CARBOHYDRATES

Pavithra K
Assistant professor of
basic science
CARBOHYDRATES
• Organic compounds - important source of energy for
living organisms.
• Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms
• Classified based
. on their molecular structure and
function.
• General formula is Cn(H2O)n.
• Carbohydrates are essential components of biological
systems and play a crucial role in maintaining the health
and survival of living organisms
MONOSACCHARIDES
• Simplest form of carbohydrates
• Eg : glucose and fructose
• Soluble in water
• Primary source of energy for the body
DISACCHARIDES

• Formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides

• Eg : sucrose, lactose, and maltose
• Found in sugar - broken down into monosaccharides
during digestion
POLYSACCHARIDES

• Long chains of monosaccharides linked together

• Serve as storage molecules for energy - glycogen in
animals, starch in plants
• Provide structure and support - cellulose in plant cell
walls
• Cellular processes - cellular signaling and recognition, and
in regulating gene expression.
STARCH
Industrial Applications of Carbohydrates
1. Food and Beverage:Sweeteners, thickeners, and stabilizers

Energy sources - sports drinks and energy bars.

2. Pharmaceuticals: Excipients in pharmaceutical formulations to

improve the stability, solubility, and bioavailability of drugs.

Source of energy - medical nutrition products.

3. Cosmetics: Moisturizers, shampoos, and conditioners, to provide

hydration and improve skin and hair health.

3. Biotechnology: production of biodegradable plastics,

biofuels and other renewable energy sources.

4. Research: research tools - immunology, virology, and

cellular biology.

ligands in protein-carbohydrate interactions and as

probes to study cellular signaling pathways

CELLULOSE-BASED WATER FILTERS
• Made from cellulose-a carbohydrate polymer found in
plant cell walls.
• Properties Cellulose- high mechanical strength ,hydrophilic
• It remove particles, pathogens, and other contaminants
from water
• Widely used - household, industrial, and agricultural
applications.
• Environment friendly alternative to traditional filters -
biodegradable and produced from renewable resources.
Properties of cellulose based water filter
• High Porosity: efficiently remove impurities and contaminants
from water.

• Biodegradability: made from cellulose, which reduces their

impact on the environment compared to synthetic polymer filters.

• Cost-effective: more affordable than traditional synthetic

polymer filters, making them accessible to a wider range of
consumers and communities.

• Renewable resource: cellulose, reducing the dependency on

non-renewable resources.
• Good mechanical strength: allowing them to maintain their

structure and perform effectively over time.

• Chemical resistance: resistant to most acids and bases, and

can be used in a wide range of water treatment applications.

• Large surface area: enhances their filtration capabilities and

reduces the frequency of filter replacement.

Importance of cellulose based water filters
• Safe and clean water: used in household, industrial, and agricultural
• Sustainability: made from a renewable resource, cellulose, and are
biodegradable, reducing impact on the environment - promoting
sustainability in water treatment processes.
• Affordability
• Versatility: used in various types of filtration systems - produced in
different sizes and shapes to fit specific needs.
• Alternative to synthetic filters: environment friendly alternative to
traditional synthetic polymer filters- reducing the dependency on
nonrenewable resources and reducing waste.
Advantages of cellulose based water filters

• Environmentally friendly

• Cost-effective

• High porosity

• Versatile

• Good mechanical strength

• Chemical resistance

• Large surface area

Limitations of cellulose based water filters

• Low resistance to high temperature: lose their structural

integrity - exposed to high temperatures.
• Low filtration efficiency for certain contaminants: not
efficient - for heavy metals, from water.
• Limited lifespan: need to replaced more frequently
compared to synthetic polymer filters.
• Difficult to sterilize: increasing the risk of contamination.
• May clog easily: exposed to high levels of contaminants-
reducing their filtration efficiency-requiring frequent
replacement.
• May affect water taste: by absorbing or releasing certain
chemicals or minerals, reducing the quality of the
purified water.
Construction of cellulose-based water filters
Steps: 1. Cellulose Material Selection: depend on the
desired properties such as strength, porosity, and chemical
resistance. Common cellulose materials - paper, cotton, and
wood fibers.
Step: 2. Cellulose Preparation: cutting into small pieces,
washing to remove impurities, and drying for use.
Step: 3. Cellulose Layer Formation: stacking it or
compacting it using heat and pressure.
Step: 4. Filter Medium Attachment:mesh or a support
structure to provide stability and increase the filter surface
area.
Step: 5. Chemical Treatment: to modify its properties -
increasing its hydrophilicity or adding antimicrobial agents
Step: 6. Housing Assembly: housing that provides a means
to attach it to a water source and to collect the filtered
water.
Step: 7. Filter Testing: to ensure that it meets the desired
specifications, - filtration efficiency and flow rate.
Cellulose material used in house hold water filters

