Exam

Name___________________________________

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1) What is the process whereby gametes from each parent fuse to produce a new cell? 1)
A) spermatogenesis
B) gametogenesis
C) fertilization
D) independent assortment
E) oogenesis

2) Autosomes are described as ________ because they are formed into matching pairs. 2)
A) zygotic
B) clonal
C) heterologous
D) homologous
E) haploid

3) What describes the process where portions of homologous chromosomes exchange segments with 3)
one another?
A) meiotic overlap
B) crossing over
C) homologous exchange
D) independent assortment
E) clonal exchange

4) After the second meiotic division, each cell contains 4)

A) a maternal and a paternal sister chromatid.
B) either two maternal or two paternal sister chromatids.
C) a random mixture of maternal and paternal alleles on one sister chromatid.
D) either a maternal or a paternal sister chromatid.
E) a random mixture of maternal and paternal alleles on each of two sister chromatids.

5) ________, the general term for the primary reproductive organs, are responsible for the secretion of 5)
________ in females.
A) Testes : androgens (testosterone)
B) Ovaries : estrogens (estradiol) and progesterone
C) Gonads : estrogens (estradiol) and progesterone
D) Gonads : androgens (testosterone)
E) Ovaries : androgens (testosterone)

6) What are gonadotrophs? 6)

A) cells of the anterior pituitary that secrete the gonadotropic hormones FSH and LH
B) growth factors for sexual differentiation
C) cells of the hypothalamus that secrete GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone)
D) hormones of the gonads
E) cells of the gonads that secrete sex hormones

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 7) What is the function of the accessory reproductive organs? 7)
A) the secretion of sex hormones only
B) secretion of fluids into the reproductive tract only
C) transport of gametes only
D) secondary sex characteristics only
E) both secretion of fluids into the reproductive tract and transport of gametes

8) Sex determination of a fetus is controlled by the production of ________, which is coded for by the 8)
________ gene.
A) gonad-determining factor : gdY
B) ovary-determining factor : srY
C) testis-determining factor : srY
D) testis-determining factor : tdY
E) ovary-determining factor : odY

9) The absence of ________ in the fetus will further the development of the ________ into the female 9)
reproductive tract.
A) Müllerian promoting substance : Wolffian ducts
B) Müllerian inhibiting substance : Müllerian ducts
C) Wolffian inhibiting substance : Wolffian ducts
D) androgens : Müllerian ducts
E) androgens : Wolffian ducts

10) In the female reproductive cycle, ________ is/are normally produced every 28 days. 10)
A) millions of sperm
B) two ova
C) a single sperm
D) several ova
E) a single ovum

11) The loss of reproductive capacity that occurs as females age is caused by 11)
A) the complete cessation of sex hormone release.
B) changes in hormone secretory patterns.
C) altered length of the menstrual cycle.
D) inability to release an ovum in the presence of luteinizing hormone (LH) surge.
E) the release of incompetent ova.

12) In what region of the testes are sperm produced? 12)

A) efferent ductules
B) rete testes
C) seminiferous tubules
D) vas deferens
E) epididymis

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13) Which of the following best describes the function of the blood-testis barrier? 13)
A) It maintains a differential fluid composition of the seminiferous tubule lumen that facilitates
development of sperm and protects sperm from the immune system.
B) It maintains a differential fluid composition of the epididymis tubule lumen that favors
maintaining high concentrations of androgens in the lumen to facilitate sperm production.
C) It maintains a differential fluid composition of the epididymis tubule lumen that facilitates
movement of sperm during emission.
D) It maintains a differential fluid composition of the seminiferous tubule lumen that facilitates
the development of sperm and blocks the access of androgens to the lumen.
E) It maintains a differential fluid composition of the seminiferous tubule lumen that facilitates
the entry of inhibin into the lumen, thereby decreasing sperm production.

14) What is the function of androgen-binding protein? 14)

A) transport androgens across the blood-testis barrier
B) provide positive feedback for the release of luteinizing hormone
C) provide negative feedback for the release of follicle stimulating hormone
D) maintain steady levels of androgens in the lumen of seminiferous tubules
E) transport androgens in blood

15) Which of the following is NOT a function of Sertoli cells? 15)

A) form the blood-testis barrier
B) secrete fluid into the lumen of seminiferous tubules to support sperm development
C) secrete paracrines that stimulate spermatogenesis
D) secrete androgens
E) provide nutrients for developing sperm

16) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and testosterone stimulate the growth and development of 16)
sperm
A) indirectly by binding to Sertoli cells.
B) indirectly by binding to androgen-binding protein.
C) directly by binding to sperm.
D) indirectly by binding to interstitial cells.
E) indirectly by binding to Leydig cells.

17) What is the function of Leydig cells? 17)

A) secrete androgens only
B) secrete Müllerian inhibiting substance only
C) provide nutrients for developing sperm only
D) both secrete androgens and provide nutrients for developing sperm
E) secrete androgens, provide nutrients for developing sperm, and secrete Müllerian inhibiting
substance

18) What cells secrete Müllerian inhibiting substance in fetal life? 18)
A) follicle cell
B) Sertoli cell
C) granulosa cell
D) Leydig cell
E) theca cell

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19) The ________ erectile tissue increases during sexual arousal, causing the penis to become erect. 19)
A) reduction of blood pressure within the
B) tightening of the connective tissue within the
C) contraction of the
D) amount of
E) volume of blood within the

20) What is the function of the scrotum? 20)

A) secretes chemicals into the male reproductive track during emission
B) contains vascular spaces that become engorged with blood to induce an erection
C) keeps the temperature of the testes less than body temperature for optimal sperm
development
D) provides blood flow to the erectile tissue
E) transports sperm from testes to penis

21) What structure conducts sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct? 21)
A) vas deferens
B) scrotum
C) rete testis
D) urethra
E) seminal vesicles

22) What secretes an alkaline fluid containing fructose, enzymes, and prostaglandins into the 22)
ejaculatory duct?
A) bulbourethral gland
B) Sertoli cell
C) prostate gland
D) seminal vesicle
E) epididymis

23) What secretes several enzymes and citrate into the urethra during ejaculation? 23)
A) epididymis
B) Sertoli cell
C) seminal vesicle
D) bulbourethral gland
E) prostate gland

24) What is the purpose of luteinizing hormone (LH) in males? 24)

A) stimulating ejaculation
B) secretion of androgens from the Leydig cells
C) secretion of chemicals from Sertoli cells that stimulate sperm maturation
D) promoting spermatogenesis
E) growth of accessory reproductive organs

25) Inhibin is secreted from the ________ and acts to reduce the secretion of ________ from the anterior 25)
pituitary gland.
A) Leydig cells : follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
B) Sertoli cells : FSH
C) Leydig cells : LH
D) hypothalamus : luteinizing hormone (LH)
E) anterior pituitary : FSH

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26) Spermatogenesis is directly stimulated by 26)
A) LH only.
B) testosterone only.
C) FSH only.
D) both FSH and testosterone.
E) both LH and testosterone.

