (Table 1). After R3 analysis, the indicators were left
with 102 indicators (PI=20, PII=48 and PIII=34, respectively) for the third phase.

57
Phase 3 (Implementation and Evaluation Phase)
The findings were analysed to evaluate the reliability and validity of ESEP framework
PLS-SEM measurement model. These were done using the four tests i.e. internal consistency
reliability; indicator reliability; convergent validity; and discriminant validity.

Internal Consistency Reliability

Table 2 shows that the CR of each principle for this study ranged from 0.937 to 0.9702
which were above the recommended threshold value of 0.7 (Gefen, Straub & Boudreau 2000;
Nunnally & Bernstein 1994). The CA of each principle also indicated satisfactory values which
ranged from 0.9252 to 0.9674. This means the indicators had satisfactory level of internal
consistency reliability.

Table 2 Results of Internal Consistency Reliability Test

Principle CR CA
I (Professional Values) 0.9370 0.9252
II (Knowledge & Understanding) 0.9702 0.9674
III (Skills of Learning & Teaching) 0.9682 0.9650

Indicator Reliability
Based on the analysis conducted, most of the indicators in the measurement model
exhibited loadings exceeding 0.700 which ranged from a lower bound of 0.7121 to an upper
bound of 0.8861. All indicators were significant at the level of 0.001. However, there were four
indicators in Principle II with values lower than 0.708 and were therefore, omitted from the
questionnaire. This resulted 46 out of 50 indicators demonstrated satisfactory indicator
reliability.

Convergent Validity
All the principles had AVE values exceeded the recommended threshold value of 0.5
(Table 3). These values indicated that the principles explained more than half of the variance
of its indicators (Hair et al. 2014). These values provided evidence that the study measurement
model had demonstrated an adequate convergent validity.

58
 Table 3 AVE Value for Each Principle
Principle AVE
I Professional Values 0.5984
II Knowledge & Understanding 0.6323
III Skills of Learning & Teaching 0.6428

Discriminant Validity
The discriminant validity of the measurement model is assessed by using two measures,
namely, the Fornell and Larcker’s (1981) criterion and cross loading.

Fornell-Larcker’s Criterion
The highlighted values in Table 4 represent the square roots of the AVE whereas the
non-highlighted values represent the inter-correlation values between principles. All the off-
diagonal values (non-highlighted) were lower than the square roots of AVE (highlighted on the
diagonal). The result confirmed that the ESEP framework met the Fornell and Larker’s criterion
in determining the discriminant validity of the measurement model.

Table 4 Results of Inter-correlation Matrix Test (based on Fornell Larcker’s Criterion)

Principle PI PII PIII
PI 0.754
PII 0.687 0.795
PIII 0.748 0.791 0.794
Note: Square roots of the AVE on the diagonal (highlighted)

Cross Loadings
Resultantly, all the measurement indicators for the study loaded higher against their
respective intended principle compared to other principles. The table also demonstrates that the
loading of each principle was higher than that of any other principle within the same row and
column. The cross-loading output confirmed that the second assessment of the measurement
model’s discriminant validity had been satisfied. The measurement model in this study was
found to have established its discriminant validity. Therefore, the tests conducted on the
measurement model confirmed that the measurement model for this study to be valid and

59
reliable. The ESEP practitioners’ competency framework was therefore found to be valid and
reliable with three principles and 46 indicators.
In overall, all the reliability and validity tests conducted on the measurement model had
satisfactory values. All the tests confirmed that the measurement model for this study that had
three principles and 46 competency indicators would be valid and reliable for MTUN ESEP
practitioners’ competency. In other words, the framework would be suitable to be used as a
guideline for the practitioners’ learning and teaching practices and for them to decide on
suitable professional development training in relation to their professionalism.

Conclusion
This study specifically caters to ESEP competencies of ESL practitioners teaching
English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) at Malaysian engineering and technical
(MTUN) universities. First, it was agreed by the experts that the three MTS principles were
useful in identifying the ESEP competency indicators i.e. values, knowledge and skills. The
three principles were considered as a complete guideline because they comprised all the
learning domains i.e. the psychomotor (skills), cognitive (knowledge and understanding) and
affective (values). The three principles were useful in categorising ESEP competency
indicators which were agreed by the experts and practitioners. As such, ESEP framework could
be adapted as a competency standard for ESEP practitioners because it took into
considerations’ the view of the individuals who were affected by the standard. The three
principles became the structure in ESEP framework to comprehensively cover all the agreed
competencies for MTUN ESEP practitioners.

Pedagogical Implications
While there is abundance of research for evaluation of programmes and curricular, the ESL
practitioners’ perceptions do not seem to get sufficient attention in the literature. Their view
has become crucial with the increased priority of professional skills and work integrated
curricula in the fields. As such, knowing the voice of practitioners might help to better
understand issues and challenges at HE. This would subsequently help to increase the
practitioners’ teaching quality for a more effectual impact on the engineering learners’ learning
of the language and communication skills.
Moreover, this study is a continuous effort in informing ESEP practitioners, engineering
educators, and those interested in quality HE teaching on the distinctive qualities of
interdisciplinary courses and how it has expanded in light of changing demand from learners,
60
changes in how well students were prepared for HE and the requirements of external
stakeholders. Not to mention, looking at today’s education trend, an efficient interdisciplinary
between English language and engineering could increase practitioners’ productivity hence,
cost effective to institutions.
The findings from this study is not entirely generalizable; however, they provide insights
to the critical issues in ELT at specific fields like the technical and engineering contexts.
Notably, the practitioners’ perspectives and active involvement in the engineering academic
and workplace preparation are as equal important as other subject specialists specifically in
improving ESL learners’ English and communicative skills. It is hoped that such recognition
can positively affect the practitioners’ overall work satisfaction and motivation. Hence, it is
important to ensure exchange and sharing of ideas and practices among all stakeholders
particularly the ESEP practitioners to meet the demands of engineering workforce in the era of
global mobility.

Acknowledgement
This study is funded by the Fundamental Grant Scheme (FRGS), Department of Higher
Education, Ministry of Education Malaysia, (RDU160110).

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 23 Issue No. 6.3 November 2019

Development of Mobile Learning Framework for ESAP for Technical and Engineering
Context

Azwin Arif Abdul Rahim

Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Pekan, Malaysia
[email protected]

Bio- Profile:
Azwin Arif is currently a senior lecturer at the Department of English Language, Universiti
Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia. He has 19 years of experience teaching English in tertiary
education in both business, management and engineering fields. He has B.Ed. TESL, M.Ed.
TESL (Instructional Design) and PhD. in TESL (Mobile Learning) and currently holding a
challenging profession as an academic, ESP practitioner and a researcher in the field of ESL,
education, as well as technology and innovation with one of the prominent technical
universities in Malaysia.

Abstract
With the upsurge of information and communication technology in 4.0 education, an
innovative revolutionary approach towards learning is identified through mobile. As such, a
credible mobile learning framework for the context of this study is deemed necessary. This is
due to the grey area identified in the present related literature for mobile language learning in
terms of specific framework for ESAP. Using Community of Practice theory, this study aims
to develop a workable mobile learning framework for ESAP in technical and engineering
context termed as MeLESAP. The development of the framework adapted type two design and
development research method in three phases: Framework Design, Framework Development
and Framework Evaluation. The first phase was a review of related literature in which seven
constructs and 180 indicators for MeLESAP framework were identified. The seven constructs
were also hypotheses formed based on the developed constructs. The second phase was the
confirmation of the identified constructs and indicators using Fuzzy Delphi Method (FDM)
with 11 experts from respective fields. Using FDM and in the later part filtered by Rasch
measurement analysis, the indicators were refined to 133 and then confirmed at 89 respectively.

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Finally, an online survey was conducted in the third phase and the data were gathered from 52
ESAP MTUN practitioners via google docs. The phase finalised 67 indicators of seven
constructs for MeLESAP framework based on partial least squares structural equation
modelling (PLS-SEM) analysis. The measurement model from the PLS-SEM analyses using
SmartPLS software version 3.0 verified the validity and reliability of MeLESAP framework.
This signified the workability of the framework in developing an effectual mobile application
for teaching and learning of ESAP at the targeted context. Resultantly, the findings confirmed
that MeLESAP framework embodies the right constructs for ESAP learning via mobile.
Interestingly, the hypotheses testing on the seven constructs revealed ‘Evaluation/Assessment
and Feedback’ construct as the only one that has positive orientation towards MeLESAP
framework. This implicated a weak support on specific framework for a specific discipline or
context, despite the various evidences from the identified literature. This apparently confirms
the unavailability of explicit framework to cater for such condition; the broad-spectrum
approaches sustained by the present mobile learning frameworks seemingly sufficient to be the
basis in developing mobile learning application. Such contrast which is against the evidences
identified particularly in relation to ESAP literature calls for a more thorough and expansive
investigations and involvement from technical, engineering and ESL curriculum developers of
other fields to further ascertain hence, contribute to a more robust and valid mobile language
learning model and implementation.

Keywords: Mobile learning; ESAP; framework, design and development research; technical
and engineering

Introduction
The fourth Industrial Revolution (4.0IR) has been envisaged to fundamentally premise 21st-
century world to revolve around connecting and communicating, resulting in major changes to
labour markets. Central to this notion is the 4C’s which refer to communication, collaboration,
critical and creative thinking. Inadvertently, 4IR has heightened the importance of
communicative ability in English, along with the other 3C’s. The continuous needs for the
ability are pertinent for Malaysian graduates in becoming skilled workers because highly
skilled workers promise the nation with high income. Specifically, the quest for highly skilled
manpower in engineering and technical context would pronounce a greater need for effective
language and communication skills. In a macro view of language learning, English for Specific
Academic Purposes (ESAP) approach serves this notion entirely.

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 On the other hand, with the upsurge of information and communication technology in
education, an innovative and interesting revolutionary approach towards learning is identified
through mobile. The advancement of technology in education field specifically mobile learning
has given a promising paradigm to language learning and teaching. Mobile learning encourages
learners and educators to move from ‘in-class’ to ‘connected’ and from E-Learning to a more
flexible and personalised learning. The shift has led many investigations in developing relevant
mobile learning frameworks to optimise English language learning and teaching.
However, a literal examination of existing frameworks has revealed a gap in the required
constructs and indicators for a sound pedagogical framework of ESAP learning in an ESL
context of technical and engineering. It has been identified that due to the specifity and
contextual dependent of ESAP approach, there is yet clear evidence on the attempt to develop
a specific framework for a specific field like in this case, ESAP for engineering and technical
context. This study therefore deals with the design and development of ESAP mobile learning
framework for technical and engineering contexts to optimise a meaningful language learning
among ESL engineering learners at Malaysian Technical Universities (MTUN).

Literature Review
Situated Learning Theory in Community of Practice (COP)
Lave and Wenger (1991) argue that communities of practice are formed by people who
engage in a process of collective learning in a shared domain of human pursuit. Communities
of practice are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and
learn how to do it better as they interact regularly (Wenger 2010). Members are brought
together by joining in common activities and by what they have learned through their mutual
engagement in these activities (Wenger 1998). Learning is, therefore, “not seen as the
acquisition of knowledge by individuals as much as a process of ‘social participation” (Wenger
1998: 45). The individuals are known as ‘practitioners’ who develop the practices (including
values, norms and relationships) and identities appropriate to that community.
This study adapts the situated learning theory was introduced by Lave and Wenger (1991).
The learning theory posits that learning involves a process of social participation rather than
knowledge acquisition by individual learners. The theory also regards that the situation in
which the learning takes place is a crucial element that impacts the process of learning
(Naismith, Lonsdale, Vavoula, & Sharples, 2004). In other words, the situated learning theory
claims learning process to exist when learners are involved in interaction with members and
participate in shared activities in a community.

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 The situated learning theory is used in this study because the theory emphasises on learning
situation during the learning process. Naismith et al. (2004) indicate that situated learning
requires knowledge to be presented in authentic contexts and learners participate within a
community of practice. Therefore, the community of practice three crucial elements are adapted
in this study to structure the development of the framework as well as to emphasis the learning
process that occurs in the context. The three elements are ‘Domain’, ‘Community’ and
‘Practice’. Each of the elements is represented by several constructs and indicators which are
associated with the variables of the study i.e. ESAP and mobile language learning.

The Teaching and Learning of English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP)
One of the essences of this study is the approach of English for Specific Academic (ESAP)
which derives from the English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Specific
Purposes (ESP). ESAP emphasises on “higher order skills, learners’ development and authentic
texts and features while working within specific epistemological traditions associated with
different disciplines” (Carkin, 2005: 85). The learning of academic language through academic
tasks, texts and content accords ESAP a highly pragmatic approach (Hyland & Hamp-Lyons,
2002; Gilquin, Granger, & Paquot, 2007) of learning the language. EAP/ESAP entails needs
analysis, evaluation, academic skills, disciplinary content and tasks in support of learners
learning in HE contexts (Belcher, 2004; Carkin, 2005; Hyland, 2007). Inasmuch, ESAP
approach emphasises the aspect of field specificity (Basturkmen, 2012) that lies in the view
that each professional and academic discourse has a variety of specific literacies (Hyland,
2007).
The particularity of ESAP approach requires specific attention on its teaching based on
relevant SLA theories and in preparing specific materials that match that particular teaching
and learning context. The linguistic variation in ESAP is as a result of “increased recognition
of new literacies complexities, multiplying number of modular degrees and interdisciplinary
courses and rising demand for specific communicative abilities of a particular profession”
(Hyland, 2007: 400). The variations in professional discourses, which are espoused by text
analysis researches, existed in terms of contents, topics and vocabularies. The variations also
differ in the way it relates to learners’ schemata. The difference refers to the extent of shared
context between participants i.e. knowledge of prior texts in making meanings to what is
appropriate to the targeted field.
Numerous studies conducted in engineering contexts have highlighted the importance of
communication skills and the effects on academic and workplace preparation. Abroad, the
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emphasis of OBE in ABET requirements compel engineers’ effective communication skills,
apart from the technical ones (Kaewpet, 2009; Blackmore Compston, Kane, Quinn, & Cropley,
2010; Aditya & Olds, 2011; Felder, Brent & Prince, 2011; Kaewpet, 2011). In Malaysian
contexts, ample local studies have indicated a clear necessity of effective English
communication skills for practicing engineers. Studies by Nordin (2013); and Mohammed,
Mohd Radzuan, Kassim, and Azmat Ali (2014) are some of the specific investigations in the
field of academic and professional engineering. These studies underscore the importance of
English communication skills particularly in engineering HE academic contexts.
Predictably, ESL learners who experienced difficulty with the language considered learning
in engineering programmes as burdensome and uninteresting. Learners’ mastery of factual
knowledge is hampered by their lack of academic language skills of the content (Ramiah,
2008). The learners’ needs in terms of language and literacy should be highlighted.
Subsequently, the highlight on learners’ meaningful learning has signalled the need for
EAP/ESAP and content discipline integration as one of the ways in helping the ESL
engineering learners to improve their academic language and communication skills in coping
with engineering content. Indirectly, this has led to significant need of flexible learning of
EAP/ESAP both inside and outside classroom context in making the learning more meaningful.
Hence, by contemplating the challenges and in lieu with specific needs of engineering learners
in learning the language (Kaewpet, 2009), the tenet of the study focuses on enhancing the
teaching and learning of EAP/ESAP through the integration of mobile so that it increases the
teaching quality for a more effectual learners’ learning of the language and communication
skills.

Mobile Learning Frameworks

Peters (2007) perceives mobile learning as a constructive part of the flexible learning model.
Brown (2003) summarized several definitions and terms and identified mobile learning as “an
extension of E-learning” (p. 299). Peters (2007) also states that it is a subset of E-learning, a
step toward making the educational process “just in time, just enough and just for me” (p. 15).
Pea and Maldonado (2006) affirm m-learning as “transformative innovations for learning
futures” (p. 437). Mellow (2005) considers mobile learning as a subset of e-learning and mobile
learning can employ variations of learning strategies in delivering learning. It also aims to
enhance the learning experience seamlessly and not just rely on the use of E-learning (wired)
as a key medium to learning. Additionally, mobile learning is perceived as a great method that
connects learners to learn especially to learners who have difficulties to stay focus in class and
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even attend classes. This is to emphasise that mobile learning is not about the use of variety of
portable devices, it is about learning across contexts (Walker 2006). With mobile learning,
learners are able to access language learning materials and to communicate in their community
i.e. their practitioners and peers at anytime, anywhere.
The emphasis on contexts is also imbedded in the underlying theory that is made as basis
for the development of mobile learning entity of this ESAP mobile learning framework.
Nevertheless, it is important to note that the theories were not tested in this study. Sharples,
Taylor and Vavoula’s (2010) theory on the other hand, was considered as the main mobile
learning theory without undermining other mobile learning theories that were considered in
identifying constructs and indicators for the frameworks in this study.

Mobile Learning and ESL Learning

In language learning, mobile learning is used interchangeably with Mobile-Assisted
Language Learning (MALL). Mobile learning or MALL has several studies that examined the
use of mobile devices in formal and informal settings of language learning (Burston, 2013).
Stockwell and Hubbard (2013) describe MALL, which is mediated via handheld devices
available for use potentially anytime, anywhere, as a subset of both Mobile Learning (m-
learning) and Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) (Fig. 1).

CALL
Mobile Learning

MALL

Fig. 1 The relationship of computer-assisted language learning (CALL), mobile-assisted

language learning (MALL), and mobile learning (ML)
The shaded area represents the overlap (Stockwell & Hubbard, 2013).

In Figure 1, though MALL has its own features (drawn to have its own ‘circle), the
commonality of MALL, CALL and ML is the best way to understand MALL. In other words,
the shaded describes MALL as it “has so much in common with CALL” (p.5).

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 Hence, as this study focuses on developing a flexible ICT integrated language learning
framework that not solely focuses on language, mobile learning has a better fit. Utmost, ESAP
mobile learning framework has to be adaptable to its technical and engineering context
requirements along with the learning of the language. For that, several existing ML, MALL
and CALL related frameworks and models are brought in for reviews as a basis for the study
to kick-start Phase I. The aim is to identify the prevalent constructs that are available in the
referred frameworks and models. The referred frameworks and models and its prevalent
constructs are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 The Present e-Learning and Mobile Frameworks and Models Prevalent Constructs
Present Frameworks/Models Prevalent Constructs

• Sharples’ (2000) ML Framework: - Generic Mobile - Learning Experience

- Framework for ML Design Environment Design (Goals and Objectives)

Requirements (Parsons Ryu, - ML Context ML Theories

& Cranshaw, 2007)

- ML Framework for Lifelong

Learning (Mohd Nordin Embi,
& Md Yunus, 2010)

• ML Framework (Mostakhdemin- - Education Component - Concept Development

Hosseini & Tuimala, 2005) (Context) (Design)

- Device/ Network - Prototyping
Capabilities (Evaluation)
• FRAME Model (Koole & Ally, - Device Usability - Context Learning
2006) - Learner Aspect - Social Technology
- Social Aspect - ML Interaction

• ML Framework (Liaw, Hatala & - Tool/Device - Learning Context

Huang, 2010) - Subject (Learners) - Technology

- Learning Control - Object

• Khan’s (2003) Global E-Learning - Institutional (Context) - Management

Framework - Pedagogical (Instructor) - Evaluation

- Technological - Resource Support
- Ethical
- Interface Design

• Palalas’ (2012) MELLES - Language (Content) - Context

- Artefact (mobile tools) - Individual (learner)

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 - Technology

From the reviews, it was identified that there were a number of prevalent or commonly
used constructs from the existing frameworks and models, as highlighted in the table. The
constructs like ‘Learner’, ‘Content’, ‘Learning Design’, ‘Technology’, and ‘Evaluation’ are
commonly found in the frameworks and models reviewed, hence were applied in the proposed
framework of the study.

Descriptions of Methodology
Research Design
Aligned with the central aims of this study, the development of the framework adapted
Richey and Klein’s (2005) type two design and development research method in three phases.
The first phase identified the constructs and indicators for the framework, and formulated
hypotheses for testing. The second phase was the confirmation of the constructs and indicators
using Fuzzy Delphi Method with experts, and Rasch measurement analysis for refinement.
Finally, 52 practitioners finalised MeLESAP framework using partial least squares structural
equation modelling (PLS-SEM) analysis.

Instrumentation
The instruments designed and developed in this study are questionnaires namely ESAP
Mobile Learning questionnaire for the experts and another one for the MTUN ESL
practitioners. The questionnaire for the experts was designed in the first phase and its findings
were used to develop the later questionnaire (for the practitioners) in the second phase. Also,
several procedures to ensure the validity and reliability of the instruments were conducted
including the experts’ reviews, pilot studies, and Rasch Measurement Analysis to refine the
collected data (Abdul Rahim, Embi, Hussin, Mohd Nordin, Khamis, & Din 2018).).

Respondents
There were two groups of sample sizes used in this study. The first involved a group of
11 experts in ESAP and mobile learning fields. The experts’ responses were gathered during
the FDM technique to obtain the second objectives of the study. The second group comprised
101 MTUN ESL practitioners. The practitioners’ responses were used to verify the findings of
the earlier phases.

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Data Analyses
The analysis procedures are divided according to the two methods used in this study i.e.
Fuzzy Delphi method (FDM) and PLS-SEM analysis on the data gathered from the online
survey via google docs.

Findings and Discussion

Phase 1 Framework Design
In this phase, seven constructs and 180 indicators were identified as the required
MeLESAP framework constructs based on the present studies on ESAP, mobile learning and
e-learning. The constructs and indicators were identified as Learner (LEA), Content (CON),
Learning Design (LED), Learning Space (LES), Practitioner (PRA), Technology (TEC) and
Evaluation/Assessment and Feedback (EAF). The seven identified constructs represented the
three elements of CoP theory (Table 2).

Table 2 The Identified Constructs and Indicators of Phase 1

COP Elements Construct No. of Indicator

Learner (LEA) 26
Community
Practitioner (PRA) 22

Content (CON) 18

Practice Learning Design (LED) 26

Evaluation/ Assessment & Feedback (EAF) 23

Learning Space (LES) 25

Domain
Technology (TEC) 40

180

The findings also led to the formation of seven research hypotheses for the study based
on the seven constructs for the framework. The seven were used to form seven hypotheses of
the study presented as follows.

H1 Learner orientation is positively related to MeLESAP framework

H2 Content orientation is positively related to MeLESAP framework
H3 Learning Space is positively related to MeLESAP framework
H4 Learning Design is positively related to MeLESAP framework

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 H5 Practitioner is positively related to MeLESAP framework
H6 Technology is positively related to MeLESAP framework
H7 Evaluation/Assessment & Feedback is positively related to MeLESAP framework

Phase 2 Framework Development

Using FDM, the seven constructs and 180 indicators were analysed based on the 11
experts’ agreement. This phase had 47 indicators rejected. There were 133 indicators accepted
and three more indicators, under a new construct ‘Usability’ were recommended by the experts.
The summary of the 11 experts’ agreement towards the seven constructs with inclusion of
‘Usability’ construct as proposed during the FDM, as well as the indicators were summarised
in Table 3.

Table 3 Summary of the Experts’ Agreement on MeLESAP Framework Constructs and

Indicators at Phase 2
Before After FDM
Construct
FDM Rejected Accepted

1. Learner 26 14 12

2. Content 18 7 11

3. Learning Design 26 4 22

4. Learning Space 25 4 21

5. Practitioner 22 7 15

6. Technology 40 10 30

7. Evaluation/Assessment & Feedback 23 1 22

Total 180 47 133

8. Usability (suggested by the experts) - - (+3)

Total Number of Indicators 136

Based on the findings, a questionnaire was formed for MTUN Practitioners. This was to
gather the ESL practitioners’ responses. Prior to actual field work, the 136 indicators were
piloted and later ‘refined’ by Rasch measurement approach analysis. The Refinement of
constructs and indicators was based on Rasch standard indexes as well as the required
conditions to achieve the validity and reliability for the questionnaire. The decision to omit and

75
retain some of the indicators were referred to the experts and conducted with careful
considerations. As a result, 44 of 136 indicators were deleted from the list.

Phase III Framework Evaluation

Anderson and Gerbing (1988) recommended a two-step approach in discussing PLS-
SEM analysis; measurement model and structural model of MeLESAP framework.

Measurement Model Assessment

The validity and reliability of the measurement model for MeLESAP framework were
ascertained through a number of required tests on its convergent validity and discriminant
validity. The convergent validity of MeLESAP framework had six indicators deleted due to
weak loadings which were lesser 0.5. The remaining 86 indicators had loading values greater
than 0.5, ranging from a lower bound of 0.502 to an upper bound of 0.919. The CR of each
construct ranged from 0.897 to 0.964 which was above the threshold value of 0.7 to suggest
high satisfactory internal consistency reliability. The AVE of each construct ranged from
0.5265 to 0.7522 validated the convergent validity of the study’s measurement model as
adequate and acceptable (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006; Henseler, Ringle, &
Sinkovics, 2009; Hair Anderson, Babin, & Black, 2010).
The discriminant validity had three tests i.e. Fornell and Larcker’s (1981) criterion, cross
loading, and Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT). The Fornell and Larker’s criterion was met
when all MeLESAP framework off-diagonal constructs were lower than square roots of AVE.
The second assessment of discriminant validity found 16 indicators with lower loadings against
their respective intended latent variable compared to other variables, hence were deleted. The
remaining 70 indicators satisfied the measurement model’s discriminant validity based on their
higher output of cross loading between constructs and indicators that clearly separated each
latent variable as theorised in the conceptual model. Finally, the third of discriminant validity,
the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) values for the seven constructs and 70 indicators did
not exceed 0.9. This indicated that the HTMT criteria have been accomplished hence
established the discriminant validity of the measurement model. To sum, after 22 of 92
indicators deleted, the reliability and validity of the study measurement model were established
as valid and fit to be used to estimate parameters in the structural model.

