2014 2015 05 1 TR - Baixa

Research Report
The Science Behind

Patisserie
A Chemical, Physical, and Biological Science
Sara Masson San Gabriel
Bachillerato 2nd, Clase F

Eugenia Duch Figueras
July 11th, 2014
Abstract
Many techniques in the world of Patisserie are completely unknown to most of the people;
and even more so, a great science hides behind each and every aspect of the delicious
pastries prepared in this field of work. It has a biological science, which concerns the
moment a person tastes the pastry, and there is also a great part of physicochemical
science in the making of those pastries. The first two hypotheses center upon how the
organoleptic properties of the dessert change when different physical and/or chemical
processes are applied in the making of the pastry. The third hypothesis concerns the
various biological reactions humans have while tasting the pastries and how it varies when a
change is made from the original product.
To have a better understanding upon the chemistry and physics behind some of the most
often used ingredients, research had to be done, such as reading books, consulting
nutritionists, or conducting various experiments to make conclusions. (The most common
ingredients would include eggs, sugar, gelifiers, dairy products, and chocolates.) After some
research, I postulated that if a chemical manipulation was done to the proteins found in the
egg whites, it would affect the organoleptic results of a dessert called macarons. Therefore,
an experiment had to be conducted to see if the hypothesis was correct; and to a good
surprise, the results showed a drastic change in the macarons’ organoleptic properties when
the manipulation was omitted in difference to when it was sought through. Additionally,
research of various chemical procedures and some more experiments were conducted to
prove and support the current hypothesis. I could conclude from it that each time that a
chemical change was made to an ingredient it would ultimately alter the organoleptic
properties of the result.
I also hypothesized that physical changes play a very important part in the organoleptic
properties of the desert. Therefore, I conducted an experiment regarding the physical
changes that could be done to whipping cream, such as changing its temperature to see if it
would alter the final product, (making sure that only physical manipulations would be
involved.) The results showed in an obvious way that the organoleptic properties changed
when the temperature varied, especially in the texture and density of the whipping cream.
The Science Behind Patisserie ii

Apart from this, I also did some research regarding chocolate and crystal formation, the
changing of temperature, and some more different physical manipulations. All this pointed
out that the physical manipulations done towards an ingredient is clue to obtaining many
different textures, aspects, and more, therefore bringing changes in the organoleptic
properties of those ingredients and desserts.
Finally, I got interested in the science concerning the body’s (or more specifically the
nervous system’s) biological reaction when eating a pastry. As it turned out to be, I found
out that the factors responsible for the perception of a food’s organoleptic properties are the
neurons. Furthermore, after learning that there are 5 basic sense reception systems, I
hypothesized that each one influences and is connected to the other systems. In order to
verify this, I conducted an experiment consisting in changing one of the perceptions, (the
visual one,) by ‘blindfolding’ the test subjects and surveyed if they’d had a different
organoleptic experience when tasting a brownie in comparison to when they had their eyes
open. After the survey, I discovered that 92% of the people found a difference in either the
taste, the texture, both, or even the temperature! I therefore concluded that the perception
of the pastries’ features varied upon the different stimuli the environment offered to the
person tasting them.
It is safe to say that all this research, experimentations, analysis, and observations
permitted me to learn all about the science behind “patisserie.”
The Science Behind Patisserie iii

Acknowledgement
Throughout this report, I have been very privileged to get help from some extremely unique
and kind people. Firstly, I would like to give my thanks to my wonderful tutor, Geni Duch,
who has followed my report, supported my decisions, given me the right advice at the right
moment, and most of all, given me a huge motivation to continue making my report as best
as I could.
Secondly, I just need to mention how helpful and selfless my father (Didier Masson) was
when I had to format and arrange the esthetic appeal of the report. He helped me even
though he was tired and didn’t have the time himself. Without him, it would not have turned
out as eye-catching as it did and I really appreciate that teamwork.
I should also mention: my mom, Consuelo Sangabriel, my sister Claire Masson, my friend
Monica Sanz, and my brothers, David, François and Yannick Masson… who have supported
me throughout the year, thus, supported me throughout the report.
Finally, as the help that a certain person has brought to me throughout this ‘adventure’ is
surely indescribable by words, I would simply like to add: thank you, Hilmi.
The Science Behind Patisserie iv

Table of Contents
Introduction ........................................................................................1
Chemical Manipulations ........................................................................4
Important chemical changes in Patisserie....................................................... 4
Cooking ............................................................................................................ 4
Chemical changes in Eggs ................................................................................. 11
Gelatinization .................................................................................................. 16
Macaron experiment part 1: A chemical change in the ingredient .................... 20
Spherification: Basic and reverse ................................................................ 23

Spherification Ingredients .................................................................................. 23
Spherification Utensils....................................................................................... 25
Spherification Experiment .................................................................................. 26
Physical Manipulations ........................................................................ 28

Important physical changes in Patisserie...................................................... 28
Changes in the Aspect ...................................................................................... 28
Changes in the Temperature .............................................................................. 30
Manipulation of crystals ..................................................................................... 31
Cream experiment: A change in temperature .............................................. 37
Macarons experiments part 2 ..................................................................... 41
Biological Responses .......................................................................... 44

Introduction to the biological response ........................................................ 44
Response of the Nervous system to the Organoleptic properties ............................. 45
Brownie experiment: How the brain can trick our perception .......................... 49
Conclusion ........................................................................................ 53

Annexes ........................................................................................... 57
The Science Behind Patisserie v