27) What hormone is responsible for secondary sex characteristics in males? 27)
A) LH
B) Wolffian factor
C) inhibin
D) FSH
E) testosterone

28) Which of the following is NOT stimulated by the surge of testosterone that occurs at puberty? 28)
A) spermatogenesis
B) secretion of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary
C) secretion of a thick oil by sebaceous glands
D) release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
E) increased protein synthesis in muscle

29) Enzymes that facilitate entry of sperm into the ova are contained within the ________ of the 29)
spermatozoa.
A) mitochondria
B) midpiece
C) flagella
D) tail
E) acrosome

30) Where are spermatogonia located? 30)

A) on the luminal surface of the Sertoli cell
B) anywhere within the seminiferous tubules
C) in the epididymis
D) attached to Leydig cells
E) at the basement membrane-Sertoli cell interface

31) Which of the following is the correct order of sperm development? 31)
A) spermatogonia, primary spermatocyte, secondary spermatocyte, spermatid, spermatozoa
B) spermatid, primary spermatocyte, secondary spermatocyte, spermatogonia , spermatozoa
C) spermatogonia primary spermatocyte, secondary spermatocyte, spermatozoa, spermatid
D) spermatid, secondary spermatocyte, primary spermatocyte, spermatogonia, spermatozoa
E) spermatozoa, spermatogonia, primary spermatocyte, secondary spermatocyte, spermatid

32) How do males continue to produce sperm through their adult lives? 32)
A) Secondary spermatocytes produce an endless supply of primary spermatocytes.
B) When a spermatogonium undergoes mitosis, only one undergoes further differentiation and
meiosis to become a mature sperm; the other stays a spermatogonium.
C) Sperm cells never die.
D) Spermatozoa can undergo cell division daily.
E) Testosterone levels remain elevated throughout adulthood.

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33) During spermatogenesis, only the ________ are haploid cells that require further differentiation in 33)
order to become functional spermatozoa.
A) primary spermatocytes
B) spermatogonia
C) spermatids
D) secondary spermatocytes
E) tertiary spermatocytes

34) When do sperm acquire motility? 34)

A) after they undergo further maturation in the epididymis
B) after they have been exposed to fluid in the female reproductive tract
C) after they enter the efferent ductule
D) after they enter the vagina
E) after they have been exposed to bulbourethral fluid

35) Which neurotransmitter is released from parasympathetic nerves to dilate the penile arterioles to 35)
increase blood flow to the erectile tissue?
A) acetylcholine
B) serotonin
C) histamine
D) nitric oxide
E) norepinephrine

36) Erectile function requires an increase in ________, whereas ejaculation involves increases in 36)
________.
A) parasympathetic nervous activity : myogenic constriction of the vas deferens
B) sympathetic nervous activity : parasympathetic nervous activity
C) myogenic dilation of vessels within erectile tissue : sympathetic nervous activity
D) myogenic dilation of vessels within erectile tissue : myogenic constriction of the vas deferens
E) parasympathetic nervous activity : sympathetic nervous activity

37) Which of the following structures does NOT contract during ejaculation? 37)
A) ejaculatory duct
B) skeletal muscles at the base of the penis
C) vas deferens
D) erectile tissue
E) epididymis

38) The mixture of sperm with fluid from the seminal vesicles and prostate gland is called 38)
A) ejaculation.
B) erection.
C) insemination.
D) semen.
E) micturition.

39) Within the ovaries, each follicle contains 39)

A) multiple oocytes.
B) a single oocyte.
C) two polar bodies and two ova.
D) a single polar body.
E) a single fertilized ovum.

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40) Mature ova develop from a pool of oogonia that 40)
A) will expand until puberty when the ova begin to mature.
B) are fixed in number at birth with each one developing into a mature ova.
C) continue to expand after birth with few of those ever developing into mature ova.
D) are fixed at about 1-2 million at birth with a fraction of that number developing into mature
ova.
E) undergo mitosis to maintain the number of oogonia as they mature into ova.

41) Each ova is embedded within a ________ with only a small proportion advancing beyond the 41)
________.
A) follicle : granulosa stage
B) theca : granulosa stage
C) follicle : primordial follicle
D) follicle : thecal stage
E) granulosa : primordial follicle

42) Which of the following is NOT secreted by the granulosa cells? 42)
A) a substance that forms the zona pellucida
B) androgens
C) paracrines that support follicle development
D) inhibin
E) estrogens

43) What is the outer layer of the uterus, made up of the peritoneal serous coat supported by a thin 43)
layer of connective tissue, called?
A) sarcometrium
B) perimetrium
C) endometrium
D) epimetrium
E) myometrium

44) Most of the uterine wall thickness is composed of smooth muscle known as the 44)
A) myometrium.
B) perimetrium.
C) endometrium.
D) epimetrium.
E) parametrium.

45) A follicle in its earliest stage of development is called a ________ and contains a(n) ________. 45)
A) primary follicle : primary oocyte
B) primordial follicle : primary oocyte
C) Graafian follicle : oogonia
D) Graafian follicle : primary oocyte
E) primordial follicle : oogonia

46) What structure(s) forms the birth canal? 46)

A) vagina only
B) uterus only
C) cervical canal only
D) both vagina and cervical canal
E) vagina, cervical canal, and uterus

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47) Where does fertilization usually occur? 47)
A) ovary
B) vagina
C) uterine (fallopian) tube
D) uterus
E) cervical canal

48) What secretes a lubricating fluid into the vagina that facilitates the entry of the penis during 48)
copulation?
A) uterus
B) cervix
C) vestibular (Bartholin's) gland
D) hymen
E) labia minor

49) Each oocyte remains under meiotic arrest until just before 49)
A) the third month of embryonic life.
B) birth.
C) puberty.
D) ovulation.
E) fertilization.

50) When does the second meiotic division in oogenesis occur? 50)
A) when the ovum is released from the ovary
B) when the ovum has been fertilized
C) when the female reaches puberty
D) when the ovum reaches the uterine tube
E) when stimulated by the first polar body

51) What is meiotic arrest? 51)

A) the switch from meiosis to mitosis that occurs after fertilization
B) the pause in spermatogenesis that occurs following an ejaculation
C) the pause in oogenesis that occurs after fertilization
D) the pause in oogenesis that occurs between birth and ovulation
E) the termination of oogenesis that occurs after menopause

52) When is the second polar body produced? 52)

A) following meiosis I in males
B) following meiosis I in females
C) following meiosis II in males
D) following meiosis II in females
E) following differentiation of cells in the zygote

53) The follicular phase of the ovarian cycle corresponds with what phase(s) of the uterine cycle? 53)
A) menstrual phase only
B) secretory phase only
C) proliferative phase only
D) both menstrual and proliferative phases
E) both proliferative and secretory phases

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54) During the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle, one follicle (the dominant follicle) will continue to 54)
develop because its cells
A) are no longer able to secrete estrogen.
B) are unresponsive to luteinizing hormone (LH).
C) maintain estrogen secretion in the face of falling FSH levels.
D) no longer respond to FSH.
E) have a diminished response to follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

55) When does the zona pellucida develop? 55)

A) after fertilization
B) when follicles are in the late antral stage
C) when follicles are in the preantral stage
D) when follicles are in the early antral stage
E) when follicles are in the primordial phase

56) What is the cumulus oophorus? 56)

A) granulosa cells that connect the oocyte to the wall of the Graafian follicle
B) a fluid-filled cavity in the follicle
C) a thick membrane between the oocyte and granulosa cells
D) a degenerated follicle after ovulation
E) the remnants of a non-dominant follicle after it has undergone atresia

57) What hormone stimulates follicle growth? 57)

A) FSH only
B) progesterone only
C) estrogens only
D) both FSH and estrogens
E) FSH, estrogens, and progesterone

58) Which of the following is a correct association between an oocyte's development and the follicular 58)
structure containing it?
A) primordial follicle - ovum
B) Graafian follicle - primary oocyte
C) Graafian follicle - oogonia
D) primordial follicle - primary oocyte
E) Graafian follicle - secondary oocyte

59) During ovulation, how is an oocyte released by the ovary? 59)

A) primary active transport
B) diapedesis
C) margination
D) exocytosis
E) The follicle with the oocyte is pressed tight against the ovary wall and bursts.