76
Structural Model Assessment
MeLESAP framework structural model criteria were gathered in terms of its Variance
Inflation Factor (VIF), R2, beta (β), the corresponding t-values via a bootstrapping procedure
with a resample of 5,000 and other basic measures namely analyses on the predictive relevance
(Q2), the effect sizes (f2), and path coefficients and hypothesis testing. The first checked was
on the issue of multicollinearity. Since the gathered VIF indicated a range of 1.794 and 4.351
which was lower than the offending value of 5 (Diamantopoulos & Siguaw, 2006), hence
suggesting that there was no issue with multicollinearity in the study.
The second was on the R2 value in which the framework was able to explain 51.7% (R2 =
0.517) of the variance for MeLESAP framework at the moderate level. Then, looking at the Q2
values (=0.316), the structural model of the study was proven to have high predictive relevance.
In terms of the hypotheses testing, hypothesis seven (H7) was identified with effect size greater
than 0.02 and fallen under small effect size. This led to the support of H7 on
Evaluation/Assessment and Feedback construct, which was directly reflected on MeLESAP
framework, in contrast to other hypotheses i.e. H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, and H6. In other words,
Learner, Content, Learning Design, Learning Space, Practitioner and Technology constructs
were not directly reflected on MeLESAP framework. Therefore, MeLESAP framework was
finalised with eight constructs and 70 indicators through PLS-SEM measurement and structural
model analyses.

Conclusion and Implications

The findings of this study provide empirical evidence for ESAP learners of technical and
engineering context in learning language via mobile. MeLESAP framework framed the key
indicators for practitioner to consider when designing or creating mobile learning environment
to facilitate their teaching and learning. The eight constructs and 70 indicators that embodies
MeLESAP framework substantiated the adaptation of the three elements of Community of
Practice theory (COP) as one of the main theories of the study. The three elements i.e. Domain,
Practice and Community were used to align the design and development of MeLESAP with
the impression that the role and application of mobile learning practice in any educational
system, in this case technical and engineering domain must incorporate stakeholders or
community’s requirement. It is important to note that the absence of frameworks or models
could question on whether the studies on mobile learning were merely conducted to replace the
traditional method with a more modern one.

77
 Utmost, considering the purpose of this study was to develop a context-specific framework
in solving the stated problems of the study, the experts’ jurisdiction was vital to further mould
the developed MeLESAP framework. The local experts in the fields of e-learning and mobile
learning, English language as medium of instruction and being technologist in their learning
and teaching helped to custom made MeLESAP. Their insights were aligned with the recent
literature but more importantly it was spiced up with local flavour. This in it by itself was
alongside the strengths of FDM which was a method used to forecast the future design and
trend of mobile language learning.
Interestingly, the positive correlation of ‘Evaluation/Assessment and Feedback’ construct
on MeLESAP framework was a distinctive case. Considering the issues on validity and
reliability of evaluation or assessment to be conducted away from the classroom setting, this
positive correlation presented a fresh perspective from the practitioners. The predictable
perspective has always been the issue by the practitioners as it the yardstick evaluate the
outcome of their teaching and learning. It is believed that practitioners are in constant
evaluation of their teaching and learning as well as relevancy of their materials.
To sum, MELESAP framework promises potentially effective perimeters for mobile
learning practitioners to implement especially in the field of ESAP. The adherence of the
framework’s nature and constructs to the idea bandied about in the 4IR points to the relevance
and potential effectiveness of the framework in real-life usage. As such the framework should
be given a shout in considering an effective perimeter to guide teaching and learning in an
ESAP mobile environment.

Acknowledgement
This study is funded by Universiti Malaysia Pahang RDU1603140.

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 23 Issue No. 6.3 November 2019

The Effectiveness of Contextual-Based Academic Writing Learning Model

Afif Rofii
Universitas Batanghari Jambi/Universitas Negeri Jakarta
Jakarta, Indonesia
[email protected]

Fathiaty Murtadho
Department of Applied Linguistics, Postgraduate of Universitas Negeri Jakarta
Jakarta, Indonesia
Email: [email protected]

Aceng Rahmat
Department of Applied Linguistics, Postgraduate of Universitas Negeri Jakarta
Jakarta, Indonesia
Email: [email protected]

Bio-Profiles:
Afif Rofii has been a lecturer at Faculty Teaching and Education University of Jambi
Batanghari for over eight years and delivers Evaluation of Language Learning, Speaking Skill,
and Morphology courses. He is currently a postgraduate student at Universitas Negeri Jakarta.
His research interests in language teaching and learning.

Dr. Fathiaty Murtadho, M.Pd. is a lecturer of Language and Art Faculty, Jakarta State
University. Language teaching is her expertise. She teaches Rhetoric, Speaking, Writing, and
Research Methodology courses.

Prof. Dr. Aceng Rahmat, M.Pd. is a senior lecturer of Language and Art Faculty, Jakarta
State University. He majors in language teaching. Philosophy of Language, Research Area and
Research Methodology of Language are among subjects he delivered.

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Abstract
Students are challenged by a number of issues in learning academic writing in higher
education. This academic writing skill is essential for students to master. Therefore, developing
a learning model needs to be carried out to cope with these problems. This study aims to
examine the effectiveness of the hypothetical learning model of contextual-based academic
writing developed. It applies a pretest-posttest group. The test was carried out to 31 students
at 3rd semester, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Batanghari Jambi University. The
experimental class was selected using purposive sampling technique. This experimental class
is taught the prototype of learning model developed. A pretest of writing a research proposal
was administered before the learning process took place, followed by treating with the
prototype of the model developed. After that, a posttest of rewriting a research proposal. The
pretest and posttest scores were then analyzed using t-test statistical formula. Based on the
Wilcoxon non-parametric analysis result, it is found that the significance value is 0.000. The
significance value 0.000 < 0.05 means Ho is rejected and Ha is accepted. Therefore, there is a
significant difference in the value of students before and after implementing the prototype of
the developed model. In other words, the prototype of the model is significantly effective in
improving students’ skills in writing research proposals on writing skills courses.

Keywords—effectiveness, academic writing learning model, contextual teaching learning

(CTL)

Introduction
Academic writing is among the requirements students should pass at university. Rofii
et al. (2018) said “University is required to make a scientific work, either produced by the
lecturers or the students. This scientific work is developed through academic writing
activities.” Writing is one of the important and challenging academic skills the students need
to acquire at university (Mubarak, 2017; Bian and Wang, 2016; Ghufron et al., 2016; Oktarina,
Emzir, & Rafli, 2018; Hajan et al., 2019; and Saputro, 2017). Similarly, Şenel (2018), Lee
(2019), and Nugroho (2017) suggested that writing is the most challenging task and the most
difficult language skill. Writing, as a language skill, plays a central part in communicating
ideas, feelings, beliefs, and attitudes (Batalla & Vera, 2019). Yundayani, et al. (2018, p. 2) view
academic writing skill as language skill performance in delivering messages, ideas or feelings
understandable to readers. Academic writing is a competency everyone should have especially

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for those who are involved in the education field. Academic writing skill is a must for students
to master as it is an integrated part of the scientific activities (Åberg, Ståhle, Engdahl, &
Knutes-Nyqvist, 2016, p. 33).
Academic writing skill is required and is advantageous to students. In fact, many
students are having difficulty to produce good writing output as evident in the thesis they made.
Dalem (2017), Mubarak (2017), and Muhammad & Nair (2017) stated that most students are
having difficulty in organizing an understandable and coherent paragraph and most likely to be
making grammar errors and fragment mistakes. Khuzaemah & Herawati (2017), Hamouda
(2018), Nurhadi (2004), Ángel & Garcia, (2017), Hsiao (2019) also said that most students
consider writing as a challenging skill. It has been experienced by students at elementary and
secondary schools as well as students at university.
In the teaching of academic writing context, alternative and varied models of teaching
are required. Joyce et al. (2009) suggested that a learning model should consist of six
components namely: syntax, the social system, principles of reaction, support system,
instructional effects, and accompanying effect.
The preliminary research conducted at Indonesian Language and Literature Education
Department at Universitas Batanghari Jambi shows that there were some issues related to
model of teaching implemented in the academic writing course. First, the sequence of teaching
was not implemented optimally. Subekti (2014) argued that overlapped learning steps and
materials repetition in the process of teaching, result in undesirable impact, for example, low
motivation, the boredom of students, and ineffective instruction. Second, the social system is
related to the tendency of a lecturer to apply a particular method of teaching inflexibly. It
excluded the elements of innovation or creativity in the learning process. The teaching,
focusing only on the theory writing, will result in passive and uncreative students though they
know various techniques of writing (Hasani, 2016, p. 1575). Third, the principle of reaction is
involved in the way of teaching. The domination of lecturer in learning process prompts the
students to be passive during the learning. Mulbar (2013, p. 442) stated that students,
accustomed to receiving knowledge passively and teachers’ domination in learning are no more
relevant to the current teaching-learning needs. Fourth, the problem of support system related
to the process of teaching was carried out only based on teaching planning (RPS) developed
by the lecturers without any support by certain strategies approaches. In addition, the textbook
presented were outdated. Harsono (2007, p. 197) mentioned that there will not be a perfect
teaching material. It declines the students’ motivation to practice writing. Şenel (2018, p. 118)
stated that motivated students and teachers make the writing class more fun; academic
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performance will increase and the negative factors such as anxiety, fear of failing, or unwilling
to write can be prevented.
The findings of the study confirm that the major problem in the teaching of writing is
laid in the learning model used. Abidin, Mulyati, & Yunansyah (2017) also suggested that one
of the reasons in students’ low performance in writing is the unsuitable learning model
implemented. This issue requires a serious treatment from various parties (Khuzaemah &
Herawati, 2017, p. 149). Furthermore, Satriani et al. (2012, p. 11) argued that the lecturers
should find a creative strategy to improve students’ interest to practice writing.
Considering the issues discussed in the previous section and attempting to develop
innovative learning activities, a design of an academic writing learning model has been
developed that meets the students’ needs. The learning model of writing scientific paper must
encourage students to develop their literacy skill supported by critical and creative thinking
skills, as well as the ability to solve problems (Sholeh, 2014, p. 278). Subekti (2014, p. 1080)
further said that developing a meaningful teaching model to support the teaching and learning
processes is an essential part of the teaching plan recommended for teachers/lecturers. This
work aims to improve the students’ competence in academic writing and is expected to refer to
the models accommodating the students to learn actively and with fun so that they can achieve
optimum learning outcomes (Darmuki, Andayani, Nurkamto, & Saddhono, 2018, p. 118).
Nario et. al. (2019) argued that the use of contextualization and authentic task learning model
is recommended to implement to promote the success of students in learning.
The designed learning model is named contextual-based academic writing learning
model. This model modifies the writing procedures proposed by Akhadiah et al. (1996, p. 3).
The modified procedures are: 1) determining topic, 2) determining purpose, 3) determining
target, 4) collecting supported information, 5) organizing idea into draft, 6) organizing
paragraphs and sentences, 7) selecting words, 8) revising; with seven CTL components,
namely: a) constructivism, b) inquiry, c) questioning, d) learning community, e) modeling, f)
reflection and g) authentic assessment. Aji and Budiyono (2018, p. 60) suggested that
contextual teaching and learning is a learning concept that helps teachers connect learning
materials to students’ real world and encourages students to connect their knowledge to their
daily life.
Researches on the development of academic writing learning models have been carried
out by several researchers. Rustan (2016) developed learning activities in eleven steps, namely:
conditioning, orientation, ideation, incubation, inspiration, synthesis, drafting, responding,
revising, editing, and publication. Muslimin (2012, p. 239) developed a model of teaching
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writing following seven steps of learning activities, namely: orienting the problem; organizing
the study; helping students to solve problems; developing and presenting the results of problem
solving; and analyzing and evaluating the process. other research conducted by Akbar (2016)
resulted in six steps: context and text orientation; understanding text; modeling and
deconstructing; controlled writing, writing in the group, and writing individually.
The learning model developed has to be analyzed for its feasibility and effectiveness.
The purpose of this research is to analyze the level of effectiveness of the model: a contextual-
based academic writing learning model.

Method
This paper is part of research and development applying a combined approach
(qualitative and quantitative). It aims to investigate the level of effectiveness of the hypothetical
model developed, a contextual-based academic writing learning model. The test of writing was
used as an instrument. The test aims to measure the effect of the model in the actual writing
class. It used a pretest-posttest group design. This test was carried out to measure the
improvement of students’ scores before and after implementing the model developed in the
sample class. It was supported by Khasanah & Astuti (2018) who suggested that the quasi-
experiment with one group design pretest-posttest design is used for limited scale trial. The test
was administered to the 31 students of class IIIA. The class was selected using purposive
sampling technique.
The trial was conducted following some steps. The experimental class was taught using
the learning model of contextual-based academic writing. A pretest of writing research
proposal was administered to students before the class begins. The class, then, was treated by
the developed learning model. Upon completing the treatment, the students were asked to write
a new research proposal. (post-test). The pretest and posttest were analyzed by t-test statistics
analysis.

Results and discussion

The students’ pretest and posttest scores on academic writing skill on the topic writing
research proposal are explained as follow.
Table 1. The Students’ Scores on Academic Writing Skill

Statistics Pretest Posttest

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 Number of Sample 31
Mean 68.7 75.37
Min. 65.67 73
Max. 73.3 81.3

Table 1 presents the scores of the pretest and posttest of the 31 samples. The mean
scores are 68.7 for pretest and 75.37 for the posttest. The data show an increase of 6.67 points.
65.67 and 73 are minimum scores for pretest and the posttest respectively which means 7.33
points increasing. In addition, the maximum score of the pretest is 73.3 and the posttest is 81.3
with 8 points increasing. The results showed that there is an improvement in academic writing
performance after trying out the treatment.
The pretest and posttest scores, then, were compared using the t-test. A paired samples t-
test is a parametric analysis requiring the data to be homogenous and normally distributed. If
the prerequisites are not fulfilled then nonparametric should be used, Wilcoxon. The analysis
was explained below.
1) Paired samples t-test
a) Normality test
Normality was tested using the Kolmogorov Smirnov test. The data is normally distributed
if the value of significance is > 0.05 and not normally distributed when it is < 0.05. The results
of the test using software SPSS version 22 are as follow.
Table 2. Results of Normality Test
One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
Pretest Posttest
N 31 31
Normal Parametersa,b Mean 68.6882 75,.3763
Std.
1,91279 2.01796
Deviation
Most Extreme Absolute .117 .114
Differences Positive .117 .114
Negative -.104 -.090
Test Statistic .117 .114
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .200c,d .200c,d

87
 a. Test distribution is Normal.
b. Calculated from data.
c. Lilliefors Significance Correction.
d. This is a lower bound of the true significance.

The results show that the value of significance of pretest is 0.200 > 0.05 and posttest is
0.200 > 0.05. It is concluded that the pretest and posttest data were normally distributed.
b) Homogeneity test
Homogeneity of Variance Test was used to analyze the homogeneity of the data with
conditions the data were homogenous if the value of significance is > 0.05 and not homogenous
if the value is < 0.05. The test used software SPSS version 22 with the following result.
Table 3. Homogeneity Test Results
Test of Homogeneity of Variances
Posttest score
Levene
Statistic df1 df2 Sig.
3,946 7 15 ,012

The homogeneity test presented in Table 3 above showed that the significance value was
0.012 < 0.05. Therefore, it was concluded that posttest scores based on the pretest data were
not homogeneous.
2) Quantitative Analysis
The results of assumption testing for paired samples t-test showed that the posttest data
were not homogenous which means it does not meet the condition. Therefore, the analysis
quantitative used nonparametric with the following steps:
a. Formulating hypothesis
Ho: there is no significant difference between the scores before and after applying the
prototype of the contextual-based academic writing learning model.
Ha: there is a significant difference between the scores before and after applying the
prototype of the contextual-based academic writing learning model
b. Level of significance 5%
c. Criteria for testing
If the value of significance > 0.05, Ho is accepted

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 If the value of significance < 0.05, Ho is rejected and Ha is accepted
d. Wilcoxon Testing with the SPSS 22 software as the following.
Table 4. Descriptive Statistics of Wilcoxon Testing
Descriptive Statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum
Pretest score 31 68,6882 1,91279 65,67 72,33
Posttest score 31 75,3763 2,01796 72,67 81,33

The data in table 4 shows that the mean, minimum, and maximum scores of pretest are
68.68, 65.67, and 72.33 respectively with 1.91 standard deviation. The lower score of the
standard deviation compared to the mean score means that the pretest scores of the students are
relatively equal. In addition, 75.37, 72.67, 81.33 and 2.01 are respectively for mean, minimum,
maximum, and standard deviation of the posttest score. The value of standard deviation is lower
than the mean score which means that the student posttest scores are relatively equal.
Table 5. Statistic of Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
Ranks
N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
Posttest – Pretest scores Negative
0a ,00 ,00
Ranks
Positive Ranks 31b 16,00 496,00
Ties 0c
Total 31
a. Posttest score < Pretest score
b. Posttest score > Pretest score
c. Posttest score = Pretest score

Table 5 presents that there are no differences between pretest and posttest in negative
value meaning that all data are positive. Furthermore, the mean rank for positive rank is 16 and
the sum of positive ranking is 496.

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 Table 6. Wilcoxon statistics
Test Statisticsa
Posttest –
Pretest scores
Z -4,862b
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) ,000
a. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
b. Based on negative ranks.

The result of nonparametric analysis of Wilcoxon testing presented in table 6 discovers

that the significant value was 0.000 or lower than 0.05. Therefore, Ho was rejected and Ha was
accepted which means that there is a significant difference in students’ scores before and after
taught by the prototype of contextual-based academic writing learning model.

Conclusion
The result of Wilcoxon test as a nonparametric analysis showed that the significance
value is 0.000. It signifies that the values 0.000 < 0.05. As a result, Ho was rejected and Ha was
accepted which means that there is a significant difference in students’ scores between before
and after applying the prototype of contextual-based write academic learning model. The
analysis of pretest and posttest average scores was carried out to determine the difference. The
average score of posttest was 75.37 which is higher than the pretest 68.7. Consequently, it was
concluded that the prototype of the model, contextual-based academic writing learning is
effective to improve the student skill in writing research proposal applying in Academic
Writing class.
The results of the study imply that the developed model encourages the teaching-
learning process in promoting the students’ achievement in writing academic text. The model
provides the writing class with alternative materials that will engage the students in practicing
writing skills.

Acknowledgment
The completion of this research has been supported by many parties. The writer would like to
thank the Rector and the Dean of FKIP of Batanghari Jambi University for their support to

90
make this research completed. Many thanks also go to Postgraduate Director of Universitas
Negeri Jakarta and all parties for their favors.

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 23 Issue No. 6.3 November 2019

Developing Teaching Materials on English for Specific Purpose on Tourism Program of

HKBP Grade Eleven

1Kammer Tuahman Sipayung

2Tagor Pangaribuan
1
The Department of English Language Education of Teacher Training at University of HKBP
Nommensen Medan
2
The Department of English Language Education of Teacher Training at University of
HKBP Nommensen Pematangsiantar

Bio-Profiles:
Kammer Tuahman Sipayung holds a PhD in Linguistic (Universitas Sumatera Utara). His
research interest centered on applied linguistic particularly on translation, discourse analysis,
and TEFL. He has already presented in national and international seminars and conferences
and published several articles in national and international journals. The government of
Indonesia presented grants for his other studies. His email is
[email protected].

Tagor Pangaribuan holds a Ph.D. in English Education (University of Negeri Malang–

Indonesia). His research focused on teaching English as a foreign language from the beginner
level. He develops and innovates some model and instrument of teaching. He authored TEFL
books and teaches the philosophy of TEFL and ESP at the University of HKBP Nommensen.
His email is [email protected].

Abstract
The aims of this ESP research are the following: to develop teaching for vocational
school for tourism at grade eleven, to describe the experts view and learners’ perception on
materials, to describe its result for revision, and to test hypothesis on control and experimental
groups. The methodology used is descriptive quantitative and qualitative. Source of data are
views from experts, teachers, students, and peers, collected through questionnaires. The

94
revision of qualitative questionnaires’ experts and students is recomended. However the
alternative hypothesis is accepted based on the t-test point of view.
Keywords: Teaching materials, ESP, Tourism program

Introduction
English is rapidly gaining status as a global language. This is true because the language
is not only used in English-speaking countries but also in other countries where businesses
flourish through negotiations delivered in English. In this case, English becomes the people’s
second or foreign language. The communication in English occurs in many contexts, like an
advertisement, education and business, and the like. Many students from the basic level up to
higher level attend English courses to develop their competence and skill in English. It means
that they have various reasons to learn English. Basically, they want to master English actively
in spoken and written form. In addition to that, most vacancies are requiring people who know
English communicatively, to run their business. The competencies of students in English
become an additional value to support their future careers in this globalized era. (Boroujeni &
Fard, 2013) state that mastering English can guarantee one’s opportunities and success in work,
academic and social life. It is one of the reasons for non-native English to learn about English,
especially for the learner of the tourism program. Based on this reason, it is important to prepare
students with English.
In preparing the materials, the teacher needs to conduct need analysis because every
English language learners need English for different purposes. Through need, analysis learning
materials are developed indirectly. However, there are some steps to develop these materials.
First, a teacher needs to develop the syllabus through learning the learners need, choose item
by item from the syllabus then develop the materials. Second, the nature of learning materials
and learning principles are something that needs to develop. The nature of learning is dealt with
the teacher ability to differentiate between materials (content) and language. Like materials of
listening can be chosen from cassette, CD-ROM, video and etc which able to help students to
achieve the objective of learning which already formulated by the teacher. Learning principles
are dealt with developing the content of materials. According to Tomlinson (1998),the
materials should achieve the impact. In addition, He explains that the impact is achieved when
the materials have a noticeable effect on learners, that is, when the learners’ curiosity, interest,
and attention are attracted. The impact of teaching can achieve through novelty.
A doctor should have the ability to explain the patients’ health. Engineering needs to
understand the vocabulary of engineering term. The ability of correspondence should be taught
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to the secretary. A receptionist should be equipt with the ability to welcome speech the foreign
guest. The examples of need above are indications that different English purpose must be taught
with specific materials. General English (GE) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) are two
kinds of specification in teaching English as a foreign language in Indonesia. However,
according to (Harsono, 2007) states that ESP is more demanded than that for GE because the
availability of the ESP learning materials in public is very rare.
The differences between GE and ESP are on the need analysis, vocabulary and subject
matter. The similarities both of them are placed in the need. Hutchinson and Waters (1989)
state that the existence of the need cannot distinguish ESP from GE but the awareness of the
need itself. (Far, 2008) states that General English refers to context such as the school in which
needs and interest cannot be specified particularly. It means that General English provide a
wide range to teach than English for Specific Purposes. The need analysis for English for
Specific Purposes plays an important role to design teaching plan and learners’ request.
According to (Unal, 2014) states that ESP concentrates more on the teaching of meaning than
grammar instruction and the basic point is to teach indirect relation with the real worlds of
students in terms of content. In line to that, (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987) describes that English
for Specific Purposes is an approach in language teaching in which the content and method
clearly depend on the learners’ needs and interests. GE is learned by the senior high school
while ESP is taught for vocational schools, like accounting, secretary, engineering and so forth.
Senior and vocational students learned English for a different subject matter.
Vocational students do not have to learn as senior high students’ materials and vice versa. The
teaching materials of vocational students is based on the demand and the need for job vacancy
after they graduate from their school. The specific materials on ESP will help them to get a job.
In fact, based on the researcher's observed, the materials of vocational school are still General
English. The materials between senior high school and vocational high school are similar.
Based on the curriculum of 2013 the materials between senior and vocational high school are
almost exactly the same. It means that, less difference in teaching materials point of view
between senior high school or GE and vocational school or ESP. In addition to that, Based on
the observation and interview with the English teacher of tourism school, the teaching and
learning process is occurred conventionally, content-oriented, less practice and text-book
oriented.
In addition to that, teaching and learning process still dominated by the ESP teachers.
It was to indicate that teacher centre activities occured in the classrooms. In this case, most
students were just writting, sitting and listening. In other words, most of them were passive
96
since the materials in the ESP textbook for grade eleven on vocational of tourism school.
Sometimes the ESP teachers focused on teaching grammar and reading than the other language
skills and subskills. In addition to that, the ESP for tourism which can be found in the English
textbook were not interesting. The materials are lack of picture, video and song. Based on the
existing materials, it’s provided with the translating text and the translation from English to
Indonesia in the level of vocabulary. Teaching materials play a central role in teaching and
learning, and as Garton and Graves (2014) in (Augusto-Navarro, 2015). In this case, the ESP
materials are not contextualized to the topic. The materilas are not link to the students
explicitly. Vocational school of HKBP is closed to Lake Toba as tourism destination however
the materials are out of context. It means that the teaching materials are not related to the part
of Lake Toba. This case lead to the unmeaningfull teaching since unable to engange, motivate,
to find new angle on those topics.
Based on the fact above, the researcher formulates some research objectives, they are
1) to design teaching materials, it plays a central role in teaching and learning ESP. 2) to
examine the designing materials on content, media and design of teaching materials, 3) to
describe the result of validation by colleague and students, 4) describing the result of the
implementation try out. The formulation on objectives above related to the goals of the school.
(Gardner., 1983) states the purpose of school should be to develop intelligence and to help
people reach vocational and a-vocational goals that are appropriate to the particular spectrum
of intelligence. Similar research has been conducted by (Al-khatib, 2005). In his study stated
that orientations toward the importance of studying ESP as a means of communication in
relation to the group of workers using it and the workplace in which it is used.