Introduction
In this research report I have focused

on three aspects of the science behind
patisserie; the physical manipulations of
pastries, the chemical processes applied
to the desert, and the different human
responses towards the final product. I
developed my research by creating
experiments based upon theoretical
ideas and information, in order to help
me validate my hypotheses. The
research report has been organized in
the following way: it is divided in
Figure 1: Fraisier
various topics, each having its own
hypothesis and a verification of it, using
both the theoretic as well as the practical information I obtained throughout my
investigations. Furthermore, it is arranged in order of importance: putting the most
important in the end (the biological response) but the most interesting at the beginning (the
science of the chemical and physical manipulations in pastries.) I find the physicochemical
science behind pastries as most interesting because it catches the very fundament in which
pastries are created, explaining each change in a molecular and logical level. This will
intrigue the reader to read further and to discover what kind of science truly lies behind
patisserie. Furthermore, I think that the biological response to pastries is the most
important as the desserts’ purpose is completely based on the reaction of the person who is
going to taste it.
Before anything, I would like to state that I already had much experience on this subject
and used this to my advantage on my research. I did some research on the side, using
professional sources, (such as interviewing scientists, reading published articles, or learning
from pastry books) in order to get ideas to make the experiments I needed and to clarify
The Science Behind Patisserie 1

any doubts I had on the subject. Most of all, I centered my probe upon the experimental
part of the research as it was the most efficient and clear way to truly prove my
hypotheses. In short, I questioned myself about something, thought of a logical answer to
that question, then I looked for information so as to know how to prove my answer, and
finally, I conducted an experiment to validate if what I hypothesized was true.
Some of the experiments consisted in changing a certain aspect or procedure of a pastry

and either having people taste both to see if there was a difference in the organoleptic7
properties when comparing them or by simply observing the different results. If it was the
prior, the people had to fill in a questionnaire about the changes noticed in the pastry. For
example I did an experiment that consisted in changing the temperature at which a certain
ingredient was prepared… After the survey was completed, I consulted physicists, chemists,
biologists, or chefs in order to interpret the results and see if it matched with the
hypotheses.
After thinking for some time, I came up with a hypothesis that needed to be proven and
foremost, to be explored: “the physical and chemical manipulations of the
ingredients affect the organoleptic properties of the dessert.” This made me question
many things about what would happen if a change was made in the pastry and why. For
example, what would happen if a change was made in the physical processes, or
appearance, and how would that affect our perception of the new pastry?
Another doubt I had was about the chemical processes chefs used in order to change the
ingredients and the importance of those procedures, etc. Every single one of those changes
affected the taste, texture, temperature, or any of the organoleptic aspects of the dessert.
Yet, all these doubts put together lead to what I found to be the most important question:
“how does the perception of those modified pastries affect our bodies and
particularly, our nervous system?”
The things I intended to achieve by doing this research report were to be able to prove my
hypotheses and discover new information about the procedures made to make such
incredible pastries. Additionally, I wanted to share the fascinating complexity behind the
making of a dessert with the public. Furthermore, I wished to know more about the human’s
response when eating sweets. However, most importantly, I planned to carry out this
assignment as a valuable experience in the field of patisserie, my favorite hobby.
Throughout my research, I have had the luck to encounter very few problems;
nevertheless, those few problems helped me find out interesting things and deepen my
knowledge in the matter.

The first problem I had faced
was that I found it hard to
interpret the results of my
experiments and to make logical
conclusions to them, as I have
always had difficulty doing so.
However, with the help of people
who knew how to interpret such
results, I managed to come to
many conclusions that happened
to very fascinating.
The other problem I had was

when I tried to achieve Figure 2: Éclairs au chocolat
spherification8; as I didn’t have
the specific ingredients, I had to
order them. This ended up taking longer than expected and I had to freeze my research on
the subject for a while. Other than that, I cannot say I have encountered any other
problems.
Finally, I would like to say that my intention upon making this report was not only to learn
about pastries, but also in order to spread the knowledge of this delicious science to other
people and hope that they will see it as fascinating as I see it.
------
Note: sub-index numbers stand for the word’s corresponding glossary number. (Ex:
organoleptic7)

Chemical Manipulations
Processes, results and importance
Important chemical changes in Patisserie
In the following, I will explain the various and most popular chemical changes there are in
patisserie. Each and every one of the manipulations is vital for the result and acts in a
different way to the ingredient (I will explain the reasons of why they are so important
later). First, there will be the different ways of baking ingredients and batters. Then, I shall
introduce the most important manipulations made with and to eggs, as it is the most
important ingredient in most of the recipes. Afterwards, I will explain the various ways one
can obtain gelification4 as it is a very important process in creams, cold desserts, tarts,
custards and so on… Finally there will be an explanation of the most recent and popular
chemical manipulation in modern gastronomy: spherification.
Cooking
Caramelizing, baking, frying, steaming and

many other processes are essential, if not
obligatory in patisserie. In the following, the
science behind all processes will be explained.
Baking
The most picturesque one is obviously baking,

as when one smells the chocolate cake being
baked in the oven, he can immediately picture
“patisserie.” However, appearances are tricky,
baking things in the oven can actually be very
difficult! Some recipes require that one does
not open the oven until the cake/pastry is
Figure 3: Oven
finished cooking, otherwise it will deflate.

Baking at the oven usually dries the product, so one has to be careful about this too. In
spite of all these inconveniences, it is the most often used method for cooking pastries
because of it being so practical. It is very useful as one can control the temperature, and
even cook bain-marie recipes with it
nowadays!
Depending on how one uses the oven, the

results will vary; one can get a very moist
and yet crunchy result while maybe some
other time a person will forget about the
oven and completely burn the pastry!
The oven is also very tricky as the

pressure plays a very important role on
cakes. Something that happens very
often is that a cake or batter has grown
and been baked perfectly, and when the
oven is opened, it suddenly collapses.
Figure 4: Burned Cakes
This deflation is caused by the change of

pressure so one should be careful. As the oven heats up the pressure changes, therefore,
when we have the baked pastry we have to slowly let out the air come out and be very
careful that the temperature drops slowly. It will always deflate a bit, but not even
comparably as much as when one does not take precaution.
Because of the dryness of the oven, it usually makes the pastry develop a crust even if its
just a slight soft layer. Also, due to the air bubbles expanding because of the heat, it makes
pastries very fluffy, light, and sponge-like. Due to the special way in which the pastry cooks
completely in the oven it usually gives off a product that can be conserved for longer
periods of time too. However, it really all actually comes down to what one is baking, as a
person can also make creams, mousses, puddings, and other various desserts with different
textures...
In addition, one can bake the ingredients in order to dry, soften, cook them or bring out
their flavors. An example for roasting (or drying) an ingredient through the oven is
pistachios or pistachio powder. Because sometimes they have too much water if they are
very fresh and are not suitable for a certain recipe one needs to dry them first.