60) What does the surge in plasma luteinizing hormone that occurs at the beginning of the luteal phase 60)
trigger?
A) development of the corpus luteum only
B) stimulation of the first meiotic division only
C) ovulation only
D) both ovulation and development of the corpus luteum
E) both ovulation and stimulation of the first meiotic division

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61) The migration of sperm into the uterus, on their way to contact the ovum, is facilitated by the 61)
secretion of ________ into the ________.
A) an alkaline solution : uterine tube
B) a thin mucus : cervical canal
C) estrogen : uterine tube
D) an acidic solution : cervical canal
E) progesterone : uterine tube

62) Which of the following changes in the uterus does NOT occur during the secretory phase of the 62)
uterine cycle?
A) enhanced secretion of fluids rich in fructose
B) increased viscosity of secretions from cervical glands
C) enlargement of endometrial glands
D) enhanced secretion of fluids rich in glycogen
E) endometrium enriched with more arterial branches

63) The changes in the uterus that occur during the secretory phase of the uterine cycle are mediated by 63)
A) increased estrogen from the adrenal cortex.
B) increased progesterone from the ovaries.
C) increased progesterone from the corpus luteum.
D) decreased estrogen from the adrenal cortex.
E) increased estrogen from the ovaries.

64) In the absence of the implantation of a fertilized embryo, the menstrual phase of the uterine cycle is 64)
initiated by the degeneration of the
A) endometrium.
B) Graafian follicle.
C) corpus luteum.
D) corpus albicans.
E) myometrium.

65) In the uterine cycle, the proliferative phase is promoted by ________, whereas the secretory phase is 65)
promoted by ________.
A) LH : FSH
B) progesterone : estrogen
C) estrogen : progesterone
D) FSH : LH
E) progesterone : progesterone

66) The reduction in progesterone and estrogen that occurs at the beginning of the follicular phase is 66)
responsible for stimulating follicular development through
A) stimulating the release of luteinizing hormone (LH).
B) inhibiting the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
C) inhibiting the release of LH.
D) stimulating the release of progesterone.
E) stimulating the release of FSH.

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67) The secretory activity of the anterior pituitary begins to change during late follicular phase such 67)
that
A) inhibin stimulates the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
B) gonadotropin increases the release of luteinizing hormone (LH).
C) estrogen decreases the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
D) inhibin stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone (LH).
E) estrogen reverses its negative feedback control on LH release, changing over to a positive
feedback loop which increases the release of luteinizing hormone (LH).

68) Which of the following is NOT a response of the dominant follicle to stimulation by luteinizing 68)
hormone (LH) during the late follicular phase?
A) the secretion of enzymes by the granulosa cells that degrades the follicle wall
B) the secretion of paracrines by the granulosa cells that stimulates the completion of meiosis I
C) the decrease in expression of LH receptors by granulosa cells
D) the onset of differentiation of granulosa cells into the corpus luteum
E) the decrease in estrogen secretion by granulosa cells

69) What hormone(s) is/are secreted by the corpus luteum? 69)

A) estrogens only
B) inhibin only
C) progesterone only
D) both progesterone and estrogens
E) progesterone, estrogens, and inhibin

70) The hormonal trigger for menstruation involves a 70)

A) reduction of inhibin secretion.
B) reduction of plasma follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
C) loss of estrogen secretion from the adrenal cortex.
D) drop in plasma luteinizing hormone (LH).
E) loss of progesterone secretion from the corpus luteum.

71) The elevated plasma concentration of estrogen early in the luteal phase has little effect on the 71)
secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) because
A) progesterone strongly inhibits LH release.
B) secretin release is inhibited.
C) the corpus luteum degenerates.
D) inhibin strongly inhibits LH release.
E) gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is reduced.

72) Which of the following conditions is NOT induced by the reduction in estrogen release that occurs 72)
during menopause?
A) absence of sexual arousal
B) decreased breast size
C) loss of ovulation
D) increased risk for osteoporosis
E) increased risk of heart disease

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73) Sperm are unable to fertilize the egg upon entry into the vagina and must undergo ________, 73)
allowing them to ________, which facilitates fertilization.
A) capacitation : activate the acrosome
B) resistation : move faster
C) implantation : move faster
D) resistation : activate the acrosome
E) capacitation : more readily adhere to the ovum

74) Which of the following best describes the events that take place when the first sperm binds to the 74)
oocyte?
A) The entire sperm is transported into the cytoplasm of the oocyte, where the nucleus of the
sperm releases its DNA to combine with the DNA of the oocyte and transcription occurs. The
oocyte then undergoes the second meiotic division.
B) The head of the sperm is transported into the cytoplasm of the oocyte, where the nucleus of
the sperm releases its DNA to combine with the DNA of the oocyte and transcription occurs.
The oocyte then undergoes the second meiotic division.
C) The head of the sperm is transported into the cytoplasm of the oocyte, where the nucleus of
the sperm releases its DNA to combine with the DNA of the oocyte and transcription occurs.
The oocyte then undergoes the first meiotic division.
D) The head of the sperm is transported into the cytoplasm of the oocyte which stimulates the
completion of its arrested meiosis II and the second polar body is produced. The two parental
(haploid) pronuclei then replicate their DNA while migrating towards each other to create
their first mitotic division.
E) The entire sperm is transported into the cytoplasm of the oocyte, where the nucleus of the
sperm releases its DNA to combine with the DNA of the oocyte and replication occurs. The
oocyte then undergoes the first meiotic division.

75) Which of the following prevents polyspermy? 75)

A) release of toxins to sperm by the fertilized ovum and hardening of the zona pellucida
B) inactivation of sperm-binding proteins in the zona pellucida and hardening of the zona
pellucida
C) inactivation of sperm-binding proteins in the zona pellucida and release of toxins to sperm
by the fertilized ovum
D) sealing of the corona radiata and release of toxins to sperm by the fertilized ovum
E) sealing of the corona radiata and hardening of the zona pellucida

76) A morula develops by 76)

A) meiosis I.
B) meiosis II.
C) cell differentiation.
D) mitosis.
E) cell cleavage.

77) Implantation of the blastocyst into the endometrium results from 77)
A) blastocoele secretion of paracrines that initiates cell cleavage.
B) trophoblast secretion of paracrines that initiates cell cleavage.
C) trophoblast secretion of enzymes and paracrines that initiates the decidual response.
D) trophoblast secretion of endocrine hormones that initiates the decidual response.
E) blastocoele secretion of paracrines that initiates the decidual response.

