METALS

METALS PLAY AN ENORMOUS ROLE IN ALMOST EVERY COMPONENT OF

MANY PROJECTS AND BUILDING TYPES, FROM STRUCTURAL STEEL TO SHEET-
METAL DUCTWORK, FROM DRYWALL PARTITION STUDS TO OXIDES USED AS
PAINT PIGMENTS. METALS OF MOST VARIETIES OCCUR IN NATURE AS OXIDE
ORES, WHICH CAN BE MINED AND WORKED TO EXTRACT AND REFINE THE
METALS, SEPARATING THEM FROM OTHER ELEMENTS AND IMPURITIES.
METALS FALL UNDER TWO BROAD CATEGORIES: FERROUS (CONTAINING IRON)
AND NONFERROUS. FERROUS METALS ARE GENERALLY STRONGER, MORE
ABUNDANT, AND EASIER TO REFINE, BUT THEY HAVE A TENDENCY TO RUST.
NONFERROUS METALS TEND TO BE EASIER TO WORK AND MOST FORM THEIR
OWN THIN OXIDE LAYERS THAT PROTECT THEM FROM CORROSION.

MODIFYING METAL PROPERTIES

MOST METALS IN THEIR CHEMICALLY PURE AND NATURAL FORM ARE NOT VERY
STRONG. TO BE SUITABLE FOR CONSTRUCTION AND OTHER FUNCTIONS, THEIR
PROPERTIES MUST BE ALTERED, WHICH CAN BE DONE IN SEVERAL WAYS, OFTEN
DEPENDENT ON THE PROPOSED USE OF THE METAL.

 ALLOYS
METALS ARE MIXED WITH OTHER ELEMENTS, USUALLY OTHER METALS, TO CREATE
AN ALLOY. FOR EXAMPLE, IRON MIXED WITH SMALL AMOUNTS OF CARBON
PRODUCES STEEL. GENERALLY, THE ALLOY IS STRONGER THAN ITS PRIMARY METAL
INGREDIENT. IN ADDITION TO IMPROVED STRENGTH AND WORKABILITY, ALLOYS
PROVIDE SELF- PROTECTING OXIDE LAYERS.

 HEAT-TREATED METALS
TEMPERING: STEEL IS HEATED AT A MODERATE RATE AND SLOWLY COOLED,
PRODUCING A HARDER AND STRONGER METAL.

ANNEALING: STEEL AND SOMETIMES ALUMINUM ALLOYS ARE HEATED TO VERY

HIGH TEMPERATURES AND COOLED SLOWLY, SOFTENING THE METAL SO THAT IT IS
EASIER TO WORK.

 COLD-WORKED METALS
AT ROOM TEMPERATURE, METALS ARE ROLLED THIN, BEATEN, OR DRAWN, MAKING
THEM STRONGER BUT MORE BRITTLE BY ALTERING THEIR CRYSTALLINE
STRUCTURES. COLD-WORKED METALS MAY BE REVERSED BY ANNELING

COLD ROLLING: METAL IS SQUEEZED BETWEEN ROLLERS.

DRAWING: DRAWING METAL THROUGH INCREASINGLY SMALLER ORIFICES

PRODUCES THE WIRES AND CABLES USED TO PRESTESS CONCRETE, WHICH HAVE
FIVE TIMES THE STRUCTURAL STRENGTH OF STEEL

 COATED METALS
ANODIZING: A THIN OXIDE LAYER OF CONTROLLED COLOR AND CONSISTENCY IS
ELECTROLYTICALLY ADDED TO ALUMINUM TO IMPROVE ITS SURFACE APPERANCE.

ELECTROPLATING: CHROMIUM AND CADMIUM ARE COATED ONTO STEEL TO

PROTECT IT FROM OXIDATION AND IMPROVE ITS APPERANCE.

GALVANIZING: STEEL IS COATED WITH ZINC TO PROTECT IT AGAINST CORROSION.

OTHER COATINGS: COATINGS CAN BE INCLUDE PAINTS, LACQUERS, POWDERS,

FLUOROPOLYMERS, AND PORCELAIN ENAMEL.