The cellulose material - cellulose acetate - synthetic

form of cellulose

Properties - good chemical resistance, high

porosity, and high flow rate , low-cost material

Other cellulose materials such as paper, cotton,

and wood fibers may also be used

CELLULOSE ACETATE
 BIOPLASTIC POLYHYDROXYALKANOATES
(PHAs)
• Biodegradable and biocompatible polyesters
produced by microorganisms - bacteria and fungi.
• Made from renewable resources - sugar and
cornstarch
• Environmentally friendly alternative - traditional
petroleum-based plastics
Properties of PHA
1. Biodegradability: break down into water and carbon
dioxide- reducing their impact on the environment.
2. Biocompatibility: used in medical devices- sutures and
implants, without causing adverse reactions in the body.
3. Mechanical properties: similar as traditional petroleum
based plastics - suitable for various applications.
4. Processing: processed using conventional plastic
processing techniques - injection molding, blow
molding, and extrusion.
Engineering applications of PHA bio plastic
• Packaging: food containers, beverage cups, and clamshell
containers.
• Medical Devices: PHA is biocompatible and can be used in
the manufacture of medical devices - sutures, implants,
and drug delivery systems.
• Textiles: production of biodegradable textiles and
composites for construction and furniture.
• Agricultural Mulch Films: production of biodegradable
mulch films to reduce soil erosion and conserve moisture
• Consumer Goods: production - toys, phone cases, and
water bottles.
• Automotive Parts: production of biodegradable
automotive parts - air ducts and headlamp covers
• Electronic Devices: production of biodegradable
components in electronic devices - smartphones and
laptops.
• Aerospace: production of biodegradable parts in
aerospace applications - insulation and cable
management.
• Sporting Goods: PHA is used for the production of

biodegradable sporting goods - golf tees and fishing

lures.

• Construction: PHA is used for the production of

biodegradable insulation and soundproofing materials

PLA AS BIOPLASTIC POLYLACTIC ACID (PLA)
Made from corn starch, sugarcane, or other natural
resources.
Sustainable alternative to traditional petroleum-based
plastics in various applications - packaging, disposable
tableware, and 3D printing.
PLA is biodegradable in industrial composting facilities, it
may not break down in the environment as quickly
May still have negative impacts on wildlife and ecosystems
if not properly disposed of.
Properties of PLA as bioplastic
1. Biodegradable: broken down by microorganisms in
industrial composting facilities, reducing waste in
landfills.
2. Renewable: renewable resources such as corn starch or
sugarcane, reducing dependence on finite petroleum
resources.
3. Clear/Transparent: PLA has a clear and transparent
appearance, making it suitable for packaging
applications.
4. Heat-resistant: low melting temperature and is not
recommended for high heat applications, but it can
maintain its shape and stability up to 60°C.
5. Biocompatible: PLA is non-toxic and biocompatible,
making it suitable for food packaging and medical
devices.
6. Stiffness and Strength: good stiffness and strength, but
not as strong as traditional petroleum-based plastics.
7. Printability: used in 3D printing due to its good
printability and ease of use.
Engineering applications of PLA bioplastic
• Automotive parts: production of biodegradable automotiv
parts such as air ducts and headlamp covers.
• Electronic Devices: PLA is used for the production o
biodegradable components in electronic devices such a
smartphones and laptops.
• Erospace: PLA is used for the production of biodegradabl
parts in aerospace applications, such as insulation and cabl
management.
• Sporting Goods: production of biodegradable sporting
goods such as golf tees and fishing lures.
• Construction: production of biodegradable insulation and
soundproofing materials.
• Agricultural Equipment: production of biodegradable
parts in agricultural equipment such as seed trays and
greenhouse film.
• Medical Equipment: production of biodegradable
components in medical equipment such as diagnostic
equipment and hospital beds
 Pavithra K
Assistant Professor
of Basic Science
 Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts in biological
reactions.
 They speed up the rate of chemical reactions without
being consumed in the process.
 Enzymes are specific to the type of reaction they catalyze.
 Enzymes play a crucial role in various metabolic
pathways, digestion, and cellular respiration.
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES FOR ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
1. Specificity:
2. Reactivity: Enzymes increase the rate of chemical
reactions without being consumed in the process.
3. Stability: Enzymes are generally stable at a wide range of
temperatures and pH values
4. Renewability: alternative to traditional chemical
catalysts.
5. Cost-effectiveness: Enzymes can be produced in large
quantities through fermentation.
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF ENZYMES
1. Bioremediation: Enzymes are used to break down
pollutants in the environment, such as oils, pesticides, and
toxic waste.
2. Biofuel production: Enzymes are used to convert plant
material into biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel.
3. Food and beverage production: such as baking, brewing,
cheese making, and juice production.
4. Textile production: Enzymes are used to remove stains,
whiten fabrics, and improve the softness of textiles.
5. Detergents: in laundry detergents to break down protein,

starch, and lipid stains.

