SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT – II– Media Culture and Society– SVCA1202

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 Unit II- MEDIA INDUSTRY

1. NEWSCONSTRUCTION: AGENDA SETTING THEORY:

A theory that holds intense media attention increases the importance of certain topics, issues,
and individuals
It has the ability to tell us what issues are important and has a very powerful influence of the
media. We perceive information the way mass media wants us to.
Agenda setting functions mostly in mass communication and media
We (as an audience to mass media) use agenda-setting to describe important events we have
not personally witnessed.
The media uses agenda setting theory to inform us on what they think is important to our
society

Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw

• They investigated the agenda-setting function of the mass media in the 1969 presidential
campaign
• To get information about the relationship between what voters in one community said were
important issues and the actual content of media messages during the actual campaign
• Mass media (with the agenda-setting function) had a huge influence on what voters during the
campaign considered to be the major issues
• This study began the agenda-setting theory and is now why we study it today.
Agenda setting theory can be beneficial in the sense that with the supposed control that the
media has on the minds of the viewer, would make the PR professional more aware of the
impact they may have on the message delivery and presentation they give to the listening
audience.
They do this by ―framing‖ i.e. through selection , emphasis , exclusion and elaboration .
These determine the salience of particular attributes of a story of issue.
Media may not only tell us what to think about , they may also tell us how and what to
think about it, and perhaps even what to do about it .Media may also affect behavior, for
example, influencing sentiment about the economy, about travel etc.

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AGENDA
First-level agenda setting--the issues (objects) in the media.
Second-level agenda setting tells audience what to think about these issues.
Framing--process through which media emphasize some aspects of reality and downplay
others creating interpretive schema (e.g., by subtopics, placement, tone, narrative form, details,
etc.).
Framing is a process of selective control. It has two meanings.
1. The way in which news content is typically shaped and contextualized within the same
frame of reference.
2. Audience adopts the frames of reference and to see the world in a similar way. This is how
people attach importance to a piece of news and perceive its context within which an issue
is viewed.
Priming
The responsibility of the media in proposing the values and standards through which the
objects gain a certain amount of attention can be judged. The media’s content will provide a
sufficient amount of time and space to certain issues, making it more vivid.
In simple words, the media gives the utmost importance to a certain event such that it gives
people the impression that that particular news is the most important one. This is done on a
daily basis. The selected news report is carried on as a heading or covered regularly for
months. For example, terms such as headlines, special news features, discussions, expert
opinions are used.
Agenda Setting Theory in the communication discipline has concentrated on the relationship
between the media agenda and the public agenda
Types of agendas:

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1. Media agenda (topics covered by media)
2. Public agenda (topics public believes to be important)
3. Policy agenda (issues that decision makers believe are important
2. GATEKEEPING THEORY:
Kurt Lewin coined the word called “Gate keeping”. It’s nothing but to block unwanted or
useless things by using a gate. Here the person who makes a decision is called “Gatekeeper”.
At first it is widely used in the field of psychology and later it occupies the field of
communication. Now it’s one of the essential theories in communication studies.
The Gatekeeper decides what information should move to group or individual and what
information should not. Here, the gatekeeper are the decision makers who letting the whole
social system. The gatekeeper is having its own influence like social, cultural, ethical and
political. Based on personal or social influences they let the information to the group. Through
this process the unwanted, sensible and controversial information’s are removed by the gate
keeper which helps to control the society or a group and letting them in a right path. In home
mother plays the vital role and she has to decide what their kid’s needs and what should avoid.

In news medium, editors play vital role. They have to decide what kind of news items will
publish and what should not. Every day the news channel receives various news items from all
over the world. The channel have its own ethics and policies through this the editor decide the
news items for publish or aired. In some cases few news items are rejected by the editor due the
organizations policy or the news items which are not suitable for publish.

Example:

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An international news channel receives numbers of news items within day like international
terror issues, UN discussions, Texas bull fighting and religious abuse on international
community.

A news channel can’t show all those news items to audience because it may affect the channel
reputation in public and organizations policy. Here, editors decide the news items especially
they can’t show the Texas bull fighting because it is not internationally popular story. But the
same time the news channel can’t show the religious abuses also because it may hurt audience
directly and it may affect organizations policy also. But international terror issues and UN
discussions are universal common news that won’t affect the channel reputation in public and
organizations policy.

