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Influencer Content Manipulation:

Implications and Ethical Challenges
Authors: Celia Hernandez [email protected],
Maya Salvador [email protected],
Almudena Sanz [email protected]

1. Introduction 3
2. State of the Art: 4
2.1 Overview of content manipulation trends by influencers across various platforms4
2.2 Ethical implications of influencers altering content for promotional purposes. 5
3. Historical and Contextual Framework: 6
3.1. Evolution of influencers content creation and the rise of curated realities 6
3.2. Audience expectations and trust in influencer-generated content 9
4. Crisis Evolution due to Content Manipulation 10
4.1. Pre-Crisis: Detection methods for identifying manipulated content. 10
4.2. Crisis Management: Strategies employed by influencers and platforms post-
revelation of manipulated content. 11
4.3. Post-Crisis Stages: Impact on audience trust. 12
5. Analysis of Responses and Management Actions: 13
5.1 Evaluation of influencer responses and platform policies regarding content
authenticity 13
6. Discussion and Conclusions 13
References 14

Figure 1Portrait of Josiah Wedgwood from The Scientific Correspondence of Joseph

Priestley 8
Figure 2: A Potter for Princes – and the People. Josiah Wedgwood earned royal
approval for his craft when he presented a tea service to Queen Charlotte. Original
artwork from Look and Learn no. 664 (5 October 1974). 8

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1. Introduction
The crisis analized in the following pages regards influencers and content manipulation.
In today’s world, social media influencers are everywhere. They have millions of
followers and the ability to influence people's opinions and behavior. However, this
power can also be used to manipulate the content they publish.
Manipulating influencer content can have a negative impact on the influencer's
credibility. If followers discover that the content they consume has been manipulated,
they may lose trust in the influencer and the information they provide. Additionally,
manipulation of influential content can have negative consequences for society. When
influencers promote products or services in a misleading manner, they may influence
consumers' purchasing decisions, resulting in unfair business practices.
Manipulating influencer content raises many ethical challenges. First, it raises issues of
transparency. Influencers have a responsibility to their followers to be transparent about
the content they post. Second, it raises the issue of manipulation and it generates trust
issues among viewers.

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2. State of the Art:
2.1 Overview of content manipulation trends by influencers
across various platforms

Social media platforms are profoundly temporal. They need to appeal to the majority for
the sake of staying culturally applicable and they need to be profoundly visual to attract
and retain observers. These strategies are all driven by their need to remain attainable
and so they need to attract advertisers to get money.
The heart of the matter is the distinction between provoking a response and delivering
what happy people want. Social media algorithms – the rules their computers follow in
deducing the content that you see – calculate heavily on people’s actions to make these
opinions. In particular, they care for content that people answer to or “ engage ” with by
liking, opining and participating.

The concept of information manipulation has remained largely unchanged over time.
However, its speed and reach today make it very different from its historical
counterparts.
The advertising industry, which is the basis for much of today's internet, exacerbates
this problem. In the game of clicks, shares and likes, malicious behavior in the form of
spreading misinformation for profit or political reasons, casting doubt on a free press, or
creating uncertainty and lack of trust in democratic institutions undermines traditional
American values and threatens Undermining this by dividing our society into warring
factions. This could create cracks wide enough for authoritarianism to seep in like
contaminants.
The UK Parliament divides disinformation and misinformation content into six broad
categories:

1. Fictional or completely false content.

Fiction or false content is intentionally created information or media to deceive,
mislead, or manipulate individuals and audiences. It can take various forms, such as
fake news articles or fabricated stories, and identifying and addressing this type of
content is crucial for maintaining online integrity.

2. Content that is manipulated by distorting information or images.

Content manipulation involves intentionally altering information or images to create
deceptive narratives. This involves misinterpretation of reality, aiming to influence
perceptions, opinions, or behaviors. Detecting and addressing manipulated content is
crucial for maintaining information credibility in news reporting and social media,
preventing deceptive narratives.