6. Pharmaceuticals: such as antibiotics and vaccines.

7. Research and biotechnology: Enzymes are used as tools

in genetic engineering, protein engineering, and

molecular biology.
BIOSENSORS are analytical devices that combine a biological
recognition element with a transducer to detect and quantify
target analytes.
• The biological recognition element can be an enzyme,
antibody, nucleic acid, or other biological molecule that
specifically interacts with the target analyte.
• The transducer converts the biological response into an
electrical signal that can be quantified and interpreted.
Biosensors have a wide range of applications in the fields of
medicine, environmental monitoring, and food safety.
1. Biosensors can be used to monitor blood glucose levels
in patients with diabetes,
2. Detect contaminants in water and food, and monitor
environmental pollutants.
Advantages: including rapid response time, high sensitivity,
Specificity, portability.
• They can be designed to be disposable and cost-effective,
making them a useful tool in various industries and
applications.
ENZYMES USED IN BIOSENSORS
1. Glucose oxidase (GOx): Used in blood glucose monitoring
for people with diabetes. The enzyme oxidizes glucose to
gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide, which is then
detected by a transducer to quantify glucose levels in the
blood.
2. Lactate oxidase (LOx): Used in the determination of
lactate levels in biological fluids, such as blood and urine.
LOx oxidizes lactate to pyruvate, which is then detected
by a transducer.
3. Cholinesterase (ChE): detection of organo-phosphorus
pesticides and nerve agents. ChE hydrolyzes
acetylcholine - decrease in acetylcholine levels is
detected by a transducer to quantify the presence of the
toxic substances.
4. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): detection of iP, those found
in wastewater and fertilizers. ALP catalyzes the hydrolysis
of phosphates to produce a signal that can be quantified.
5. Urease: detection of urea levels in urine. Urease
catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea to produce NH4 and CO2,
which can be quantified by a transducer.
Glucose-Oxidase in Biosensors
• Glucose oxidase (GOx) - for the detection of glucose levels
in blood and urine.
• GOx is typically immobilized on a substrate, such as a
polymeric film, to ensure stability and specificity.
• The transducer in the biosensor can be an electrode, a
fluorescence-based system, or other type of sensor,
depending on the desired level of sensitivity and
specificity.
Advantages of Biosensors
1. Sensitivity: Biosensors are highly sensitive and can
detect target analytes at low concentrations.
2. Specificity: - minimizes interference from other
substances in the sample.
3. Rapid response time: - useful in situations where quick
results are required.
4. Portability: - useful in field applications and remote
locations.
5. Cost-effectiveness:
Limitations of Biosensors
1. Stability: Biosensors can be affected by environmental
conditions, such as temperature and pH, which can lead
to degradation of the biological recognition element and
loss of sensitivity.
2. Interferences: Biosensors can be affected by other
substances in the sample, which can interfere with the
performance of the biosensor.
3. Calibration: Biosensors may require frequent calibration
to ensure accuracy, which can increase the time and cost
associated with using the biosensor.
4. Limited shelf-life: Biosensors have a limited shelf-life,
and the biological recognition element may degrade over
time, leading to decreased sensitivity and specificity.
5. Complexity: Biosensors can be complex to manufacture
and use, requiring specialized equipment and expertise
to operate effectively
Despite these limitations, biosensors have proven to be a
valuable tool in various industries and applications, and
research is ongoing to improve their performance and
reduce limitations.
Lignolytic Enzyme in Bio-Bleaching
 Bio-bleaching is a process that uses biological agents, such
as enzymes, to remove color and brighten fibers, paper,
and textiles.
 It is a sustainable alternative to traditional chemical
bleaching methods that use harsh chemicals, such as
hydrogen peroxide and chlorine.
 These enzymes catalyze the oxidation of colored
impurities in the fibers, resulting in a brighter and more
uniform color.
Advantages of Bio-Bleaching
1. Sustainability: Bio-bleaching uses biological agents, such
as enzymes, which are renewable and biodegradable.
2. Improved product quality: Bio-bleaching can result in
higher brightness and a more uniform color compared to
traditional chemical bleaching, leading to improved
product quality.
3. Reduced energy consumption: Bio-bleaching typically
requires lower energy input compared to chemical
bleaching methods, reducing energy consumption and
associated costs.
4. Elimination of hazardous chemicals: Bio-bleaching
eliminates the use of harsh chemicals, such as hydrogen
peroxide and chlorine, which can be hazardous to
workers and the environment.
5. Lower production of harmful by-products: Bio-bleaching
reduces the formation of harmful by-products, such as
dioxins, that can be produced during traditional chemical
bleaching methods
Limitations of Bio-bleaching
1. High cost of enzyme production: making the process
more expensive compared to traditional chemical
bleaching methods.
2. Low efficiency compared to chemical bleaching: requiring
longer processing times and higher enzyme doses.
3. Need for further research:
4. Lack of widespread implementation: The widespread
implementation of bio-bleaching is limited by factors
• Lignolytic enzymes, such as laccases, peroxidases, and
manganese peroxidases, are used in bio-bleaching
• Laccases are copper-containing oxidases that catalyze the
oxidation of lignin, a complex polymer found in plant cell
walls, as well as other compounds such as phenols and
aryl alcohols.
• Peroxidases are enzymes that use hydrogen peroxide to
oxidize organic compounds.
• Manganese peroxidases are enzymes that use hydrogen
peroxide to oxidize lignin and other compounds.
• The lignolytic enzymes used in bio-bleaching are typically