Roasting is directly related to bringing out
the flavor, as when one dries something in
the oven, it makes the essential oils come
out more and also brings out new flavors!
Such an example would be when one roasts
almonds, or any kind of nuts, in order to
obtain their oil and their new flavor.
What actually happens during the roasting is

something called the Maillard Reaction. Put
simply, the Maillard reaction occurs when
part of the sugar molecules (the aldehyde Figure 5: Roasted Almonds
groups) react with the nitrogen parts of the
protein molecules (in the amino groups). (Fig 6) The resulting series of reactions is not well
understood even by food scientists, but it leads to the brown color and many flavorful
compounds that are yet to be identified. The Maillard reaction also applies to most sugar
and protein containing foods such as brioches, breads, coffee beans, etc.
To conclude I would like to say that the thing which is most sought for when baking
something in the oven is the
characteristic crust that all the
products will obtain after that
process and the new flavors it
will bring.
Steaming
Moving on to another kind of

cooking: I would dare say that
one of the most digestible and
healthy way of cooking food,
more specifically pastries, is
through steaming. It is most
popular in Japan, China, Korea,
Vietnam and some other
countries where steamed foods
are very common on their diet.
However, it can be used in two
ways for pastries: one is
Figure 6: Maillard Reaction
steaming the ingredients before

using them. Usually they will be fruits or vegetables- (yes, vegetables can also be used in
pastries; an example would be sweet potatoes.) The other use would be for cooking a mixed
batter, such as for the Chinese steamed cake where instead of cooking a cake through the
oven it is steamed!
In the pastry business, steaming has been

introduced as a modern and healthier way
of cooking after being inspired by most of
the countries in Eastern Asia. (As a matter
of fact, many French chefs have learned
steaming techniques by going to Japan
and discovering the science behind it…) By
baking something through vapor water, it
makes the product much more moist, and
it affects the texture in a very special way.
Steaming any kind of batter which
contains some kind of starch will lead to a
Figure 7: Steamer naturally gel-like, soft, and mild product.
One must not forget that steaming can be quite tricky, especially when dealing with bread
or something containing any kind of starch or flour in it. Why? Well, because if one over
steams these kinds of mixtures, by, for example, having the fire too high or making the
water evaporate too quickly, it is highly probable that the product will get a very firm and
unpleasant texture.
This is actually caused because it has overheated

the product and hydrated it so much, that when
one takes it away from the steamer, most of the
water of the product will actually evaporate
completely, giving off this dry and hard like
texture. It therefore becomes the opposite of
what one wants to obtain through this process!
That is why, when steaming one must be careful
to let the water boil gently and at the end, take
off the heat but leave the ingredient or dough for
a little while before taking it out off the steamer
and serving.
Steamed Rice Muffin Pastries
Figure 8

Apart from flour or starch containing doughs, one can also obviously over-steam simple
ingredients too, (such as apples, pears, or other kinds of fruits) and turn them too “mushy”
for what was intended. Also, because some flavors and essential oils will evaporate this
might lead to mildness in the product. Usually mildness is the last thing one wants to have
in an ingredient. Nevertheless, after knowing the things one must avoid in steaming, it is
actually quite an easy task to do and it still stays as the healthiest way of cooking
something.
Bain-Marie
Another form of cooking, similar to steaming

but not quite, is Bain-Marie, which can be
literally translated from the French to “Bath-
Mary.” It is actually like a bath, as one must
take a big steaming pot or something of the
kind and fill it with boiling water. On top of
the water, one will place another recipient;
such as a bowl or casserole containing what
needs to be cooked.
This is a very complicated task to do for just

wanting to cook something but it is virtually
essential in some recipes. Chocolate being melted through Bain-Marie
Figure 9
*(This boiling water should actually be barely

boiling or even still, and in a uniform way to
make sure that all the surface of the water
has the same temperature.)
Bain Marie is mostly used for cooking fragile

ingredients or things that burn easily as it
prevents the mixture from escalating in high
temperatures. Even so, the temperature is
sufficient to lightly cook proteins and such;
therefore, it is useful for cooking eggs safely.
This is used to the Chef’s advantage mostly in
egg creams, flans, and cheesecakes or even Entremets prepared in Bain-Marie
for melting chocolate so as not to burn it. ----- Figure 10

Caramelizing
Caramelizing has been used for far

longer than most people think, as it is
a very good way to conserve food. In
Japan, people cooked red beans with
sugar for a long time so that it
caramelized in order to conserve the
beans, even if it was a “salty” food.
Throughout the years, because of this
way of conserving the red beans, japan
has used them for making sweets
rather than for salty dishes. Actually
making marmalade is just another way
of caramelizing as the sugar used to
Figure 11: Caramelized walnuts
make it goes through the process of :
oxidation.
Be it with pectin, sucrose, glucose, fructose or other similar glucids, true caramelization can
work as long as the reaction ends up forming caramelan, caramelen, or caramelin. What are
those compounds? They are the products that come from heating up sugars to a certain
degree. (Fig 12)
Figure 12 : Caramelan Caramelen and Caramelin
First, the individual sugars dimerize (two sugars come together to form one molecule) into a
new form that contains two rings attached by a third central ring (see compound a at Fig 13
in the next page). In the case of fructose, this structure is called a di-D-fructose
Dianhydride. From this point, the chemistry gets a little hand-wavy. The difructose
dianhydride molecules can further react on three different pathways that are the caramelan,
caramelen, and caramelin mentioned before. Let’s not forget that apart from those
compounds many other flavor molecules are released together with dehydration products.

Figure 13: Chemical Process of Caramelization
I've thought for many years, along with most cooks, confectioners, and carbohydrate
chemists that heat melts sugar, and then begins to break it apart and create the delicious
mixture we call caramel. This concept has actually been wrong all along!
It turns out that sugar doesn't actually need to melt before caramelizing. It can actually
caramelize while it's still solid! So proved chemist Shelly Schmidt and her colleagues at the
University of Illinois in studies published a few years ago.
After careful analysis, Professor Schmidt found that whenever sugar gets hot enough to turn
from a solid into a liquid, some of its molecules are also breaking apart at the same time.
Sucrose, for example, has a range of temperatures in which its molecules are energetic
enough to shake loose from their neighbors, and a range in which the molecules break
themselves apart and form new ones. What is very interesting about it is that these two
ranges overlap! Whenever sugar gets hot enough to liquefy, it's also breaking down and
turning into caramel, but it can start to break down even before it starts to liquefy. And the
more that sugar breaks down while it's still solid, the lower the temperature at which it will
liquefy.