3. Content that imitates an authentic source (e.g., "sock puppets").

Sock puppets are fake accounts that imitate genuine sources to spread misinformation
and manipulate online discussions. They are prevalent on social media and online
forums, where authenticity is crucial for informed decision-making. Detecting and

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addressing these imitations is essential for maintaining online conversation integrity and
user trust.

4. Misleading content (e.g. clickbait).

Misleading content, like clickbait, exaggerates or sensationalizes information to attract
users' attention. It often uses catchy headlines, images, or sensational language, but may
not align with actual content, leading to disappointment and confusion. Identifying and
being cautious is crucial for informed decision-making and responsible digital
navigation.

5. Contextually false content; using titles that have no bearing on reality or the facts of
the story.
Contextually false content is misleading narratives created by intentionally distorting
the story's framing, often using sensational titles. This deceptive practice can spread
misinformation, as users form opinions based on sensationalized titles without delving
into the actual content. Detecting and questioning title accuracy is crucial for media
literacy.

6. Content full of satire and parody (e.g., humorous but false stories, such as twisted
memes).
Satire and parody content combines humor with exaggeration or distortion of facts to
entertain or make satirical points. It often takes the form of false stories or memes,
providing comedic commentary on real-world events. Consumers should approach such
content with awareness of its satirical nature.

2.2 Ethical implications of influencers altering content for

promotional purposes.

The ethics of influencers manipulating their content depends on the type and degree of
manipulation. Generally speaking, ethical issues arise when influencers engage in
deceptive behavior that could mislead or harm their audience. Here are some things to
note:

Transparency and Authenticity: Content manipulation by influencers may be

considered ethical if they are open about it and admit when they use editing, filters, or
other creative tools. However, it presents ethical questions when manipulation is used to
sell things secretly or to present a misleading image of reality.

Honesty in Promotions: Ethical norms frequently demand influencers to declare any

financial collaborations or sponsorships when they are promoting goods or services. If
they don't, they risk misleading their supporters and betraying their trust.

Effects on Mental Health: Overuse of body editing, picture manipulation, and other
image-altering methods can lead to followers developing unrealistic beauty standards
and suffering mental health problems. Influencers with a moral code should think about
the possible harm that comes from promoting unreasonable expectations.

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Responsible Content Creation: Influencers, particularly those with a large following,
have an obligation to their audience. Content creation that respects, is truthful, and takes
followers' welfare into consideration is typically seen as ethical.

Transparency, sincerity, and respect for the audience's reaction are ultimately necessary
components of ethical behavior in content development. Influencers should be aware of
the possible repercussions of false advertising and work to preserve trust with their
following. However, moral principles might differ, and what is considered appropriate
can rely on personal views, industry standards, and cultural conventions.

3. Historical and Contextual Framework:

3.1. Evolution of influencers content creation and the rise of
curated realities
Emergence of Influencer Culture
The term "social media influencer" is loosely applied to refer to individuals who have
the capacity of influencing their followers purchasing decisions. The use of influencers
to promote products is not new, but social media has given brands more access to their
customers. Major brands have invested heavily in influencer marketing, and the market
value of influencer platforms has grown significantly. Influencers can be more effective
than traditional advertising because they can convey authenticity and familiarity to their
audience. (Hazell)

The concept of influencers trace back centuries, but the term "social media influencer"
has only been around for a few years.

“Influencers” can be traced back to ancient Greece, where renowned philosophers and
poets were seen as authorities on various topics and their opinions were highly valued
by the public. In the Middle Ages, religious figures and scholars played a similar role,
influencing the beliefs and practices of their followers.