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78) How do monozygotic twins develop? 78)
A) inappropriate implantation of the embryo into the endometrium
B) fertilization of more than one ova
C) splitting of the morula while cells are still totipotent
D) polyspermy
E) splitting of the blastocyst

79) The placenta forms from 79)

A) the blastocoele only.
B) the trophoblast only.
C) chorionic villi only.
D) endometrial tissue only.
E) both the chorionic villi and endometrial tissue of the mother

80) What is the function of the amniotic fluid? 80)

A) protect the uterus from the embryo
B) float the developing embryo
C) provide the intrauterine pressure that facilitates embryonic development
D) provide nutrients for the developing embryo
E) cushion the developing embryo against physical trauma

81) Once diffusion from the endometrium becomes inadequate for delivery of oxygen, the placenta 81)
develops from projections of the ________, which facilitates exchange of nutrients and waste by the
________.
A) chorionic villi into the embryo : mixing of maternal and fetal blood
B) chorionic villi into the embryo : short distance between maternal and fetal blood
C) amnionic villi into the endometrium : short distance between maternal and fetal blood
D) chorionic villi into the endometrium : short distance between maternal and fetal blood
E) chorionic villi into the endometrium : mixing of maternal and fetal blood

82) The secretion of estrogen and progesterone by the corpus luteum during pregnancy is maintained 82)
by ________ until the corpus luteum degenerates and the ________ takes over secretion of these
hormones.
A) human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) : fetus
B) human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) : placenta
C) human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) : endometrium
D) luteinizing hormone (LH) : placenta
E) luteinizing hormone (LH) : endometrium

83) Which of the following is NOT a mechanism whereby estrogen maintains the body during 83)
pregnancy, prepares the body for delivery and for lactation?
A) the deposition of fatty tissues in the breast
B) the secretion of prolactin
C) the growth of uterine smooth muscle cells
D) the development of tissue that carries milk to the nipples
E) the growth of glandular tissue in the breast

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84) Which of the following is NOT one of the effects that progesterone has on maintaining the body 84)
during pregnancy, preparing the body for parturition and for postnatal nourishment?
A) the maintenance of thickened endometrium
B) the secretion of prolactin
C) the growth of glandular tissue in the breast
D) the maintenance of thickened myometrium
E) the suppression of contractile activity of uterine smooth muscle cells

85) The activity of smooth muscle cells of the myometrium is regulated by estrogen, which increases 85)
responsiveness of the myometrium to what hormone?
A) oxytocin
B) norepinephrine
C) human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
D) prolactin
E) progesterone

86) The ________ in secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) 86)
during pregnancy is regulated primarily by ________.
A) decrease : estrogen
B) decrease : gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
C) increase : oxytocin
D) decrease : human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
E) decrease : progesterone

87) The ripening of the cervix in the weeks prior to parturition involves 87)
A) frequent uterine contractions.
B) slow opening of the birth canal.
C) rupture of the amniotic sac.
D) rotation of the fetus in the uterus.
E) the enzymatic breakdown of collagen fibers in its connective tissue.

88) Which of the following is a function of oxytocin? 88)

A) stimulates the uterus directly to cause contractions and indirectly by stimulating the release of
prostaglandins from myometrial cells which locally cause uterine contractions as well
B) inhibits contraction of breast myoepithelial cells
C) stimulates release of estrogens and progesterone
D) stimulates prolactin release
E) inhibits uterine contractions

89) What is the function of prostaglandins during parturition? 89)

A) stimulate mucus secretion to lubricate the cervix and vagina
B) inhibit blood flow through the umbilical cord to prevent excessive bleeding
C) elevate the body temperature
D) inhibit the inflammatory response as tissue is abraded during delivery
E) stimulate uterine contraction and the softening of the cervix so it can dilate

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90) Fetal release of ________ appears to be partly responsible for stimulating parturition. 90)
A) progesterone
B) human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
C) gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
D) corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
E) estrogen

91) Abnormally elevated thirst and urination can be signs of what disease that occurs in pregnant 91)
women?
A) miscarriage
B) placental insufficiency
C) hyperprolactinemia
D) ectopic pregnancy
E) gestational diabetes

92) Which of the following is NOT one of the nutrients found in breast milk after the first week? 92)
A) lactose
B) fat
C) antibodies
D) growth factors
E) colostrum

93) The ejection of milk that occurs while the infant is suckling is mediated by 93)
A) acetylcholine-induced myoepithelial cell contraction.
B) local reflex-induced myoepithelial cell contraction.
C) oxytocin-induced myoepithelial cell contraction.
D) prolactin-induced myoepithelial cell contraction.
E) myogenic contraction of myoepithelial cells.

94) The production of milk is stimulated by release of ________ from the hypothalamus. 94)
A) gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
B) oxytocin
C) prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)
D) corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
E) prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)

95) Which part of the blastocyst develops into the fetus? 95)
A) blastocoele
B) inner cell mass
C) morula
D) trophoblast
E) outer cell mass

96) Which of the following is TRUE of Sertoli cells, but NOT granulosa cells? 96)
A) secretes androgen-binding protein
B) secretes paracrines that support gamete development
C) forms a barrier between the fluid surrounding the gamete and blood
D) secretes inhibin
E) provides nutrients for developing gametes

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 97) Chromosomes other than the sex chromosomes are called what? 97)
A) sex chromosomes
B) diploid
C) autosomes
D) alleles
E) haploid

98) What are the X and Y chromosomes known as? 98)

A) diploid
B) autosomes
C) alleles
D) haploid
E) sex chromosomes

99) Having one set of 23 chromosomes is called what? 99)

A) haploid
B) diploid
C) sex chromosomes
D) autosomes
E) alleles

100) Having two sets of 23 chromosomes is called what? 100)

A) sex chromosomes
B) alleles
C) haploid
D) autosomes
E) diploid

101) What are different variations of the same gene called? 101)
A) autosomes
B) diploid
C) haploid
D) alleles
E) sex chromosomes

102) Which of the following contains the srY gene? 102)

A) haploid
B) alleles
C) sex chromosomes
D) autosomes
E) diploid

103) Which of the following represents the chromosome number in gametes? 103)
A) autosomes
B) haploid
C) alleles
D) diploid
E) sex chromosomes

16
104) Which of the following represents the chromosome number in a zygote? 104)
A) alleles
B) sex chromosomes
C) autosomes
D) diploid
E) haploid

105) What releases androgens in males? 105)

A) Leydig cell B) granulosa cell C) theca cell D) Sertoli cell

106) What releases androgens in females? 106)

A) Sertoli cell B) theca cell C) granulosa cell D) Leydig cell

107) What secretes paracrines that support spermatogenesis? 107)

A) theca cell B) granulosa cell C) Sertoli cell D) Leydig cell

108) What secretes paracrines that support oogenesis? 108)

A) theca cell B) granulosa cell C) Sertoli cell D) Leydig cell

109) What provides nutrients to the developing gamete via gap junctions? 109)
A) Sertoli cell B) Leydig cell C) theca cell D) granulosa cell

110) Which of the following secretes Müllerian inhibiting substance? 110)

A) Leydig cell B) Sertoli cell C) theca cell D) granulosa cell

111) Which of the following secretes an alkaline fluid with fructose into the ejaculatory duct? 111)
A) vestibular glands B) bulbourethral glands
C) seminal vesicles D) prostate gland

112) What secretes a fluid containing citrates and enzymes into the urethra during ejaculation? 112)
A) seminal vesicles B) vestibular glands
C) prostate gland D) bulbourethral glands

113) What secretes a viscous mucus just prior to ejaculation? 113)

A) vestibular glands B) seminal vesicles
C) prostate gland D) bulbourethral glands

114) What secretes a fluid that lubricates the vagina? 114)

A) seminal vesicles B) vestibular (Bartholin's) glands
C) bulbourethral glands D) prostate gland

115) What stimulates gametogenesis in both males and females? 115)

A) FSH
B) progesterone
C) estrogens
D) LH
E) inhibin

17
116) What stimulates androgen synthesis in both males and females? 116)
A) progesterone
B) LH
C) inhibin
D) estrogens
E) FSH

117) Which of the following provides negative feedback to FSH secretion, but not LH, in both males and 117)
females?
A) progesterone
B) FSH
C) inhibin
D) estrogens
E) LH