Professor Schmidt's group
discovered that when they ramped
up the heat slowly, over the
course of an hour, so that
significant chemical breakdown
takes place before the solid
structure gives way, the sugar
liquefied at a lower temperature.
Sugar breakdown can even occur
at ambient storage temperatures,
though it will take months for the
discoloration and flavor change to
become noticeable.
Figure 14 : Tarte-Tatin In other words, caramelizing
occurs when that chemical break
down takes place. In order for it to actually work best, it is necessary to heat the sugar at a
temperature a little lower as well as a little longer than what people usually think. For, it is
not the melting that caramelizes but rather the oxidation.
Caramelizing usually gives off a crunchy, sweet, and sometimes bitter product. Some
important molecules that are produced during caramelization are the furans (have a nutty
aroma), diacetyl (smells like butter), maltol (toasty), and ethyl acetate (fruity).
Chemical changes in Eggs
Eggs are known to have high protein content; thanks to those proteins, we are able to
manipulate the eggs in order to achieve various creams, mousses, tarts, doughs and other
components for pastries. The egg whites contain 90% water and 10% proteins whilst the
egg yolk contains (approximately) 17% proteins, 31% lipids, and the rest are water,
vitamins, or other kinds of molecules.
Hydrolysis of the egg whites
Proteins in egg whites are the best among all kinds of protein because its amino acid
composition resembles human bodies. (Actually only ten percent of the egg whites’
composition is protein, peptides, or amino acids as the rest of it is only water!)
Furthermore, its application has been limited for its special properties such as heat
instability and high viscosity. The properties of proteins in egg whites can actually be
improved by enzymatic hydrolysis and thus its application could be widened, for example,
the decline of viscosity is beneficial to process fluids and for stirring.

Figure 15:
Egg
What happens during hydrolysis is that the enzymes found in the egg start breaking down
the proteins into smaller molecules, more concretely, peptides, dipeptides, or even amino
acids. These smaller peptide or amino acid groups will give door for more micelles6 to form,
which is great for making meringues.
Egg-white proteins contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acids. When the protein
is curled up, the hydrophobic amino acids are packed in the center away from the water and
the hydrophilic ones are on the outside closer to the water. When an egg protein is up
against an air bubble, part of that protein is exposed to air and part is still in water. The
protein uncurls so that its ‘water-loving’ parts can be immersed in the water and its ‘water-
fearing’ parts can stick into the air. Once the proteins uncurl, they bond with each other just
as they do when heated, creating a network that can hold the air bubbles in place. (Fig 16)
Hydrophobic amino acid Hydrophilic amino acid
Figure 16 : Egg Protein Coagulation Process
When you heat these captured air bubbles, they expand as the gas inside them heats up.
Treated properly, the network surrounding bubbles solidifies in the heat, and the structure
doesn’t collapse when the bubbles burst. However, in comparison with original protein, the
hydrolysate is more digestible due to its low molecular weight, its biological utilization rate
is increased, its allergy is decreased, and it may have potential biological functions too!

In Patisserie, all those functions after
hydrolysis make up for a win-win
situation because the customer gets a
more digestible food and the chef has a
much better state of ingredient to
manipulate. This breaking of the proteins
interests patisserie for the making of
meringues, more liquid batters or other
interesting uses. It is led by natural
hydrolysis of the enzymes found in the
egg white. By breaking the eggshell, the
enzymes are submitted to the
Figure 17: Meringuettes
environment that usually makes them
start breaking the proteins.
Normally, one has to separate the whites from the yolk and let them in the fridge for 1-4
days depending on the freshness of the egg and the coolness of the fridge. Before using it,
in order to achieve complete hydrolysis and the best result possible, one has to take it out
of the fridge one hour before so it comes down to room temperature. This creates a more
liquid and digestible state for the egg whites. Also, it is sometimes essential for the
ingredients mixed together to be at the same temperature, or it could change the batter’s
consistency.
As it becomes more liquid it is a sign that the proteins have either broken down into smaller
peptides or uncurled, therefore it becomes easier and faster to incorporate air due to the
increase in opportunity to create micelles. However, most importantly, by hydrolyzing the
egg whites through enzymatic action, smaller air bubbles can be created. The smaller the
bubble is, the less likely it is to break during the mixing and cooking processes. Therefore
we obtain the same air inside as if it were not hydrolyzed, but with much bigger stability
and uniformity. Thanks to the size and quantity of those air bubbles, any meringue-based
pastry will increase incredibly in volume when put in the oven as the air expands.
French, Italian, and Suisse meringue
The making of meringue is a very tricky subject in patisserie, due to a quantity of factors
that can make it go wrong. What is actually sought for when making meringue, is adding
the most air possible into the mixture so it can be airy and smooth. This is achieved through
the formation of air micelles by the peptides in the eggs. The temperature is a very
important factor for example; on one side higher temperatures make it easier to make a
French meringue because it helps coagulate, but on the other it will cause the meringue to

be more fragile as the micelles become less stable. In the making of an Italian meringue
one is actually playing with the temperatures in order to cook the meringue in a way that it
becomes very smooth, stable, and can stay moist even after putting it in the oven. Finally,
in the Suisse meringue, one searches to slowly cook the egg whites for a very long time so
that it creates this very sturdy, also smooth, yet easily dried meringue! I will now attempt
to explain what all those kinds of meringues mentioned before are, and how exactly they
are made.
The way of making a French meringue is a very old but reliable technique. It basically
consists on beating the egg whites while adding sugar from time to time until it becomes
fluffy, consistent, and smooth. Nevertheless, it can still be tricky, because if too much sugar
is added, it will become more liquid and much less airy then it should be. This is because,
by dissolving, the sugars are taking up the hydrogen bonds in the water and consequently
lowering the surface tension. A decrease in the surface tension of the water will impair the
formation of the air micelles in the egg whites. The sugar will will, however, make the
mixture denser and bring more consistency to it. This means that if the sugar is not added
at the right moment it may cause the meringue to be either too airy or too liquid and
usually not sturdy enough.
On the other hand, Swiss meringue

is prepared by gently beating egg
whites and sugar in a pan that sits
above boiling water, (the before-
mentioned Bain-Marie) without
touching it. When the mixture
reaches 50-55 ºC and the sugar is
completely dissolved, the mixture is
pulled off the heat and beaten
vigorously to increase and attain full
volume and then at a lower speed
until cool and very stiff. Because of
this, one can use fresh and non-
Figure 18: Suisse Meringue hydrolyzed egg whites to make the
Suisse meringue because the
hydrolysis will take place during the bain-marie. This meringue tends to be drier as the
bain-marie makes the mixture more concentrated and rich; also the air bubbles end up
being much smaller then the ones created with French meringue due to the temperature at
which it is worked with… Swiss meringue is smoother, silkier, and somewhat denser than
French meringue and is often used as a base for buttercream frostings or cookie-like
pastries.