Literature Review
Teaching Materials
Tomlinson (1998) stated that materials is anything which is used to help teaching
language to the learners. Based on the statement above materials refers to the tool like video,
newspaper, workbok and textbook. The researchers would like to declare that teaching
materials not only textbook but broader than it. It’s a great mistake if educators teach the
students based on the textbook only and never used other materials in teaching. Graves (2000)
defines that materials development as a planning which is create by the teachers to achieve the
goals and objectives of the course. It means that teachers are developers of teaching materials.
They are free to add, shorten, modify and lengthen the materials. However, the materials need
to evaluate based on principles. The evaluation should be based on theory of learning and
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theory of teaching and learning. The evaluation of materials should be based on three types of
material evaluation. They are Pre-Use evaluation, Whilst-Use evaluation, and Post-Use
evaluation. The first type evaluation is often subjective, unreliable and impressionistic. It
measures the potential value of materials. The second type is often objective and reliable than
the first type. It measures the value of materials. The last type of evaluation is used to know
what has been taught, to know the students skills and etc. This type is used to measure the
actual effect. (Tomlison, 1998) describes some criteria of good materials, such as achive
impact, help learners to feel ate ease, help learners to fell confidence, relevant and useful to
learners. It means that teaching materials should give the outcome or impact to the students.

Adventages and Disaventages of Teacher-Produced Teaching Materials

In case of designing teaching materials generally for GE and particularly on ESP, the
teachers are not allowed for it. Actually there are advantages and disadvantes if the GE and
ESP teachers are given the oppurtunity as materials designer. The adventages are teachers will
improve their literacy through teachers-produced materials. They will produce the materials
based on context. (Howard & Major, 1995) stated that some teaching contexts will be rich in
resources such as coursebooks, supplementary texts, readers, computers, audio-visual
equipment and consumables such as paper, pens and so on. It’s to indicate the students will get
a rich knowledge and have a positive impact. The next adventages is individul need, this
approach wil overcome the students heterogenity in the classroom. The ESP teachers will get
a focus in designing materials. Personalisation is the next advantages in teacher-produced
materials. The ESP teachers fell free to add personal touch based on students’ culture,
personality and learning styles. (Howard & Major, 1995) stated that in designing teaching
materials teacher need to take account of the learning styles of students is likely to increase
motivation and engagement in learning. Based on some adventages above, they will avoid the
idea of “ one-size-fits-all”
There are three disadventages if the teacher-produced materials. They are organisation,
quality and time. Generally, in producing textbooks are organised through principle of
identifiable and follow the norm. This regulation is made to avoid incoherence materials
overall. Storage of materials and physical organization are the next aspect which are regulated
by the organisation. The next disadventages is about the quality. The content of teacher-
produced materials will lead to the poor of constructed, lack of clarity and lack of diction. It
occurs since the teachers are lack on experience. The last disadventages is about time. In
producing materials need a passion however many teachers are not viable to allocate their time.
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(Howard & Major, 1995) stated that teacher-made materials, and perhaps the key factor
inhibiting many teachers from producing their own teaching materials, is time.
The Effective Teaching Materials
According to (Howard & Major, 1995) There are six factors that need to account in
designing teaching materials. They are learners, curriculum and the context, resorces and
facilities, personal confidence and competence, copy right compliance and time. In addition to
that (Graves, 2000) proposes fifteen criteria of good activities in designing materials. They are:
1. Activities should draw on what students know and be relevant to them
2. Activities should focus on students’ outside of class needs, if appropriate.
3. Activities should build students’ confidence
4. Activities should allow students to problem solve, discover, analyze.
5. Activities should help students develop specific skills and strategies.
6. Activities should help students develop specific language and skills they need for authentic
communication.
7. Activities should integrate the four skills of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. In this
research, the researcher just focus on two skills, they are listening and speaking skills.
8. Activities should enable students to understand how a text is constructed.
9. Activities should enable students to understand cultural context and cultural differences.
10. Activities should enable students to develop social awareness.
11. Activities should be as authentic as possible.
12. Activities should vary the roles and groupings.
13. Activities should be of various types and purposes.
14. Activities should authentic texts or realia when possible.
15. Activities should employ a variety of materials.
Moreover (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987) also propose that good materials will contain
interesting texts, enjoyable activities which engage the learners’ thinking capacities,
opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge and skills, content which both learner
and teacher can cope with. They also state that good materials should provide a clear and
coherent unit structure which will guide teacher and learner through various activities in such
a way to maximize the chances of learning. Based on the statements above teacher as a designer
of teaching materials need to be aware in constructing materials.

99
Method
This study is conducted with the qualitative descriptive and quantitative method. This
way is conducted since the data in two forms. The first is in the form of score from
questionnaires and experiment study. The second is a form of development from the first draft
up to the third draft of teaching materials. Research development in this study applied some
steps which are developing by Sugiyono (2008). Based on Sugiyono, there are ten steps in
doing development research, however, the writer only used the first steps up to sixth steps,
these steps are summarized into three main steps, they are 1). a preliminary study, 2) design,
3) development. The preliminary study consists of three analysis: 1) potentially analysis and
problem, 2) need analysis, 3) learning analysis. While in designing steps, it consists of learning
and product design. Learning design produced syllabus and lesson plan while product design
produced the first draft of the textbook. The last stage in development by 1) testing materials
content, media and the first draft of teaching materials from the expert, 2) revision and
produced the second draft of teaching materials, 3) peers’ and students’ validation about the
second draft of teaching materials, 4) revision and produce the third draft of teaching materials,
5) the effectiveness or experiment test. The sample of this test consists of two learning experts,
five peers of teacher, seven students as validity test about the appropriate product and 30
students as a control group and 30 students as an experimental group.
The instrument of this study is a set of questionnaires. The questionnaires are
distributed to the teachers and students. The range of is 1 – 4 for each question. The interval
and conversion of quantitative data (questionnaire) can be seen in the following table.
Table 1.
Questionnaire Conversion
Score Interval of the The Other Forms Category
Mean Value of the Interval
4 ≥3.53 X≤3.53 Very good
3 3.02- 3.52 3.02≤X≤3.52 Good
2 2.51- 3.01 2.51≤X≤3.01 Poor
1 2.00-2.50 2.00≤X≤2.50 Very Poor

The open and close questionnaires are distributed to the learning expert. The last is to
conduct the experimental research between before and after materials development.

100
Results and Discussions
The result from the preliminary research shown that students need to learn more about
tourism technical term (vocabulary) in the textbook. It can be seen in the following table.
Table 2
Sample of Questionnaires
No Questionnaires N %
1 What activities do you want to learn vocabulary?
a. Grouping words 3 5
b. Completing a blank text with available words 15 25
c. Finding the synonym/antonym of words 42 70
d. Identifying the parts of speech 0 0
e. Spelling the words correctly 0 0
f. Others…. 0 0
2 What is the learning topic that you want in ESP for tourism
program?
a. The topic related to school environment 2 3,33
b. The topic related to tourism technical term 58 96,66
c. The topic related to families 0 0
d. The topic related to daily activities 0 0
e. The topic related to nature and environment 0 0
f. The topic related to technology 0 0

In addition, students need to practice how to book a hotel with the classmate through
role play or other collaborative ways. The existence materials need to revise based on the
company needed in this case is the tourism business. In designing, the researcher produced
syllabus, lesson plan (based on K-2013 revision) printed of material teaching of English for
tourism on grade eleven. The printed of teaching materials can be divided into two textbooks,
the first textbook is for the third semester and the second book is for the fourth semester. Both
textbooks are saved in the CD.
The result on development showed that 1) validation on content from experts states that
content is related to correctness level and concord with teaching materials with the score is
94,81%. The uniformity on media based on the expert of teaching media get the score 98%.
The experts of teaching materials stated that the score written-systematically on teaching
materials is 92%.

101
Table 3
Validation on Content from Experts
No Designing Materials %
1 Contents 94,81
2 Uninformity 98
3 Materials 92

Based on the scored on some aspects above, it is to indicate that whole qualification are
almost perfect but some revision should be done based on the suggestions of experts. The
second draft of teaching materials is produced based suggestions of experts.
Validation test is important to do on the second draft teaching materials. This test is
done by the teachers’ peer and some students. Each teachers evaluated the second draft of
teaching materials description which related to the appropriateness of teaching materials. After
revising, the general mean based teachers and other experts are 3,57. It means that the content
of materials are very good. It can be seen in the following table.

Table 4
Experts Judgment on Second Draft of Teaching Materials
No Statements Score Mean Category
4 3 2 1
Contents of Teaching Materials
1 The Materials are suitable with 3 1 1 0 3.60 Very
English for tourism purpose Good
2 The materials are link to relevant text 3 2 0 0 3.60 Very
in their daily life. Good
3 Each units involve related units 4 1 0 0 3,80 Very
Good
4 The materials lead to spoken words 2 3 0 0 3,40 Good
which relevant to social function.
5 The social function of the text are 3 1 1 0 3.40 Good
related to their daily life.
6 The materials have an impact to 4 1 0 0 3.80 Very
develop the ability of systematic Good
thinking
7 The materials develop the students’ 3 2 0 0 3.60 Very
ability in communication. Good
8 The vocabularies are related to the 2 3 0 0 3.40 Good
technical of tourism.
General Judgment of Content 3,57 Very
Good

102
 In addition to that, students also conducted a validation test to some description of the
accord and clarity on language, media, and teaching materials. The mean is 3,6. It means that
the language accord and clarity in the material is very good. The description can be seen in the
following table.

Table 5
Students Judgment on Second Draft of Teaching Materials
No Statements Score Mean Category
4 3 2 1
The accord and clarity on language, media, and teaching materials
1 The language in ESP for tourism 3 1 1 0 3.40 Good
materials are suitable with students’
cognitive development level.
2 The instruction in the materials are 4 1 0 0 3.80 Very
suitable with students’ cognitive Good
development level.
3 The language used is based on 3 2 0 0 3.60 Very
students’ socio-emotion. Good
4 The language in the media and 3 1 1 0 3.60 Very
materials are clear (not ambigue) Good
5 The language has a high readability 4 1 0 0 3.80 Very
Good
6 The language is arranged in correct 3 2 0 0 3.60 Very
grammar Good
7 The language difficulty is facilitated 3 1 1 0 3.40 Good
explicitly
General Judgment of Content 3,6 Very
Good

Based on both result of validation, revision is conducted on the second draft and
produce the third draft. The example of revision based on some experts can be seen in the
following table.

Table 6.
Experts Suggestion to Revise of Unit 3
Parts of Suggestion to revise
unit
Task 1 Revising the instruction
Task 2 Revising the instruction
Task 3 Adding some dialogues and pictures
Task 4 Changing the instruction
Task 5 Revising the instruction
Task 6 Adding some dialogues and pictures

103
 Task 7 Changing the instruction
Task 8 Revising the instruction

The next stage is to conduct experimental research. The researcher chooses one
competence to measure in control and experiment class. The improvement in control class is
not significant however in experimental class is significant. The calculation can be seen in the
following presentation.

𝑀𝑥−𝑀𝑦
t= 𝑑𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑦2 1 1
√( )( + )
𝑁𝑥+𝑁𝑦−2 𝑁𝑥 𝑁𝑦

9,7−5,4
= 484,2+347,2 1 1
√( )( + )
30+30−2 30 30

4,3
= 831,5 2
√( )( )
58 30

4,3
=
√(14,3)(0,06)

4,3
=
√ 0,8598

4,3
= 0,97

= 4,43
It is obtained that the value of t-oberserved if 4.43. the distribution of t-observed is used
as basis of counting t-critic. In certain degree of freedom (df) the value which was obtained is
58. Based on the calculation above, the result of the research shows the mean score the
experimental group (64,1) is higher than control group (45,4). The difference was tested by
using t-test formula. The result of the calculation shows that t-observed value (4,43) is higher
than t-table value (1,671) where Pr (probability) is 0.05 in two-tails. It can be concluded that
there is a significant effect of revison materials than original. In other words, Ha is accepted
while Ho is rejected.

Conclusion
The major findings on this research shown that materials which is developed by the
researchers was effective. Research and development research design was used in this study
based on sugiono (2008). It involves several steps. The product as findings in this research has
met the ideal criteria. Moreover, this product is able to improve the students motivation and
achievement on ESP for tourism program. It is recomended to conduct futher work on

104
particular language skills based on the local wisdom. It is suggested since the belief of value
in the local area. Indonesia is rich with local value as culture reflection. It means that culture
plays a capital role to design strategies of teaching and learning process.

Pedagogical Implication
As the effective learning materials (pedagogical implication) the product of this
research met the criteria of effective materials. It can be seen from the students’ motivation,
desire, expertise and need. Generally speaking (Augusto-Navarro, 2015) stated that material
design should consider and try to harmonize situated possibilities with learners’ needs and
wants. Nunsan (1998) in (Howard & Major, 1995) described that the materials should be
contextualised to the curriculum they are intended to address. (Howard & Major, 1995) stated
that Materials should also be contextualised to the experiences, realities and first languages of
the learners. Teacher as designer of teaching materials should be able to link the students prior
knowledge in the syllabus and lesson plan. Technical term which is related on cultural content
in the program of tourism need to translated into accurate translation in the target.

References
Al-khatib, M. A. (2005). English in the Workplace: An Analysis of the Comunication Needs
of Tourism and Banking Personnel. Asian EFL Journal, 7(2), 1–20.
Augusto-Navarro, E. H. (2015). The design of teaching materials as a tool in eflteacher
education: Experiences of a Brazilian teacher education program. Ilha Do Desterro, 68(1),
121–137. https://doi.org/10.5007/2175-8026.2015v68n1p121
Boroujeni, S. A., & Fard, F. M. (2013). A Needs Analysis of English for Specific Purposes (
ESP ) Course For Adoption Of Communicative Language Teaching :( A Case of Iranian
First-Year Students of Educational Administration ). International Journal of Humanities
and Sosial Science Invention, 2(6), 35–44.
Far, M. M. (2008). On the Relationship between ESP & EGP: A General Perspective. English
for Specific Purposes World, 7(17), 1–11. Retrieved from
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Harsono, Y. M. (2007). DEVELOPING LEARNING MATERIALS FOR SPECIFIC
PURPOSES. TEFLIN Journal, 18(2), 169–179.
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Howard, J., & Major, J. (1995). Guidelines for Designing Effective English Language
Teaching Materials Why English Language Teachers May Choose to Design their own
Materials, 101–109.
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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 23 Issue No. 6.3 November 2019

Utilizing the Instagram Videos to Enhance the Students’ Language Acquisition on

Writing Composition

1. First Author: Rafi’ah Nur/ [email protected]

2. Correspondent Author: Ammang Latifa/ [email protected]
3. Co Author: Aqilah Luthfiah Busman/ [email protected]
Muhammadiyah University of Parepare 1 ,2, 3

Bio-Profiles:
Rafi’ah Nur is currently a lecturer at Magister Program of English Language Education at
Muhammadiyah University of Parepare. Her research interest includes material development
and ICT in language teaching.

Ammang Latifa is a senior lecturer at Muhammadiyah University of Parepare. His research

interest is teaching English as a foreign language and assessment.

Aqilah Luthfiah Busman is a student of English Language Education at Muhammadiyah

University of Parepare. Her research interest includes teaching English as a foreign language.

Abstract
Writing is considered to be one language skill, which is difficult for students. The
students still faced many problems in writing composition, such as organizing ideas,
developing ideas, and using correct grammar (Huy, 2015). In acquiring English as a foreign or
second language through written form, the students, therefore, need to utilize themselves to
achieve their goal to master the English language besides their first language. Today, social
media like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and WhatsApp play a vital role in determining the
quality and the productivity of their users (Kaya & Bicen, 2016). These social media become
accessible to students in Indonesia. Those social media, in turn, can be used intelligently to
master English (Nazara, 2011). Instagram, for instance, can be used to make its users transmit
their ideas, comments, and attitudes by using English. On Instagram, the users also can freely
share photos and videos from their Apple IOS, Android, and Windows smartphones (Barbee

107
and Bradford, 2019). As a mobile tool, Instagram has utilities for personal reasons as well as
business ones. Especially for the videos, these tools can be stimulating and provoking to
express ideas. The implementation of video materials in the classrooms has plenty of
advantages, such as boosting students’ autonomy and proactivity (Benmouhoub, L & Maouche,
2018). These videos, then, will persuade them to write where persuasion is essential in
internalizing the students' values (Anderson, Rainie, & Caiazza, 2018). This research aims at
exploring the effects of Instagram videos on the students in acquiring English as a foreign
language, especially in obtaining the writing skill. It was conducted using a quasi-experimental
design. The samples of the research were seventy students of Senior High School in Parepare,
Indonesia. To collect data, the researchers distributed a written test to measure the progress
from pre-test to post-test. The researchers also interviewed the students to know their
perception of the use of Instagram videos in acquiring the English language in the classroom
setting. The result showed that the students gained the English in the writing form enhanced
significantly. The data based on the interviews revealed that the students perceived well the
activities of using Instagram videos in the classroom setting.
Keywords: Writing ability, videos, Instagram, students perception

Introduction
Writing is one of the four essential skills besides listening, speaking, and reading. Writing
skill is one of the productive powers. Farooq & Uzair-ul-hassan (2012) stated that writing is
a way of communicating a message to the reader for a purpose. Many people consider writing
as easy because people write everything, but in fact, writing seems very difficult (Chemin,
2014). In writing, students also should master several essential aspects of English such as
vocabulary, grammar, etc. (Leong & Ahmadi, 2017).
Most of the students still faced many problems and difficulties in writing. Those problems
were organizing ideas, developing a concept, using improper grammar. Using improper
mechanics, punctuation, capitalization, spelling also often appear in the students’ writing. The
students who have a good idea in writing are not always express it in the right way (Rass,
2015). According to Whitaker (2009), students’ essays frequently consist of only pieces in the
list; there are not many details about their topics, so that the results often confusing. They
sometimes face a widespread problem for not knowing how to start their writing and how to
begin their sentences.
In this modern era, social media like Facebook, Twitter, Path, Line, BBM, WhatsApp, and
Instagram increase rapidly (Riadi et al., 2019). The users vary from the young to adult
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(Khurshid et al., 2018). Even many students access these social media for making friends and
networking. They follow the developments of using social media, which deals with activities
that involve socializing and networking online through words, pictures, and videos
(Albrechtslund, 2008). Facebook, Twitter, Path, Line, BBM, WhatsApp, and Instagram are the
most popular social media. Mansor & Talk (2017), however, claimed that Instagram is
successful in being used as a teaching tool to study English as a second language.
This study, therefore, investigated the utilization of the Instagram social media in the
classroom. It is to support theories and findings (Nur & Syarifuddin, 2018; Latifa et al., 2018;
Badaruddin et al., 2018; etc.) regarding the implementation of technology in Language
teaching. Based on the previous explanation, the researchers then assumed that the students
could be more talent in writing composition if an interesting tool stimulates them to create.
This research hence studies the effect of the Instagram videos on students in acquiring English
as a foreign language, especially in obtaining the writing skill.

Literature Review
Concept of writing
Writing is one of the four skills besides reading, listening, and speaking (Al-Saadi, S, H &
Moses Sam, 2013). It is also a productive skill besides speaking because writing is an activity
where people express their ideas in written form (Fareed & Bilal, 2016). Juli (2018) stated that
writing is an instrument of both communication and self-expression. According to (Handayani
et al., 2013), writing is a great collector of ideas, a clarifier of thinking, and a significant aspect
of learning itself.
Further, (Handayani et al., 2013) stated that writing is a way of communicating a message
to a reader for a purpose. The teachers, therefore, have to be innovative to create an
environment that will lead to the creativeness of the students (Mansor, 2017). Through these
innovations and creativities, they, as writers, know themselves deeply, intimately, or patiently
with the process of writing. Besides, they will enjoy the process with no doubt and no fear. In
turn, they will learn all the time and experiment uniquely.
Based on the concepts of writing described before, the writers then concludes that writing
is a process of expressing ideas and information in a written language which has some rules
such as grammar and rhetoric features. Besides, writing itself has the purpose of giving
information to the reader. Also, now writing has a great place in teaching-learning procedures
in school, and it becomes one of the crucial things in education.

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 According to the English curriculum (BSNP, 2006) of Senior High School, there are many
types of writing as follows:
1) Exposition
Exposition is a kind of rhetorical discourse mode, along with argumentation, description,
and narration. The purpose of exposition text is informing the readers about the plot, character,
setting, and theme of the essay, story, or motion picture (Maftoon, P & Soroush, 2010).
2) Argumentation
Argumentation is also called persuasion. An argumentation presents work to reach
conclusions by logical reasoning. It is based on soundly or not, on-premises, thinking, and
argumentation (Hornikx & Hahn, 2012). It studied rules of inference, logic, and procedural
rules in both artificial and real-world settings. Argumentation includes debate and negotiation,
which are concerned with reaching a mutually acceptable conclusion. It is used in law, for
example, in the trial, in preparing an argument to be presented to the court and in testing the
validity of certain kinds of evidence.
3) Description
The description is one of four rhetorical modes (also known as modes of discourse). It is
also the fiction-writing mode for transmitting a mental image of the particulars of a story (Huy,
2015).
a) Description as a rhetorical mode
The report reproduces a visual presentation of things such as action, place, person, event,
or activity so that the reader may picture the things figured. Clark (2014) stated that descriptive
writing might be found in the other rhetorical modes
b) Description as a fiction-writing mode
Fiction is a form of narrative, fiction–paper also has distinct forms of expression, or styles,
each with its purposes and conventions. Agent and author Even Marshall identifies five fiction-
writing modes, action, summary, dialogues feeling/ thoughts, and background (Jandl, et al.
2017)
4) Narration
The narration is some retelling, often in words (though it is possible to mime a story), or
something that happened a story (Purba, 2018). Narration recounts events, perhaps leaving
some occurrences out because they are from some perspective insignificant, and possibly
emphasizing others. The narrative thus shapes history (the scene of events, the story of what
happened).
5) Other types of writing
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 According to Graham, et al. (2016), writing also has many types, including writing
narratives, explanations, expository passages, essays, directions, summarizes, critiques, and
letter writing as developmental writing skills are advanced.

Characteristics of a Good Writing

Writing has some features. According to (Natanael, et al., 2014), there are three
characteristics of composing a good essay or paragraph, namely:
1) Coherence
An article has a sense when the supporting sentences are ordered according to a principle
(Yunhadi, 2016). The sentences are composed in order so that the reader can understand the
ideas quickly. The principles for orders depend on the types of the paragraph you are writing.
Coherence means to stick together. It is a matter of having part of a piece of writing in the right
with the clearance process.
2) Cohesion
A good paragraph represents cohesion. All the supporting sentences connect, in their
support of the topic sentence, when a paragraph has cohesion (Wang & Sui, 2016).
3) Unity
All the supporting sentences should relate to the topic sentence. Order in text or paragraph
is like an organization secure but is smaller in space, so it may be simpler to consider the request
as directed (Whitaker, 2009). Thus, the writer should make sure that he/she has composed the
sentences and the details in a logical order and good connection (Whitaker, 2009).
The explanation of the characteristic of writing shows that writing has several components,
such as coherence, cohesion, and unity. In writing, a writer should do some processes besides
implementing those characteristics. Various researchers capture the writing process in similar
ways, with some minor differences (Bayat, 2014).
During the drafting stage, a short text is created by choosing among the selected ideas and
putting them together. After that, the text is discussed individually or in groups. The writer then
revises the text to identify the mistake or improvement. The last readings follow these stages
(Badger & White, 2000). According to Flower & Hayes in Bayat and Sekercioğlu (2014), the
process of textualizing the generated ideas occurs in three stages: prewriting, drafting, and
revising. While all these processes are carried out, the teacher guides the students and tries to
increase their capacity.

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Concept of Instagram videos
Video can be used to facilitate the teaching-learning process. Video also is known as audio-
visual, which is what people listen to and what people see. According to Çakir (2006), there
are many media and styles of visual presentation which are used to the language learner. The
audio-visual materials have positive contributions to language learning as long as they are used
at the right time in the right place (Nur & Syarifuddin, 2018). In the language learning and
teaching process, the learners use their eyes as well as their ears; but their eyes are fundamental
in education (Kim, Mady, & Wang, 2014). Furthermore, Çakir (2006) claimed that it
contributes to the understanding of another culture by providing indirect contacts with speakers
of the language, through both audio and visual means.
A recent large-scale survey reveals that the students like to learn language through the
involvement of videos, which are often used to mean quite different things in language teaching
Çakir (2006). Moreover, Çakir (2006) claims that video can give students realistic models to
imitate for role-playing; can improve awareness of other cultures by teaching appropriateness
and suitability. Besides, Çakir (2006) also claims globally total Internet video traffic (business
and consumer, combined) will be 77% of the Internet traffics in 2019, up from 59% in 2014.’
High-quality videos can be streamed quickly into mobile devices in an educational context.
While it took 12.5 minutes to download a song online in 2002, as of 2014 it only took 18
seconds
From the explanations, the authors reveal that the video has already been used to facilitate
the teaching-learning process. The video is used to see and listen to get an understanding of the
content of the video. When the videos are applied to the learning process, however, the
instruction should pay more attention to students’ results of writings. The teacher should give
correction and feedback to them because feedback and revision are crucial elements of an EFL
writing course (Comber, 2019)
Instagram is one of the selected social media used by many people starts from young to
adult (Ma, M & Alhabash, 2016). It is one platform of social media where its users can share
photos. Start from mid-2013, Instagram’s services expanded to sharing a 60-second video.
Since that time, the number of people used Instagram increased rapidly. From Instagram,
statistics showed that it had attracted more than 150 million active users, with averagely 55
million photos uploaded by users everyday, and more than 16 billion photos shared so far.
Nowadays, Instagram can take many functions. We can create accounts, post content,
apply filters, add captions, tag users, add locations, add hashtags, like content, add comments,

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browse and follow other accounts, check a feed generated by followed accounts, and explore
hashtags/users.
Ali (2014) claimed that Instagram is such a fantastic application and one of the most
popular social media applications. What makes it the best use in learning the English language
is that its users learn entertainingly and spontaneously. Instagram has a beneficial characteristic
as it falls under the category of social networking (Kircaburun & Griffiths, 2018). Instagram is
a social media based around sharing pictures and fifteen-second videos that we can post to
other social media sites.
One example, an educator could have students review a book. The teacher then ask
students to create a video to share it in Instagram. Even better, if the students are learning
English, the Instagram can help them develop “academic vocabulary.” Another way is by
getting students create photo essays based upon a list of themes or concepts from the
curriculum. By using ‘photo prompts,’ the instructor can engage students to write responses
based upon the photos or to take pictures of a “step-by-step process” while adding a caption to
each photo (Laponsie, 2013). Blair & Serafini (2014) claimed that the way Instagram becomes
integrated into course content remains limited by the instructor’s imagination but provides a
medium for students to connect and engage with course concepts. Regarding the explanations,
the researcher concludes that Instagram is one of the popular social media that allow people to
share photos or videos, which has over 200 million users. Teachers can use it as a media in the
teaching-learning process.
In general, Instagram has specific features that are commonly used by the user (Handayani,
2017). The features of Instagram are as follows:
1. Instagram profile interface.
This part displays information about user profiles. It includes the biography, circular
profile photo, number of posts, and users” follower/following count. The “+ Follow” option
permits users to follow other users and stay updated on the latter’s posted content.
2. Profile content.
It provides viewers to scroll down the profiles. Viewers may see all profile photos appear
together. For a closer look, viewers have the option to click on any picture. The photo chosen
is displayed clearly.
3. Instagram’s photo/video content.
When the Instagram users click on a photo, it will display a larger version of the picture.
Here, viewers can like the photo/video, leave a comment, or read previously posted comments.