In the 1760s, a potter named Josiah Wedgwood created a tea set for Queen Charlotte of
England and promoted himself as the "Potter of her Majesty." This title and the royal
family's stamp of approval made his brand a staple and earned him the title of "the
father of modern marketing." (Weinstein)

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 Figure 1Portrait of Josiah Wedgwood from The Scientific Correspondence of Joseph Priestley

Figure 2: A Potter for Princes – and the People. Josiah Wedgwood earned royal approval for his craft when he
presented a tea service to Queen Charlotte. Original artwork from Look and Learn no. 664 (5 October 1974).

The trend of using of celebrities began in the early 1900s, with figures like actor Fatty
Arbuckle, who was paid to endorse Murad cigarettes in 1905. In the following decades,
other celebrities, such as the actress Mary Pickford and the athlete Babe Ruth, also
became popular promoters of various products.

During the 1950s and 1960s, fashion models and athletes continued gained even greater
prominence as “influencers”. For instance, the model Twiggy, known for her unique
looks, became a spokesperson for a number of products, including a popular hairstyle
brand, as well as another of cosmetics. Similarly, athletes like Pelé and Michael Jordan
became icons of their respective sports, and their endorsements were highly sought after
by brands.

Influencers, as we know them, trace back to celebrities endorsing products in traditional

media. An example of this phenomenon would be Oprah Winfrey, the celebrated

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American talk show host and cultural taste maker. Her signature book club boosted the
sales of the chosen book making it an instant bestseller. The effect of Oprah's words
was so profound that some people considered her influence to be even more powerful
than the Nobel Prize.

The emergence of social media in the early 2000s came with new opportunities for
influencers. Platforms such as Facebook, YouTube, and Instagram provided a way for
people to share their thoughts, opinions, and experiences with a large audience. These
everyday influencers often built their followings by sharing their passion for a particular
topic or product, and they were able to connect with their followers on a personal level.

In the 2010s, the influencer marketing industry exploded as brands recognized the
power of influencers to reach large audiences and generate buzz for their products.
Brands started to invest heavily in influencer marketing.

 In 2010, Instagram debuted as a photo-sharing app, a visual haven that

transformed influencers into visual storytellers, quickly embraced to share their
lives and favorite products. The platform's aesthetically pleasing feeds led to the
birth of polished content blurring the line between reality and crafted perfection.
 The addition of paid ads in Instagram in 2013 solidified its role for brands and
influencers, simplifying product promotion and catering to an even larger
following.
 Twitch, founded in 2011, revolutionized social media by offering live streaming
for gamers. This birthed a new breed of influencers, allowing gamers to earn by
streaming and endorsing games, expanding into sports and music, now boasting
9.36 million active streamers.
 TikTok, established in 2016, stands out for its personalized “for you page,”
presenting diverse and entertaining content. It's become a haven for influencers
to create unique content and showcase sponsored posts, with Find Your
Influence linking brands to influencers since 2013. (Weinstein)

In recent years, there has been a shift towards micro-influencers, which are influencers
with smaller but more engaged followings. Micro-influencers are often seen as more
authentic and relatable than celebrities, and they can be more effective in reaching a
specific target audience. (Ehlers)

The influencer marketing industry, valued at $13.8 billion in 2021, has transcended
Instagram, embracing platforms like Twitter and TikTok. With dedicated budgets for
influencer marketing, brands leverage influencer’s engagement to connect with
audiences. (Dughi)

From “Bloggers” to “Influencers”: From Self-Representation to Self-Branding

Content creation shapes identities and versions of the self through imagery and
autobiographical content. The advent of influencers marked a paradigm shift towards
strategic self-branding. Influencers leverage social media platforms and marketing
strategies to construct a distinct and marketable personal brand. This evolution goes
beyond individual narratives to purposeful curation and cultivation of a recognizable
and profitable image.

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The shift from bloggers to influencers signifies a transition from personal storytelling to
intentional self-promotion. Influencers strategically craft content aligned with their
tailored brand image, aiming for broader recognition, increased visibility, and lucrative
commercial opportunities. The focus shifts from relatable individuality to a more
calculated presentation is often driven by marketability and brand partnerships.