The last one, Italian meringue, is the most difficult one to prepare but probably the best in
texture among all the meringues as it is very airy, smooth, moist, and resistant! Most
patissiers use the Italian meringue, as it is the most reliable one to work with after it is
made. It is very tricky to prepare because it is cooked by adding very hot sugar syrup to the
half beaten egg whites very carefully while continuing to beat the mixture. (Fig 19) Usually
it is done with an electronic metal beater because otherwise one could easily burn their
hands with the bowl if done by hand. (It is important that the bowl is made out of metal so
that it keeps the heat in order to cook the egg whites.)
The hot sugar syrup at around 110

to 115 degrees Celsius will add the
sweetness and the heat necessary
in order for the meringue to result
in a smooth, creamy, and airy
consistency. The heat will very
quickly hydrolyze the egg whites’
proteins and will also cook the
eggs; therefore, it will create a
much more digestible meringue
then that of the French one and a
much more airy one then that of
Sugar syrup being added to half beaten egg whites
the Swiss. This type of meringue is
Figure 19
used for applying directly to some
tarts, decoration, full-proof airy cakes or macarons, creams, and mousses. Unlike the
French meringue, the Italian one is very sturdy, will be more easily manipulated and will be
very pleasant to work with. All three meringues actually hydrolyze the egg white proteins in
one way or another in order to create air micelles, which are what makes a meringue’s
texture and form possible!
Egg Yolks
The egg yolks have many different types of molecules in them such as vitamins, proteins,
lipoproteins, fats, and many more that help in various processes. They are usually used in
creams since they serve as a natural gelling agent that helps with the mixture’s sturdiness
and texture. They also help form emulsions, as they contain proteins with both hydrophilic
and hydrophobic amino acids. The amino acids in the proteins as well as the loose ones will
facilitate the formation of micelles. When mixing egg proteins thoroughly with oil and water
one part of the protein will stick to the water and another part will adhere to the lipids.

Lecithin is another important emulsifier found in egg yolks. Being a phospholipid, it is a
fatlike molecule with a ‘water-loving head’ (as can be seen at the right in Fig 20 below) and
a long, ‘water-fearing tail’ (as can be seen at the left.) The tail gets buried in the fat
droplets, and its head sticks out of the droplet surface into the surrounding water. This
establishes a barrier that prevents the surface of the fat droplet from coming into contact
with the surface of another fat droplet.
Figure 20 : Lecithin
Egg yolks are also used for coloring creams as they give off these golden-orange hues that
are perfect for improving the aspect of many deserts, such as for the curd in lemon tarts.
This color actually comes from the β-Carotene (a pro-vitamin) found in the yolk.
Furthermore, they are used as enhancers for lifting cakes or doughs during the baking
process because they too can form tiny air micelles, which expand with the heat.
Gelatinization
A gel is a mixture of solid particles suspended in a

liquid. The solid particles in the gel can absorb
water, causing the gel to swell and increase in
volume. Gelatinization4 is one of the most
important processes when making pastries. That
is why, I will now explain the basics of
Gelatinization and with what kind of ingredients it
can be achieved.
Eggs in gelatinization
Talking about eggs, as mentioned before, they can Figure 21: Egg Flan
serve as natural gelling agents when heated in
creams, but how does this work exactly? When one applies heat, one agitates the placidly
drifting egg proteins, bouncing them around. They slam into the surrounding water
molecules. All this bashing about breaks the weak bonds that kept the protein curled up.

The egg proteins uncurl and bump into other proteins that have also uncurled. New
chemical bonds form—but rather than binding the protein to itself, these bonds connect one
protein to another. After enough of this bashing and bonding, the solitary egg proteins form
a network of interconnected proteins. The water in which the proteins once floated is
captured and held in the protein web. If one leaves the eggs at a high temperature for too
long, many bonds will form and the eggs will become rubbery, or better said, jellified. This
is why many recipes such as creams, flans, or similar pastries use eggs as one of the main
ingredients.
Starches in gelatinization
Most people use cornstarch, wheat flour or other kinds of flours to densify creams or to
bake cakes, because: it is quick, mostly tasteless, and it brings consistency to the mix. All
those different grinds have some things in common: they derive from plants and they all
have a form of starch. For example, cornstarch is made up of many molecules of glucose,
specifically amylopectin and amylase that the corn plants produce in granules so they can
store up energy. When starch is heated with water, the granules swell and burst, causing
them to break down and release the glucose molecules into the water. (Fig 22) This process
is known as gelatinization.
When the heated water solution and cornstarch cools down, the amylase molecules can bind
to each other again and create a molecular mesh. The more amylase molecules present, the
firmer, or more viscous, the mesh will become. After heating, a solution with more starch
will turn out to be firmer as well as stickier. Because it is more viscous, a solution with a
higher percentage of starch will spread out much less than one with a lower percentage,
once cooled. This is why, cooling down any cream or gel is important after baking the
starch, as it will finalize the process. Different gels can be made using different starches
because their consistencies vary with the proportions of amylase and amylopectin that
comprise them.
Cornstarch granules being heated