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In this photo/video content also displays how many people have liked the photo/video, the
photo/video caption, and comments appended below the caption.
4. Navigational tools.
There are five icons available at the bottom of each page in the Instagram’s screen; they
are the home page, explore page, posting page, notification page, and user’s profile page. These
are the essential navigational tools for Instagram.
Based on the explanation of the Instagram features, the authors conclude that there are
several features that available on Instagram, such as Instagram profile interface, profile content,
Instagram’s photo/video content, and navigational tools for Instagram.
Today is the age of the advanced of technology, that almost everyone has understood and
used the technology both for entertainment, business, and other essential things. Nowadays,
gadgets like an iPhone and Android are very much enquired by the public, because gadgets are
straightforward to carry everywhere and very practical for entertainment, business, etc. It also
can be used to access social media in the device; there are many kinds of social media like
Instagram, Path, Facebook, and Twitter.

The advantages and disadvantages of Instagram as follows:

Of course, social media has advantages and disadvantages. The following are the
advantages of Instagram.
1. Instagram provides a privacy feature.
2. Instagram has various features for editing photos.
3. Instagram lists users’ followers and following.
4. Instagram is more widely used compared to other social media.
5. Instagram can follow people indefinitely.
6. Instagram can become a straightforward promotion.
7. Instagram is easy to use.
8. Instagram provides views of photos of people and artists.
9. Instagram can connect with other social media.

Instagram can also be used to see the newest information around the world that that was
happening. It provides many photos and videos that come from any sources. The latest version
of Instagram also offers several features like a video call. Its users can greet other people by
using the video call feature, although they are from a different region. Instagram also provides
a hashtag (#) so people can find related content that mentions the hashtag. The caption in the
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Instagram feature allows people to create a note or tell everybody on the picture or video that
they post. People are also able to mention their friends to the post that other people uploaded.
People even able to send it by using a direct message.
The disadvantages of Instagram are as follows:
1) Instagram only has two contents, photos, and videos.
2) Use internet connection to access it
3) The maximum video duration is only 1 minute.
4) Instagram does not display the cover picture. It only shows a profile picture.
5) Competition is very tight because many are using this Instagram.
To access the newest version, Instagram must be updated regularly. Instagram can be used
in language learning (Mansor & Talk, 2017). There are different activities that teachers can use
to implement Instagram in their classes. Xerry & Vassallo (2016) listed some examples of the
events during the utilization of Instagram in the classroom setting. They are:
1. utilizing digital storytelling
2. practicing grammar on photo captions
3. doing photojournalism
4. creating photo prompts for themselves
5. finding metaphors within chosen photos
6. creating photo blogs
7. finding and documenting context within photos
8. doing an ethnographic study
9. sharing art, and
10. exercising creative and artistic expression through taking their pictures

Teachers can share exciting pictures/videos in their account. While posting the
picture/video, the teacher encourages students by giving questions related to the image.
Students are assigned to comment and give their opinion about this picture. Question students
about the photo are useful as a prompt for a creative writing task. Students are free to present
their ideas from what they see in the pictures. From this activity, the teacher can know the way
students develop ideas based on the picture/video given. On another side, the teacher can ask
students to share a series of pictures/videos. Students are assigned to write stories based on the
pictures/videos by using language structure that the material covered in class. This activity will
make the student a chance to practice their writing skills.

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Method
This research used a quasi-experimental approach, which applied a non-equivalent control
group design. Two groups were participating in the experiment, one in the experimental class
and one in the control class. The researchers used Instagram as a media in the experimental
class and pictures in the control class. The researchers also applied a descriptive method to
explore the students’ perceptions of the application of Instagram in the teaching and learning
process.

Participants
This research investigated the eleventh-grade students of SMA Negeri 2 Parepare,
Indonesia. The population of this research was 179 students of eleventh science grade. The
researchers selected the samples by using cluster random sampling technique. The researchers
chose the 36 students of XI MIPA 2 as the experimental class, which consisted of 36 students
and the 34 students of XI MIPA 1 as the control one.

Instrument
The instruments of the research were the writing test and interview. The researcher applied
the writing test to measure the students’ capability to write explanation texts. The use of
interviews, on the other hand, was intended to assess the students’ perception towards the
utilization of Instagram in the writing class. The researchers took the writing test from the
questions which commonly used for the writing test at senior high schools in Indonesia. The
interview about perception, meanwhile, followed the Neag Center for Gifted Education and
Talent Development University of Connecticut (2007) ways of measuring perceptions. The
judgment was measured by prompting accurate perceptions and distorted perceptions.
Before applying the test, the researchers validated the test by content and construct
validations. The topics of the test were Flood, Tsunami, Earthquake, The formulation of
Rainbow, Poverty, Corruption, and Bullying. These topics represent the writing materials to
teach by using Instagram. Provided 90 minutes allotment, the students conducted the test
writing 100 to 200 words of explanation texts.
The researchers also used interviews to assess the students’ perceptions of the application
of Instagram in learning writing. The interviewers felicitate the students’ responses to the use
of Instagram by asking some questions. The questions prompted answers dealing with the
phenomenon of Instagram, the effects of Instagram, the advantages and disadvantages of the
Instagram, utilities of Instagram, the challenging of the Instagram, etc.
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Procedure
At the initial phase of the class, the teacher gave a pre-test for both experimental and
control classes. The pre-test was conducted before providing treatment to know the students’
prior knowledge and understanding of writing. The students wrote an explanation text such as
choosing these topics of Flood, Tsunami, Earthquake, The formation of Rainbows, and
Corruption. They composed explanation texts with at least 100 words and a maximum of 200
words. The allocation time given to students was 2x45 of learning time (90 minutes/ 1 meeting).
Then the researchers supervised the class.
After giving the pre-test, the researchers gave the treatment in 4 meetings. The researchers
gave topics of natural and social phenomena in the classroom. The researchers applied standard
procedures in the classroom. The teacher greeted the students, checked the attendance list, and
then explained the material. In the experimental class, the researchers assigned the students
activities by uploading the natural phenomena (e.g., rainfall video, Flood, Tsunami,
Earthquake, The formation of Rainbows, and Corruption) in Instagram then instructing the
caption related to the video.
Meanwhile, in the control class, the researchers assigned the students with still pictures of
rainfall. The students from both types then composed explanation text with minimally 100
words and maximally 200 words. At the final session of the class, the students concluded the
material.
After giving the treatment, the researchers applied the post-test. The purpose of the post-
test was to find out the students’ achievement after giving treatment. The students compose an
explanation text of some topics like Poverty, Earthquake, Corruption, Flood, and Bullying at
least 100 words and a maximum of 200 words. The allocation time given to students was 2x45
of learning time (90 minutes/ 1 meeting).

Results
Pre-test
The rate of students’ scores was obtained through writing tests before giving treatment by
using Instagram videos for the experimental class and using pictures for the control class. The
rate of the percentage and frequency in experimental and control class were as follows.

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 Table 1. Frequency and rate percentage of the score of pre-test
No. Qualifications Predicate Score Experimental Control
F % F %
1 Very good A 86 – 100 - - - -
2 Good B 71 – 85 4 11.11 10 29.41
3 Fair C 56 – 70 13 36.11 7 20.59
4 Poor D ≤ 55 19 52.78 17 50
5 Total 36 100 34 100

Table 1 described the frequency of students’ writing scores in the pre-test. In the pre-test,
no student got a very good classification. There were only four students (11.11%) in the
experimental class and ten students (29.41%) in the control class who got a good classification.
For fair rating, 13 (36.11%) students in the experimental class and 7 (20.59%) students in the
control class. Meanwhile, there were 19 (52.78%) students in the experimental class, and 17
(50%) students in the control class classified as inferior.
From the table of frequency of the students’ score of the pre-test, the researchers revealed
that the students’ scores in the pre-test were dominantly in poor classification. The students in
the experimental class who got poor ratings were 19 students. Meanwhile, there were 17
students in the control class classified as inferior. It means that the students who got poor
classification were higher in experimental class than in the control class even it had a small
dispute. The students who got proper ratings were dominated in the control class, where ten
students got proper classification but only four students in the experimental category. It means
that students who got adequate classification were higher in the control class, although it has a
small dispute. These showed that students dominantly get a sparse rating. It means that
students’ writing ability still needed to be enhanced.

Table 2. Mean score and standard deviation of students in pre-test

Group Mean Score Standard Deviation
Experimental Class 55.36 12.80
Control Class 53.35 17.14

The mean score of the pre-test in the experimental class was higher than the pre-test in the
control class. However, both classes just got a sparse classification. It indicated that the
students’ writing ability still needed to be enhanced by giving the treatment. Meanwhile, the
standard deviation of students in the experimental class was lower than students in the control

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class. It means that the students’ writing ability in the control class was more various than
students in the experimental category.
Post-test
The rate of students’ scores was obtained through writing tests after giving treatment by
using Instagram videos for the experimental class and using pictures for the control class. The
rate of the percentage and frequency in experimental and control class were as follows:

Table 3. Frequency and rate percentage of the score of post-test

No. Qualification Predicate Score Experimental Control
F % F %
1. Very good A 86 – 100 - - - -
2. Good B 71 – 85 31 86.11 21 61.76
3. Fair C 56 – 70 4 11.11 6 17.65
4. Poor D 41 – 55 1 2.78 7 20.59
Total 36 100 34 100

Table 3. shows that the rate percentage in the experimental class was better than the rate
percentage in the control class. In the post-test, no student got a very good classification for
both experimental and control classes. Meanwhile, 31 (86.11%) students in the experimental
class and 21 (61.76%) students in the control class got a proper classification. In fair rating,
there were four (11.11%) students in the experimental class and 6 (17.65%) students in the
control class. For sparse classification, 1 (2.78%) students in the experimental class and
7(20.59%) students in the control class.
Data on Table 3 revealed that the students’ scores in the post-test were dominated in the
proper classification. The students’ rate in the experimental was higher than in the control class.
It means that students who got good rating were more upper in the experimental class than in
the control class. The data shows that students dominated as proper classification
than very good, fair, and poor classifications for both experimental and control classes. It
means that students’ writing ability was enhanced.
Table 4. Mean score and standard deviation of students in post-test
Group Mean Score Standard Deviation
Experimental Class 74.88 5.46
Control Class 70.08 10.91

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 Table 4 shows that the mean score of the students in the post-test both in the experimental
and control class. The average score of the post-test in the experimental class was (74.88) while
(53.35) in the control class. The standard deviation in experimental class was (12.80) while
(17.14) in the control class
The average score of the post-test in the experimental class was higher than the post-test
in the control class. The experimental class a good classification while the control class got
a fair rating. It indicated that the students’ writing ability was enhanced by giving the treatment.
Meanwhile, the standard deviation of students in the control class was higher than students in
the experimental category. It means that the students’ writing ability in the control class was
more various than students in the experimental class.

The Students’ Perception

After interviewing the students, the researchers revealed that the students perceived very
well the implementation of Instagram videos in teaching writing. These are some of their
opinion based on their answers during the interviews:
1. The students like studying by using Instagram because Instagram is a new phenomenon.
2. Instagram is fascinating because they can watch some short videos uploaded by the
Instagram users
3. They can find some Instagram story, pictures, texts, or videos
4. Acquiring the language which the users utter were challenging because sometimes they
are difficult to get points
5. They can create their ideas in Instagram freely even they should utter them in polite
expressions
6. They can browse other information from some websites while engaging Instagram on certain
occasions.
7. They can directly find correction and revision from the teacher.
In short, the students really enjoyed acquiring the English language, especially the written
one, when they were treated by using Instagram.

Discussion
Among the four skills in English learning, the researchers took writing to be researched.
The researchers considered that writing skill was more demanded in this era of industrial
revolution 4.0. This ability helps people to communicate with other people in many sectors.
Handayani et al. (2013) stated that writing is a way of communicating a message to the reader
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for a purpose. Some researchers like Rivai et al. (2017), Styati (2016), Handayani (2017), and
Listiani (2016) had conducted researchers by choosing writing as the skill to be researched.
They investigated the use of videos (Rivai et al., 2017), Instagram (Listiani, 2016), YouTube
videos, and pictures (Styati, 2016) as well as the appropriate method (Handayani et al., 2013)
in teaching writing.
In this research, the researchers applied an experimental research method with a quasi-
experimental design of a non-equivalent control group. The experimental study presents a
testing hypothesis to establish cause and effect (Gay et al., 2014). Several researchers also
applied quasi-experimental design, such as Styati (2016), Hayati (2017), and Listiani (2017),
to test the effectiveness of teaching methods or teaching media in teaching writing.
A researcher, as a teacher, in the experimental class, delivered the instruction by utilizing
the course with Instagram videos. The teacher started activities by greeting the students, then
checked the attendance list, and the researchers gave some questions about the material that
was taught. The researchers then uploaded or reposted the video on Instagram related to the
topic by providing some notes on the caption. The video natural and social phenomena (video
of rain, clash, volcanic eruption, and wildfire). After that, the researcher asked the students to
make an explanation text related to the video that the researcher uploaded or reposted, and the
explanation must consist of at least 100 words and a maximum of 200 words. The researcher
also gave a chance for students to ask when they found a problem. The last the researcher
guided the students to conclude the material then documented the learning process. The
students seemed natural to write their ideas by watching the video because they directly saw
the object made into written form, and that was causing the writing ability of the students’ were
enhanced. In the same line, Hayati and Rivai et al. (2017) found that students’ writing ability
was useful and increased after using video.
In the control class, the researcher started activities by greeting the students, then checked
the attendance list, and the researcher gave some questions about the material that was taught.
Then the researcher used pictures in teaching writing. The researcher gave photos to the
students. The photos were also natural and social. After that, the researcher asked the students
to make an explanation text related to the picture with at least 100 words and a maximum of
200 words. The researcher also gave a chance for students to ask when they found a problem.
The last the researcher guided the students to conclude the material then documented the
learning process. The students in the experimental class were taught by using Instagram videos,
and the students in the control class were prepared by using pictures.

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 Before giving treatment, the students’ mean score in the experimental class was
categorized as poor classification. After the treatments, their mean score improved,
reaching good classification. It indicated that the students, mastery improved after using
Instagram videos. Most of the students could build their ideas by watching the videos. They
were a little fluent in telling their thoughts in written form. Their sentences also became well
because before teaching writing by using Instagram videos, and the researcher taught them the
way how to write good sentences. All of these indicated that the use of Instagram videos was
able to enhance the students’ writing ability.
Regarding the result of the t-test, the data indicated that the null hypothesis (H0) was
rejected, and the alternative hypothesis (H1) was accepted. It means that the use of Instagram
videos significantly able to enhance the students’ writing ability of the eleventh-grade students
of SMA Negeri 2 Parepare. Finally, the researchers inferred that the use of Instagram videos
was one of the better ways to enhance the students’ writing ability.
This research result confirmed Wright’s theory in Çakir (2006) that many media and many
styles of visual presentation are used to the language learner. That is to say, all audio-visual
materials have positive contributions to language learning as long as they are used at the right
time, in the right place. In language learning and teaching process, the learner uses his eyes as
well as his ears; but his eyes are essential in education.
This research also supported some previous research findings, such as the one by Rivai et
al. (2017). Rivai et al. (2017) also conducted research by using video to enhance students’
writing ability of descriptive text. They reported that using video is more effective in improving
students’ ability to learn writing descriptive using video. It shows that using video is more
effective in enhancing students’ ability to learn writing descriptive using video, and it also has
good influences for the students. Similar to Rivai et al. (2017), who used video as a media on
their research, the researchers also used video. However, they are different forms. This research
used Instagram videos in teaching writing, especially in explanation text material, while Rivai
et al. (2017) used video in teaching writing of the descriptive text. This confirmed that video
could be used as the media in teaching writing, whether in teaching the descriptive or
explanatory text.
This research is also in line with Handayani (2017), whose research dealing with the
students’ attitudes toward the employment of Instagram in teaching writing. Handayani (2017)
reported that Instagram is a kind of tool that can have a beneficial effect on guiding students to
write effectively. Similar to Handayani (2017), the researcher also treated students with the
utilization of Instagram. However, Handayani (2017) studied the common use of Instagram in
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teaching writing while this research specifically focused on Instagram videos in teaching
writing. It revealed that Instagram could be useful in various ways, whether Instagram in
general or Instagram videos.
This study also supported the research by Listiani (2016), who investigated the
effectiveness of Instagram writing compared to teacher-centered writing to teach recount text
to students with high and low motivation. Listiani (2016) conducted qualitative while this
research mixed quantitative and quantitative analysis. Her findings showed that Instagram
promoted a better understanding of students with high and low motivation, which improved
the quality of their writing. Listiani (2016) used Instagram then compared it to the students
with high and low motivation, and she used recount text in teaching writing while the researcher
used Instagram videos to students to enhance the students writing ability and used explanation
text in teaching writing.
This research and some previous research findings (Nur & Syarifuddin, 2018; Listiani,
2016; Rivai et al., 2017; Handayani, 2017, etc.) suggested the use of social media in teaching
English. Some findings suggested that using Instagram was able to enhance the students’
language acquisition in writing composition. Instagram is useful in procedure text, descriptive
text, recount text, or even explanation text. The researchers infer that Instagram videos can be
an alternative media in teaching and in enhancing the students writing ability. Instagram is easy
to be accessed because most of the students have an Instagram account. Its users are free to
access it many times. It also provides the newest information so it would be up to date. The
video content gives the users in-depth information that helps them to build their ideas in
writing. It is an excellent media to combine process. Lastly, it is a compatible material that can
create a pleasant atmosphere in the classroom situation.

Pedagogical Implication
This study can give implications to teaching and learning English, especially teaching
writing skills. The teachers should make the instructional process enjoyable. One way to make
the teaching and learning process more attractive is by applying an excellent method or strategy
as well as involving engaging media in the learning process. Social media are nowadays
become trends, and the education practitioners may adopt the nuance of social media in the
learning and teaching process.
Instagram today is one of the most favored social media in Indonesia. Especially young
people, they like using Instagram to share their activities and opinions. Some of them also use
Instagram to learn and to train their English skills. They can acquire the language by following
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some accounts of the people they follow. The points the researchers reveal are that the learning
process should be managed as attractive as possible. The excellent instructors are those who
can manage their classrooms as exciting as possible as they can.

Conclusion
Based on the findings, the researchers then conclude that the use of Instagram videos is
able to enhance the students’ writing ability of the eleventh-grade students of SMA Negeri 2
Parepare. It is proved by the students’ improvement writing ability in the experimental class,
which got (74.88) in the post-test, while in the pre-test, they only got (55.36), whereas the
students in control class got (70.08) in post-test after got (53.35) in the pre-test. Although the
students’ writing ability in the control class also improved, the improvement was not as
significant as in the experimental class. It means that the increase of students who were taught
by using Instagram videos and the control classes by using pictures was different.
The use of Instagram videos was able to enhance the students’ writing ability of the
eleventh-grade students of SMA Negeri 2 Parepare. It is proved by the t-test value (2.347),
which is higher than the t-table value (2.000). It means that the use of Instagram videos
enhances the students’ writing ability.

Suggestion
The researcher gives some ideas for some elements related to this research. Those are for
the teachers, students, and the next researcher. For the teachers, teachers should be creative in
making and giving material conducting the teaching and learning process. Besides that, the
teachers also have to apply various teaching media in order; the students will not feel bored in
learning. The teachers can use Instagram videos in teaching English, especially to enhance the
students’ writing ability. For the students, students should spend a lot of time to practice their
writing ability. For the next researcher, it is expected to be useful information to find and
develop various ways to enhance the students’ proficiency in English, especially in writing. To
conduct similar research, the next researcher should pay attention to the condition of the school
and the students. Make sure that there should be an internet connection before using it. People
know that the durations of Instagram are limited, but it is actually enough for teaching a specific
material. The researcher used Instagram in teaching explanation text such as a natural and
social phenomenon; it does not need too long duration to prepare this kind of material. The
next researcher may find the content suitable to be taught by using this media.

124
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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 23 Issue No. 6.3 November 2019

English and Indigenous Mentawai Tradition: The Case of Using English Phatic
Communion Spoken by Ojek Drivers in Siberut Mentawai, Indonesia

1Elfiondri, 1Nova Rina, 2Zaitul, 3Faisal Mustafa, 1Mariati, and 1Irma.

1
Faculty of Humanities, Bung Hatta University, Indonesia.
2
Faculty of Economics and Business, Bung Hatta University, Indonesia.
3
Faculty of Education, Syiah Kuala University, Indonesia.
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Bio-Profile:
Elfiondri is Ph.D. in literature and language currently working as a senior lecturer at English
Language and Literature Department, Faculty of Humanities, Bung Hatta University,
Indonesia. His research interest is in language in relation to literature and culture of indigenous
society. Most of his recent researches are related to indigenous culture of Mentawai. He can be
reached at: [email protected] / [email protected]

Abstract
Foreigners visiting tourist spots of indigenous villages on Siberut island use ojek, a
motorcycle used for public transportation. Ojek drivers use English phatic communion to
welcome and greet foreigners. Since the drivers are not English speakers, it is important to
study their English phatic communion in order to avoid misunderstanding with the foreigners.
Their English phatic communion, however, is not examined yet. This paper studies their phatic
communion. The study includes: (a) types of English phatic communion, (b) its functions and
intent, (c) its topics, and (e) effect of Indonesian tradition on their English phatic communion.
The study applies field research with qualitative and quantitative methods based on phatic
theory. The study results in that the drivers use English phatic communion with directive,
expressive, commissure, and declarative type of which the function is to establish, maintain,
get closer and friendlier, and to break an awkward silence. Their intents are to greet, address,
apologize, welcome, reject, agree, and to compliment. Topics of their phatic are dealing with
activity, performance, destination, address, job, wish, health, safety, marital status, family, and

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weather. Most of the drivers’ English PC are affected by Indonesian PC. However, generally
their PC do not disturb their communication with foreign tourists.

Keywords: English phatic communion, Mentawai tradition, ojek drivers

Introduction
Indigenous villages on Siberut Island, Indonesia are visited by foreign tourists from
various countries like Australia, America, Denmark, England, Africa, Philippines, Japan, and
New Zealand. Foreigners visiting tourism objects of the indigenous villages use ojek, a
motorcycle used for public transportation. Ojek drivers use English phatic communion to
welcome and greet the foreigners. Since the drivers are not derived from English culture, it is
important to study their English phatic communion in order to avoid misunderstanding with
the foreigners. Study on the phatic, however, is not examined yet. This study examines English
phatic communion used by the drivers. Research questions of the study include: (a) types of
English phatic communion, (b) functions and intent, (c) topics, and (e) effect of Indonesian
tradition on their English phatic communion.

Methods
Participants: Ojek drivers as participants consist of 20 drivers who serve foreign
tourists visiting tourism objects of indigenous villages on Siberut Island, Mentawai, Indonesia.
The drivers are male whose ages range from 15 to 45 years old. They come from various tribes
living on the island.
Materials: The materials used in the study of the phatic communion are: (a) a list
containing phatic communion approach-based instruction for observation and hidden
interview is used to determine types of phatic communion, functions and intent, and topics, and
(b) questionnaires containing PC in Indonesian tradition which are designed based on Arimi
(1998) are used as instrument to determine effect of Indonesian PC on the drivers’ English
Phatic Communion (PC).
Research Procedures and Data Analysis: Research applies field research by which
observation and hidden interview are held to collect the data, and then questionnaires are
distributed to Ojek drivers to be filled by circling one of the five choices. Data are analysed
qualitatively based on phatic communion approach to formulate types, functions, topics of
English phatic communion used by the drivers. Effect of Indonesian phatic communion on the
drivers’ English phatic communion is measured using five-point Likert scales and analysed

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quantitatively using SEM-PLS with measurement model and structural model (Hair, Hult,
Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2013).

Literature Review
Referring back to Malinowski (1923), phatic communion (PC) is a language form of
which the meaning is not important. It is language (utterance) in which social contact among
individuals is created and maintained. Malinowski offers that ‘language is not as a countersign
of thought, but as itself a purposeful activity’ by which individuals establish a relationship
among themselves (Wolf, 1989). Malinowski calls the language as phatic communion, ‘a type
of speech in which ties of union are established – the language ‘fulfils a social function and
that is its principal aim. In the function, language does not function as a means of transmission
of thought (Wolf, 1989). Thus, in phatic communion, language does not function to express
meaning, but it is to establish social relationship (Wardhaugh, 1986). Establishing a mood of
sociability as interactional goals is more focused rather than maintaining conversational
coherence (Galantucci, 2018; Cohen, 2018; Halliday, 1973). Thus establishing and maintaining
social relation are function of PC generally. In Indonesian culture, PC has functioned more
specifically like to greet, to thank, to welcome, and the like. (Arimi, 1998).
It may be in the form of small talk in the opening phase (Saftoiu, 2012), which is uttered
by speakers as icebreaking and silence-filling (Barron, 2014). The speakers use it when they
engaged in spontaneous face-to-face talk in which nonsensical sentences are uttered when they
are silent (Galantucci, 2018), and it has value in understanding power relations (Jin, 2018).
Based on the scholars, language people use can be pictured as follows.