FABRICATION TECHNIQUES
 CASTING: MOLTEN METAL IS POURED INTO A SHAPED MOLD. THE METAL
PRODUCED IS WEAK BUT CAN BE MADE INTO MANY SHAPES, SUCH AS
FAUCETS OR HARDWARE.
 DRAWING: WIRES ARE PRODUCED BY PULLING METAL THROUGH
INCREASINGLY SMALLER HOLES.
 EXTRUSION: HEATED (BUT NOT MOLTEN) METAL IS SQUEEZED THROUGH A
DIE, PRODUCING A LONG METAL PIECE WITH SHAPED PROFILE.
 FORGING: METAL IS HEATED UNTIL FLEXIBLE AND THEN BENT INTO A
DESIRED SHAPE. THIS PROCESS IMPROVES STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE BY
IMPARTING A GRAIN ORIENTATION ONTO THE METAL.
 GRINDING: MACHINES GRIND AND POLISH METAL TO CREATE FLAT,
FINISHED SURFACES.
 MACHINING: MATERIAL IS CUT AWAY TO ACHIEVE A DESIRED SHAPE.
PROCESSES INCLUDE DRILLING, MILLING (WITH A ROTATING WHEEL),
LATHING (FOR CYLINDRICAL SHAPES), SAWING, SHEARING, AND PUNCHING.
SHEET METAL IS CUT WITH SHEARS AND FOLDED ON BRAKES.
 ROLLING: METAL IS SQUEEZED BETWEEN ROLLERS. HOT ROLLING, UNLIKE
COLD, DOES NOT INCREASE THE STRENGTH OF METAL.
 STAMPNG: SHEET METAL IS SQUEEZED BETWEEN MATCHING DIES TO GIVE IT
SHAPE AND TEXTURE.
JOINING METALS
WELDING: IN THIS HIGH-TEMPERATURE FUSION, A GAS FLAME OR ELECTRIC ARC
MELTS TWO METALS AND ALLOWS THE POINT OF CONNECTION TO FLOW TOGETHER
WITH ADDITIONAL MOLTEN METAL FROM A WELDING ROD. WELDED CONNECTIONS
ARE AS STRONG AS THE METALS THEY JOIN AND CAN BE USED FOR STRUCTURAL
WORK.

BRAZING AND SOLDERING: IN THESE LOWER-TEMPERATURE PROCESSES, THE TWO

METALS ARE NOT THEMSELVES MELTED BUT JOINED WITH THE SOLDER OF A METAL
WITH A LOWER MELTING POINT: BRASS OR BRONZE ARE USEDIN BRAZING, LEAD-TIN
ALLOY IS USED IN SOLDERING. TOO WEAK FOR STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS,
BRAZING AND SOLDERING ARE USED FOR PLUMBING PIPES AND ROOFING.

MECHANICAL METHODS: METALS CAN ALSO BE DRILLED OR PUNCHED WITH

HOLES, THROUGH WHICH SCREWS, BOLTS, OR RIVETS ARE INSERTED.

INTERLOCKING AND FOLDING: SHEET METAL CAN BE JOINED BY SUCH

CONNECTIONS.

METAL TYPES
FERROUS
 CAST IRON: VERY BRITTLE WITH HIGH COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AND
ABILITY TO ABSORB VIBRATIONS; IDEAL FOR GRATINGS AND STAIR
COMPONENTS BUT TOO BRITTLE FOR STRUCTURAL WORK.
 MALLEABLE IRON: PRODUCED BY CASTING, REHEATING, AND SLOWLY
COOLING TO IMPROVE WORKABLITY; SIMILAR TO CAST IRON IN USE.
 MILD STEEL: ORDINARY STRUCTURAL STEEL WITH A LOW CARBON
CONTENT.
 STAINLESS STEEL: PROUCED BY ALLOYING WITH OTHER METALS,
PRIMARILY CHROMIUM OR NICKEL FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE AND
MOLYBDENUM WHEN MAXIMUM RESISTANCE IS REQUIRED (IN SEA WATER,
FOR EXAMPLE). THOUGH HARDER TO FORM AND MACHINE THAN MILD STEEL,
ITS USES ARE MANY, INCLUDING FLASHING, COPING, FASTENERS, ANCHORS,
HARDWARE, AND FINISHES THAT CAN RANGE FROM MATTE TO MIRROR
POLISH.
 STEEL: IRON WITH LOW AMOUNTS OF CARBON (CARBON INCREASE
STRENGTH, BUT DECREASE DUCTILITY AND WELDING CAPABILITIES); USED
FOR STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS, STUDS, JOISTS, AND FASTENERS, AND IN
DECORATIVE WORK.
 WHROUGHT IRON: SOFT AND EASILY WORKED, WITH HIGH CORROSION
RESISTANCE, MAKING IT IDEAL FOR USE BELOWGRADE. MOST OFTEN CAST
OR WORKED INTO BARS, PIPES, OR SHEETS, AND FASHIONED FOR
 ORNAMENTAL PURPOSES. OTHER METALS LIKE STEEL HAVE VIRTUALLY
REPLACED IT TODAY.