produced by fungi or bacteria, and are immobilized on a

support, such as a ceramic bead or a cellulosic matrix, to

ensure stability and prolonged activity.

• The immobilized enzymes are then added to the fibers,

where they catalyze the oxidation of colored impurities,

resulting in a brighter and more uniform color.

LIPIDS

Pavithra K
Assistant professor of
basic science
Lipids are a group of organic compounds that include fats,
oils, waxes, and some hormones.
Role of Lipids
1. Energy storage: source of stored energy in the body -
broken down to release energy when it is needed.
2. Insulation: Lipids help to insulate the body, helping to
regulate temperature and protect against heat loss.
3. Cell membrane structure: major component of cell
membranes, helping to maintain their fluidity and
stability.
4. Hormone synthesis: Some lipids - cholesterol, are
precursors to hormones
5. Transport: Lipids are soluble in fat, but not in water. This
makes them ideal for carrying fats soluble vitamins and
other lipophilic compounds through the bloodstream.

There are several types of lipids - saturated and unsaturated

fats, phospholipids, and steroids.
It is important to have a balanced diet that includes a
moderate amount of healthy lipids - monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fats, while limiting the intake of saturated
and trans fats.
Engineering Applications of Lipids
1. Cosmetics: - moisturizers, to improve skin hydration and
texture.
2. Food industry: food products - margarine and frying oils,
to improve texture, flavor, and shelf life.
3. Medical devices: Lipids are used in medical devices -
lipid-based drug delivery systems, to improve the
delivery and efficacy of drugs.
4. Biofuels: Lipids - vegetable oils and animal fats, can be
converted into biofuels, such as biodiesel and bioethanol.
5. Surface modification: modify the surface properties of
materials, such as metals and polymers, to improve their
performance and biocompatibility.
6. Surfactants: which are compounds that reduce surface
tension and improve the mixing of oil and water-based
substances.
It is important to note that the properties and applications
of lipids can vary depending on the specific type of lipid and
the processing method used.
Researches are has been going on.
Lipids as Biodiesel
• Lipids can be converted into biodiesel, which is a
renewable source of energy.
• Biodiesel is typically produced by transesterifying
vegetable oils or animal fats with an alcohol - methanol,
to form methyl esters.
• The resulting biodiesel can be used as a drop-in
replacement for traditional diesel fuel in internal
combustion engines.
Advantages
• Renewability: Lipids are a renewable resource - produced
from a variety of sources - vegetable oils, animal fats, and
microalgae.
• Reduced emissions: reducing the impact on the
environment and public health.
• Improved performance: Biodiesel can improve engine
performance, increasing fuel efficiency and reducing
engine wear and tear.
• Biodegradability: reduces environmental contamination
in the event of a spill.
Limitations to the use of lipids as biodiesel
• higher production costs: compared to traditional diesel
fuel
• Need for more efficient and cost effective processing
methods.