Mood of thought Mood of Sociability

conversational coherence interactional goals

Language
More focused on meaning, More focused on establishing &
idea & information maintaining social relationship

Non-Phatic Communion Phatic Communion

Figure 1. Language Mood

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 Referring to speaker’s purpose to speak, PC utterances can be classified into several
types; assertive (conveying information), directive (making a request), commissive (making a
commitment), declaration (creating a new state of affairs), and expressive (expressing an
emotion) (Searle, I969). Speakers speak utterances based on certain topics which they generally
and commonly use in their society (Arimi, 1998; Richard, 1982). Thus, the topics are ‘homes’
from which PC utterances with various forms, types, and functions are derived.

Topic of PC Types and

Form of PC
Functions of PC

Figure 2. Phatic Communion Flow

In Indonesian culture, PC so-called Basa-Basi was widely studied by Arimi (1998). He
found that Indonesian speakers use PC utterances in four types; directive, commissive,
expressive, and declaration. The utterances have a number of topics from which the utterance
are developed the speakers. The topics include health, safety, physical performance, family,
marriage, wishes, time, activity, destination, address, and job. The speakers use PC utterances
with the intent of greeting, welcoming, welcoming, addressing, rejecting, agreeing,
complimenting, and apologising. According to Arimi (1998), most of Indonesian PC topics are
different from those of English. English has PC topics which deal with weather like “Hot, isn’t
it?, Cold weather, isn’t it?” (Brown and Levinson, 1978; Wardhough, 1976; Leech, 1974;
Geikhman, 2019). English people use topics PC like weather, current
news, sports entertainment (Geikhman, 2019; Poelzleitner, 2010). The menu is included as a
topic of PC in English tradition like in PC utterance “What do you like to drink?” (Wright,
2018). English also has topics on health ‘how are you?’, self-introduction ‘how do you do?
(Wardhough, 1976).

Findings
Types of Phatic Communion
The Ojek drivers as indicated by the following Table 1, use four types of phatic
communion (PC) in serving foreign tourists. They use directing, committing, expressing, and
declaring-type. Four samples of utterances of PC forms in the Table reflect the four types of
PC which are used by the drivers in various contexts of conversation. Forms of PC with asterisk
mark (*) are those unacceptable in English tradition.

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 Table 1. Types of Phatic Communion
No Some Forms of Phatic Communion Types
1 Don’t be busy!* Directing
2 Please sleep at my house!* Committing
3 Thank you Expressing
4 Long not to meet* Declaring

Function of Phatic Communion

Forms of PC utterances used by the drivers has several functions. The PC utterances
are uttered to welcome and to greet foreign tourists, to welcome tourist, to address the tourists,
to reject an offering by the tourists, to compliment tourists’ activity, and to apologize for
breaking promise, being late, and for unsatisfying and uncomfortable infrastructure or facility.
As shown in Table 2, PC has functions as greeting, welcoming, welcoming, addressing,
rejecting, agreeing, complimenting, and apology. The functions are expressed through forms
of PC (Table 2). The asterisked PC forms are not accepted as PC in English tradition (culture).

Table 2. Functions of Phatic Communion

No Functions Forms of Phatic Communion
1 Greeting Hello!
2 Welcoming Nice to meet you
3 Addressing Morning Sir*
4 Rejecting Thank you *
5 Agreeing Yes, I agree!
6 Complimentin You are brave, Sir!*
g
7 Apology I am sorry*

Topic of Phatic Communion

Forms of PC which are uttered by the drivers contain topics like health, safety, physical
performance, family, marriage, wishes, time, activity, destination, address, job, and weather
(see Table 3). Most of PC forms (utterances) which are asterisked are natural in English,

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meaning that they are not utterances of mood of sociability in English tradition, but considered
as mood of thought.
Table 3. Topics of Phatic Communion
No Topics Some Forms of Phatic Communion
1 Health How are you?
2 Safety Good afternoon
3 Performance You look fresh today*
4 Family How’s wife and kids?*
5 Marriage Are you married?*
6 Family Do you have children?*
7 Wishes Good luck.
8 Time Please wait a moment Sir!*
9 Activity You just arrive in this island?*
10 Destination Where are you going?*
11 Address Where do you live?*
12 Job What is your job?*
13 Weather Cool isn’t it, Madam?

Relationship of The Drivers’ English PC with Indonesian PC

Drivers’ English PC and Indonesian PC are related in form of effect of Indonesian PC
on the drivers’ English PC. Analysis applying the following measurement models with SEM-
PLS results in that the drivers’ English PC is affected by PC in Indonesian tradition. Of the
three Indonesian PC elements (topic, type, and function), it is found that topics of PC in
Indonesian tradition have effect on types of the drivers’ English PC. The following quantitative
analysis with the measurement shows that all values of measurement indicate the effect.

Measurement model
Result of Measurement Model Assessment (Table 4) shows that validity of all
constructs. The validity is indicated by value of Outer Loading (OL), Cronbach alpha (CA),
Composite Reliability (CR) and AVE. Construct of The drivers’ English PC type (eng_typc)
and Indonesian PC topic (indo_tpc) has outer loading values which are greater than cut-off 0.6
(1.000, 0.956, and 0.958 > 0.6). CA and CR as test of internal consistency (1.000, 0.908, 1.000,

134
and 0.956) is also greater than cut-value (0.7). To know the construct convergent validity and
its value, AVE used has values 1.000 and 0.916 greater than cut-off value 0.5.

Table 4. Measurement Model Assessment

Convergent validity
Outer Cronbach's Composite
Construct Items loading Alpha Reliability AVE
eng_typc eng_typc4 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
indo_tpc4 0.956
indo_tpc 0.908 0.956 0.916
indo_tpc5 0.958

The following Table 5 shows validity of relationship between the Indonesian PC topic
(ind_TPC) with the drivers’ English PC type (eng_typc) based on Fornel-Lacker criterion
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981) which measures it through discriminant validity. The criterion built
by square root of AVE for each construct shows that AVE for indo_tpc for example is 0.916
and its square root is 1.000. The root value is greater than coefficient correlation of ind_tpc
and Eng_TYP (0.541). It shows the construct of ind_tpc with a better discriminant validity.

Table 5. Measurement Model Assessment

Discriminant validity-Fornell-Lacker Criterion
Construct ENG_TYPC INDO_TPC
ENG_TYPC 1.000
INDO_TPC 0.541 0.957

Figure 3. Measurement model

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Structural model
Structural Model Assessment is a model of assessment which has criteria of predictive
power and predictive relevance. As presented by the following Table 6, predictive power has
R-square with the value of 0.293 for eng_typc. Q-square for the construct has value (0.226)
greater than 0. It indicates that the model is fit.

Table 6. Structural Model Assessment

R
endogenous construct Q square decision square Decision
eng_typc 0.226 Large 0.293 Weak
relationship path coef t statistic p value Decision
indo_tpc -> eng_typc 0.541 3.399 0.001 Supported

The decision by the Structural Model Assessment (Table 6) supports that Indonesian phatic
communion topic (indo_tpc) effects the ojek drivers’s phatic communion (eng_typc).
The measurement shows that Indonesian phatic communion topic (indo_tpc) is
significantly related to the ojek drivers’ phatic communion (eng_typc). It is indicated by t value
of this variable is greater than 1.96 and the path coefficient is 0.541. The following Figure 4
pictures the structural model.

Figure 4. Structural model

Discussion
The drivers use topics like greeting, welcoming, family, marriage, service, behavior,
time, activity, destination, address, and job as topics of their phatic communion. The drivers’
PC utterances are based on the topics. PC utterances based on certain topics generally and
commonly used by a group of society (Arimi, 1998; Richard, 1982). It means that the topics
are ‘homes’ from which PC utterances with various forms, types, and functions are derived.
Generally, the drivers use the topics in two phases of PC. The first one is phase where they

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utter PC utterances of which the topics starting from greeting, welcoming, activity, destination
to address. It is the phase in which they newly meet and acquaint with foreign tourists; their
relationship with the tourists is not close yet. In the second phase in which they are getting
closer; they use PC topics of family, marriage, service, behavior, and time. As also observed
by Ocha (2016) and Arimi (1998), family is PC topic commonly used by Indonesian people in
small talk for hospitable and friendly interaction. Generally the topics develop to be PC
utterances with several types in the phases.
Most of the topics like activity, destination, address, family, marriage, service,
behavior, and time are not those of English, but Indonesian. Most of PC utterances used by the
drivers are created based on the topics of Indonesian PC. English has PC topics which deal
with weather (Brown and Levinson, 1978; Wardhough, 1976; Leech, 1974; Geikhman, 2019),
sports entertainment (Geikhman, 2019; Poelzleitner, 2010), menu (Wright, 2018), health and
self-introduction (Wardhough, 1976). Thus, the drivers’ topics of English PC are not included
in the English PC. Some of Indonesian people speak English PC based on Indonesian tradition
(Arimi, 1998). Their English is affected by their mother tongue, Indonesian (Elfiondri, 2019).
As a result, the Indonesian topics-based PC utterances (the asterisked forms in Table 1-3) are
not accepted in English tradition. The utterances like “Are you married?, Where are you
going?, What is your job?, You’ve just arrived in this island? are derived from topics on
marriage, destination, job, and time respectively which are not uttered by English speakers as
mood sociability, but as mood of thought. The English-unaccepted PC utterances are derived
from Indonesian PC utterances translated literally into English by Indonesian people (Cf.
Arimi, 1998).
As indicated by Table 1, the drivers’ PC utterances uttered by consist of four types;
directing-type of PC like “Don’t be busy” which is uttered in context in which they are served
by foreign tourist. They very politely direct the tourist in order not to make the tourist busy in
serving them. However, it is not really forbidding – it is a small talk (PC) to respect the tourist.
Tourist’s response on the PC “It doesn’t make me busy” shows that the PC is not PC in English
culture. The utterance “Please sleep at my house” is also categorized as PC of committing type
doe to that the drivers offers tourist to sleep at his house. They feel impolite unless they do not
offer visitor or guest who visits their house in the evening or in the case the guest does not book
hotel. It is Indonesian culture which highly respects guests or visitors. Another PC “long not to
meet you” is a declaring-type uttered to tourist having been recognized, but they have not met
each other for a period of time. Even though they have not meet for a short period of time, the
utterance is ‘long time not to meet’ to state his great missing-feeling. The PC contains happy

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feeling to meet the tourist. Arimi (1998) also found that the utterances and the types used by
are those generally used by Indonesian people.
Functionally, the drivers’ PC has function to establish and maintain social relationship
between the drivers and foreign tourists. They have PC to open a conversation (Cf. Barron,
2014), to break awkward silence with tourist (Cf. Saftoiu, 2012), to easily introduce to the
tourist as someone new, in order to seem friendlier, in order to behave and sound more like the
tourist as a native speaker, and to become closer (Cf. Geikhman, 2019). The drivers’ intent or
purpose (Table 2) is to welcome, to greet, to address, to reject, to agree, to compliment, and to
apologize. They use “hello” to greet and “nice to meet you” to welcome tourists. The two forms
of PC are also used by English speakers (Yuliasri, 2016). In Indonesia, people use utterance of
which the topic is safety to greet people (known and unknown persons) like “selamat pagi”
(good morning)”,”Assamulaikum” (peace be with you) (Arimi, 1998), followed by
welcoming-utterance “apa kabarmu?” (how are you?), and then they usually continue their PC
utterance asking destination from where (Adistin, 2016). Utterance of greeting “selamat pagi”
may also be used as addressing by placing addressing-form “Pak” (Sir), “Buk” (madam). It is
uttered “selamat pagi Pak!” (good morning Sir!).
The next specific function of PC is an apology. In line with function of PC stated by
Holmes (1990), the drivers use apology in order to make tourists return to be happy because
of an offence by the drivers. The drivers’ apology may be classified into permission like ‘maaf
kami ingin pergi’ (please apologize us we want to go), mistake like ‘maaf itu kesalahan saya’
(I apologize for my mistake), and promise like ‘maaf saya tidak bisa datang malam nanti’
(Sorry I cannot come this evening). PC is also used to compliment tourists as reflected by
utterance ‘anda berani!’ (you are brave!) which is spoken by the drivers when they watch
tourists are surfing on high wave in the sea. Utterance containing agreement like ‘saya setuju
dengan rencana itu’ (I agree with the plan) is also used when they have discussion with tourists.
The forms of PC uttered by the drivers can be understood by tourists; they do not disturb
their communication between the drivers and tourists, even though most of the utterances do
not contain mood sociability in English tradition. A form of PC utterance which disturbs their
communication is utterance“terima kasih” (thank you) to reject tourists’ offer. In English
tradition, ‘thank you’ means accepting the offer; ‘no thank you’ is to reject the offer. However,
in Indonesia culture, ‘thank you’ can mean ‘rejecting’ and ‘accepting’ depending on context,
but generally ‘ya terima kasih’ (yes, thank you) is to accept an offer (Arimi, 1998).
As previously discussed, the English-unaccepted PC forms used by the drivers are
derived and developed from PC topics in Indonesian tradition. As also quantitatively indicated

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by the result of the Models of Measurement above, it shows that the Indonesian tradition-based
topics affect the forms of the drivers’ English PC. English of Indonesian people are still
affected by their mother-tongue, Indonesian language (Elfiondri, 2019). PC Topics of
Indonesian and English are different doe to different culture. However, both contain politeness
in communion; each language has its own form of politeness based on its culture (Song, 2017).

Conclusion and Recommendation

The study results in that the drivers use types of phatic communion (PC) including
directive, expressive, commissive, and declaration. As mood of sociability, PC is functionally
uttered foreign tourists to establish, maintain, get closer and friendlier, and to break an awkward
silence. The drivers’ purposes to use PC are to greet, address, apologize, welcome, reject, agree,
and to compliment. Their PC utterances contain topics on activity, performance, destination,
address, job, wish, health, safety, marital status, family, and weather. Almost of the topics,
except ‘weather’ are those of Indonesian PC which shape the drivers’ English PC. Quantitative
measurement also shows that most of the drivers’ PC utterances are derived from Indonesian
PC. Thus, Indonesian PC affects the drivers’ English PC.
In English culture, the drivers’ English PC utterances derived from Indonesian PC are
not mood of sociability, but mood of thought. They are not PC in English so that the drivers’
PC utterances fail to express the drivers’ mood of sociability to the tourists. It means that their
intents to use PC and PC function are not expressed by PC. It suggests that the drivers and
those serving foreign tourists in English should use English included PC based on English
culture. Unless their English may fail to deliver message to tourists, or even it may cause
misunderstanding and conflict.
In pedagogy is that teaching English to students should include English culture. English
and its culture are closely related. English culture influences and shapes English. English
reflects its culture so that using English means also using its culture. They cannot be separated
in using English mainly in speaking. In teaching English speaking like teaching English PC for
example, both English grammar and culture related to PC should be taught in order that the
students can deliver their message to English speakers. Besides that, since mother tongue has
negative effect on English, differences between mother tongue and English should also be
included in teaching English in order that the students avoid the negative effect.
Doe to that English is part of its culture, it is highly recommended that teaching English
to Indonesia students should include English grammar, its culture and contrastive study on
Indonesian (mother tongue) and English. On research, it is suggested for the next study to

139
discuss effect of the Indonesian-based English PC and English of tourism guides on foreign
tourist psychologically or behaviorally. The study is important to establish and maintain a
positive memorable tourism experience in Mentawai.

Acknowledgment
This paper is result of research financially supported by Ministry of Research and Technology,
Republic of Indonesia with the decision number 7/E/KPT/2019.

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 23 Issue No. 6.3 November 2019

The Effectiveness of Independent Learning Method on Students’ Speaking Achievement

at Christian University of Indonesia Jakarta

Lamhot Naibaho*
Universitas Kristen Indonesia
Jl. Mayjen Sutoyo No. 2 Cawang Jakarta Timur, 13630
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Bio-Profile:
Lamhot Naibaho is an Associate Professor at English Teaching Study Program at Universitas
Kristen Indonesia. His research interests Linguistics, Pyscholiguistics, language teaching, and
curriculum. He has attended and presented in national and international conferences such as
Asian EFL Journal, ESP Journal, TESOL ASIA Conferences, IAFOR Conferences, and
ICALLE, APKASI and ARISUTA RESEARCH CENTER, and many more.

Abstract
This study is about the effectiveness of independent learning method on students’
speaking achievement, and it was done to know whether independent learning method is
effective on improving students’speaking achievement. The method of this study was
classroom action research, and it was done at the Christian University of Indonesia located on
Jl. Mayjen Sutoyo No. 2 Cawang, East Jakarta. The subject of this study was the fourth-
semester students of English Department. Speaking test, documentation using an audiovisual
recorder, diary note, and observation sheet were used as instruments of this study. The data
taken were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed. The results of the study show that there
is an improvement on students’ speaking achievement (51.07%), it means that independent
learning method is effective in improving students’speaking achievement. Then it is concluded
the students’ speaking ability improved when they were taught using independent learning
method, so it is suggested that teachers should apply independent learning as one of the
strategies to improve students’ speaking skill.

Keywords: speaking skill, independent learning method

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Introduction
Speaking skill is an essential productive skill in learning English, and it is so because
speaking is done to share information verbally. Besides, speaking is helpful for the students to
learn a language because through speaking, they are provided many advantages such as;
improving their capability on grammatical mastery, putting correct diction and idiom, and
speaking will also enrich their’ ability in language use. Through speaking, students will be
encouraged to express the ideas they have in their mind. Harmer (2004) said that speaking is a
vital skill for English language learner as much as for everyone using their first language. To
be able to speak, of course, students should have learned first the language whether it is
formally or informally. In this process of learning, of course, there should be someone who
facilitates them, they are usually is called a teacher, tutor or lecturer.
Process of teaching and learning is generally considered as an important thing to be
well mastered by an English teacher, therefore the teacher just needs to know the approaches
and methods used in teaching speaking. Finding the more appropriate approaches and methods
in teaching speaking has been focused to be found by the researcher trough research and
conferences, and then the result of the research and conferences are documented in the form of
audios, videos, and books which are used as teaching media and teaching sources (Dawes et
al, 2005).
Lately, the English speaking ability is very important, this is because the use of English
is now in various aspects of life. This is what drives all countries to compete in mastering
English. But in Indonesia, on the contrary, when other countries have updated themselves in
the mastery of English, Indonesia still has not established an attitude that encourages its people
to be able to communicate in English. Graves (2008) emphasizes learning the English language
to broaden one's horizons or horizons as well as to enhance or develop one's economic
prospects, due to the sources of information in the world of education or non-education are
mostly written in English. Besides, a person's English language skills will also help him to be
more competent in developing the business or work he does so that it can help him improve his
economy.
Therefore, English language skills are very important to be mastered by those who
study English. However, despite several studies were done to help students mastering English
language skills, a lot of EFL learners are still find it difficult to master (Hinkel, 2005). Research,
in this case, is also still not done so much, as for some research that has been done, namely
research on the perspective of students about learning to speak in EFL classes. To prove it.
Small-scale observations have been made at school by researchers. The results found through

143
these observations are that there are still many students who have problems in speaking, this
happens because of the following factors: a) vocabulary mastery is still small (8%); b) students
find it difficult to make ideas correctly (16%); c) students have limited knowledge of a
particular topic (20%); d) students do not have the motivation or are motivated to speak (20%);
e) and students have confidence in speaking with grammar skills that are still lacking (36%).
With the results of these observations, it can be said that the English teacher still has a big
responsibility to fix the problems mentioned earlier. The English teacher must be able to
determine, choose, implement and even evaluate the right teaching method or strategy so that
the problems faced by students can be overcome properly. That is, whatever and however the
conditions of the class, the English teacher should be able to implement the appropriate
strategies in teaching. This is what encourages experts to more intensely exploring and research
so that recently many experts try hard to find what strategies are possible to apply in class.
From all of the theories about teaching strategies and methods ranging from good to
less good, then after reading several theories about teaching the speaking method, researcher
is very interested in applying a method to overcome the students’ problem in speaking, namely
“independent learning”. The reason why the method is said to be good is that some researchers
have also conducted research using the method in the speaking class and the results are quite
satisfying. As for the researchers who have applied the method in class as follows: Meyer and
Faraday (2008), found that independent learning is a significan method to be implemented in
improving students’ speaking ability. This means that this method can be applied to be applied
in the speaking class. The second researcher is Zumbrun et all (2011), they encourage their
students to learn to speak by using independent learning and the results are satisfying.
This is what drives the researcher to conduct a research, entitled “Improving Students'
Speaking Ability through Independent Learning Methods at Indonesian Christian University".
The problem examined in this study is "can independent learning improve students 'speaking
skills?", where the purpose of conducting the research is finding out that the independent
learning method improves the English ability of the student in speaking.

Theoretical Review
Through speaking activities, the information that a person wishes to convey is received
and understood and responded to by the other person. Speaking is the production of systematic
verbal that convey meaning (Nunan, 2003; Benito, 2019). The ability to speak is not only
limited to being able to express to others, but the ideas or ideas conveyed must be systematic
and not violate the rules of grammar that have been set. Whereas Torky (2006) says that

144
speaking is a motor perception skill which is produced by auditory. It means that speaking can
cause stimulation to the listener, so he can respond to the message conveyed by the preacher.
Howarth (2001) said that is a process of communicating the ideas, informations or feelings in
a two-way direction. That is, in every conversation, there must always be a speaker and listener
who respond to each other's utterances spoken during the conversion process.
Speaking is a cooperative processed and a multi-sensory activity which is based on the
contributions, the assumptions, the expectations, and the interpretations of the involving
participants. This means that the content of each conversation must complement each other
(Thornbury, 2005). That is, that in speaking, there are several organs of the human body that
function to be able to produce sounds or utterances that come out of the mouth, and the sounds
or utterances are utterances that have been arranged so that they can be understood by the
listener. These definitions conclude that speaking is a mental motor skill, consisting of voice
coordination, mechanism, which is produced by our muscles and also has a mental aspect. It is
a skill in managing meaningful words and sounds.
Viewed from the conditions when it happens, speaking usually occurs two or several
people face to face (Van, 1989), which makes it very interactional and social. Speaking skills
are a skill in thinking, an expert in speaking can be sure to have good skills in thinking. Based
on the explanation above, then to measure students' speaking ability, which consists of five
competencies such as; pronunciation as sound production, grammar as a determination of good
or bad language (Chung and Pullum, 2010), vocabulary as a word list (Igbaria, 2011), fluency
as the use of language without hesitation (Binder et al, 2002), and self-confidence.
There are several facts found in speaking, such as a) Speaking is a face-to-face activity,
as it allows the participants involved and interlocutor to make a direct response from the
interlocutors; b) talking is interactive (Cornbleet & Carter, 2001); c) Speaking is taken place in
real-time condition (Foster et al., 2000).
In teaching languages (Richards & Rodgers 2007; Larsen, 2000), a teacher must be
familiar with a variety of teaching methods. Thornbury (2002) says that there are several
methods used in language teaching such as a) grammar translation method; b) direct method;
c) audio-lingual method; d) total physical response; e) the silent way; f) suggestopedia; g)
community language learning; h) independent learning. This research is focused on one of the
language teaching methods, it is independent learning.
Independent learning is part of cognitive learning theory which states that the behavior,
motivation, and aspects of the learning environment affect a student's achievement.
Independent learning is a method in learning where the students were given a chance to control

145
themselves during the teaching-learning. Students who have been able to do independent
learning will be reflected in their ability to actively participate in learning both in terms of
metacognitive, motivational and seriousness of behavior in achieving learning goals (Mayer et
al., 2008).
An independent learning strategy is a learning strategy that aims to build individual
initiative, independence, and self-improvement. Independent learning can also be done with
friends or as part of a small group. The independent learning strategy is strongly built by the
students’ learning motivation. Therefore, the teachers should be able to foster the studnets’
intentions, besides, the teachers also have to be well performed in the study field and the
strategies in teaching. The independent learning strategy allows students to learn independently
from printed, broadcast and recorded material that has been prepared in advance, the term
independent emphasizes that learning control, as well as the flexibility of time, and place of
learning, lies with learners who learn. Thus, independent learning as a strategy can be defined
as a learner who positions the learner as the person in charge, the holder of control, the decision-
maker or the initiative in fulfilling and achieving his learning success with or without help from
others. The most important part of the concept of an independent learning strategy is that each
student must be able to identify sources of information because identification of this source of
information is needed to facilitate the learning activities of a student when the student needs
help or support (Weiss, 2004; Piaget, 2001; Bullock dan Muschamp, 2006; Bishop, 2006). Due
to the independent learning concept, then students are expected to: a) Realizing that the
relationship between the teacher and him still exists, but the relationship is represented by
teaching materials or learning media; b) Knowing the concept of independent learning; c)
Knowing when he should ask for help, when he needs help or support; d) Know who and from
where he can or should get help/support (Birenbaum, 2002; Taggart et al, .2005 dan Weiss,
2004; Paris, 2001; Neber & Schommer-Aikins, 2002; Hinds, 2007).
While independent learning several steps will be carried out by the learner, either one
person or group, namely: a) setting goals - Learners choose or participate in choosing, to work
for an important purpose, both visible and invisible, that is meaningful to themselves and
others. The goal is not the end of everything. That goal will provide an opportunity to apply
academic professional expertise to everyday life. When learners achieve meaningful goals in
daily life, the process helps them achieve high academic standards; b) making a plan - Learners
set the steps to achieve their goals. Planning here involves looking further ahead and deciding
how to succeed. The plan students decide depends on whether they want to solve the problem,
determine the problem, or create a project. A plan made by someone depends on its purpose.