3. News Bias

Bias is defined as prejudice against or in favor of one thing, person, or group compared with
another, usually in a way considered to be unfair. Media bias is when journalists, news
producers, and news outlets show bias in the selection of events and stories as well as the ways
they are reported.

Bias by Source

The selection and omission of sources and their stories can direct the opinions of the
Consumer. Bias by Source can also describe when a news source chooses where the basic
information is coming from, choosing an eyewitness, a police officer, elected official, or a
spokesperson for a related cause.

Bias by Placement

Front Page News, Headline News, Breaking Stories; research shows that consumers often put
more importance and credibility on news placed on the “Top”. Front page headlines and top of
the hour news stories tend to be where most people look for their news so editors choose what
stories to place here, what stories are pushed back or left out altogether.

Bias by Headline or Story

Certain words can show approval or condemnation. They can stir controversy or engender
sympathy. Once you have been hooked in by the headline, they expect you will follow through

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to the rest of the story. Therefore they will often choose very sensational headlines to catch
your attention. When looking for this type of bias, look at words chosen for the headline. Do
they match with the story or just grab your attention?

Bias by Camera Angels, Photos and Captions

A picture is worth a thousand words. The choice of a picture or video chosen to go with a story
can influence the consumers’ opinion. There are several ways that images can be used with
bias. When looking for photographic bias look for other images that capture the same event.

Choice of Photo – the choice of photograph or video that accompanies a story is an editorial
choice and that choice can lead to bias. The choice of picture can flatter a person or make them
look unpleasant or silly. Images can lead consumers to assume things about the subject.

Captions – Captions that correspond to a picture are another way to bias by picture. Incorrect
or misleading captions (See bias by words) can influence the consumers’ opinions of a story.

Coverage bias : Giving importance to particular issue.

False Balance: Issue is not presented as even sided

4. Censorship in Media:

Media Censorship is the act of altering, adjusting, editing, or banning of any or all media
resulting from the presumption that its content is perceived to be objectionable, incendiary,
illicit, or immoral by the applicable legislative authority or Government within a specific
jurisdiction.

Film Censorship

U (Unrestricted Public Exhibition)

Films with the U certification are fit for unrestricted public exhibition and are family-friendly.
These films tend to contain universal themes, such as education, family, drama, romance, sci-fi,
action. These films can also contain some mild violence, although these violent scenes should
not be prolonged. They may also show very mild erotic scenes, without any trace of nudity or
sexual detail.

U/A (Parental Guidance for children below the age of 12 years)

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Films with the U/A certification can contain moderate adult themes that are not strong in nature
and can be watched by a child under parental guidance. These films may contain moderate to
strong violence, moderate erotic scenes (some traces of nudity and moderate sexual detail),
frightening scenes or muted abusive and foul language.

A (Restricted to adults)

Films with the A certification are available for public exhibition, but are restricted to adult
viewing. These films can contain brutally strong violence, depiction of sex acts (except full
frontal and rear nudity), strong abusive language (except language that insults or degrades
women), and even some controversial and adult themes, otherwise considered unsuitable for
young viewers. Such films are often re-certified for TV and video viewing, which does not
happen in the case of U and U/A certified movies.
S (Restricted to any special class of persons)
Films with the S certification should not be viewed by the public. Only people associated with
the field (engineers, doctors, scientists, etc.), have permission to watch those films.
FORMS of CENSORSHIP
Preventive (exercised before the expression is made public)
o Prior restraint by government
o Licensing
o Self-censorship
• Punitive (exercised after the expression is made public)
• WHAT is CENSORED?
o Speech
o Art
o Books
o Periodicals (published with set frequency)
o Films
o Plays
o Photography
o Television programs
o Radio programs
o Internet (Web sites and e-mail)
o News reports
• WHO CENSORS?

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 o Government
o Church
o Private Pressure Groups
o Speakers, Writers and Artists (self-censorship)
o Anyone

WHY DO THEY CENSOR?

• SELF-CENSORSHIP: A form of preventive censorship

Why? To avoid:
o Trouble
o Controversy
o Offending the audience
o Economic boycotts
o Lawsuits (e.g., libel, invasion of privacy torts, etc.)
o Official censorship (self-imposed ratings to avoid government ratings)

5. CONCENTRATION OF OWNERSHIP = CONCENTRATION OF IDEAS?

Control of our channels of mass communication by such a small number commercial

organization has gave implications for the circulation of ideas and culture. EXAMPLE: Priz
Five Transnationals (Time Warner, Disney, News Corporation, Viacom, and Bertelsmann) has
more communications power than was exercised by any dictator in history and that their
tendency to co- operate with one another in pursuit of mutually beneficial outcomes makes
their influence owner populations, governments and policies around the world immense.