Nevertheless, the use of lipids as biodiesel has the potential

to play an important role in the transition towards a more
sustainable energy system
Process of Obtaining Biodiesel from Lipids
1. Raw material preparation: The lipids, such as vegetable
oils or animal fats, are collected and purified to remove
impurities.
2. Trans-esterification: The purified lipids are mixed with
an alcohol - methanol, and a catalyst - sodium hydroxide,
to produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) - the main
components of biodiesel.
3. Separation: into two layers: the upper layer contains the
FAME (biodiesel) and the lower layer contains the glycerol
(byproduct).
4. Washing and drying: The biodiesel is washed with water
to remove any residual alcohol and soap that was formed
during the trans esterification reaction. The biodiesel is
then dried to remove any remaining moisture.
5. Purification: The biodiesel is further purified to remove
any impurities and improve its quality.
6. Final product: The purified biodiesel is then stored and
distributed for use as a fuel.
Exact process can vary depending on the specific type of lipid
and the desired quality of the final product.
Lipids as Cleaning Agents/Detergents
1. Personal care products: Lipids, such as fatty acids and
glycerides - used as emulsifiers and surfactants in
personal care products - shampoos, soaps, and lotions.
2. Industrial cleaning: such as metal cleaning, degreasing,
and stain removal.
3. Laundry detergents: to improve their cleaning
performance.
4. Cleaning agents for hard surfaces: such as floors,
countertops, and walls, to remove dirt and grime.
Properties of lipid - suitable to cleaning agents
• Ability to emulsify and dissolve grease and oils.
• Lipids can form micelles, which are tiny spherical
structures that can surround and trap dirt particles,
making it easier to remove them.
Not all lipids are equally effective as cleaning agents and that
the specific properties of each lipid can impact its
performance.
Further research is needed to optimize the use of lipids as
cleaning agents and to identify new and more effective.
Examples of lipids used as cleaning agent
a. Soap: Soap is a traditional cleaning agent made from the reaction
of an alkali with a fat or oil. Soaps are made from various types of
lipids, including animal fats and vegetable oils.

b. Fatty acids: such as stearic acid, can be used as cleaning agents in

personal care products, such as bar soaps and shampoos.

c. Glycerol: Glycerol is a byproduct of soap production including

household cleaners and industrial cleaning solutions.

d. Fatty alcohols: Fatty alcohols, such as lauryl alcohol, can be used

as cleaning agents in personal care products and industrial cleaning
solutions
Advantages of lipids as cleaning agents/detergents
1. Biodegradability:
2. Renewable resources: - crops, and are not based on
finite fossil fuels like some synthetic cleaning agents.
3. Effectiveness: Lipids have excellent grease-cutting and
emulsifying properties, making them effective cleaning
agents.
4. Mildness: Lipids armild and gentle, making them suitable
for use in personal care products and for cleaning delicate
materials, such as silk and wool.
5. Cost-effective: less expensive than synthetic cleaning
agents, especially when obtained from low-cost feed
stocks, such as vegetable oils.
6. Customizability: Lipids can be modified and customized
to improve their cleaning performance and to meet
specific application needs.
Not all lipids are equally effective as cleaning agents and
that the specific properties of each lipid can impact its
performance.
Limitations of lipid as cleaning agent
 Stability: Some lipids can be susceptible to oxidation and
degradation.
 Compatibility: Some lipids may not be compatible with
certain surfaces or materials, and may cause staining or
damage.
 Cost: Although lipids can be less expensive - the cost can
vary depending on the source of the lipids and the
processing methods used.
 Availability: may be limited by the availability of feed
stocks, such as crops and animal fats, and the need for
processing and refining.
 Performance: vary depending on the specific properties of
each lipid and the type of soil or stain being removed.
Some lipids may not perform as well as synthetic cleaning
agents in certain applications.
 Regulation: The use of lipids as cleaning agents is
regulated by government agencies, and specific
requirements may vary from country to country.
Working principle of lipids as cleaning agent
o It is based on their ability to dissolve grease and oils.
o Lipids are composed of hydrophobic and hydrophilic
regions - surround grease and oils, effectively breaking
them down into smaller particles that can be more easily
removed.
o When a lipid-based cleaning agent is applied to a surface,
the hydrophobic regions of the lipid molecule surround
and dissolve grease and oils, while the hydrophilic
regions interact with water, allowing the mixture to be
rinsed away.
o The combination of the lipid and water also forms an
emulsion- helps to suspend and remove dirt and debris.
o In addition, some lipids have additional properties, such
as foaming or lathering capabilities, - enhance their
cleaning performance.
o For example, fatty alcohols can be used as foaming agents
in shampoos, while soap is known for its lathering
properties.
o These additional properties can help to loosen and
remove dirt and debris, making the cleaning process
more effective.
 Pavithra K
Assistant professor of Basic
science
 NUCLEIC ACIDS

Nucleic acids are biopolymers that play a crucial role in the

storage and transfer of genetic information in all living
organisms.