146
Both goals involve solving the problem, solving the problem, all of which require taking action,
asking questions, making choices, gathering and analyzing information, and thinking critically.
The ability to do these things enables the success of independent learning; c) following the plan
and measure your progress - From the beginning, learners must not only realize their goals, but
they must also be aware of the academic expertise. Besides, the students must evaluate how
well their plans are going; d) producing the final results - Learners get an outcome both visible
and invisible to them. There are thousands of ways to display the results of independent
learning. The most obvious is that a group might produce a portfolio, and can also provide
information using graphs, or appear to present their learning outcomes and be ready to be
commented on by other learners; e) demonstrating skills through authentic assessment -
Learners demonstrate skills especially in independent and authentic assignments. By using
standard values and assessment markers to assess learners' portfolios, journals, presentations,
and performances, teachers can estimate their level of academic achievement. Besides, the
authentic assessment shows how deep the learning process that students may get by
implementing the independent learning method in learning. The effectiveness of Independent
learning is depended not only on the knowledge and dedication of the students, but also the
dedication and expertise of the teacher.

Research Methodology
This study was classroom action research (Naibaho in Robertson, Adamson, &
Guzman, 2016). The location of the research was at the Christian University of Indonesia at Jl.
Mayjen Sutoyo, No. 2 Cawang, East Jakarta. The subjects of the study were the fourth-semester
students of the speaking class. The number of subjects was 38 students. It was done in two
cycles. Besides, each cycle was done based on the research plan, and in conducting the action
research, four steps were included such as; planning, action, observation, and reflection.
Speaking test was used as the instrument, besides the speaking test, the writer also used an
interview, questionnaire sheet, diary note, and observation sheet. The technique of data analysis
used in this study was qualitative and quantitative analysis. The qualitative data were used to
describe the situation during the teaching process through interview sheet, questionnaire sheet,
observation sheet, and diary note and the students’ speaking test was analyzed quantitatively.

Findings and Discussion

147
 The quantitative data were taken from the test result which had been carried out in two
cycles and each cycle consists of 6 times meeting. The result of the tests was presented as
follows: Here is the score taken from the students’ speaking test result in the cycle one.
Table 1. Pre-test and Post-test Result in Cycle One
Students’ Pre-test score Students’ Post-test score
40, 59, 55, 66, 67, 54, 47, 56, 55, 53, 65, 51, 61, 60, 67, 67, 69, 61, 62, 69, 54, 60,
54, 52, 49, 49, 49, 51, 49, 47, 48, 48, 45, 51, 66, 67, 59, 54, 56, 60, 61, 63, 63, 51,
51, 51, 55, 47, 61, 50, 48, 51, 50, 48, 48, 60, 67, 64, 58, 69, 60, 57, 60, 66, 56, 67,
50, 53, 50, 48, 64. 60, 63, 61, 63, 68.

At the first cycle, the students were tested twice, and from both the result of the test, it
is concluded that there is an improvement on the students' score. It can be seen from the
percentage of improvement in each test, it can be seen as follows.
The mean of Pre-test

X =
X
N
1991
X =
38
X = 51

The mean of Post-test in cycle one

X =
X
N
2331
X =
38
X = 60

So the percentages of improvement are as follows:

To see the improvement of both test in the first cycle, so the mean of Post-test is deduced to
the mean of Pre-test, as follows:
Mean of Post-test of cycle one - Mean of pre-test of cycle one
= 60 – 51
=9
= 17%

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Table 2. Distribution of Frequency in the Cycle One
Range Frequency  Percentage
91-100 0 0 0%
81-90 0 0 0%
71-80 0 0 0%
61-70 21 1364 61%
51-60 17 967 39%
40-50 0 0 0%

The above table shows that there were still some of the students could not achieve good
achievement (by achieving the excellence score 70-80 and 90-100). It means that the students
did not make a good improvement. Due to this achievement, a reflection was done to steps and
process which had been done during the cycle one. It was done to know the weaknesses which
were found during conducting the cycle one and those weaknesses were given solution when
the cycle two were conducted. Things which were done to check out those weaknesses were:
a) checking the diary note; and b) checking the observation sheet. After checking the diary note
and the observation sheet, it was found that during the teaching-learning process, there were
some of the students who did not pay good attention during the teaching-learning. Therefore,
at the beginning of the cycle two, the students were motivated and manipulated the teaching
technique in delivering the content of the learning. After doing the reflection and found the
weaknesses and solution to the weaknesses, then it was decided to continue the research into
the cycle two.
In conducting the cycle two, the teaching strategy used by the teacher was changed and
improved to make a more comfortable situation then the students find it more enthusiastic
learning to improve their ability speaking in order to get a very good criteria in speaking namely
by getting score above of 80 for the speaking test.
After the cycle two was done, then the test speaking test was conducted. This test was the post-
test of the research, and the result of the post-test is written the form of score as follows:

Table 3. Post-test in Cycle One and Post-test Result in Cycle Two

Students’ Post-test score in Cycle one Students’ Post-test score in Cycle two

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 51, 61, 60, 67, 67, 69, 61, 62, 69, 54, 60, 51, 79, 77, 76, 83, 83, 92, 77, 78, 94, 77, 76, 78,
66, 67, 59, 54, 56, 60, 61, 63, 63, 51, 60, 67, 82, 81, 79, 79, 76, 76, 77, 79, 79, 75, 80, 77,
64, 58, 69, 60, 57, 60, 66, 56, 67, 60, 63, 61, 80, 75, 85, 76, 78, 76, 82, 75, 82, 76, 79, 77,
63, 68. 79, 84.

The mean of the post-test in the cycle two.

X =
X
N
3008
X =
38
X = 79
To see the improvement of the post-test on the cycle one into Post-test so the mean of
Post-test on the cycle two and the mean of Pre-test at the cycle two were deduced, the
calculation can be seen as follows:
Mean of Post-test in the cycle two - Mean of post-test at the cycle one
= 79 – 61
=8
= 29%
Base on the table above could be described the distribution of the students’ score was as
described as follows.
Table 2. Distribution of Frequency in the Cycle two
Range Frequency  Percentage
91-100 2 93 3%
81-90 10 832 25%
71-80 26 2009 72%
61-70 0 0 0%
51-60 0 0 0%
40-50 0 0 0%

The table shows that the improvement made by the students was very good, it is shown
by their achievements on the score gained at the post-test in the cycle two. This could be
attained because at the cycle two, the students were encouraged to be more enthusiast in
learning and by adapting the teaching strategy made the teachers. It means that the problems

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that occurred during the cycle one that made the students could not achieve good performance
in speaking were solved, where two students got the excellent score, 25% students got a very
good score, and 72% got a good score.

Table 3. The Percentages of the Students’ Speaking Test Progression

Test Percentage
pre-test – to post-test 1st cycle 17%
to post-test 1st cycle - post-test 2nd Cycle 29%

The total percentage of the improvement from the pre-test into post-test was gained by
deducing the mean of post-test in cycle one to the mean of pre-test, it is shown as follows:
= 79 – 52
= 27
= 51%
From the analysis above, it can be seen that the total improvement made by the students
indicated that the ability of speaking passed the “good” criteria.
The qualitative (diary notes, interview, and observation sheet) indicates learning independent
is an interesting method to be implemented in speaking class, it is proven through improvement
made in each test, where the score gained kept increasing. The result of the data taken through
interview showed that speaking class is much more interesting when it is taught using
independent learning. While the data taken through observation sheet also showed that at first,
the students find it uninteresting to learn speaking, but when the teaching strategy is adopted
and manipulated by the teachere and students were remotivated, then there is a huge difference
and improvement on their desire to learn speaking.
From all of the analysis and discussion, it is concluded that the students’ ability in
speaking is improved when it was taught using independent learning. It is proven by the
achievement made by the students: a) the mean of the score made by the students in the Pre-
test was 51; them mean made by the students for Post-test in cycle one was 60; and the mean
of Post-test made by the students in cycle two is 79. It means that there was improvement made
by the students during the test conducted to them as their achievement. Besides, the total
percentage improvement from the Pre-test to Post-test in cylce two also showed a great
improvement. It is about 51%. This conclusion is also supported by the data taken through
interview, diary note, and observation sheet that shows a great interest on the implementation

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of independent learning in speaking class it means that the students find it more interesting to
learn speaking if it was taught by independent.

Conclusion
The conclusion of this research is that independent learning is a very good method to
be implemented in teaching speaking and it improves the students’ English ability (The mean
of the test score improves from 51 to 60 and from 60 to 79) and the percentage improvement
from Pre-test to Post-test in cycle two is 51%. This conclusion is also supported by the result
of qualitative data analysis that is the students find it more interesting to learn speaking if it
was taught by independent.

Pedagogical Implication
This finding of this research has some pedagogical implications, they are: a) the finding
of this study develops the theory of English teaching strategies which has been scientifically
proven through research; b) academic English instructor can make use the finding of this
research to help them enlarging their knowledge on teaching strategies which is applicable in
speaking class; and c) academic writing instructor also can use the finding of this research to
help researcher improve the writing ability on publication might be in terms of article’s
structure and sentence composition.

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 23 Issue No. 6.3 November 2019

Women in TESOL Leadership Roles in Japanese Higher Education

Jennifer Yphantides
Soka University, Tokyo, Japan

Bio-Profile:
Jennifer Yphantides has been teaching EFL since 1993. Her career has taken her to Europe,
The Middle East, and Asia. She has been teaching at the tertiary level in the Japanese context
for more than a decade. She has a Doctorate degree in Education and researches teacher
identity. [email protected]

Abstract
Globally, there are few female leaders in higher education and the situation is
particularly dire in Japan which reports some of the lowest representation in the developed
world (Shiobara, 2016). Japan is now in the process of internationalizing its higher education
system (MEXT, 2016) and is trying to recruit more foreign staff and students. Japan is also
currently trying to increase the number of women participating in the workforce. In this local
context, both women and foreign people have become an important subject for research. This
paper reports on the career paths of foreign women leaders in TESOL in higher education in
Japan, the barriers they have faced in this context, and the mentorship they accessed in order
to overcome difficulties. In recent years, there has been a narrative shift in the field that seeks
to align TESOL with social justice (Hastings & Jacob, 2016). The purpose of this research aims
at creating a measure of social justice within TESOL and the findings may be internationally
applicable to an SLA audience that is gradually turning its attention to the development of more
equitable and representative workplaces.

Introduction
In her article on women working in higher education, Shiobara (2016) notes that one of
the lowest rates of female participation is reported in Japan, a mere 12%. Foreign teachers
comprise an even smaller percentage of participation in Japanese higher education, a mere

155
3.8% (MEXT, 2012). A quarter of the positions held by non-Japanese are occupied by those
teaching English, 20% of whom are women (MEXT, 2012). This is in contrast to the
international scene where the majority of those in language education are women (Appleby,
2013). These numbers seem to indicate an environment that is less than welcoming to foreign
women teaching English in Japanese tertiary-level institutions. However, there are a number
of women who have managed not only to secure positions teaching English in Japanese
universities but who also play leading roles in the country’s TESOL departments. This paper
will explore the career trajectories of foreign women who have attained leadership positions in
TESOL. Because no previous scholarship has examined foreign women in leadership in roles
in TESOL in Japanese higher education, the literature review below will take a global focus on
women in leadership roles in higher education, the challenges they face, and their means of
overcoming difficulties.

Literature Review
This literature review explores two strands of research investigating the career
trajectories of women in higher education. The first strand is the problems aspiring women
leaders face as they attempt to gain access to higher-level positions in academia and the second
strand focuses on the vital role mentors play in helping women achieve their goals.
Problems
The most prominent issue in the literature is the problems women face when trying to
gain access to leadership roles in higher education. These include gender stereotyping and a
lack of training that leads to a non-linear career trajectory.
Gender Stereotypes
Women in higher education have to contend with a number of stereotypes that
include their being portrayed as weak, ill-suited for leadership, and primarily caregivers who
belong in the private sphere (Ahad & Gunter, 2017; Alsubaie & Jones, 2017; Morley, 2014;
Nguyen, 2013; Parker, 2015). In this literature, the ideal worker is described as a man who has
a full-time caregiver at home for himself and his children, who is the sole breadwinner that will
be dedicated to the university because his partner does not earn an income, and who will follow
the traditional trajectory, be mobile when the need arises, and be fully committed to pursuing
research over teaching (Burkinshaw & White, 2017; Ford, 2016). When men are cast as the
ideal worker, women are often cast as the opposite (Burkinshaw & White, 2017). Women either
need to attempt to conform to this ideal worker image or face the negative consequences of
challenging it.

156
 The gender stereotype of the ideal male worker is connected with the notion that men
are naturally suited to leadership roles (Ahad & Gunter, 2017; Morley, 2013; Nguyen, 2013).
Men are expected to be more aggressive and more decisive, qualities that are favored among
the current leaders in higher education (Morley, 2013). Men are also considered to be more
appropriate leaders of universities that are steeped in the neoliberal ethos of accountability and
competition (Morley, 2013; Zhao & Jones, 2017). Taken together, this portrait of a leader as
decisive, aggressive, and competitive is more in keeping with stereotypes of traditional
masculinity (Ahad & Gunter, 2017).
In contrast to men, women are often stereotyped as caregivers who work primarily in
the inner sphere of the home with children and extended family members (Ahad & Gunter,
2017; Alsubaie & Jones, 2017; Morley, 2014; Nguyen, 2013; Parker, 2015). This is a stereotype
that is reflected and reproduced in a number of English language textbooks used in higher
education in Japan (Otlowski, 2003). Due to pervasive, gendered images of women, they are
often cast in supporting roles in the university. They spend more time teaching than
researching, and more time on service with students and on pastoral care of students to ensure
their personal and emotional well-being. Additionally, if women are promoted to a leadership
role, that role often involves student support rather than research (Cotterill & Letherby, 2005;
Dunn et al., 2014; Gallant, 2014). While the literature does not suggest that this focus on
students is an inherently negative phenomenon, it has been argued that in the current climate
of neoliberalism, teaching and pastoral care have been reduced in prestige and research is the
key to continued advancement (Cotterill & Letherby, 2005; Dunn et al., 2014; Gallant, 2014).

Lack of Training and Non-Linear Career Paths

Pervasive gender stereotyping seems to be in the way of women attaining the
qualifications they need to pursue leadership roles in higher education and cause women to
follow non-linear career trajectories that are often frowned upon by university administrators.
Women state that in order to attain a tenure-track position, they need a doctorate degree,
something that is usually taken for granted in the Western world. However, access to this level
of education is not always as straightforward in developing countries. Ahad and Gunter (2017)
report that women in Bangladesh who work in the academy get their terminal degrees later than
their male counterparts due to life obligations and the gender stereotypes that cast men as more
worthy of investing in when it comes to university-level education. Nguyen (2013) also

157
discusses similar problems in the Vietnamese context. Alsubaie and Jones (2017) concur that
achieving a terminal degree can also be a challenge for women in Saudi Arabia.
Although the situation in Western countries is less challenging than in countries like
Bangladesh, Vietnam, or Saudi Arabia, women’s paths to terminal degrees are not as linear as
men’s (Moodly & Toni, 2017; Vicary & Jones, 2017; Woollen, 2016). Many women report the
need to take time off during doctoral studies or complete their terminal degrees while working
because they have more responsibilities to take care of in the home than men (Moodly & Toni,
2017). Once their degrees are completed, they are somewhat behind the game compared to
their male counterparts and begin to feel less confident (Moodly & Toni, 2017). Because of
increased responsibilities on the home-front, women have less time for academic work like
publishing research and making conference presentations, which is often completed outside
regular hours (Vicary & Jones, 2017). Oftentimes, having a long list of publications and
presentations is the only way for women to access official leadership opportunities. However,
many women feel they do not have the time to pursue research because of life obligations on
the home front and because of a disproportionate amount of work with students compared to
their male counterparts (Moodly & Toni, 2017; Vicary & Jones, 2017; Woollen, 2016).

Mentorship
While the problems faced by women in higher education seem to be grave, there is one
powerful tool that can be accessed to mitigate the problems. The single most important
facilitating factor to a successful career in higher education leadership is having a good mentor
(Alsubaie & Jones, 2017; Block & Tietjen-Smith, 2016; Davis & Maldonado, 2015; Gallant,
2014; McDade, Nooks, King, Sloma-Williams, Chuang, Richman, & Morahan, 2008; Morley,
2014; Nguyen, 2013; Ramsay, McGregor, & McCarthy, 2014; Tolar, 2012). According to the
literature, mentorship is accompanied by a host of benefits including increased opportunities
for leadership, increased loyalty to the organization, higher salaries, a greater number of
publications in high-impact journals, more research funding, and increased aspirations for
leadership (Block & Tietjen-Smith, 2016). Women themselves have identified mentorship as a
key to success in academia and advocate for more programs that foster positive relationships
between mentors and proteges (McDade et al., 2008; Morley, 2014; Ramsay et al., 2014).
Common themes in the current literature are for women to lament the lack of mentors that are
similar to them and the need for women to “pay-it-forward” once they have attained a
leadership position in higher education (Gallant, 2014).

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 While the benefits of mentorship have been well-established by the research (Alsubaie
& Jones, 2017; Block & Tietjen-Smith, 2016; Davis & Maldonado, 2015; Gallant, 2014;
McDade et al., 2008; Morley, 2014; Nguyen, 2013; Ramsay et al., 2014; Tolar, 2012) and
women know the importance of having a good mentor (Block & Tietjen-Smith, 2016), there
remain some issues that need to be addressed in order to improve the mentorship system. For
example, studies that investigated the experiences of high-achieving women with their mentors
highlighted that mentorship can also be a hindrance when there is a lack of time on the parts of
both the mentor and the protege to establish a positive work relationship, when there is poor
planning of support activities, when there is a lack of expertise on the part of the mentor, and
when there is a poor match made between mentor and protege in formal mentorship programs.
Before mentorship can be considered a “magic bullet” for women aspiring to leadership roles
in higher education, there needs to be more formal research done to add to and improve this
facilitating phenomenon. Some issues for future research include how to move on from a
mentor, how to set appropriate boundaries between mentor and protege, and how to cope with
outpacing a mentor. Proteges also need support when it comes to asking their mentors to
provide them with more challenges (Block & Tietjen-Smith, 2016; Tolar, 2012).
The focus of this literature review has been on the problems aspiring women leaders
face and the key facilitating factor that eases women into leadership roles: mentorship. It is
clear that while there are universal problems and solutions, there are also benefits to country-
specific and region-specific examinations in order to uncover issues that vary depending on
context. This is particularly true in the Japanese context. While the majority of literature
indicates the universal nature of the problems women in higher education face (Peterson, 2016),
a plethora of country-specific studies also demonstrates the importance of focusing on the local
context (Ahad & Gunter, 2017; Alsubaie & Jones, 2017, Morley, 2013; Morley, 2014). Because
only one study has been published that focuses only in part on Japanese women in leadership
roles in higher education (Morley, 2014), more research is needed to develop a context-specific
understanding non-Japanese women in Japanese higher education experience on their career
paths.

Methodology
Research Question
The central research question of this narrative study was: How do foreign women
describe their experiences ascending to and occupying a leadership role in higher education in
TESOL in Japan? This exploration was rooted in previous research, particularly Morley’s

159
(2014) investigation of female leaders in Asian contexts and Simon-Maeda’s (2004) work
examining the lived experiences of foreign women teaching English in Japan. The question is
of significance because no previous studies have been conducted that examine foreign women
in leadership in higher education in Japan.

Participants
This study included in-person interviews with four foreign women in TESOL who were
identified by the researcher as playing an important leadership role in higher education in
Japan. All participants were Caucasian and had been working in Japan for over a decade. All
were in formal leadership roles including professors and department heads. Additionally, all
participants are well-known and active in the TESOL community in Japan. Interviews lasted
one hour and were audio-recorded. Audio-recordings were subsequently transcribed and
participants verified the accuracy of the transcripts. After verification, transcripts were coded
thematically and were then used to create a case-narrative for each participant. Once the coding
and case-narratives were completed, participants again checked the themes that emerged from
the coding and the theme-based case-narratives for accuracy.
TABLE 1: Participant demographics and professional background.

Pseudonym Age Race Family Status Job Title Time in Japan

Range

Renata 50s Caucasian Married to a Professor 20+ years

foreigner, two
children

Leslie 50s Caucasian Married to a Department 15+ years

foreigner Head

Faye 60s Caucasian Married to a Professor 30+ years

Japanese, two
children

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 Anne 40s Caucasian Single Department 15+ years
Head

Findings
The focus of this study was to examine how four women leaders in TESOL in Japanese
higher education experienced their career trajectories The findings are structured around the
literature review and address the gendered experiences of the participants, the non-linearity of
their career trajectories, and the mentorship that benefitted them.
Gendered Experiences
Participants’ stories indicated an acute awareness of the struggles that many women
face in higher education in Japan, particularly in TESOL. Findings indicate that all participants
experienced some gender bias during their careers but when the women recounted these stories,
it was with a measure of balance, a sense of determination, and, in some cases, humor.

Anne. Although relatively fortunate because she does not feel she experienced direct
gender discrimination in TESOL circles in Japan, Anne recounted a story of gender bias from
when she was a member on a hiring committee. She relayed in the interview that,
It has amazed me being on hiring committees now because finally I actually get to be a
part of decision making, gets a job. And I found it baffling that I in our most recent
round of job hiring, we were looking to add one new candidate to the Center for English
Communication. The center for English Communication right now has eight teachers,
two women and six men. And the hiring committee, it was me and a bunch of guys and
they immediately start looking for people that look like them...all of the studies that we
read and that we quote, people want to look at people who look similar to them. But I
don’t think it was at all intentional.
Anne’s story is remarkable for a number of reasons. First, she does not accuse her male
colleagues on the hiring committee of intentionally trying to hire other men that have a similar
background to them. Second, she recounted later in the story that when she suggested the other
members of the committed that they should consider more equal representation on staff, she
said they felt “embarrassed” and they were willing to interview candidates, including those
they had previously rejected even though they had more qualifications than the male candidates
they had originally selected for interviews.

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 Faye. Like Anne, Faye reported having experienced relatively little direct gender
discrimination during her career and when she has, it seems as if her sense of humor and
positive attitude have kept her resilient. For example, when at the start of her career she was
passed over for a full time position because it was assumed a male teacher would be “more
reliable”, she did not let that dampen her resolve and she laughed during the interview as she
recounted that part of her story. However, like Anne, she also realizes that just because she has
not personally experienced much gender discrimination, she is aware that it does occur, as the
following passage highlights,
I've never felt disadvantaged and I think because there were so few working mothers
and few working women, they were so accommodating, like if my kids were sick or
whatever. I can remember proctoring an entrance exam once and an official from the
school came into the room and took me aside and said the daycare called and you must
go back and I will take your place here. But I can't see that happening now.
Renata. Renata’s story paints a similar picture of relatively little gender discrimination
on the surface and when there have been issues, Renata is not quick to attribute them to gender
alone. For example, when there was a tenured position open at her school, Renata was passed
over for the job in favor or a man with similar qualifications. She said that it “might have been
a gender issue” but she has also considered that it might have been that his PhD topic of
computer-assisted language learning was more attractive to the university than hers of teacher
identity.
When her male colleague who had been awarded tenure became “negative” and left the
university rather abruptly, Renata thought she would be a good candidate for the position he
had vacated. However, she said that when she expressed her interest in the job, the program
director “sort of slapped her down really rudely”. When asked if she attributed this to gender
discrimination, she again showed balanced consideration. She said it “might have been” and
supported this with a comment the director had previously made that she “could not use her
family obligations as an excuse for not working during the summer”.
Despite Renata’s balanced response to what she experienced during her quest for
tenure, the most telling part of Renata’s story about gender is not her own story at all but that
of her husband. His experience seems to stand out in contrast to hers and offers a clear cut
example of the difference in career paths between many men and women in academia. Her
husband completed all his degrees in succession and was then offered a two-year job which
quickly morphed into a tenured position where he remained for his entire career, where he felt
“comfortable”, and where was not required to publish or to learn Japanese. Renata, in contrast,

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worked part-time after having her first child, took time off to have a second child, returned
home with her young children to start a PhD, finished her PhD while teaching full time, learned
Japanese, and worked in the field for more than a decade, publishing and presenting her work,
before being awarded tenure.
Leslie. Similar to Renata, Leslie’s husband was afforded a great deal more privelege in
the TESOL field in Japan. Before arriving in Japan, Leslie experienced some clear
discrimination. In discussing her first job offer in Japan, she recounted,
It was quite funny. The job was supposed to be for a university position, but it turned
out there was one for the junior college and one for the university and, of course, my
husband got the one from the university and I got the one for the junior college even
though I was the ambitious one.
When asked further about this, Leslie added,
It's funny because I'm the career one, you know, he's a really serious academic, but he's
not ambitious in the same way. And we laughed about it because it just happened the
whole time. We had the same jobs, but he got paid more than me even though we had
the exact same qualifications.
Similar to the contrasts that appear when comparing the careers of Renata and her
husband, juxtaposing Leslie’s career with that of her husband shows a pattern of gender
discrimination. The fact that Leslie’s husband automatically got the job at the university while
Leslie was relegated to the women’s junior college and the fact that she was consistently given
a lower salary indicate a level of gender discrimination that neither Faye nor Anne would have
been exposed to unless they were working in the same field in tandem with a male partner.
However, what is particularly interesting is the way that Leslie copes with this. Rather than
getting angry, Leslie said twice that the situation was “funny” and that she and her husband
“laughed about it”. While it is not to be suggested that gender discrimination is a laughing
matter, her attitude seems to be a coping mechanism for Leslie.
When in her second position in Japan, an official leadership role, Leslie faced more
gender discrimination but dealt with it by minimizing contact with certain staff, focusing on
the task at hand, and forging a new path for herself and her team by splitting off from the main
department. The following story highlights both the difficulties she experienced as well as
Leslie’s resilience, focus, determination, and resourcefulness.
It was painful at the time and I didn't know whether to stick it out. Like for years I was
thinking I just need to leave leadership and be a normal academic but I felt I had so
much to offer. I think, looking back, it was a bit of sexism but also lack of respect for

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 my area of expertise...There was one person who was very difficult and others sort of
followed him so I was completely sidelined. I felt I had to fight and justify every single
thing I was suggesting whereas everyone else, maybe because they were men or they
were friends, it was just automatically accepted. But I saw that happening with other
females in university as well...they were just ignored. The constant battle, it's just tiring.
So I ended up just focusing on what I could do and I just decided to minimize the contact
and just focus on what I could achieve. Then one day...I was trying to be positive
because the team, they were working so hard and I just said, “Look, shall we suggest
we split from the department?” and everyone said, “Yes, please!” So we put together a
proposal and it was easy to achieve because they just wanted to be rid of us.
Leslie has been successful in her position and she is deeply appreciated by the
administration at the university who see her value. However, when asked in the interview about
how she manages to juggle her full time job with her international travel, work on the two
journals she founded, and the publishing company she has opened, she simply responded,
“Well, I don't have children and I have a husband who treats me like an equal partner. I mean
I don’t do anything at home. I pay someone to clean and my husband cooks so I can do it.”
Leslie’s attributing her success in this way serves to highlight the ingrained expectation that
women are often required to do the majority of housework and childrearing and are not usually
treated as “an equal partner”.