NON- FERROUS
 ALUMINUM: WHEN PURE, IT RESISTS CORROSION WELL, BUT IS SOFT AND
LACKS STRENGTH; WITH ALLOYS , IT CAN ACHIEVE VARIOUS LEVELS OF
STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS, AT ONE-THIRD THE DENSITY OF STEEL, AND CAN
BE HOT OR COLD- ROLLED, CAST, DRAWN, EXTRUDED, FORGED, OR STAMPED.
SHEETS OR FOIL, WHEN POLISHED TO A MIRROR FINISH, HAVE EXTREMELY
HIGH LEVELS OF LIGHT AND HEAT REFLECTIVITY. ITS USES INCLUDE
CURTAIN WALL COMPONENTS, DUCTWORK, FLASHING, ROOFING, WINDOW
AND DOOR FRAMES, GRILLS, SIDING, HARDWARE, WIRING, AND COATINGS
FOR OTHER METALS. ALUMINUM POWDER MAY BE ADDED TO METALLIC
PAINTS AND ITS OXIDE ACTS AS AN ABRASIVE IN SANDPAER.
 BRASS: ALLOY OF COPPER, ZINC, AND OTHER METALS; CAN BE POLISHED TO
A HIGHER LUSTER AND IS MOSTLY USED FOR WEATHER STRIPPING,
ORNAMENTAL WORK, AND FINISH HARDWARE.
 BRONZE: ALLOY OF COPER AND TIN THATRESISTS CORROSION; USED FOR
WEATHER STRIPPING, HARDWARE, AND ORNAMENTAL WORK.
 CADMIUM: SIMILAR TO ZINC; USUALLY ELECTROPLATED ONTO STEEL.
 CHROMIUM: VERY HARD AND WILL NOT CORRODE IN AIR; LIKE NICKEL,
OFTEN USED AS AN ALLOY TO ACHIEVE A BRIGHT POLISH AND IS EXCELLENT
FOR PLATING.
 COPPER: DUCTILE AND CORROSION, IMPACT, AND FATIGUE-RESISTANT; IT
HAS HIGH THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY, AND CAN BE CAST,
DRAWN, EXTRUDED, HOT, OR COLED-ROLLED. IT IS WIDELY EMPLOYED AS AN
ALLOY WITH OTHER METALS, IT CAN ALSO BE USED FOR ELECTRICAL
WIRING, FLASHING, ROOFING, AND PIPING.
 LEAD: EXTREMELY DENSE, CORROSION RESISTANT, LIMP, SOFT, AND EASY TO
WORK; MOST OFTEN COMBINED WITH ALLOYS TO IMPROVE HARDNESS AND
STRENGTH. FOIL OR SHEETS ARE IDEAL FOR WATERPROOFING, BLOCKING
SOUND AND VIBRATIONS, AND SHIELDING AGAINST RADIATION. CAN ALSO
BE USED AS ROOFING AND FLASHING, OR TO COAT COPPER SHEETS (LEAD-
COATED COPPER) FOR ROOFING AND FLASHING. HIGH TOXICITY OF VAPORS
AND DUST HAVE MADE IT USE LESS COMMON.
 MAGNESIUM: STRONG AND LIGHTWEIGHT; AS AN ALLOY, SERVES TO
INCREASE STRENGTH AND CORROSION RESISTANCE IN ALUMINUM. OFTEN
USED IN AIRCRAFT, BUT TOO EXPENSIVE FOR MOST CONSTRUCTION.
 TIN: SOFT AND DUCTILE; USED IN TERNEPLATE (80% LEAD, 20% TIN) FOR
PLATING STEEL.
 TITANIUM: LOW DENSITY AND HIGH STRENGTH; USED IN NUMEROUS ALLOYS
AND ITS OXIDE HAS REPLACED LEAD IN MANY PAINTS.
 ZINC: CORROSION RESISTANT IN WATER AND AIR, BUT VERY BRITTLE AND
LOW IN STRENGTH. PRIMARILY USED IN GALVANIZING STEEL TO KEEP IT
FROM RUSTING; ALSO ELECTROPLATED ONTO OTHER METALS AS AN ALLOY.
OTHER FUNCTIONS INCLUDE FLASHING, ROOFING, HARDWARE, AND DIE-
CASTING.
 REFERENCES:

FUNDAMENTALS OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION: MATERIALS AND

METHODS, 5TH EDITION
EDWARD ALLEN AND JOSEPH IANO; JOHN WILET & SONS, 2008

SMACNA ARCHITECTURAL SHEET METAL MANUAL, 7TH EDITION

2012

METAL ARCHITECTURE
BURKHARD FROHLICH AND SONJA SCHULENBURG, EDS.; BIRKHAUSER, 2003

STEEL AND BEYOND: NEW STRATEGIES FOR METALS IN ARCHITECTURE

ANNETTE LECUYER; BIRKHAUSER, 2003

WWW.CORROSION-DOCTORS.ORG