118) Which of the following triggers ovulation in females? 118)

A) LH
B) progesterone
C) inhibin
D) FSH
E) estrogens

119) Which of the following inhibits uterine contractions? 119)

A) inhibin
B) FSH
C) LH
D) progesterone
E) estrogens

120) Which of the following is permissive to the actions of progesterone by inducing expression of 120)
progesterone receptors in the endometrium?
A) LH
B) inhibin
C) FSH
D) estrogens
E) progesterone

121) What promotes growth of glandular tissue of the breasts? 121)

A) LH
B) FSH
C) inhibin
D) progesterone
E) estrogens

122) Which of the following stimulates prolactin secretion? 122)

A) FSH
B) estrogens
C) LH
D) progesterone
E) inhibin

18
123) What structure develops into the fetus? 123)
A) blastocoele B) inner cell mass C) trophoblast D) morula

124) What forms the fetal component of the placenta? 124)

A) chorionic villi B) blastocoele C) morula D) inner cell mass

125) What forms a fluid filled sac around the developing embryo? 125)
A) trophoblast B) inner cell mass C) morula D) blastocoele

126) The diploid, fertilized ovum is called a(n) 126)

A) morula.
B) polar body.
C) zygote.
D) fetus.
E) blastula.

127) The gene that determines the sex of a person is the ________ gene, located on the Y chromosome. 127)
A) androgen receptor
B) testosterone receptor
C) srY
D) MIS
E) inhibin

128) During sex differentiation, the presence of what stimulates the development of the Wolffian duct? 128)
A) testosterone
B) estrogen
C) inhibin
D) MIS
E) progesterone

129) What is a function of the blood-testes barrier? 129)

A) elicits the cremasteric reflex
B) isolates the sperm from the body's immune system
C) creates a cooler environment or optimal growth
D) allows easier flow of nutrients
E) prevents Rh incompatibilities

130) Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates the release of FSH and LH from what 130)
structure?
A) hypothalamus
B) sertoli cells
C) posterior pituitary
D) corpus luteum
E) anterior pituitary

19
131) What mechanism(s) move sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis? 131)
A) emission
B) skeletal muscle
C) flow of luminal fluid and peristalsis
D) ejaculation
E) flagella

132) The release of the oocyte by ________ typically occurs every 28 days. 132)
A) ovulation
B) endocytosis
C) parturition
D) sublimation
E) transcytosis

133) What macromolecule is initially synthesized by the theca cells and then converted to a second 133)
macromolecule by the granulosa cells?
A) cholesterol, progesterone
B) androgens, estrogen
C) progesterone, estrogen
D) MIS, inhibin
E) estrogen, testosterone

134) What moves the oocyte through the uterine tube? 134)
A) segmentation
B) ciliary action and peristalsis
C) ciliary action only
D) mass movement
E) intrauterine pressure

135) As a follicle develops into the Graafian follicle, the ________ continues to increase in size until the 135)
fluid's pressure causes the follicle to burst at ovulation.
A) corona radiata
B) oocyte
C) oogonium
D) chorion
E) antrum

136) What layer(s) of the uterus proliferate during the proliferative phase of the uterine cycle? 136)
A) endometrium only
B) myometrium only
C) perimetrium only
D) endometrium and the myometrium
E) endometrium and the perimetrium

137) During the follicular phase, estrogen induces the expression of what receptors on granulosa cells? 137)
A) FSH
B) androgen
C) progesterone
D) LH
E) oxytocin

20
 138) Following implantation, what hormone is released from the chorionic portion of the placenta to 138)
maintain corpus luteal secretion of estrogen and progesterone?
A) inhibin
B) FSH
C) hCG
D) LH
E) insulin-like growth hormone

139) With respect to the structure of the breasts, ________ stimulates the growth of the ductal cells 139)
whereas ________ stimulates the growth of glandular cells.
A) estrogen : progesterone
B) LH : prolactin
C) estrogen : prolactin
D) prolactin : oxytocin
E) prolactin : progesterone

TRUE/FALSE. Write 'T' if the statement is true and 'F' if the statement is false.

140) The X chromosome is necessary for life, meaning that a YY individual with no X chromosome will 140)
not survive.

141) The srY gene is located on the Y chromosome and determines a person's sex. 141)

142) Sex differentiation depends on the presence or absence of the srY gene, whereas sex determination 142)
depends on the presence or absence of testes.

143) The Müllerian ducts are precursors for the male reproductive tract. 143)

144) In the years before puberty, the reproductive organs are immature and incapable of generating 144)
sperm or ova.

145) Men are capable of producing sperm throughout their entire adult life. 145)

146) Each Sertoli cell is joined to its neighbors by tight junctions. 146)

147) Spermatogenesis occurs in the epididymis. 147)

148) Testosterone acts as a paracrine in the testes to promote spermatogenesis. 148)

149) Changes in brain activity stimulate hypothalamic secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone 149)
(GnRH), which initiates puberty.

150) The acrosome is a vesicle in the head of the sperm that contains enzymes for fusion with the oocyte. 150)

151) Ejaculation is controlled by a spinal reflex, which activates the sympathetic nervous system. 151)

152) The outer layer of the follicle is populated by theca cells that synthesize androgens. 152)

153) The endometrium is a muscular layer of the uterus. 153)

21
 154) Fertilization of the ovum usually occurs within the uterus. 154)

155) During the follicular phase, 10-25 follicles begin to develop but only one will usually be released at 155)
ovulation.

156) A female is born with the full complement of oogonia in place, while the male's spermatogonia is 156)
replaced on a continual basis.

157) The granulosa cells provide nutrients for the developing oocyte via gap junctions. 157)

158) A corpus albicans is produced during each meiotic division of an oocyte. 158)

159) During the menstrual phase, all of the endometrium is shed in the menstrual flow. 159)

160) Both the corpus luteum and placenta secrete estrogens and progesterone. 160)

161) The corpus luteum degenerates once fertilization occurs. 161)

162) Once ejaculation occurs during copulation, the sperm can remain viable for only two days. 162)

163) During the earliest stages of development, the embryo can derive its nutrients from the 163)
endometrium without any specialized structure.

164) If a mother develops gestational diabetes, then both the mother and fetus can suffer from 164)
hyperglycemia.

165) Placental hormones induce insulin-resistance. 165)

166) Once oxytocin secretion increases, milk production will be initiated. 166)

167) Fraternal twins are a result of polyspermy. 167)

ESSAY. Write your answer in the space provided or on a separate sheet of paper.

168) The reproductive cycle requires both mitotic and meiotic processes. Describe the basic properties of
gametogenesis in males and females.

169) The human genome is composed of 23 pairs of chromosomes, of which one pair are the sex chromosomes.
Describe the processes of sex determination and sex differentiation.

170) In order to pass along his genetic material, the male of the species must generate sperm. Describe the
production, maturation, and release of sperm, and how the sperm reach the ova.

171) Describe, in general, the hypothalamic-pituitary axis regulation of reproductive function in males and females.

172) Describe the structure of the sperm and the process of fertilization, including how polyspermy is prevented.

22
 173) The menstrual cycle is repeated every 28 days and involves changes within the ovaries and the uterus. Describe
the changes that occur during the ovarian cycle.

174) The menstrual cycle is repeated every 28 days and involves changes within the ovaries and the uterus. Describe
the changes that occur during the uterine cycle.

175) The entire menstrual cycle is driven by changes in the release of particular hormones. Describe the hormonal
regulation of the menstrual cycle.