This evolution reshapes content creation dynamics, transforming influencer content into
a meticulously curated narrative aimed at appealing to a wider audience and potential
sponsors. The audience relationship with influencers also changes, shifting from
personal connection to a more aspirational and tailored interaction centered around the
influencer's curated image.

The evolution from bloggers to influencers signifies a transformation in the landscape

of online identity presentation. From raw, unfiltered and authentic individual
storytelling to strategic, market-driven branding, this shift reflects a broader transition in
digital content creation dynamics, impacting both creators and audiences alike.
(Arriagada and Ibáñez)

3.2. Audience expectations and trust in influencer-generated

content
Emotional Attachment: It's a strong connection between a person and
someone/something else. Initially studied in parent-child relationships, it extends to
bonds with brands, online communities, companies, places, and celebrities. Companies
aim to foster these connections for stronger consumer loyalty based on attachment
theory. Individuals attach emotionally to objects that meet their needs.

Information Quality: In social media, it's about how users perceive accuracy,
consistency, and adequacy of influencer-generated content. This quality influences the
success of information systems and user satisfaction, impacting the persuasiveness of
information. “Getting information is one of the primary reasons individuals utilize
social media. Consumers often treat influencers as opinion leaders and refer to the
content generated by influencers to help them make the right decision.” (Zhang and
Choi) Consumers rely on this influencer-generated content for decision-making, valuing
high-quality and trustworthy information to make informed choices.

Influencer-Generated Content: Influencers attract followers by providing varied

content and they attempt to develop close and long-term relationships with their
followers. The features of this content (richness, length, quantity, quality, originality,
uniqueness) influence how consumers perceive and engage with it. Engaging brand
posts significantly impact user preferences and behaviors, affecting how users interact
with brands and make decisions.

The three aspects explained above play a crucial part in the understanding of audience’s
expectations and trust in influencer-generated content.

The audiences accessing influencer-generated content expect a high degree of

information quality, encompassing accuracy, consistency, and adequacy. This
expectation arises from the reliance on such content for decision-making processes.
When influencers consistently provide accurate and reliable information, audiences

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develop trust in their recommendations. This trust is pivotal as it influences audience
behavior, impacting their choices and actions.

Nevertheless, audiences not only rely on influencer-generated content for consumer

recommendations, this content serves as an example, an aspiration and inspiration for
audiences. They often perceive influencers as aspirational figures who represent certain
lifestyles, values, or ideals. Influencer’s curated content showcases an idealized version
of life, presenting a standard that audiences may aspire to achieve. The alignment
between the influencer's image and the audience's aspirations impacts the level of trust
placed in their content.

The characteristics embedded within influencer content, such as richness (comprising

multimedia elements like images and videos), originality, uniqueness, and overall
quality, play a crucial role in shaping audience perceptions. Authenticity is a key factor
here, audiences expect genuine, original, and unique content that resonates with their
interests. When influencers deliver content that aligns with these expectations, it
bolsters the audience's trust in the influencer's recommendations and opinions. The trust
in influencer-generated content often stems from the development of strong
relationships between influencers and their followers. Influencers who invest time in
fostering genuine, long-term relationships tend to garner higher levels of trust from their
audience.

Ultimately, the level of trust audiences place in influencer-generated content

significantly influences their decision-making processes and subsequent behaviors.
(Zhang and Choi)

4. Crisis Evolution due to Content Manipulation

A few years ago, people posted content on social media as a hobby. Through the pass of
the years and since the discovery of the potential of these users that became very
popular thanks to their presence on social media, this “hobby” has turned into a job.
This means that the purpose has changed, and now people do not use social media to
entertain themselves but to earn money. This is the point of inflexion and the beginning
of the crisis and the fever of people that wanted to become influencers.