Two types of nucleic acids

1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): DNA is the genetic material

that carries the instructions for the development,
functioning, and reproduction of all living organisms.
STRUCTURE OF DNA
2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA): RNA is involved in the expression
of the genetic information stored in DNA by carrying the
message from the DNA to the ribosome, where it is used
to build proteins.
• RNA is a single-stranded
molecule
• Sugar(ribose) + Phosphate
group + Nitrogenous base
• Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine,
and Uracil).
 DNA VACCINE
 A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of
viral or bacterial DNA to stimulate an immune response
against the pathogen.
 The vaccine works by introducing the pathogen's DNA
into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to
produce viral or bacterial proteins.
 These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the
cells, which triggers an immune response and the
production of antibodies against the pathogen.
 DNA vaccines are being actively researched and

developed for a range of diseases

 Cancer, rabies, influenza, and human immunodeficiency

virus (HIV).

The technology is still in its early stages, it has the potential

to revolutionize the field of vaccine development and

provide new treatment options for a range of diseases.

DNA Vaccine for Rabies
 A type of vaccine that uses a piece of rabies virus DNA to
stimulate an immune response against the virus.
 The vaccine works by introducing the rabies virus DNA
into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to
produce viral proteins.
 These viral proteins are then displayed on the surface of
the cells, which triggers an immune response and the
production of antibodies against the rabies virus.
Importance of DNA vaccine for rabies
• Ability to stimulate a strong immune response
• Long-lasting immune response
• Fewer doses required
• ease of manufacture and storage
DNA vaccines have several key advantages
1. Efficacy: highly effective in preventing rabies infection in
both animal and human trials - as a traditional vaccine
in protecting dogs against rabies.
2. Long-lasting protection: stimulate a strong and long-
lasting immune response - provide protection for
extended periods of time.
3. Ease of administration: they can be given via injection or
even delivered orally - useful in areas with medical
facilities are limited.
4. Cost-effective: inexpensive to produce compared to
traditional vaccines
5. Reduced risk of side effects: DNA vaccines do not
contain live virus particles - safer and have a lower risk
of side effects compared to traditional vaccines
 RNA Vaccines RNA
 Vaccines are a type of vaccine that use genetic material
from a pathogen, in the form of RNA, to stimulate an
immune response against the disease.
 The vaccine works by introducing the pathogen's RNA
into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to
produce viral or bacterial proteins.
 These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the
cells, which triggers an immune response and the
production of antibodies against the pathogen.
 Advantages of RNA vaccines
• Faster production time
• Ability to target multiple antigens
• RNA vaccines can be manufactured quickly
• Safer than traditional vaccines, as they do not contain
any live virus or bacteria that could cause disease.

RNA vaccines are currently being developed and tested for

COVID 19, influenza, and cancer.
RNA Vaccines for Covid19
• Vaccine that use genetic material from the SARS-CoV-2
• The vaccine works by introducing the virus's RNA into the
body, where it is taken up by cells and used to produce
viral proteins.
• These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the
cells, which triggers an immune response and the
production of antibodies against the virus.
The first RNA vaccine for COVID 19 the Pfizer-BioNTech
vaccine and Moderna vaccine are authorized for emergency
use in December 2020
Importance of RNA vaccine for Covid 19
1. High efficacy: The Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna mRNA
vaccines - reported efficacy rates of around 95% in
clinical trials.
2. Rapid development: rapidly developed and
manufactured, making them particularly useful in the
context of a pandemic.
The Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, for instance, was developed in
under a year, and went from the initial discovery of the viral
genome to emergency use authorization in less than 11
months.
3. Easy to modify: to target new strains or variants of the
virus.
This means that if a new variant emerges that is resistant to
the existing vaccines, it is possible to quickly modify the
vaccine to provide protection against the new strain.
4. Safe: - not contain any live virus particles. They work by
instructing cells to produce a harmless piece of the virus
5. Potential for broader use: used in the prevention of
other infectious diseases, such as influenza, HIV, and
Zika, as well as in the treatment of cancer.
Forensics

DNA Fingerprinting (DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting)

Technique used in forensic science to identify an individual

based on their unique DNA profile.

• The process involves analyzing specific regions(markers)

of an individual's DNA - vary from person to person.

Working of DNA fingerprinting
1. Sample collection: DNA is extracted from a biological
sample - blood, semen, or hair. The sample is then
purified and processed to isolate the DNA.
2. DNA amplification: by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-
which allows for more accurate analysis
3. DNA analysis: using gel electrophoresis - a DNA profile is
generated.
4. DNA comparison: The DNA profile compared to the DNA
profiles of suspects or victims - to determine match.
 DNA comparison is typically done manually
 Artificial intelligence (AI) - development of automated DNA
profiling systems.
 The DNA profile consists of a series of bands on a gel-
represent specific DNA fragments.
 Forensic DNA fingerprinting - critical tool in criminal
investigations to link individuals to crime scenes and
exonerate innocent individuals / wrongly accused person.
 It has also been used to identify victims of natural
disasters and mass casualties, and to resolve paternity
disputes.
PROTEINS