176) Once the ovum has been fertilized, a number of changes occur that facilitate the development of the embryo.
Describe the process of embryonic development, implantation, and the hormones involved in pregnancy.

177) Describe parturition, including the hormones involved in this process.

178) Describe lactation, including the hormones involved in this process.

SHORT ANSWER. Write the word or phrase that best completes each statement or answers the question.

179) In women, the (ovaries / adrenal cortex) is/are responsible for the production of (androgens 179)
/ estrogens), which are responsible for promoting sex drive.

180) The (spermatogonia / spermatids) are located near the basement membrane of the Sertoli 180)
cells within the seminiferous tubules.

181) The development of the second polar body occurs following (ovulation / fertilization). 181)

23
Answer Key
Testname: UNTITLED1

1) C
2) D
3) B
4) C
5) C
6) A
7) E
8) C
9) B
10) E
11) B
12) C
13) A
14) D
15) D
16) A
17) A
18) B
19) E
20) C
21) A
22) D
23) E
24) B
25) B
26) D
27) E
28) D
29) E
30) E
31) A
32) B
33) C
34) A
35) D
36) E
37) D
38) D
39) B
40) D
41) C
42) B
43) B
44) A
45) E
46) D
47) C
48) C
49) D
50) B
24
Answer Key
Testname: UNTITLED1

51) D
52) D
53) D
54) C
55) C
56) A
57) D
58) E
59) E
60) D
61) B
62) A
63) C
64) C
65) C
66) E
67) E
68) C
69) E
70) E
71) A
72) A
73) E
74) D
75) B
76) E
77) C
78) C
79) E
80) E
81) D
82) B
83) E
84) B
85) A
86) E
87) E
88) A
89) E
90) D
91) E
92) E
93) C
94) E
95) B
96) A
97) C
98) E
99) A
100) E
25
Answer Key
Testname: UNTITLED1

101) D
102) C
103) B
104) D
105) A
106) B
107) C
108) B
109) D
110) B
111) C
112) C
113) D
114) B
115) A
116) B
117) C
118) A
119) D
120) D
121) D
122) B
123) B
124) A
125) D
126) C
127) C
128) A
129) B
130) E
131) C
132) A
133) B
134) B
135) E
136) D
137) D
138) C
139) A
140) TRUE
141) TRUE
142) FALSE
143) FALSE
144) TRUE
145) TRUE
146) TRUE
147) FALSE
148) TRUE
149) TRUE
150) TRUE
26
Answer Key
Testname: UNTITLED1

151) TRUE
152) TRUE
153) FALSE
154) FALSE
155) TRUE
156) TRUE
157) TRUE
158) FALSE
159) FALSE
160) TRUE
161) FALSE
162) FALSE
163) TRUE
164) TRUE
165) TRUE
166) FALSE
167) FALSE
168) Gametogenesis is the development of haploid cells for sexual reproduction. In the male, this process is termed
spermatogenesis, while in the female the process is called oogenesis. For spermatogenesis, spermatogonia (the germ cells)
are located at the base of the Sertoli cell within the seminiferous tubule. These cells undergo mitosis and meiosis
continuously. Once males reach puberty, mitosis occurs throughout their lifetimes to replace those spermatogonia that
have entered meiosis. The process of meiosis starts like mitosis, with duplication of the chromosomes (2 × 2N) to form
the primary spermatocyte. The copies of each chromosome (sister chromatids) remain joined by a centromere. The
proximity of these homologous sister chromatids allows alleles to cross over and independently sort. These processes
alter the genetic composition of the chromatids, allowing mixing of maternal and paternal alleles. Mixing helps to
ensure genetic diversity of the offspring (the alternative would be to pass the paternal or maternal chromosomes
directly to our offspring). As the primary spermatocyte moves along between the Sertoli cells, the first meiotic division
occurs and two secondary spermatocytes are generated, each containing one chromosome (with its sister chromatids
still attached at the centromere) from each pair in the primary spermatocytes. Thereafter, the second meiotic division
occurs and the chromosome's sister chromatids are split into what are now called sister chromosomes and are pulled
into each of the two new cells, for a final total of four spermatids. These haploid (1N) spermatids will develop further
into sperm. In females, the general process is quite similar. However, the timing of these events is very different, as is
the ultimate development of the haploid gamete. First, the oogonia undergo mitosis only until the third month of
maternal embryonic development. Thus, no new oogonia are formed after the third fetal month, and those oogonia
that have formed are maintained in meiotic arrest until they are ready to ovulate or meiosis terminates at menopause.
The primary oocyte does not undergo the first meiotic division until ovulation occurs and only one secondary oocyte is
generated by disproportionate cytokinesis, thereby sending the other copy of DNA to remain in what is called the first
polar body, which eventually degenerates and is lost. Once the ovum is fertilized, it undergoes the second meiotic
division with the same result; only one ovum is generated with the second meiotic division, and a second polar body is
degraded and lost, then the maternal and paternal DNA double as they migrate to the equatorial plate and the first
mitotic division takes place.

27
Answer Key
Testname: UNTITLED1

169) Because every female germ cell contains two X chromosomes, every ovum she produces will contain an X
chromosome. Thus, the sex of the offspring is determined entirely by the sex chromosome from the sperm. Although a
person's sex is usually determined by the genes, all they do is determine whether the fetus will develop testes or
ovaries. Which gonadal structure develops is determined by a gene on the Y chromosome called srY. This gene codes
for the protein testis-determining factor. The presence of this gene causes the fetus to develop testes, whereas its
absence leads to ovary development. The development of the gonads sets the stage for the development of other sex
characteristics. Whether these characteristics are male or female is determined by the secretion of testosterone and
Müllerian-inhibiting substance (MIS). If these hormones are present, the fetus develops male characteristics. In the first
weeks of development, the fetus is indifferent, possessing the rudimentary male and female reproductive systems
called the Wolffian ducts and Müllerian ducts, respectively. When the testes are generated by the presence of the srY
gene, the production of testosterone by the testes will act on the Wolffian ducts to facilitate the development of male
reproductive organs as MIS promotes the regression of the Müllerian ducts. If the srY gene is not present (i.e., XX
chromosome), then the absence of testosterone allows the Wolffian ducts to regress while the absence of MIS allows the
Müllerian ducts to develop into female reproductive organs. Thus, in the absence of testosterone, the fetus will develop
as a female.
170) The sperm develop from spermatogonia located within the seminiferous tubules of the testes. The spermatogonia are
positioned at the outer portion of the tubule that surrounds the Sertoli cells. These cells begin to move between the
Sertoli cells toward the lumen of the seminiferous tubules, going through meiosis as they traverse this gap.
Development of these cells is mediated by differences between the chemical composition of the fluid within the basal
and luminal compartments, which are separated by tight junctions between Sertoli cells. Differences in the composition
of interstitial fluid in these compartments drive the meiosis. The Sertoli cells secrete the luminal fluid that contributes
to sperm development and facilitates sperm movement into and through the tubules. In addition, Sertoli cells provide
developing sperm with nutrients and release an androgen-binding protein, which acts as an androgen buffer to
maintain a luminal concentration of testosterone that supports sperm development. The sperm are moved from the
seminiferous tubules by the movement of fluid generated by the Sertoli cells and a peristaltic contraction of the
seminiferous tubules. The sperm travel from the seminiferous tubules to the rete testes and onward to the efferent
ductule until they reach the epididymis. The epididymis is a thin, coiled duct that leads to the vas deferens upon
ejaculation. As the sperm pass through the epididymis, they further mature to become motile. There are three
accessory glands that add fluid to the sperm. The first is the seminal vesicle, which secretes an alkaline fluid containing
nutrients, enzymes, and prostaglandins into the ejaculation duct. The prostate gland releases enzymes and citrate into
the urethra when the surrounding smooth muscle cells contract. Finally, the bulbourethral glands secrete a viscous,
sticky mucus into the urethra to act as a lubricant.