(before, during and after heating from left to right)
Figure 22

Spherification
What is “Basic Spherification?” What is “Reverse Spherification?” Well, as the word may
imply, it is a process that turns something into a sphere through a certain gelatinization.
However, it is much more complicated then it may look like, especially when that particular
sphere has to be delicious, sweet and literally bursting in flavor!
Basically, in order to make spherification, one needs a ‘bath’ made mostly out of water, and
an ingredient or fluid that has to be put into that bath. The thing is, either one of the two
components needs to have a 5% sodium alginate content while the other needs to have its
equal reactant, in which calcium chloride is usually used. As the ingredient is put directly
into the bath, the sodium alginate reacts with the calcium chloride (or any similar reactant
containing calcium) and forms a special network of calcium alginate strings, which will
actually form the gel layer. (Fig 23) The longer the ingredient is put into the bath, the
thicker the gel layer will be
Figure 23: Sodium alginate and Calcium chloride reaction
Basic spherification implies the formation of very

tiny gel-like spheres that have a similar texture to
that of caviar, which is why it is sometimes called
“caviar” itself. (Fig 23) It is normally served
together with another dish or as a decoration in a
desert, (if the “caviar” is sweet). In basic
spherification, the sodium alginate is mixed
together with the liquid that one desires to spherify
and the calcium chloride is added into a bath of
water. This will allow the previously mentioned
Basic Spherification
liquid to form a gel when it will come in contact with Figure 23
the calcium chloride bath. Finally, one must pour

the liquid with a syringe (droplet by droplet) into the bath so it creates mini liquid spheres
that will form a thin gel layer after reacting with the solution. After the spheres are formed,
they will be strained and rinsed so they can be ready to serve.
Reverse spherification consists of a greater amount of

fluid inside of a bigger sphere, and it is usually served
as a unit or as the dish itself. (Fig 24) It is called
reverse because, instead of having the sodium
alginate in the edible liquid, it has the calcium
reactant. Also, instead of having the calcium reactant
in a water bath it has the sodium alginate in a distilled
water bath. The bath has to have distilled water
because the small calcium ions found in mineral water
might react with the sodium alginate causing the bath Reverse Spherification
itself to jellify and thus interfering with the other Figure 24
reaction.
Gelatin
Using gelatin is the quickest and easiest way to jellify something, however it is not the most
recommended one because the texture of the jellified mix tends to become too dense or
wobbly to work with, if used in excess. Nevertheless, it is one of the most reliable methods
to keep creams, mousses, or such components sturdy enough for making complicated
desserts. Gelatin is actually a form of partially hydrolyzed collagen molecules, or more
concretely, a mixture of peptides or proteins that will dissolve at warm temperatures. It can
come from animal by-products or from plants. When these collagen by-products are
dissolved into a solution, they will tend to create a web-like structure together with the
molecules found in the mix when cooled down. (Similar to how the jellifying of the eggs
work.) There is one thing that people need to be aware of when using gelatin: sometimes,
hydrolytic enzymes can be found in various ingredients and more commonly in fresh fruit.
Those enzymes will stop the proteins and peptides from forming a structure by breaking
them, preventing the jellification4 to take place. This will ruin the whole purpose of the
gelatin’s use.
Figure 25: Jelly Fruit Dessert

Macaron experiment part 1: A chemical change
in the ingredient
For this experiment I centered on a chemical process and a physical process that had to be
made to two ingredients in the general macaron recipe. A macaron is a very popular French
pastry characterized by its “crown,” it contains all the textures of a cake in a “simple,” coin
sized meringue delicacy. Apparently, there are two steps that are vital if one wishes to
achieve the pastry successfully; making a physical and a chemical change in two of the
main ingredients. In order to test out the “old sayings” and “grandmother tips” given for
this recipe and truly understand their importance, I decided to ignore them, and see if it
would turn out wrong! I later on compared the results with the original macarons who
indeed had undergone those two procedures and observe the organoleptic differences that
appeared.
For the part concerning the chemical

manipulation of an ingredient, I decided
to try out what would happen if I did not
hydrolyze the egg whites before making
the meringue as the recipe informed to
do. The first thing I noticed was that it
was much, much, MUCH harder to obtain
the meringue! I had to beat the egg
whites for 20 minutes, compared to when
they are hydrolyzed and it only lasts 10
minutes maximum… I noticed that the
bubbles were larger and it had more of a
sea foam texture than that of a creamy
one. The lack of hydrolysis makes the
Figure 26: Successful macarons
creation of the air bubbles be affected in
a certain way (which I previously
explained in Chemical Manipulations). So in difference to the other normal meringue
procedure, the only thing I did not do was to let the egg whites sit for 24 hours or so before
using them. Amazingly, the result was already starting to be different in barely the first
step.

Afterwards, I had to add the tant-
pour-tant9 and start the
macaronage5, at this state, I could
see that the meringue was much
more fragile, less stable, and less
dense. Because of this, I was
obliged to mix it less; otherwise
the batter would be too runny if I
kept on. However, I succeeded in
having an almost perfect texture
for the macarons batter in the
end, so then I became to wonder if
it was truly going to affect the Difference between successful and cracked macarons
result… I piped the little pastries Figure 27
and let them sit for 25 minutes as
the recipe indicated. I finally put them in the oven and waited for the twelve minutes to
pass.
I was immediately baffled by the complexity of baking macarons as I saw that they had all
cracked, and none had the special “crown” they should have around the bottom. Instead,
after I took them out of the oven and let them cool, I found out they were completely
hollow inside. Just as if one had mixed water with soap, created bubbles, and with time all
the bubbles disappeared. (Fig 28)
Figure 28: Macarons made without having the egg white hydrolyzed

As for the organoleptic properties… the taste was the same as normal macarons, but the
texture was too crisp, and it actually felt more like a butter cookie then an actual macaron. I
could not feel any of the softness inside the macarons, as it was hollow, of course. Also,
physically, the appearance was different and did not look like a macaron.
I have then confirmed that by changing only a slight chemical procedure in one of the
ingredients, the final result will change considerably.
Finally, I made the normal recipe, following the instructions, including the hydrolysis of the
egg white and the pulverization of the sugar. To my expectations, everything was all right,
the aspect, texture, consistency, etc. of the batter seemed ok, the sugar had dissolved, and
the meringue was perfect. I piped those too, waited 25 minutes, and let them cook in the
oven for 12 minutes just like the others. The result was as I expected: normal, beautiful-
looking French macarons.
After doing this experiment, I have proved that by changing the chemical procedures in
certain ingredients, it directly affects the final result. Also I have demonstrated, that those
chemical procedures are essential for the success of the recipe and have also explained why
they are necessary.
Figure 29: Successful macarons, at last