Children, Qualifications, and Non-Linear Career Trajectories

Two of the women participating in this study are mothers. As a result, their career
trajectories were not as linear as those of their husbands. However, because they both arrived
in Japan in the 1990’s, when there was less competition for jobs and therefore more flexibility,
this non-linear career path was not detrimental as it is for other women. Additionally, the
women in this study did not feel they needed to pursue further qualifications primarily in order
to climb the career ladder. Instead, they said they completed further degrees so they could better
serve the needs of their students.
Faye: Faye needed to take two breaks from work in order to give birth to her children.
During her maternity leave, Faye pursued additional qualifications and her decision to do so
came from a love of teaching rather than an instrumental purpose like getting a better job or a
promotion. She recounted,
I only had a BA but I liked teaching English as a second language, so I applied to a
Masters program at UCLA and I got accepted in like 1980. But in ‘81, I got pregnant

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 with my son and I was just like, oh wow, that's the end of that. So I was always
interested in going to graduate school. I like teaching, I wanted to know more about it.
So when I was on maternity leave I thought, okay, I can't go to Temple University.
Temple Japan, had just opened up at that point. So I did a course through a
correspondence university.
Apparent in this anecdote is Faye’s ability to find a way to make things work. Although
she was on maternity leave and could not go to UCLA or Temple as a result, she found a school
with a curriculum and a delivery mode that suited her circumstances and she managed to
complete her Masters degree over five years, partly while on leave and partly after returning to
work. Her motives for studying are illustrated when she states, “I liked teaching” and “I wanted
to know more about it.” Faye did not need a Masters degree and could have stayed comfortably
in her position with a BA. Later on in her career, Faye would begin a PhD and she explained
her motivation for pursuing a terminal degree in the following way,
Things were changing at the university and I had to supervise graduate students and I
really didn't have a clue what I was doing and I felt really uncomfortable. I don't think
the other teachers had much of a clue either...they just had a BA. And so I didn't feel
comfortable supervising PhD students.
It seems from Faye’s story that other teachers were not particularly bothered by the fact
that they were supervising PhD students despite having only a BA. It appears that Faye could
have easily avoided pursuing a PhD but she did not do so because, in her words, she “felt really
uncomfortable”. This seems to indicate the responsibility she felt for her students and the drive
she had to give them the support they required. In fact, Faye’s determination to prioritize the
needs of her students is demonstrated particularly well by the fact that she had to hide her PhD
studies from the university as she was not supposed to be a student while being employed full
time. She stated that, “When I joined the PhD program I did it secretly at first because I had a
feeling that if I asked permission, I’d be denied.”
Renata: Upon arrival in Japan, Renata had both a Bachelors and a Masters degree but
neither were in areas connected to language teaching. Despite lacking this background, Renata
chose to pursue a PhD in Applied Linguistics, which she started while on maternity leave. She
stated in the interview,
I was really so unprepared to do a PhD. I didn't have any background in Applied
Linguistics...so I was really just kind of reading and finding out. I didn't have very much
teaching experience either, so I was really a newbie in all kinds of ways, but I did start
doing some kind of mini studies and presenting them.

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 Renata’s lack of background was a significant barrier that needed to be overcome and
with perseverance, she managed to do so. She cites the main reason for pursuing the PhD degree
was the “new direction” her career had taken and her lack of experience with “classroom
teaching”. Like Faye, Renata did not need further degrees to keep working. Rather, her
comments indicate a discomfort with her lack of knowledge of Applied Linguistics and her
limited teaching experience. A desire to professionalize and better serve her students seems to
be at the core of Renata’s decision to do a PhD.

Support Systems
The women in the study were quick to highlight the fact that they received a great deal
of support from mentors, colleagues, and family members. On occasion, the support they
received was vital to keeping them in the academic “game”, as Faye put it. However, what is
also clear from the women’s stories is that getting support is a two-way street. The participants
were open and receptive to the help they received, a key element contributing to their success,
and showed their appreciation through continued hard work.
Anne. Perhaps the story that Anne shared best serves to highlight the importance of
support systems in academia. Anne recounted that while she worked on contract for ten years
at a well-known national university, she was shocked to discover that her PhD supervisor had
plagiarized some of the dissertation she was working on and she explained how mentors and
colleagues came to her aid.
I found this out when I was home out on a summer break and went into shock and called
my boss in Japan who is a super awesome man. And he's like, you disenroll right now
and we will supervise you and you will get your degree through our PhD program. This
is the dean of my program and his wife ended up being my supervisor. They're just
super special people and I will forever be grateful. I had a committee of three people,
three of my colleagues helped me on it for the next year and a half to revamp and to go
in a bit of a different direction and it ended up being a stronger thesis. I was really,
really pleased with it. And then, unbeknownst to me, behind my back, once I had the
PhD in hand, they did all of the paperwork involved in getting me a promotion without
telling me and then they're like “Surprise!”, you got your associate professorship.
This story is remarkable not only for the level of support Anne received with her thesis
but also because of the extra push made to get her a promotion. At a time when Anne was
considering leaving academia because of having been exploited by someone who was meant
to serve as a mentor, the support she received from her bosses and colleagues was vital.

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 Faye. Faye had a “kind of mentor” when she started working at the national university
where she is still employed today. She explained that,
One teacher really kind of like told me, “This is what you have to do. I'll write papers
with you.” So the first few papers that we wrote for our university journal, I wrote
together with her. She kind of got me in the game with building up my knowledge that
you've got to be productive with things, which I hadn't been, and she mentored me on
the things that I had to do.
Faye’s story indicates her lack of understanding of what was expected of her in a
national university and the support she needed to start publishing. Because many of the
foreigners in academia in Japan are brought into the system to teach English and they often
lack a background in the field, they compensate by studying and pursuing other means of
professional development while they are on the job. As such, mentorship at work is important
but, as participant stories show, it is not particularly formal or organized. Although Faye
already had tenure at the university, she states that she was uncertain of what her role as an
academic should be and therefore the mentorship she did receive, although informal, was vital
to pushing her further development. Of course, Faye could have rejected her mentor’s
suggestions and comfortably occupied her position but she was receptive and wanted to
professionalize.
Renata. Similar to Faye, Renata was still relatively inexperienced in doing research
even after her PhD and she recounted that the head of the graduate school where she did her
tertiary studies was “enormously supportive” of her and helped her gain access to research sites
that she would not have been able to access on her own. She said that this woman has since
“kept me in the loop” “kept me informed” and “invited me along to things”. Renata partially
credits this woman with her success at the early stages of her post PhD career when she was
becoming more active in research and making presentations.
She also said that amongst colleagues in her current position, “there is a closeness and
a bond” that she has not experienced elsewhere. When contrasting this picture of collegiality
to her previous position where she was “slapped down” by the department head and swept up
by the “negativity” of some of her co-workers, the importance of individual support along with
a supportive working environment becomes apparent.
Leslie. Like the other participants, Leslie recognizes the value of the support she has
received from her colleagues and considers it to be an important ingredient in her professional
development. In the interview, she recounted,

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 In my first two years, two of my colleagues gave me a hard time and I deserved it and
they were often questioning and suggesting things but in a very professional way, you
know. I don't blame them at all. It was totally appropriate and I'm really grateful for it.
They have really listened to me and I’ve really tried to listen to them. I'm so lucky.
Leslie’s comments highlight the two-way street that is necessary for support that is
offered to fully take root. Not only do colleagues have to be dedicated enough to provide
guidance and constructive criticism but the recipients also need to be open to listening and
trying to apply what they have learned from mentors and other support people.

Discussion
The purpose of this narrative study was to gain a deeper understanding of the career-
path experiences of foreign women who currently occupy leadership roles in TESOL in higher
education in Japan. A significant amount of the extant literature explores the barriers women
face when attempting to achieve leadership positions in higher education and the methods they
use to overcome them. As such, the focus of this research was a further examination of the
problems experienced in this context and the ways in which foreign women in TESOL
leadership roles in Japan, a population not yet studied, managed to overcome barriers.

Gender Stereotypes
Participants in this study discussed what they perceived to be some of the negative
impacts of gender on their way to occupying TESOL leadership roles in Japanese higher
education. For example, one felt as if she was positioned as an outsider because of being female
and another felt that she may have been rejected for jobs because she is a woman. This lends
support to the extant literature that indicates men act as gatekeepers of the academic club who
hesitate to allow access to others who may pose a threat to the status quo (Morley, 2014; White,
2003). Some participants in this study also reported the privilege their husbands had been
afforded in this context in that they got higher ranking jobs with better pay despite having
similar qualifications to their wives. These findings corroborate the findings of previous studies
that show men are often promoted before women and are awarded higher salaries (Alsubaie &
Jones, 2017).
However, the women in this study did not report being penalized for following less than
linear career trajectories, as some women do (Moodly & Toni, 2017), nor did they report feeling
that they were stereotyped primarily as caregivers and thus not suitable for leadership, as in
some of the other literature (Ahad & Gunter, 2017; Alsubaie & Jones, 2017; Morley, 2014;

168
Nguyen, 2013; Parker, 2015). It is reasonable to assume, as the participants did, that being
White and from a developed country helped to offset the barriers the gender discrimination the
women may have faced if they had been in their home countries. Additionally, while women
in this study reported feeling less gender discrimination than in much of the literature, another
factor that may have offset this was the family support they received. The majority of
participants in this study credited their partners with being extremely supportive of their careers
and this is also a theme found in the published literature (Ahad & Gunter, 2017; Davis &
Maldonado, 2015; Nguyen, 2013; Shahtalebi et al., 2011). While findings of this study show
that White women from developed countries seem to be afforded a certain amount of privilege
in TESOL the Japanese context, they still did face some discrimination based on gender. The
support they received from their families can in part explain how they were able to overcome
some of the barriers. However, family support was not the only facilitating factor found in this
study. The participants primarily gave credit to mentors for helping them to develop
professionally and get promoted.

Mentorship
Women were supported by mentors while they pursued further formal qualifications,
began their careers as researchers, and developed their leadership skills. This finding lends
further support to the wide-ranging literature that emphasizes the importance of mentorship on
the path to a leadership role in higher education (Alsubaie & Jones, 2017; Block & Tietjen-
Smith, 2016; Davis & Maldonado, 2015; Gallant, 2014; McDade et al., 2008; Morley, 2014;
Nguyen, 2013; Ramsay et al., 2014; Tolar, 2012). However, similar to many of the women
discussed in the literature, the participants in this study were not able to avail themselves of the
support of formal mentors and instead had to depend on the willingness of people who did not
occupy official mentorship roles (Gallant, 2014). Oftentimes, support came from male mentors.
This is primarily because men occupy the majority of positions in universities in Japan and it
highlights how women need male support on their way to leadership roles. However, women
in the literature describe the need to have mentors who are similar to them (Gallant, 2014) and
while the participants in this study did not express a desire for female mentors in particular,
they do seem to be especially concerned with supporting and mentoring other women who
currently aspire to careers in academia. They mentioned supporting other women to get hired
for positions and for ensuring that women can take maternity leave without being penalized.
These leadership behaviors are also found in the literature that highlights women in leadership
roles tend to focus on the creation of a more inclusive and flexible environment (Dunn et al.,

169
2014; Jacobs & Witt, 2006; McDade et al., 2008; Sader et al., 2005; Taylor & Stein, 2014;
Woollen, 2016).

Conclusion
The objective of this study was to shed light on women’s experience in the TESOL
field in higher education in Japan. The women selected as participants are current occupiers of
official leadership positions and were interviewed about their career trajectories. The women
reported experiencing gender stereotypes and non-linear career paths on their way to leadership
but they were able to overcome difficulties primarily due to the support of mentors. Because
mentorship is discussed in the literature as the most important factor in attaining a leadership
role in higher education and because the women in this study did not have access to formal
mentors, it may be good practice to foster formal mentorship programs in higher education in
Japanese universities, particularly for under-represented minorities like women.

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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 23 Issue No. 6.3 November 2019

The Efficacy of Using Spelling Bee Game in Teaching Vocabulary

to Indonesian English as Foreign Language (EFL) Students

Masruddin
Institut Agama Islam Negeri Palopo

Bio-profile:
Masruddin is an associate professor in English Language Teaching Study Program at Institut
Agama Islam Negeri Palopo, Indonesia. He is an alumnus of Doctoral degree at Hasanuddin
University in Linguistics. He joined the Sandwich Program at Griffith University, Australia in
2008. He focuses his research in English Language Teaching and Sociolinguistics. ORCiD ID
is https://orchid.org/0000-0002-0393-8892. He can be reached at [email protected]

Abstract
This research aims at finding out the efficacy of using Spelling Bee Game (SBG) in
teaching vocabulary to Indonesian English as Foreign Language (EFL) students. The main
question of this research: Is the use of Spelling Bee Game effective in teaching vocabulary to
Indonesian EFL students?. The significances of the research are (1) this study can be an
addition in the persisting teaching vocabulary by using games. (2) the result of the study will
also can contribute to curricular designers to use games for teaching and learning vocabulary
to Indonesian EFL students. This research had been conducted at the seventh grade of Islamic
Junior High School Al Hafidz Palopo, South Sulawesi Province, an Indonesian Junior High
School. There were 16 students as sample of this research. The research applied a pre-
experimental method by using pre-test and post-test design. The previous students’ ability in
vocabulary were measured through the pretest while the improvement of students’ vocabulary
after conducting the treatment by using using Spelling Bee Game. The findings show that
using Spelling Bee Game is effective in teaching vocabulary to Indonesian EFL students. The
result of significance test through SPSS 20 program shows that P was 0.00. Therefore, it is
highly recommended to use Spelling Bee Game in developing vocabulary of Indonesian EFL
students.

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Keywords: Spelling Bee Game, Indonesian EFL students, teaching vocabulary

Introduction
Indonesian students need vocabulary development. It takes a big role in enriching the
basic skills in English (Richards and Renandya, 2002). In addition, vocabulary is considered
as an important skill which is needed by the students to master all of the skills in English,
included both of receptive skill namely listening and reading and productive skill namely
speaking and writing skills. Related to vocabulary competence, Indonesia’s School Based
Curriculum (or SBC) 2004 requires that the 7th grade students should h a v e about 500-
1000 words in the English subject (Depdiknas, 2004). In addition, Riahipour & Saba
(2012) state that learning a foreign language has a significant relationship with the
vocabulary knowledge.
The observations and interviews results at the SMP IT Al hafiz, Palopo, South
Sulawesi Indonesia, found that they still have many difficulties and challenges in teaching.
Students are lack of Vocabulary. They sometimes get troubles when they want to expressing
their ideas in both spoken and written expression. In addition, it was found that the 7th
students of the school still had problem in developing their vocabulary. In completing their
writing tasks, the students could not write since they were lack of vocabulary. In addition,
the students got problem in expressing their ideas into good writing. Furthermore, when they
were completing speaking task, they were in trouble when they express their ideas since
they don’t have enough vocabulary in English.
Related to the students’ problem in vocabulary, spelling bee game is of the solution to
solve the problem since it can enrich the students’ vocabulary. The principle of children in
acquiring mother tongue has similarity when they play games while learning English as a
foreign language. They are not in stressful condition which can cause them can easily
understand and learn English more. Students will get a fresh situation during the learning
process through a game which at first makes them feel uncomfortable (Mei and Jing, 2000).
In addition, symbols of the alphabet are very useful aspect in pronouncing a word in both
spoken and written forms (McPhearson, 1984). The use of spelling activities is very helpful in
developing the students’ vocabulary in English (O’Sullivan & Thomas, 2007).
Spelling Bee Game (SBG) is adopted from the Spelling Bee Competition. In this game,
the participants are required to have a good ability in spelling words and it can be applied at
any levels of school (Sebba, 2009). In the implementation of speeling bee game, there are some

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parts involving Students as participants, Pronouncer, Teacher as judges, feedback. Nowadays,
the spelling bee is not just special for the participants at the contests but it is also for the
English language itself (William, 2008).
In the Spelling Bee Handbook (2012), mentions that it gives helps to the children to
overcome their problems in spelling words being learnt in the English classroom. Three
important aspects are used in implementing SBG namely: (1) participants, (2) judges, they are
needed to take control of the competition, and finally (3) teachers as the pronouncers. In
addition, SBG is an educational strategy for English teaching since it can contribute in
creating a strong foundation in learning how to spell and enriching vocabulary (Payra &
Cardona, 2016).
There have been some researchers have been working on the use of game in
developing students’ vocabulary. Sekarini (2013), Rahayu (2009), Inayatullah (2012) and
Ovaningtyas (2016) have found that SBG to be effective in improving the students’ English
vocabulary in the English classrooms. Considering the benefits of SBG and to help the 7th
grade students in the school under this study, thus, this game is proposed. Based on that case,
the research question is: Is the use of Spelling Bee Game effective in teaching vocabulary to
Indonesian EFL students? The significances of this can study are: (1) this study can give a new
addition in the persisting teaching vocabulary by using games. (2) this study is also expected
to give new contribution to curricular designers to integrate games for teaching and learning
vocabulary to Indonesian EFL students. The scope of the research was the efficacy of
implementing the Spelling Bee Game in Teaching Vocabulary to Indonesian English as
Foreign Language (EFL) students.

Methods
This research had been conducted at the seventh grade of Islamic Junior High School Al
Hafidz Palopo, South Sulawesi Province, an Indonesian Junior High School. This research was
a pre experimental research. This research is aiming at finding out the efficacy of the
implementation of Spelling Bee Game in Teaching Vocabulary to Indonesian English as
Foreign Language (EFL) students. The students in the academic year 2018/2019 as the subject
of this research which the total numbers of participants was 16 people. There were three steps
of this research namely (a) pre-test, (b) treatments and (c) post-test. In the pre-test, the student’
previous ability was measured. Then in the post-test, the researcher measured the students’

175
vocabulary competence after conducting the treatment for 10 meetings through the use of
Spelling Bee Game (SBE).
In the pre test of the spelling bee game experiment program, the students’ vocabulary
abilities were observed by researcher through the use of the some various questions forms. The
vocabulary test evaluation instruments used in evaluating the vocabulary consisted of three
main parts. There were fifty items of questions in those three parts.
In addition, there were 10 meetings in the treatment of this study namely using the
Spelling Bee Game vocabulary class. In the process of spelling bee game class, there were
some main steps as follows: 1. The teacher asked students to read the text 2. The teacher
distributed the table which consisted of part of speech group (noun, adjective and verb) that
they got from the text. 3. The students were divided into two teams. Both of the teams were
team X and team O. The team consisted of 8 students. 4. The teacher chose one team to come
forward in front of the class. 5. The representative of team consisted of 2 students to play the
game. 6. The two students got 1 word that they should spell at once. 7. The words were
pronounced by the teacher and the students were asked to discuss in pair before they spelt the
word. 8. The teacher gave instruction to start spelling by counting 1, 2 ,3. 9. If both students
spelt the word correctly, then they got 1 point but if one of them was wrong in spelling a word
then no point. 10. Both teams took turn to play the game. There were two rounds for each
section of the SBG. 11. The team that had collected many points was considered as the winner.
Finally, At the post test, the students again were asked to answer the vocabulary test. The
vocabulary test was consisted of three main parts with 50 items. It showed the students’
vocabulary ability after the implementation of SBG in teaching vocabulary.
In analyzing the data, the quantitative data was analyzed through the application of
paired-sample t-test using SPSS 20. The researcher used the statistic testing result to answer
the research question of this research namely the efficacy of using the Spelling Bee Game in
teaching vocabulary.

Results
The data analysis result shows that the vocabulary ability of the students was improved.
There was an improvement of students’ ability in vocabulary after conducting the 10 meetings
treatments by implementing the spelling bee game (SBG). The scores of the students’
vocabulary test in the pretest and in the posttest is shown as follows:

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 Table 1. Students’ mean score of vocabulary test in Pretest and Posttest
Pre-test 30.60
Post-test 55.53

Table 1 shows that competence of the students in vocabulary was improved after the
treatment by applying SBG. The students can reduce their weaknesses their vocabulary
mastery in the post-test. Furthermore, the hypothesis testing by using SPSS 20 shows that P
value was 0.00. This indicates that the treatment by using SBG is effective in improving the
students’ vocabulary ability.

Discussion
In relation to the data analysis result, the researcher found out that using spelling bee
game can be an effective way in developing students’ vocabulary at the junior high school in
Indonesia. The result of statistical test supports the power of SBG as the P value was 0.00. The
researcher then recommends the use of spelling bee game in developing vocabulary of
Indonesian EFL students.
The result of this study shows the similarity with the previous researchers’ findings
such as Rahayu (2009) and Inayatullah (2012) who have proven that Spelling Bee Game (SBG)
had an important effect in developing the vocabulary of the students. The application of SBG
can enrich the students’ vocabulary, improve their competence in spelling, and it can create an
enjoyable atmosphere in process of the learning. Furthermore, SBG develops the vocabulary
of students since it can facilitate the students to be easier in remembering, repeating, spelling
and understanding the meaning of the words all at once.
In this research, the SBG was beneficial since through the competitive system and
collaboration among the students could develop their spirit in spelling and understanding the
vocabulary given during the SBG application. The students compete in the group X and group O.
They tried to be the winner for each section of competition. This research is in line with Astuti
(2019) findings that collaborative game can give positive contribution to the development of
students’ character building include in learning process. Furthermore, It is reported by Nguyen
and Nga (2003) that a game can facilitate learners to enjoy the fun atmosphere, the spirit of
competition, the great increasing of motivation. In addition, they could grasp the material
quickly in an very supportive environment. T h e s t u d e n t s liked a l l t h e activities with
games and i t i s a r e a l motivated program in teaching process.

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 Another thing that makes this research successfully conducted is the students were
enjoyable and they can increase their spelling ability. This fact is supported by Yunisrina
Qismullah Yusuf Arsal (2017) who states that the implementation of SBG in teaching
vocabulary could facilitate students to develop their vocabulary, enrich the ability in spelling,
and support a fun learning. SBG create an excellent result in the mastering vocabulary.
Furthermore, as indicated by On the subject of SBG, the Spelling Bee Handbook, published
by Macmillan (2012), explains that it is a way to help children to overcome their difficulties
in spelling words being learnt in the classroom.
During this research, there are some weaknesses of students in vocabulary have been
improved such as they still lack spelling ability and low ability in pronouncing English words.
Related to this fact, Supian (2019) suggested that game base language learning is suggested as
one of the vocabulary learning strategies in the classroom. In addition, Masruddin (2019) state
that it is a required for the candidate of English teachers to be able to support the students with
creative and effective way to develop the students' interest and to get the focus of the students
in the process of learning included through a game base learning strategies. Furthermore, Lewis
(1999) finds a game as a facility for children to support the practice activities, discovery
learning techniques, and to stimulate the interaction of the students with their environment.
That is why games support the learners to do the language exposure in various language
aspects, such as spelling, grammar and vocabulary. In addition, it is suggested by Tyson (2000)
that a s p o r t i v e competition should be applied, the interest and the involvement of the
students should be shown and prepare opportunity to get new lesson, practical experiences,
or review the targeted language material. This is supported by Krashen and Terrell’s (1983)
that in acquiring a new language, all human need to have a good motivation to learn the
new language and they also need enough language exposure in the new language
environment.

Conclusion
The spelling bee game is an effective game in developing the vocabulary of Indonesian
EFL students. The result of significance test supports with the effective P value namely 0.00.
Therefore, the researcher recommends the use spelling bee game in developing vocabulary of
Indonesian EFL students.

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Pedagogical Implication
Spelling bee game can be used to enhance the vocabulary of the students. The students
can learn new vocabulary in the process of the spelling bee game. The students can understand
the how spell a word correctly. In addition, the activity in spelling bee game can increase the
students’ vocabulary unconsciously because of the fun situation. Furthermore, the spelling bee
game can be an alternative to reduce the students’ stress and worry in the classroom about the
English subject difficulties. In addition, this kind of game can be an ice breaker activity in
English class.