Pavithra K
Assistant professor of
basic science
 Proteins are large, complex molecules
 Made up of chains of smaller building blocks - amino
acids.
 They play a vital role in the structure, function, and
regulation of cells, tissues, and organs.
 Proteins are also involved in immune responses,
hormone regulation, and muscle contraction.
 The structure of a protein determines its function, and
the sequence of amino acids in a protein determines its
structure.
 20 different types of amino acids - Specific sequence of
amino acids in a protein determines its unique structure
and function.
 Understanding the structure and function is a major
focus of biomedical research for developing new
treatments and therapies for the diseases.
 Proteins play a critical role in many biological processes
 Dysfunction is involved in the development of many
diseases - cancer, heart disease, and neurological
disorders.
 Proteins are synthesized by
cells from the genetic
information encoded in DNA.
 It begins when the genetic code
for a particular protein is
transcribed into messenger
RNA (mRNA) in nucleus
 mRNA transported out of the
nucleus to cytoplasm then it
translated into protein by
ribosomes.
Functions of Proteins Proteins
1. Catalyzing chemical reactions
• Amylase: Enzyme that breaks down starch into simple
sugars - glucose and maltose. It is found in saliva and
pancreatic juice.
• Lipase: breaks down fats- fatty acids and glycerol. It is
found in the pancreas and small intestine.
• Catalase: converts hydrogen peroxide - water and
oxygen. It is found in most cells of the body.
• Trypsin: breaks down proteins - smaller peptides. It is
produced in the pancreas and released into the small
intestine.
• ATP synthase: synthesis of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and
phosphate. It is found in the mitochondria of cells.
2. Transporting molecules
• Hemoglobin: protein in red blood cells - transports
oxygen from the lungs to the tissues in the body.
• Albumin: found in blood plasma - transport various
substances - hormones, fatty acids, and drugs
throughout the body.
• Transferrin: transports iron in the blood from the site
of absorption, in the gut to the bone marrow, liver,
and other tissues that require it.
• Apolipoproteins: a family of proteins - transport
lipids (fats) in the bloodstream.
Examples: ApoA, ApoB, and ApoE.
• Ferritin: protein that stores iron in a non-toxic form
in liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
• Glut transporters: a family of proteins that transport
glucose and other sugars across cell membranes.
Examples : GLUT1 and GLUT4
3. Providing mechanical support
• Collagen: structural protein in the body and
provides support to tissues - skin, tendons, cartilage,
bone, and teeth.
• Elastin: protein that provides elasticity and
stretchability to tissues - skin, lungs, arteries, and
ligaments.
• Keratin: protein that forms the structural basis of
hair, nails, and the outer layer of skin.
• Actin and Myosin: proteins that are involved in
muscle contraction and provide the mechanical force
required for movement.
• Tubulin: protein - forms the structural basis of
microtubules - provide support to cells
involved in various cellular processes - cell division
and intracellular transport.
• Laminin: protein - forms part of the extracellular
matrix and provides structural support to cells in
tissues - skin, muscles, and organs.
4. Regulating cell behavior
• Receptor proteins: located on the surface of cells -
bind to specific signaling molecules - hormones,
growth factors, and neurotransmitters - and they
trigger a cellular response - a change in gene
expression or the activation of an intracellular
signaling pathway.
• Enzymes: proteins - catalyze specific chemical
reactions in the body - kinases (phosphorylation) and
phosphatases (dephosphorylation).
• Cytoskeleton proteins: actin and tubulin, play a critical
role in regulating cell shape, movement, and division.
• Transcription factors: proteins that bind to DNA and
regulate gene expression and regulating cellular
differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis.
• Adhesion proteins: involved in cell-to-cell and cell to
matrix adhesion- their regulating cell behavior - cell
migration, tissue development, and wound healing.
• Ion channels: are proteins that allow ions to move
across the cell membrane, they regulating cellular
excitability and communication.
PROTEINS AS FOOD
 Proteins are essential nutrients that provide the body
with amino acids, which are the building blocks of the
body's tissues.
 Proteins are found in many different foods - meat,
poultry, fish, dairy products, beans, lentils, tofu, and
eggs.
 Proteins are a vital component of a healthy diet - they
help to build and repair tissues, support immune
function, and regulate various metabolic processes.
 The body uses proteins as a source of energy when
carbohydrates and fats are not available.
 The quality of proteins in food is determined by the
types of amino acids they contain, as well as the amount
of each type of amino acid.
 To ensure adequate protein intake, it is important to
consume a variety of protein-rich foods and to include
both complete and incomplete protein sources in the
diet.
WHEY PROTEIN AS FOOD
 A type of protein derived from the liquid that separates
from milk during the cheese-making process.
 It is a complete protein, meaning it contains all of the
essential amino acids in highly branched form - needs to
build and repair tissues.
 It is used as a dietary supplement by athletes,
bodybuilders.
 It is commonly added to smoothies, shakes, and other
beverages, and available in powder form.
 Compared to other types of protein it is rapidly absorbed
by the body.
 Good source of essential nutrients - calcium, potassium,
and vitamins B2 and B12.
 However, not all whey protein products are equal in
terms of quality, purity, and nutrient content.
 Some whey protein supplements may contain added
sugars, artificial sweeteners, or other ingredients that
can be harmful to health.
Use of whey protein as food
• Sports nutrition: it help to build and repair muscle tissue
- after intense exercise, and increase overall muscle mass.
• Weight management: Whey protein help manage weight
- by increasing satiety and reducing appetite - weight loss
by preserving muscle mass while reducing body fat.
• Health promotion: Whey protein is rich in essential
amino acids - various health benefits-improved immune
function, lower bp, and reduced risk of cardiovascular
disease.
• Meal replacement: either as a drink or in a variety of
food products. - it is a quick and convenient source of
protein