4.1. Pre-Crisis: Detection methods for identifying manipulated

content.
Brands have long recognized the power of celebrities to influence consumer behavior
and have used their influence to promote products and services. (Forbes, 2023) This has
been crucial in this first stage of the crisis because people in social media have started
recommending products or services not because they really like them but because they
are paid to show and recommend them. Here, the first lies and manipulation of content
start. Cases such as Mikayla Nogueira’s (Weekman, 2023) one, a girl that was accused
of using false eyelashes in a promotional video of L’Oreal in her tik tok account, have

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become so popular around the glove, and a general concern regarding how to detect
misleading advertising started.

Identifying manipulated promotional content on social media can be difficult, but there
are some elements that can be used to know the authenticity of the information posted:

1. Source and Author: it is crucial to check the source of the ad, in order to know
the authenticity of the content.

2. Clarity and Specificity: The content should be clear and concise, exaggerated
affirmations or unclear explanations are evidence of manipulated content.

3. Emotional Appeals and Scarcity Tactics: there are some ads on social media that
try heavily to influence viewers by emotional appeals.

4. Authenticity of Visuals: If the audiovisual content is over edited or seems to be

unreal it could be manipulated.

5. Evidence and Testimonials: always check that the evidence and testimonies are
contrasted and come from real sources.

6. Consistency with Brand Reputation: Check if the ad is related with the brand's
overall reputation and identity. If it doesn’t have much to do or includes
contradictory content, it may raise concerns about its authenticity.

7. Social Media Feedback and Discussions: Check the comments and feedback that
the content receives. If there are significant incongruencies between the content
and user experiences with the product/service, it may indicate authenticity
issues.

8. Fact-Checking Resources: A viable source to check the authenticity of the

content is using websites and organizations to verify the content.

Along with the manipulation of the promotional content, there is another source of false
content in media, often used by influencers (or not) in order to augment the number of
followers, viewers and comments.This are the elements that are frequently used:

1. Clickbaits: false titles in order to catch faster users attention

2. Typo-marketing: using misspellings in order to receive comments about them,
boosting the spread of the content posted
3. Fake drama: false controversies in order to catch more viewers

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 4. Share-count manipulation: Influencing viewers to promote the content they see
to other users
5. Weird inclusion: adding strange features to the videos in order to receive more
attention

4.2. Crisis Management: Strategies employed by influencers and

platforms post-revelation of manipulated content.
Now that the public is aware of the manipulation of the content, companies and
influencers have to manage the crisis and generate a solution for the problem.

On the one side, influencers are trying to improve their publicity by only advertising
products or services that have to do with the content they post, in order to sound more
credible. One of the bigger problems regarding this crisis, is the fact that a lot of
influencers try to hide the publicity they are making in order to sound more real and
influence more the users to buy what has been advertised, but at this point, expectators
are very aware of this and big influencers are starting to use the hashtag “ad” in order to
be real and avoid misleading.

On the other side, businesses are also trying to select better influencers for their
advertising, using people that really have something to do with the company or the
product and have manners to make promotional content.

But, how did influencers previously respond when they faced the consequences of being
caught lying on advertisements? Here are some cases of influencers being caught lying
in promotional content and how they responded to the fallout:

1. James Charles - Morphe Palette

On April 23, 2019, James Charles posted a YouTube video telling he had created a new
makeup palette with Morphe Cosmetics. Later on, it was discovered that this wasn't true
and that he was just promoting the palette as a paid collaboration with the brand.

His response was quick, he posted apologies on social media admitting the mistake and
ensured he was going to be more transparent in his future collaborations. His apology
and sincere explanations helped him not to damage his own reputation.

2. Tana Mongeau - Fashion Nova

On September 6, 2018, Tana Mongeau, a famous instagramer made a post promoting

some clothes of the brand Fashion Nova. Soon her followers claimed the photographs
have been edited in order to make the clothes look better on her.