Many nation states find that they dwarfed by such power and consequence have diminishing
control over the distinct of culture in their territory. It is specifically argued by some that
concentrates ownership leads concentration of media ownership leads to concentration of
culture and ideas- that instead of engaging with diversity of competing perspective and
innovative forms of expression, population are subject to narrow and monolithic set of
message. The notes of an automatic or exclusive link between concentrate of ownership and
concentrates of ideas may over simply things.

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It is true that certain ideas are consistently emphasized and other marginalized, the overall
contemporary media environment, including books, music, and internet offer wide range of
perspective even if many of them are controlled by large corporations.

OWNERSHIP AND CONTROLLING COMPANIES: It is often difficult to pin down the

precise influence that the individual owners and controlling companies have upon the media
since a great deal of that influence is likely to be covert, indirect, structural, and long-term.
There are two views on the influence of owners and controlling companies.

According to Tony Benn, in general the media owners and top level administration find it easy
to impose their views into print, television, or radio they own.But according to John Whale,
even if ownership influence exists, the main influence is that of the readers and thus the nature
of the press is ultimately decided by its readers.

All of the Indian broadcast media and most of the print media as well, are owned primarily by
wealthy individuals. Direct ties to the biggest of big businesses are almost unbelievably
extensive, and, we believe, these ties cannot help but seriously bias and compromise news
coverage. Moreover, the media empires are, first and foremost, profit-making corporations that
conduct themselves like other corporations when it comes to corrupting Indian politics. That is,
the parent corporations of many make so-called "campaign contributions" and also act against
the public interest in other ways. As big winners in the corruption game, they show no signs of
serious interest in political reform. (As large corporations themselves, the mass media want the
same preferential treatment, and have the same desire to grow without bounds, as all other
corporations.)

Ex: In Tamil Nadu the leading channels are supported by various political parties and because
of that the same news is shown from different perspectives by the different channels in order to
support the political party that supports them. Sun TV is biased towards the DMK party, Jaya
TV is biased towards the ADMK. The Doordarshan channels are supposed to be unbiased
channels but at times the channels tend to support the present ruling party as the channels are
run by the government (present ruling party).

6. SOURCES OF REVENUE:

Analysis of the core ways in which such companies make their money is of great importance to
the development of an understanding the motivation and priorities that ultimately determine the

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services and content they produce. Source of income for media corporate is Advertising
revenue.

ADVERTISING REVENUE: When programs such as (Eveready hour)/ (Surf excel

dhamaka)/ (Airtel Super singer) took the name of their sponsors advertising, in form of direct
program sponsorship or the interspersing of the content with spot commercials has been a
pivotal source of revenue for media corporations.

According to McChesney (1999) the amount of advertising on TV has increased, significantly

since 1990‟s with each main expanding the length and frequency of ad breaks emerging new
forms of adverting in online with pop- up, side bars adverts ad news or sports video clips
prefaced by commercials.

As digital video recording technologies make it easier for audiences to skip past repeat
advertising shots, techniques minor direct sponsorship of programs and products placement
within film or television scene have become increasingly important.

The importance of advertising and sponsorship to media industry profits is such that
advertisers not audiences, primary customers of media corporations. As Millian Baker and
George put it, “the business of TV…is the buying and selling of eyeballs (1998). Media
organization themselves, set of corporate interest from outside media sector; occupy an
influential position with respect to the production and distribution of content.

In online advertising, the source of income is through pay per view, pay per click, pay for
voting, pay for messaging/sms, etc

Sponsorship:

It is where a company/brand will pay a company to show off their logo on a product or client.
This could include things such as putting a PHILIPS logo around a football stadium.
Sponsorship can used a lot during sport such as on cricket, football players, race cars,etc.

Product placement

This is where manufacturers of products or providers of a service gain exposure for their
products by paying people to have them featured in movies and television programs. An
example of product placement is in the popular movie in which characters are using the
product.

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Licensing

This is where you can't distribute or listen to something without buying it first. A lot of music
generated companies use this method.

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