Spherification: Basic and reverse
To research more upon the before mentioned spherification, I decided to make an

experiment and try to spherify certain liquids myself; for this, I needed particular
ingredients and utensils (which will be listed below) in order for it to be successful.
Spherification Ingredients
There are a few ingredients necessary for Basic Spherification and Reverse Spherification
but there are only two that are essential and absolutely required to start the spherification
process: sodium alginate and some calcium element. The calcium element can be found
naturally in dairy products or other similar foods, so depending on what is it that one is
spherifying and if it is reverse or basic, one may or may not need to add some extra calcium
chloride.
Sodium Alginate: It
is a natural product
extracted from brown
seaweed that grows in
cold-water regions.
(Fig 30) It is soluble
in cold and hot water
with strong agitation
and can thicken and
bind. In presence of
calcium it forms a gel
without the need of Figure 30: Sodium Alginate, from seeds to powder
heat. Sodium Alginate
is used in the food
industry to increase viscosity and as an emulsifier. What is great about this product is that it
has no discernable flavor; therefore it can easily be used when making desserts that need
this particular gelification process.

Calcium Chloride: (Fig 31) It is used to
make the calcium bath for Basic
Spherification. This is used mostly with
Basic Spherification because its saltiness
does not affect the main ingredient taste as
it is only used for the bath. Calcium chloride
is a calcium salt traditionally used in the
food industry to make cheese and it is also
used in many other applications as pickling
agent, firming agent, flavor enhancer,
stabilizer, etc. It is very soluble in water and Figure 31: Calcium Chloride
it must be kept in tightly sealed containers.
Calcium Lactate: It is used to increase the calcium content of the main ingredient in
Reverse Spherification. It provides a less bitter taste than calcium chloride when added to
the main ingredient and it can also dissolve in fats as it is a amphipathic1 product. It is often
added to sugar-free foods to prevent tooth decay and to fresh cut fruit to keep it firm and
extend shelf life.
Calcium Lactate Gluconate: It is an ideal product for increasing the calcium content of
the main ingredient in Reverse Spherification. The main ingredient consistency and flavor is
not altered by the addition of calcium lactate gluconate as it has no discernable flavor and
dissolves in cold liquid without altering its density. It is versatile as it can be used in liquids
with high acid, alcohol or fat contents. To avoid difficulties in dissolving, one must add the
calcium lactate gluconate before any other powder product.
Sodium Citrate: It can be used to reduce the acidity of the main ingredient when doing
Basic Spherification. The Basic Spherification process does not work if the main ingredient is
too acidic (pH<3.6). Sodium citrate has a sour taste as well as having a salty taste so one
should use it in moderation when adding it to the main ingredient in order not to alter its
taste too much.
Xanthan: It is used to thicken the main ingredient in Reverse Spherification. When the
main ingredient density is too liquid to form spheres in the alginate bath, a thickener like
Xanthan is used. It is obtained from the fermentation of cornstarch with Xanthomonas
campestris bacteria (found in cabbage). It is gluten free and can be used as a substitute for
gluten in baking (used along with non-gluten containing flours). It is soluble in hot or cold
water, stable over a range of pH or temperatures, it can thicken items with high alcohol
content, and it is compatible with systems containing high concentrations of salt.

Spherification Utensils
There are several utensils that are almost if not vital to make a proper and well-done
spherification. Here are the most vital tools known in spherification.
Dosing spoons: It is used to pour the main

ingredient into the bath to form the sphere.
A set of measuring spoons with spherical
shape is recommended since they
conveniently come in different sizes and one
can manipulate the type of sphere that is
wished. This is essential mostly in order to
obtain the shape of the sphere. (Fig 32)
Scale with 0.1g precision: Most of the

recipes require very low amounts of
“molecular” ingredients, usually fractions of a Figure 32: Dosing Spoons
gram. To be successful with spherification it

is important to be precise and use a scale with such precision. This is probably the most
essential piece of equipment you need even though there are charts out there to convert
the molecular gastronomy chemicals’ weight to volume so you can use a measuring spoon
instead but this is not very precise. The density of the ingredient is very sensitive to packing
of the powders and it can also vary by brand. Unfortunately for me, as I do not own such a
scale, I will have to use the latter method.
Immersion blender: It is used in order to

dissolve the sodium alginate that only
dissolves with strong agitation. It is also used
in several recipes to prepare the main
ingredient and mix the xanthan gum.
pH Indicator Paper: It is used for measuring

the acidity (pH) level of the main ingredient
when doing Basic Spherification; (as it
doesn't work if the pH level is below 3.6.)
Figure 33: Caviar Maker
A Syringe or a caviar maker: It is used for
creating “caviar;” that is to say, very tiny
spheres which are produced in large quantities and are used as “toppings” (in the case of
them being sweet) on various desserts. Just a regular syringe without the needle is needed;
otherwise there are special caviar makers to go faster. (Fig 33)

Appetizer spoons: Some of the spheres are
very delicate to be handled by hand or with
spoons by the diners so they have to be placed
carefully on appetizer spoons to be served. This
is particularly necessary with basic spherification
spheres due to their more delicate membrane.
(Fig 34)
Spherification Experiment
The main goal of the experiment consisted on Figure 34: Appetizer Spoons
directly observing the chemical reactions that
take place during basic and reverse spherification. First of all, I made sure to have all the
material necessary in order to make a successful spherification. As the sodium alginate,
calcium chloride and distilled water were not in my possession, I had to order them at a
pharmacy… Unfortunately, the sodium alginate was out of stock, causing my research on
spherification to be delayed for a month! Once I had all the ingredients in hand I could
finally carry on with the spherification.
Basic Spherification
I started by making basic spherification by preparing a mineral water bath with a 5%

concentration of calcium chloride mixing it thoroughly with a blender and pouring it into a
bowl. Then I made a strawberry juice with a 5% concentration of sodium alginate and also
used the blender so it would be well combined. After that, I took a syringe, gathering some
of the strawberry mixture with it, and poured it droplet by droplet into the calcium chloride
bath. As I poured the strawberry droplets into the bath, right after submerging them, I
noticed some bubbles starting forming around the mini spheres. After five minutes, I took
the “caviar” out of the bath and rinsed them with water. To my good surprise, everything
went all right and the gel had formed just as I had planned. However, I found out that the
small spheres were very fragile as they could break upon contact if not handled with care.
Figure 35: Basic Spherification Process