Talk to a healthcare professional before to use whey protein

 MEAT ANALOGS OF PROTEIN
(meat substitutes or meat alternatives)
 Plant-based foods designed to mimic the taste, texture,
and appearance of meat.
 They are made from soy protein, wheat protein, pea
protein, and other plant-based ingredient - fortified with
vitamins and minerals
 Alternative to meat vegetarians, vegans, and those who
are looking to reduce their meat consumption for health
or ethical reasons.
 There are many different types of meat analogs available,
including burgers, sausages, meatballs, deli slices, and
more.
 Some to mimic specific types of meat, such as chicken,
beef, or pork, others are marketed as a more generic
"meat-like" product.
 Choose meat analogs - look for products with high
protein and low added sugars, fats, and other harmful
ingredients.
Examples of meat analogs of protein as food
i. Tofu: Made from soybeans - used in a variety of dishes, -
stir-fries, salads, and smoothies.
ii. Tempeh: made from fermented soybeans and has a nutty
flavor and firm texture. It can be sliced and used in
sandwiches or salads, or crumbled and used as a meat
substitute in tacos or spaghetti sauces.
iii. Seitan or wheat meat or wheat protein : made from
wheat gluten – has a chewy, meat-like texture. It can be
used as a substitute for beef or pork
iv. Veggie burgers: Made from plant-based ingredients -
soy protein, grains, and vegetables
that can be grilled or baked and served on a bun.
v. Meatless meatballs: Made from plant-based ingredients
- soy protein, grains, and vegetables, it is tasty and
protein-rich alternative to traditional meatballs.
vi. Plant-based sausages: Made from soy protein, pea
protein, or other plant-based ingredients - protein-rich
alternative to traditional sausages.
Tofu Tempeh Seitan

Plant based sausage Meatless meatballs

Plant Based Proteins
 Proteins derived from plant sources - legumes, grains,
nuts, and seeds.
 Alternative to animal-based proteins - for those following
a vegetarian or vegan diet.
 Examples: soy protein, pea protein, lentil protein,
chickpea protein, and hemp protein.
 Choose a high-quality product - free of artificial additives
and preservatives.
 consult a healthcare professional before starting to use
any new protein supplement.
Benefits of plant-based proteins:
1. Sustainable: more environmentally sustainable than
animal based sources – require fewer resources to
produce and generate fewer greenhouse gas emissions.
2. Nutrient-rich: Many plant-based protein sources are rich
in other essential nutrients - fiber, vitamins, and minerals.
3. Versatile: Plant-based proteins can be used in a variety of
ways, including as a protein supplement, in smoothies, or
as an ingredient in various recipes.
4. Hypoallergenic: better tolerated than animal-based

proteins - good option for people with food allergies or

sensitivities.

5. Cost-effective: more affordable than animal-based

sources, making them a more accessible option.

Uses of plant based proteins
1. Dietary supplements: Plant-based proteins are sold as
powders, bars, and other supplements, making them a
convenient way to add protein to a diet.
2. Food products: - plant-based meat analogs, protein
bars, and smoothies.
3. Health and wellness: due to their lower saturated fat
and cholesterol content.
4. Vegetarian and vegan diets:
5. Fitness and sports nutrition: used by athletes and fitness
enthusiasts to support muscle recovery and growth.

It is also important to remember that plant-based proteins

may not contain all of the essential amino acids found in
animal-based proteins, so it may be necessary to consume a
variety of plant-based protein sources to ensure adequate
protein intake.