28
Answer Key
Testname: UNTITLED1

171) The hypothalamic-pituitary axis plays an important role in regulating reproductive function in males and females. In
the hypothalamus, the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates the anterior pituitary to release
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). In males, FSH acts on Sertoli cells to stimulate
gametogenesis and inhibin secretion. Inhibin acts to inhibit FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary. The secretion of
LH stimulates Leydig cells to produce androgens. Androgens, like testosterone, inhibit hypothalamic secretion of
GnRH and make the anterior pituitary less responsive to GnRH, thereby decreasing FSH and LH secretion. At puberty,
there is a dramatic rise in GnRH that continues until approximately the third decade of life. The release of GnRH
occurs in bursts that peak every two hours. These bursts provide a relatively constant average plasma concentration of
GnRH. In females, the release of GnRH, FSH, and LH is not as constant as that observed in males, but rather is
modulated by feedback from estrogen, progesterone, and inhibin, whose releases vary by phase of the menstrual cycle.
In early to mid-follicular phase, FSH stimulates granulosa cells to support oogenesis and release inhibin, which
inhibits FSH secretion at the anterior pituitary. Secretion of LH stimulates theca cells to release androgens, which are
converted to estrogen by granulosa cells. Estrogen and progesterone inhibit GnRH, FSH, and LH secretion. However,
estrogen and progesterone decrease during early to mid-follicular phase due to the loss of the corpus luteum, which
results in a steady increase in GnRH secretion and thereby enhances LH and FSH release. However, increasing inhibin
release results in a decrease in FSH, which triggers atresia of immature follicles, as LH remains relatively constant. In
late follicular phase, the response of cells changes such that the rising estrogen levels actually stimulate the secretion of
LH, creating a positive feedback that further stimulates LH secretion and results in the LH surge that induces
ovulation. In the luteal phase, the corpus luteum takes over secretion of estrogen and progesterone. It is the
progesterone that acts to inhibit LH and FSH secretion during the luteal phase. In the absence of fertilization, the
corpus luteum degrades, decreasing estrogen and progesterone concentration, which initiates the follicular phase.
172) Spermatogonia are the germ cells from which all sperm originate. These cells can continue to undergo mitosis. Once
meiosis is initiated, the spermatocytes move from the base of the Sertoli cell toward the lumen of the seminiferous
tubules. As they move along this pathway, they develop into mature sperm. The mature sperm contain three basic
structures: head, midpiece, and tail. The head is composed of the acrosome, which contains enzymes and other
proteins that enable fusion with the ovum, and the nucleus, which contains the haploid genetic material. The midpiece
contains the mitochondria that provide the energy for the movement of the flagellar tail. The tail acts in a whiplike
manner to move the sperm. However, sperm remain immotile until they undergo further maturation in the
epididymis. As sperm are moved through the vas deferens, fluid from the seminal vesicles is added. This fluid is
alkaline to neutralize the acidity of the vagina, (which would suppress sperm motility) and it also contains fructose (a
monosaccharide that doesn't require ATP for its uptake). In the urethra, the prostate gland secretes citrate as a substrate
for energy production that can directly enter the Krebs cycle in the stations of mitochondria without having to first go
through glycolysis in what is already a greatly diminished cytoplasm. Once sperm enter the vagina, they move into the
uterus through the cervix and even fewer make their way to the uterine tubules where fertilization occurs. They can
remain active within the female reproductive tract for five days. In order to fertilize the ovum, they must undergo
capacitation, which induces changes in the pattern of tail movement and alterations in the plasma membrane that
allow sperm to adhere to the oocyte. Once a sperm contacts the oocyte, an acrosome reaction is initiated and the zona
pellucida is digested by the acrosomal enzymes. The first sperm to reach the oocyte binds to a receptor, which causes it
to be transported into the cytoplasm of the oocyte. This triggers the second meiotic division of the oocyte. The plasma
membrane of the sperm disintegrates and its chromosomes begin to double and move toward the center of the oocyte.
Polyspermy is also prevented with the first sperm's fusion with the oocyte. That fusion causes enzymes to be released
from the oocyte, which inactivates the sperm-binding proteins on the oocyte. At the same time, the zona pellucida
hardens and pulls away from the oocyte, creating a barrier to other sperm.

29
Answer Key
Testname: UNTITLED1

173) The ovarian cycle is divided into two phases: the follicular phase and the luteal phase. In the beginning of the follicular
phase, about 10-25 follicles develop. Within seven days, one of those follicles (the dominant follicle) will develop to
full maturity. The remaining follicles will undergo atresia and be lost. As the follicles begin to develop, the oocyte
grows in size. At the same time, the granulosa cells increase in size and number. This growth is stimulated by
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and the estrogens secreted by the follicles. There is also a thick layer of
non-cellular material forming around the oocyte called the zona pellucida. At the outer layer of the follicle, theca cells
begin to develop. A fluid-filled cavity (antrum) begins to form within the granulosa cell layer. This is the point at
which many of the follicles stop their development. Follicles that have not developed adequately to maintain estrogen
secretion in the face of decreasing FSH undergo atresia. As follicles develop further, the antrum continues to grow,
displacing some of the cellular tissue around the oocyte, leading to a protrusion from the follicular wall (corona
radiata). Eventually, the first meiotic division occurs and the secondary oocyte detaches from the follicle wall and floats
freely in the antral fluid. The antrum continues to grow until it forms the Graafian follicle, just prior to ovulation. The
luteinizing hormone (LH) surge that induces ovulation begins the luteal phase, during which the follicle bursts and the
oocyte is released. The granulosa and theca cells of the ruptured follicle are transformed into the corpus luteum that
secretes the estrogen and progesterone that prepare the uterus for implantation. In the absence of fertilization, the
corpus luteum begins to degrade after ten days, reducing plasma estrogens and progesterone concentration, thereby
initiating menstruation.
174) The uterine cycle is composed of three phases that include the menstrual phase, the proliferative phase, and the
secretory phase. The menstrual phase involves shedding a portion of the endometrial lining of the uterus. This is
initiated by the decrease in estrogen and progesterone concentration that occurs because of corpus luteum degradation.
This process is initiated by the constriction of the outer layer of blood vessels within the endometrium. This causes a
decrease in blood flow that kills the tissue, which starts to separate from the underlying endometrial tissue. The dead
tissue shed from the endometrium causes the rupture of blood vessels and bleeding. Over several days, the mixture of
blood and tissue seeps into the vagina and exits the body. The proliferative phase involves the renewal of the uterus
that is stimulated by estrogens. The endometrial tissue that survived the menstrual phase begins to grow along with
smooth muscle cells of the myometrium. The glands in the endometrium increase in number and size, and blood
vessels increase in density. At the same time, the cervical glands begin to secrete a thin mucus. In the secretory phase,
the thickened endometrium is transformed into an environment that will allow the embryo to implant and provide
nutrition for the developing embryo. The endometrial glands enlarge further and the secretion of the cervical glands
becomes thicker and blocks the cervical canal, which isolates the uterus from the microorganisms in the outside
environment. These changes in the uterus are promoted by progesterone. The degeneration of the corpus luteum
removes the progesterone that supports the endometrium, thereby initiating the menstrual phase.