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of Using a Game oriented Teaching Method for Learners of English for Nursing.
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Richards, J. C., & Renandya, W. A. (2002). Methodology in language teaching: An
anthology of current practice. New York:Cambridge University Press.
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 Asian EFL Journal Research Articles. Vol. 23 Issue No. 6.3 November 2019

WhatsApp Audio and Video Chat-Based in Stimulating Students’ Self-Confidence and

Motivation to Speak English

Authors
1Maulina, 2Nurdin Noni, 3Muhammad Basri
1
English Lecturer at Muhammadiyah University of Kendari, Indonesia
2&3
English Lecturer at State University of Makassar, Indonesia

Corresponding author: [email protected]

Bio-profiles:
Maulina is currently a lecturer in English Education Study Program at Muhammadiyah
University of Kendari. She is also completing her PhD in English Education at State University
of Makassar. Her research interests include materials development, EFL teaching
methodologies, and the use of new technology in foreign language teaching. Her email is
[email protected]
Nurdin Noni is a Professor in the English Education Study Program at State University of
Makassar. He teaches courses related to Information and Communication of Technology (ICT)
in English as a foreign language teaching. His main research is ICT in EFL teaching. His email
is [email protected]
Muhammad Basri is a Professor in the English Education Study Program at State University
of Makassar. He teaches courses related to English skills. His research interests include
materials development, multimedia learning materials in teaching English speaking, and
applied linguistics. His email is [email protected]

Abstract
This era of 4.0 industrial revolutions, lecturers, especially English lecturers have to be
aware with the technology particularly mobile technology that can enhance their students’
English skills in utilizing social media such as WhatsApp to improve students’ English

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speaking ability in order that they can show high self-confidence and motivation to learn this
international language. This research aimed at describing students’ day to day English speaking
skills via WhatsApp group set as a platform for audio and video chat-based for a semester
period. Through these chat-based, students were expected to solve problems in terms of self-
confidence and motivation to speak English. Data was gathered in the form of group WhatsApp
day to day observation and close-ended questionnaire with 27 participants selected
purposively. These data were analyzed descriptively. The results showed that students felt very
confidence and were encouraged to speak through WhatsApp group by audio and video
recording chat-based from day to day speaking habit. WhatsApp as a social media has much
potential for students to improve their speaking skill through audio and video recording.
Therefore, the passive students were also engaged actively when there was a stimulus set by
the lecturer and rest members in the WhatsApp group.

Keywords: WhatsApp, audio and video recording chat-based, social media, self-confidence,
motivation

Introduction
The ability to speak English in this era 4.0 industrial revolution using mobile
technologies is essential to follow the development around the globe. Mobile technologies offer
new educational opportunities more choice for students to access course content, as well as
interact with the lecturer and student colleagues wherever and whenever (Beckmann, 2010;
Husbye & Elsener, 2014; Andrews et al. 2015; Bocconi & Trentin, 2015; Ma, 2017). The
interactions are more accessible by using mobile technologies in the form of social media that
allow communication and enhance EFL learning (Rodriguez, 2011). One of the most popular
social media used today is WhatsApp (Awada & Wang, 2016; Afful & Akrong, 2019; Andujar
& Salaberri-Ramiro, 2019)). Since all participants of this study had WhatsApp application in
their mobile phones, mobile instant messaging in the form of audio and video chat-based
support in this study is solely referred to utilize WhatsApp as social media in day to day
learning speaking English to engage students more active with high self-confidence and
motivation. Maming (2018) stated that social media is able to motivate students to develop
their language skills particularly in reading skills in natural way during the interaction (p. 210).
It is in line with Sakkir (2018) who said that students showed high interest in using social media

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in writing skills. In learning speaking, motivation is one crucial aspect to influence students to
speak English (Tài, 2016, p. 177-182).
Some studies using WhatsApp in EFL teaching and learning conducted, for instance,
language learning (Zhang, Song, & Burston, 2011) writing proficiency and perceptions (Awada
& Wang, 2016), academic performance (Afful & Akrong, 2019), international distance
education (Madge, et al. 2019), peer tutoring (Timmis, 2012; Campbell, 2019) and more.
However, there is little applied research into how WhatsApp used at the university level via a
chat-based that support students’ day to day speaking performance to stimulate self-confidence
and motivation.
This study was to explore the use of WhatsApp recording chat-based in EFL teaching
and learning result a contribution to the effective implementation of mobile learning for
increasing students’ self-confidence and motivation in higher education. The intention of this
study was not to conduct the entire speaking course within the WhatsApp. Instead, face-to-face
lectures supplemented with the delivery of activities and instructional materials uploaded,
learned, and discussed via audio and video recording through WhatsApp outside of the class
hours, which observed day to day in a semester. WhatsApp used to strengthen the concept of
teaching and to learn in the class and provided students with a real connection, collaboration,
and communication between lecturer and classmates. The primary research questions of this
study were, “How are students’ self-confidence and motivation in day to day speaking English
performances in a semester using WhatsApp?”

Literature Review
This study centers on the use of WhatsApp chat-based as a day to day oral
communication platform for engaging students' self-confidence and motivation to speak
English. Relevant literature presented as follows: (a) mobile learning, (b) related studies on
WhatsApp in EFL teaching and learning, and (c) related studies on self-confidence and
motivation with mobile learning integration.

2.1 Mobile learning

Mobile learning can make a concept of learning wherever and whenever into a reality.
Mobile learning promises to transform the world of learning and leads to solve the narrow
limits of the classroom to achieve ubiquitous learning (Simone & Cosimo, 2016). Boyinbode,
Bagula, & Ngambi (2011) stated that mobile devices enable learning to be carried out in a
spontaneous, pervasive, and ubiquitous education process. EFL learning also benefits from

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such opportunities. EFL students get more opportunities to practice their English skills such as
listening, speaking, reading, and writing, as well as other sub-skills, for instance, vocabulary
and pronunciation (Stockwell, 2010; Sweeney & Moore, 2012; Fuente, 2014). According to
Godwin-Jones (2017) discovered that mobile learning might be a potential motivator; for
instance, Zou & Yan (2014) found that students in other areas of their research have high
motivation, and some others have low motivation due to the relative economic development in
different cities. Despite, Kim et al. (2013) argued that mobile technologies enable to motivate
innovation in English learning and assist educators to realize their pedagogical goals for
teaching more effectively. These authors also said that mobile devices functioned as
entertainment and communication. A social communication app used in the smartphones found
to increase students' positive attitudes towards learning and teachers' feedback that the purpose
is for communicative purposes in foreign language learning (Xu & Peng, 2017). Mobile
learning is, however, not an opportunity to replace classroom teaching but an additional
learning aid that students can use to enhance their learning.

2.2 Studies on WhatsApp in EFL teaching and learning

Based on the number of monthly active users (in millions), WhatsApp is the most
popular global mobile messenger apps today (Statista, 2019). WhatsApp is considered as a
potential medium to support teaching and learning. Also, the familiarity of the use of
WhatsApp attracted some researchers to research the use of WhatsApp in EFL teaching and
learning.
A study conducted in South African university by Rambe and Bere (2013) did a case
study and explored the use of WhatsApp among the undergraduates and reported that
WhatsApp has the potential to create a dialogic situation for students’ engagement to
collaborate as well as to transform teaching and learning. Awada & Wang (2016) found that
the use of WhatsApp in teaching and learning writing was more effective than the regular
instruction, and students were motivated to study. Similarly, a study conducted at a university
in the central-north of Saudi Arabia by Alshammari et al. (2016) who stated that WhatsApp in
EFL instruction encourage autonomously and peer learning and develop learning communities.
WhatsApp can support spontaneous communication, the exchange of images, and the sharing
of captured video clips in teaching and learning activities. The mobile connectivity and
instantaneous services provide an opportunity to offer new ways of teaching and learning that
can ultimately improve performance. On-demand access to media content is beneficial to busy
and independent learners.

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 Plana et al. (2013) reported that students received WhatsApp positively in particular
with high levels of satisfaction with language activities sing this application, as well as high
levels of motivation to participate in activities that exploit WhatsApp’s collaborative potential
(Castrillo et al., 2014). Importantly, engaging students in WhatsApp mediated language
activities also has a positive impact on their confidence, increasing their reading habits, and
willingness to read more in English (Plana, et al., 2013). By allowing learners to select their
needed learning materials, this can cultivate a responsive pedagogy for individual differences.
WhatsApp is a suitable tool to facilitate this form of learning. WhatsApp allows the teacher to
deliver learning materials in small chunks. This method of presenting information is less
overwhelming for the learners and makes it easier for their learning. It can also be well-suited
for students with a busy lifestyle. WhatsApp also retains the chat history chronologically. The
stored Bite-sized materials were in the learner's device for easy access. Learners can
conveniently revisit these materials at their own pace and time.
Almost all study-findings supported using WhatsApp to enhance students learning and
enthusiasm, using WhatsApp helped students to develop English skills, enriched their
vocabulary, and learn from their mates' mistakes (Hamad, 2017). However, little research did
on how students day to day interaction, connection, and collaboration using WhatsApp
recording chat-based to solve their problem in the aspect of self-confidence and motivation to
speak English.

2.3 Studies on self-confidence and motivation with mobile learning integration

Li et al. (2018) showed that students were relatively had a high motivation for
performing tasks using mobile learning. Also, students showed better performance, and
specifically, their intrinsic motivation enhanced after practicing the learning. Comparing the
effectiveness of mobile learning tools with conventional learning tools, mobile devices used
was reported that the convenient functions could create more interesting learning environments
and promote students’ motivation (Huang, Yang, Chiang, and Su, 2016). It needs a serious
effort to engage students with learning activities in integrating mobile learning in EFL teaching
and learning, especially for improving students’ self-confidence and motivation. Intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation were possible factors to consider to improve. In relation to integrating
mobile learning to stimulate students’ self-confidence and motivation in learning, Barger and
Karabenik (2011) and Shia (2014) pointed out that self-confidence refers to the ability of
someone in self-monitoring and self-evaluating, while, motivation is divided into two aspects
namely intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation covers the aspect of mastery goal, need for

185
achievement, and fear. Further, extrinsic motivation includes authority expectations both to
peers and the lecturer.

Research Method
3.1 Research Design
The goal of this research was to explore students’ day to day performances in speaking
English through WhatsApp audio and video chat-based. A mixed-method approach was
selected to explore the implementation of every day WhatsApp chat-based (Johnson,
Onwuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007). Qualitative analysis implemented was in natural daily
observation, which was summed up weekly for a semester of teaching and learning that was
screenshots in the WhatsApp group, as well as a detailed analysis of connection,
communication, and collaboration that occurred in speaking chat-based. Quantitative data
examined was in the form of a Google Form survey of using WhatsApp to enhance self-
confidence and motivation.
Talk Time of Everyday English Conversation Book 1 used purposively as the primary
material uploaded in the WhatsApp group in order that students were able to access anytime
and anywhere they would like to practice conversations assigned. This book also was chosen
as topics in line with the Basic Speaking syllabus of the English Department, as well as English
conversation designed for pre-intermediate for the university level. Besides, activities designed
met the affordances that WhatsApp had for audio and video chat-based. Therefore, students
could improve their speaking skills with and without lecturer instructions to record their voice
and video recording for feedback from WhatsApp group members.

3.2 Participant
Participants were students of the English Department at one of Islamic University in
eastern Indonesia. Students were recruited from one class of Basic Speaking class in the second
semester of a four-year program in the academic year 2018-2019. Participation was voluntary
in this study. Students signed a form and told that they could withdraw from the study at any
time without penalty. These students had full time learning to enroll a semester for Basic
Speaking lesson. The participant was chosen purposively, which consisted of 25 students aged
from 18 to 20 years in which 22 students were Indonesian, and three students were Thai. The
majority of the participant in this study was female.

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Table 1
Participant
No Information Answer Frequency Percentage
1 Age 18 4 16
19 13 52
20 8 32

2 Gender Male 1 4
Female 23 96
3 Nationality Indonesia 22 88
Thailand 3 12

3.3 Research Instrument

Students’ self-confidence and motivation were categorized as very poor (1), poor (2),
good (3), and very good (4). Every day speaking activities in the WhatsApp was also
screenshots. In addition, validated 31 Likert scale items questionnaire adopted from Barger
and Karabenik (2011) and Shia (2014) contained in surveying students’ motivation and self-
confidence in speaking English using WhatsApp chat-based were used. Cronbach’s alpha of
questionnaire validity was 0.94, which was a high degree level, and it indicated that the
adapted questionnaire was suitable to use in this study. Twenty-three items measuring
motivation; 17 items intrinsic motivation (mastery goal, need for achievement, and fear) and
six items extrinsic motivation (authority expectation both to peers and lecturer). The other
eight items were measuring self-confidence (self-monitoring and self-evaluation).

3.4 Data collection and Analysis

The observation was conducted to figure out students’ day to day interaction of daily
conversation in the WhatsApp via recording chat-based, an observation was conducted. There
were five (5) college hours from Monday to Friday observation through WhatsApp conducted
beyond the class hours. Students were told to record as much as possible their voice and could
upload video recordings to support the evidence. The topic of the week was based on the
syllabus of the semester lesson — responses given by WhatsApp group members. Students’
audio and video recording chat-based were counted and were assessed based on the ability to
self-monitoring and self-evaluation. Speaking components and aspects such as pronunciation,
intonation, gesture, eye contact in audio and video recording chat-based were considered. In
relation with motivation, the number of audio and video recording produced every day were
counted to measure students’ intention to speak English and to confirmed that they master the

187
topic and need a speaking improvement as well as fear of not following the conversation. These
observations were triangulated with a questionnaire on the google Form distributed. Students
filled out the questionnaire by clicking the link shared in the WhatsApp group of Basic
Speaking. Data of the questionnaire were automatically displayed in the form of frequencies
and percentages.

Findings and Discussion

4.1 Observation

Observation through WhatsApp started from meeting one of the lessons until the last
meeting consisted of 14 meetings, excluded mid-term tests, and final-term tests. A semester
observation consisted of four months of the academic period. WhatsApp group was created,
and students were told to record their voice and video record as well as to respond to each other
every day.

Figure 1
WhatsApp group

Students showed intensive ways of stating their thoughts. It seemed from the first
week of giving the task to record their voice and video record themselves to show a new way
of the idea for the rest WhatsApp members to give responses. Some pauses and short
statements were also uttered in the first to three weeks. Then, they tried to lengthen the
sentences and actively responding to the topic assigned of the week.

188
Figure 2
Audio recording chat-based

Figure 2
Video recording chat-based

Week one, until week three, students realized that they made some mistakes in terms
of mispronouncing words, flat in expressing statements and responses. As a result, they found
themselves with no gestures and lack of eye contact in front of their smartphone camera.
They further realized and tried to do self-correction, and finally, they made significant
progress in doing everyday communication in the WhatsApp group.

189
Figure 3
Lecturer feedback

Lecturer, as well as a part of the WhatsApp group member, showed the role of
motivator, facilitator, and self-confidence builder. Lecturer allowed more chances for
students to get in touch actively in daily conversation. Therefore, students felt no doubt about
speaking.

190
Chart 1

Self-confidence

Self-Confidence
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Self-monitoring Self-evaluation Gesture Eye Contact Pronunciation Intonation

Chart 1 demonstrates students’ self-confidence in speaking English through WhatsApp

chat-based from week one until week 14. Six aspects of self-confidence were measured weekly.
It can be seen that the self-monitoring aspect was relatively low from week 1 to week 3.
However, students started to figure out the importance of the ability to monitor their own
speaking performance in week four until week eight as well as they tended to show high self-
monitoring in week nine until week 14. Besides, from the aspect of self-evaluation, students
were not really able to evaluate their speaking strengths and weaknesses in the first week, but
they started to notice on how to maximize their ability to correct the mistakes such as in
choosing word choice and grammar during communicating in the WhatsApp group in week 5
until week 14. The other four aspects, such as gesture, pronunciation, eye contact, and
intonation, were roughly similar in progress from week 1 to week 14. In summary, students
found themselves more confidence in asking and responding to a discussion in WhatsApp chat-
based.

191
Chart 2

Motivation

Motivation
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Mastery goal Need for achievement Fear Authority Expectation

Students’ motivation were assessed based on their everyday number of audio and
video recording they produced in the WhatsApp group. Intrinsic motivation covers three
aspects measured, such as mastery goal, need for achievement, and fear. Besides, extrinsic
motivation covers one aspect, namely authority expectation towards peers and lecturer in
speaking daily conversation in the WhatsApp. As showed in everyday log observation, both
students' intrinsic and extrinsic motivation increased weekly.

4.2 Questionnaire
Data in this questionnaire supported the observation.
Table 2
Motivation (Need)
No Information Answer Frequency Percentage
1 I feel good when Strongly agree 8 32
speaking English Agree 16 64
through audio and Neutral 1 4
video recording in the
WhatsApp group

2 I need to practice Strongly agree 12 48

speaking English as Agree 10 40
much as possible Neutral 3 12
everyday by audio

192
 No Information Answer Frequency Percentage
and video recording to
get responses from
peers and lecturer in
the WhatsApp group

3 I have high Strongly agree 9 36

expectation to myself Agree 14 56
when doing the audio Neutral 2 8
and video recording
through WhatsApp
group

4 The WhatsApp group Strongly agree 14 56

set is for preparing me Agree 7 28
improving my Neutral 4 16
speaking skills today
and future time

5 I work best in a Strongly agree 5 20

WhatsApp group for Agree 12 48
English speaking Neutral 5 20
environment Disagree 3 12

6 I speak whatever I Strongly agree 2 8

want to say in English Agree 15 60
either through audio Neutral 8 32
recording my voice or
video recording in the
WhatsApp group

Table 2 shows that students agreed and realized the importance of WhatsApp as the
platform to practice speaking using audio and video recording. The sixth item of statement
related to the intrinsic motivation of the need aspect. The highest percentage of asking their
motivation was on the scale of agree. Students need a platform where they could interact, such
in a natural way. This is in line with Awada & Wang (2016) that the most important benefits
of the WhatsApp application are its ability to improve communication within a group. Through
audio and video recording, students felt free to express and respond to ideas from peers and
lecturers in the WhatsApp group.

193
Table 3
Motivation (Mastery Goal)
No Information Answer Frequency Percentage
1 No matter how much I Strongly agree 8 32
like and dislike the Agree 10 40
class and the rule set Neutral 6 24
for only speaking Disagree 1 4
English is allowed in
the WhatsApp group,
I still try to record my
voice both audio and
video recording

2 I feel that challenging Strongly agree 17 68

assignments in the Agree 8 32
WhatsApp group can
be a great speaking
learning experience

3 My friends help me to Strongly agree 11 44

gain valuable Agree 10 40
knowledge in the Neutral 3 12
WhatsApp group Disagree 1 4
speaking learning
environment

4 My speaking quality Strongly agree 6 24

performance both Agree 10 40
audio and video Neutral 9 36
recording in the
WhatsApp group is
independent

5 I do more than I have Strongly agree 9 36

to for a speaking Agree 11 44
assignment assigned Neutral 4 16
in the WhatsApp Disagree 1 4
group to help me
understand the
speaking materials,
instructions, and
activities better

6 I enjoy learning daily Strongly agree 12 48

conversation through Agree 10 40
WhatsApp group by Neutral 3 12
audio and video
recording my voice
and get responses

194
 No Information Answer Frequency Percentage
from the group
members

7 I try to do my best Strongly agree 15 60

when I was assigned Agree 7 28
to audio and video Neutral 3 12
recording my voice in
the form of small
interview with my
pair, group work, role
play, short
demonstration, and
individual speaking
tasks in the WhatsApp
group

Table 3 describes that students were some strongly disagree, and some others agree in
the aspect of mastery goal of intrinsic motivation. They showed their inner motivation in order
to achieve something they enjoy to do, for instance, do some recording to speak daily
conversation to get responses from the WhatsApp group members. Lecturer also took apart to
strengthen stimulating students’ motivation to speak actively, for example, assigned students
with challenging tasks like video recording their cooking demonstration and sharing the video
for feedback and responses from WhatsApp group members. Afful and Akrong (2019) argue
that the creation of a user group on WhatsApp to provide a platform for lecturers to share
lecture materials, other digital information, and alert services related to academics. They
considered that the use of WhatsApp has a positive effect on the academic performance of
students so long as the dominant use is to study-related purposes.

Table 4
Motivation (Fear)
No Information Answer Frequency Percentage
1 I feel no worries in Strongly agree 8 32
speaking English in Agree 6 24
the WhatsApp group Neutral 10 40
Disagree 1 4

2 I enjoy challenging Strongly agree 13 52

tasks for audio and Agree 9 36
video recording in the Neutral 3 12
WhatsApp group such

195
 No Information Answer Frequency Percentage
as small interview
with friends, role
plays, demonstration
activities, group work,
and individual
assignment
3 I am not nervous Strongly agree 3 12
when doing audio and Agree 9 36
video recording in the Neutral 9 36
WhatsApp group Disagree 4 16

4 I feel ashamed when Strongly agree 1 4

my lecturer gives Agree 7 28
correction on my Neutral 8 32
audio and video Disagree 5 20
recording in the Strongly 4 16
WhatsApp group disagree

Fourth items of the statement described most of the students in this study agreed that
they felt no doubt to speak English since they enjoyed speaking tasks given for every week,
such as did a short interview, pair wok, and group work. In addition, they felt not nervous and
ashamed for audio and video recording to get connected and interacted with their peers and
lecturer within the college hours and at home throughout the WhatsApp group. This is in line
with Beckman (2010), who stated that mobile technologies offer chances to continue access
education from distance that can be pursued off‐campus and transnationally with the same peer‐
centered approaches available on‐campus, engaging authenticity of both content and context
as well as offer discussion spaces.

Table 5
Motivation (Authority Expectation)
No Information Answer Frequency Percentage
1 I feel that I should be Strongly agree 4 16
recognized when I Agree 9 36
audio and video Neutral 11 44
recording in the Disagree 1 4
WhatsApp group

2 I try to live up my Strongly agree 9 37.5

presence to what my Agree 9 37.5
lecturer expects me in Neutral 6 25

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 No Information Answer Frequency Percentage
the classroom and in
the WhatsApp group
3 When I make Strongly agree 3 12.5
mistakes in the Agree 13 54.2
aspects of Neutral 1 1.4
pronunciation, Disagree 5 20.8
grammar, vocabulary, Strongly 2 8.3
fluency, and accuracy disagree
in audio and video
recording in the
WhatsApp group, I
feel that I let my
lecturer down

4 It is important to Strongly agree 12 50

speak day to day Agree 11 45.8
English speaking Neutral 1 4.2
through WhatsApp
group such the way
my Basic speaking
lecturer wants

5 I have no problem Strongly agree 7 29.2

telling my peers and Agree 10 41.7
lecturer in the Neutral 5 20.8
WhatsApp group that Disagree 1 4.2
I made some mistakes Strongly 1 4.2
in English speaking disagree

6 I can speak English Strongly agree 5 20.8

by audio and video Agree 7 29.2
recording in the Neutral 11 45.8
WhatsApp group from Disagree 1 4.2
day to day in the
semester period and I
finally I find myself is
able to speak English
well

Table 5 describes extrinsic motivation in the aspect of authority expectation to peers

and lecturer in the WhatsApp group for speaking connection, collaboration, and
communication for daily conversation. Students mostly strongly agreed and agreed that they
really paid attention and appreciated the role of their lecturer and peers in supporting them to
be able to speak English in a semester. It is in relation to the study conducted by Bouhnik and
Deshen (2014) that they asserted that the WhatsApp group the learners used improved

197
interaction, promoted the social atmosphere, fostered dialog, increased sharing among learners,
and created an enjoyable atmosphere and a profound collaboration with peers.

Table 6
Self-confidence
No Information Answer Frequency Percentage
1 Speaking English via Strongly agree 10 41.7
audio and video Agree 10 41.7
recording in the Neutral 4 16.7
WhatsApp group is
easy and fun

2 I can tell in English Strongly agree 5 20.8

whatever I want to tell Agree 5 20.8
to my friends and my Neutral 11 45.8
lecturer by audio and Disagree 3 12.5
video recording in the
WhatsApp group
without any worries
of speaking mistakes

3 I feel excited learning Strongly agree 11 45.8

daily conversation in Agree 9 37.5
the WhatsApp group Neutral 4 16.7
by audio and video
recording

4 I feel satisfied with Strongly agree 10 41.7

my speaking Agree 8 33.3
performance in the Neutral 6 25
form of role play,
small interview, and
individual tasks
during a semester
period of teaching and
learning via
WhatsApp help as the
media to practice
speaking English

5 I feel satisfied with Strongly agree 9 37.5

my English Agree 7 29.2
vocabularies Neutral 8 33.3
improvement when
speaking from day to
day audio and video

198
 No Information Answer Frequency Percentage
recording in the
WhatsApp group

6 I can pronounce Strongly agree 6 24

English words better Agree 12 48
from day to day audio Neutral 6 24
and video recording in Disagree 1 4
the WhatsApp group

7 I feel my grammar in Strongly agree 1 4

speaking English via Agree 10 49
day to day audio and Neutral 9 36
video recording in the Disagree 5 20
WhatsApp group is in
the well-ordered

Table 6 describes how students perceived that they agreed and showed ability from day
to day to speak confidently using audio and video recording in the WhatsApp group. They felt
themselves in a semester from not confident enough to high confidence. They could correct
their own mistakes in pronouncing daily English words, grammar, and were satisfied with the
progress they performed in a semester.

Conclusion
This paper highlights the potential that WhatsApp recording chat-based in stimulating
students’ self-confidence and motivation in speaking daily conversation in order to familiarize
own self producing English sentences. It demonstrates the importance of applying mobile
learning to support and engage the teaching and learning attractively and enjoyably. The results
revealed that students showed progress from day to day, speaking through WhatsApp. They
also took advantage of this implementation as a habit. Besides, there was no fear of making
mistakes and felt encouraged as a daily connection, collaboration, and communication need.
Students with low self-confidence and motivation were also engaged with the help and
inspiration coming from peers and lecturer as WhatsApp group members. This kind of mobile
learning is best to be leveraged to supplement conventional teaching and learning. Therefore,
the results contribute to advancing mobile research in refining both theory and implementation
for more stimulation in motivating and increasing self-confidence.

199
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