Her first response was saying the photos were not edited, but the controversy became so
big that she finally had to admit her mistake and post an apology on her instagram, and
the brand removed all the sponsored photos.

3. Kylie Jenner - Kylie Cosmetics

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Kylie Jenner has been accused several times for manipulating information regarding her
makeup line. In 2017, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) accused Kylie lying about
the ingredients of her lip kits, as she affirmed that they were natural and without animal
testing without a real evidence.

Aditionally, she had to face another crisis as she was accused of over-editing the photos
wearing her makeup products. Kylie Jenner has never publicly apologized for any of
these accusations, but she has taken some steps to address the concerns. For example,
she has updated the ingredient labels on her products.

4.3. Post-Crisis Stages: Impact on audience trust.

The increasing number of influencers caught misleading their followers on their ads has
significantly impacted audience trust in the industry. The consequences are several,
audiences are now more difficult to be convinced by influencers, specially when it
comes to paid collaborations or publicity. Also, there is a growing demand for
transparency: consumers want to know when they are watching promotional content.

This crisis has affected the industry in the way that some consumers now prefer to
search directly on brand websites or trusted sources, rather than relying on influencer
recommendations. This has led to a decline in the effectiveness of influencer marketing
for some brands.

5. Analysis of Responses and Management Actions:

5.1 Evaluation of influencer responses and platform policies
regarding content authenticity
The 3 cases that have been mentioned before are just some of the examples of different
types of crisis that influencers have had with their social media regarding different types
of content or product manipulation.
We can also see how differently this crisis was addressed since responding immediately
to the allegations and trying to solve it, going through waiting until the problem was no
longer avoidable and having repercussions to not responding at all and waiting until the
crisis was done.
Every time the cases of content manipulation are lower and to help with this most of the
platforms have created different prevention methods and elaborated policies in order to
help prevent this.
For example in the case of Tiktok which is an constantly changing platform, it is aware
that it is normal for people to hold different opinions in a global community, but their
goal is to function based on a common set of facts and realities. Regardless of the
intention, they do not tolerate information that is inaccurate, misleading or fraudulent
that might seriously hurt people or society. Property damage as well as psychological,
social, or physical harm are considered significant harms. It excludes misinformation
and beliefs that are merely false, as well as damages to business and reputation. To

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 evaluate the accuracy of information, they now use their own database of previously
fact-checked statements as well as independent fact-checking partners.

6. Discussion and Conclusions

Influencer content manipulation is a growing problem that has significant consequences
for both influencers and the brands they work with. By understanding the different types
of manipulation and their impact, influencers and brands can take action to mitigate
crisis risks and build more sustainable relationships with their followers.

This practice erodes audience trust, damages influencer credibility, and ultimately
jeopardizes the effectiveness of influencer-driven campaigns. To combat this, both
influencers and brands need to take steps to increase transparency and authenticity.
Influencers should clearly disclose their sponsored content, rather than manipulate their
content to deceive their audience, and focus on creating valuable and informative
material. Brands, on the other hand, should carefully select influencers based on their
credibility and genuine passion for the brand, develop clear policies and guidelines for
influencer collaborations, and invest in tools to detect and flag manipulated content. By
working together, influencers and brands can foster a more ethical and trustworthy
influencer marketing ecosystem that benefits everyone involved.This practice erodes
audience trust, damages influencer credibility, and ultimately jeopardizes the
effectiveness of influencer-driven campaigns. To combat this, both influencers and
brands need to take steps to increase transparency and authenticity. Influencers should
clearly disclose their sponsored content, rather than manipulate their content to deceive
their audience, and focus on creating valuable and informative material. Brands, on the
other hand, should carefully select influencers based on their credibility and genuine
passion for the brand, develop clear policies and guidelines for influencer
collaborations, and invest in tools to detect and flag manipulated content. By working
together, influencers and brands can foster a more ethical and trustworthy influencer
marketing ecosystem that benefits everyone involved.

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