30
Answer Key
Testname: UNTITLED1

175) During the early and mid-follicular phases, estrogen and progesterone concentrations are reduced by the loss of the
corpus luteum. This removes the block on follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion
by removing the progesterone-induced suppression. FSH stimulates follicular development by binding to granulosa
cells and stimulating their growth and proliferation. This also stimulates the differentiation of theca cells that respond
to LH by secreting androgens. These androgens are taken up by the granulosa cells and converted into estrogens. As
the menstrual cycle progresses into later follicular phase, the increases in estrogen and inhibin secretion from
granulosa cells cause a decrease in FSH concentrations. LH secretion is maintained under these conditions because
inhibin does not affect LH secretion. These changes are responsible for the selection of a dominant follicle that is able to
maintain its secretion of estrogen in the face of the decrease in FSH (which stimulates atresia). The increase in estrogen
facilitates the changes in the uterus that are characteristic of the proliferative phase, which include promoting oocyte
development and follicular growth. Estrogen induces LH receptor expression on granulosa cells that renders those cells
responsive to LH. In addition, estrogen induces the expression of progesterone receptors on endometrial cells. In the
late follicular phase, there is a switch in the response of cells to LH. Rather than acting through a negative feedback
system, LH begins to act through a positive feedback system where increases in LH will further increase LH release
from the anterior pituitary. The expression of LH receptors on the granulosa cells is partly responsible for stimulating
changes in the dominant follicle that include: secretion of paracrines that stimulate oocyte meiotic progression, a
decrease in estrogen secretion from granulosa cells, an initiation of progesterone secretion by granulosa cells, secretion
of enzymes and paracrines that degrade the follicular wall, and the differentiation of granulosa and theca cells into the
corpus luteum. During the early luteal phase, the secretion of estrogen from the corpus luteum is not enough to
prevent the fall in estrogen concentration. This decrease in estrogen removes the stimulus for LH secretion, which ends
the surge. However, progesterone concentrations begin to rise. The estrogen and progesterone concentrations rise as
the corpus luteum matures. The rise in progesterone not only suppresses LH secretion but prevents the
estrogen-induced increase in LH as well as decreasing plasma FSH concentrations.
176) Following fertilization, the ovum undergoes several mitotic divisions, creating the morula, a ball of cells. This structure
develops by cell cleavage, where the size of cells does not increase before dividing (each cell gets progressively
smaller). Each of the cells is totipotent, with the capacity to form into a complete human. Eventually, the morula
develops into a blastocyst, which has shed the zona pellucida. The blastocyst has a spherical outer layer of trophoblast
cells and a cluster of cells on its inside called the inner cell mass. A fluid-filled cavity called the blastocoele is adjacent
to the inner cell mass. After seven days, the blastocyst attaches to the uterine wall. The trophoblast secretes enzymes
that digest the endometrium and paracrines that promote local changes in endometrial tissue. These changes are part
of the decidual response. The trophoblastic cells in contact with the endometrium begin to proliferate and infiltrate the
endometrium. The embryo continues to grow in size and complexity. The trophoblast thickens at five weeks to form
the chorion that encapsulates the embryo. A fluid-filled cavity (amniotic cavity) begins to form and grow inside the
inner mass. The amniotic fluid provides a cushion for the fetus, protecting it from physical trauma. The placenta begins
to develop as the chorion sends out projections (chorionic villi) that contain fetal capillaries and also secrete paracrines
that alter endometrial tissue, such that the villi are surrounded by sinuses of maternal blood. Thus, maternal and fetal
blood come in close, but not direct, contact with one another (there is no mixing of fetal and maternal blood cells). The
corpus luteum is maintained during the early part of pregnancy by human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which is
secreted by the chorion. In the presence of hCG, the corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone. After two
months, the secretion of hCG decreases and the corpus luteum degrades. However, estrogen and progesterone
concentrations remain high and continue to rise until parturition, due to their secretion by the placenta. During
pregnancy, estrogen acts to stimulate growth of ducts within the breast, stimulate prolactin secretion, and promote the
growth and contractile response of the uterine smooth muscles (facilitate parturition). At the same time, progesterone
facilitates the growth of glandular tissues in the breast, suppression of contractile activity of the smooth muscle cells
until parturition, and maintenance of the secretory-phase uterus. During pregnancy, progesterone suppresses the
hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, maintaining follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
at low concentrations. Thus, no new dominant follicles appear and there are no LH surges. In addition to estrogen and
progesterone, the placenta secretes placental lactogen, which acts to promote breast growth and mobilization of energy
stores.

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Answer Key
Testname: UNTITLED1

177) Shortly before parturition, the fetus assumes the head-down position, coming in contact with the closed cervix. This
head-first arrangement allows the head to act as a wedge to force the cervix open (cervical dilation) and allow the
remainder of the body through. If the fetus does not assume this position, it is considered a breech birth, making the
birth more difficult because the umbilical cord can be compressed before the baby exits the canal. To facilitate delivery
the cervix ripens, which means the cervical connective tissue softens (by enzymatic degradation) to allow the fetus to
exit. The first reliable signal of parturition is the rupture of the amniotic sac. Soon afterwards, a series of strong uterine
contractions begin (labor). Each contraction starts at the top of the uterus and travels to the cervix in an attempt to force
the fetus into the cervix. During labor, the uterine contractions can be assisted by voluntary contractions of the
abdominal muscles. The initial contractions are separated by 10-15 minutes. As the time between contractions
decreases, uterine pressure increases, causing the cervix to further dilate. At that time, the fetus moves into the cervical
canal from which it will be expelled. Thereafter, blood vessels in the umbilical cord begin to constrict as the placenta
separates from the endometrium, and strong uterine contractions expel the placenta. The smooth muscle cells of the
uterus are stretch-sensitive, like other smooth muscle cells. As the contractions push the fetus further down the uterus,
the stretch causes a contraction in that region of the uterus to become more forceful. This stretch also activates
receptors that stimulate the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary. Oxytocin acts directly on smooth muscle
cells to increase their contractile force by stimulating the release of prostaglandins from the myometrium. The trigger
for parturition may originate from the fetus itself through the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from
the placenta. This increases the release of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) from the adrenal glands, which is
converted to estrogen.
178) There is a dramatic decrease in estrogen and progesterone at parturition. In addition to their actions to stimulate
uterine contractions, the drop in estrogen and progesterone initiates lactation. The milk produced in the first several
days is called colostrum and is composed of water and a few proteins and nutrients. Subsequently, the milk is enriched
with fat, lactose, growth factors, hormones, and antibodies. Milk is produced by the clusters of alveolar cells within the
breast, whose densities were enhanced by progesterone during pregnancy. The ductile system is also enhanced during
pregnancy by estrogen. The act of a baby suckling on the nipple triggers the flow of milk through the duct by inducing
contraction of the myoepithelial cells that surround the ducts (causing ejection). During suckling, the stimulation of
receptors on the nipple relays information to the hypothalamus to stimulate the secretion of oxytocin, which stimulates
the myoepithelial cell contraction. Suckling also increases the release of prolactin-releasing hormone from the
hypothalamus and inhibits the release of prolactin-inhibiting hormone, which acts to increase the release of prolactin
from the anterior pituitary. Prolactin acts to increase the production of milk.
179) adrenal cortex : androgens
180) spermatogonia
181) fertilization

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