This was probably due to the fact that I hadn’t let
them so much time to gelatinize in the bath, so I tried
to make a second batch with a longer duration. After
10 minutes, I took the mini spheres out and noticed
that they were much less fragile but they still had
liquid in them so they could “pop” when tasted. (Fig
36) With this, I confirmed that the chemical reaction
occurred only when the spheres were in contact with
the calcium chloride bath and stopped when they
were taken off of it. Strawberry juice “caviar”
Figure 36
Reverse Spherification
For the reverse spherification, I used a passion fruit juice in which I added cream in order to
add some calcium content into the mix. After preparing the juice, I made a 5% sodium
alginate bath, specifically with distilled water so the sodium alginate wouldn’t react with any
minerals found in everyday water. Once the bath was ready and the material was in place, I
used a dosing spoon to carry the juice in a spheric fashion, carefully placing it into the bath.
Figure 37: Basic Spherification

Sphe
erification Process
As the medium sized spheres started to form I

noticed tiny air bubbles gather around it, showing
that a chemical reaction was indeed taking place.
After 10 minutes, I took the spheres out very
carefully and placed them in plate, ready to be
inspected. Fortunately as I had planned, the
sphere’s outermost layer had now turned into a gel,
which permitted to enclose the liquid inside quite
well. The appearance of the spheres was almost
Figure 38: Reverse Spherification exactly the same as an egg yolk; indeed, it is a truly
taking place modern and curious way of serving food.

Physical Manipulations
Processes, results and importance
Important physical changes in Patisserie
The physical manipulations applied to ingredients, pastries, and mixes end up being
responsible for the texture, aspect, and some of the organoleptic properties of the finished
product. In this section, the science behind the most important and common physical
procedures or changes will be explained.
Changes in the Aspect
A very common physical change in pastries is the change in aspect; be it through the color,
shine, texture, or even arrangement of the pastry itself. In restaurants, chefs pay close
attention to how the desserts are arranged. Sometimes the pastry is rearranged in a way
that the cream is on one side of the plate whilst the chocolate is in the other. The dessert
might even actually be scattered around, changing the organoleptic properties of it, as
everything is tasted separately
instead of together as found in the
traditional pastries. The chefs might
also play with the colors, making the
desserts more, let’s say, “appeasing”
or “passionate” depending on the
intensity of their hues.
Change in Color
Color actually may even enhance the

taste or at least, the person’s
perception of it through visual
stimulation. For example, if a dessert Macarons of different colors and flavors
is red or pink, one might expect Figure 39

strawberry, rose, or similar colored ingredients. The anticipation of the taste through the
aspect can be either used as a taste intensifier, or, as found in modern gastronomy, as a
great element of surprise. For instance, a chef could decide to taint a pastry green, making
one think of green tea, mint or pistachios, when actually the real flavor might be vanilla,
white chocolate, lemon or any other taste that has not much to do with green. This will
cause a great element of surprise and therefore add intensity to the taste when first eaten.
In addition, there are many natural pigments that can literally enhance the taste itself, such
as the green colorant extracted from the pandan leaf. (Pandan is a plant that contains
natural aromatic enhancers for ingredients such as vanilla or rice.) This is why the physical
change of manipulating the colors of a dessert is so important and common when making
pastries.
Change in Gleam
Apart from the changes in color,

the shimmer also plays a very
important part in influencing the
organoleptic experience of the
taster. Something that shines more
will give off an impression of
freshness and richness; while
something dull might make the
viewer think of the dessert as plain
or less attractive. Shimmer can be
achieved in various ways
depending on the ingredients; for
ingredients containing or forming
crystals, the chefs will try to
manipulate the structure to make
them shinier. (For other products, Figure 40: Shiny strawberry cheesecake
because the shine is so important,

one might even use sugar or egg coating that consists in adding luster by adding thin layers
of homogeneously spread shiny ingredients. Glazing is very commonly used in fruits, nuts or
any parts used in pastry surfaces and decoration, as it is what will first attract the viewer. )
Most of the times, chefs will aim to manipulate the ingredients physically by pulverizing,
heating or mixing to change the size and arrangement of the polymorphs found in such
mixes. It is one of the most important physical processes as the appearance of a pastry
plays a very important role in enhancing or decreasing the perception of the organoleptic
properties in a dessert.

Changes in the Temperature
Another very important change that affects

the pastries physically is the variation in
temperature. The organoleptic qualities
concerning the texture, taste, and of course,
the temperature of the dessert will vary
immensely weather the dessert itself is hot,
warm, cold, freezing or at the ambient heat.
For example, ice cream at a warm
temperature is actually a crème anglaise2;
even though the composition stays the
same, the texture varies and so does the Strawberry mousse at solid state
taste with it. Warmer conditions favor an Figure 41
enhancement in the taste, aroma, and

silkiness while coolness promotes texture, freshness and dimness in the taste.
Chefs tend to mix cool creams or mixes along with warm one so that there is a greater
contrast in the organoleptic features of the whole dessert when tasted. The temperature will
also play a great part in the formation of micelles, as mentioned earlier, so by applying one
physical change, it will open room for many more.
In modern gastronomy, there are various

ways to affect the temperature physically
without affecting the chemical composition
of the dessert. Some chefs use liquid
nitrogen to cool down desserts immediately
for a short amount of time so that a usually
liquid mixture will turn out solid just before
being tasted. Modern gastronomy has gone
so far that now, it is even possible to
prepare a dessert in a vapor state! (Fig 42)
What chefs do is that they extract the aroma Vapor sweet strawberry and vanilla dessert
and aromatic compounds of the said dessert Figure 42
and concentrate them in a liquid. This liquid

can either be vaporized or served as such. Another way to do it is by drying the
concentrated solution carefully so it does not lose any of its aromas and pulverize it so
thinly that it becomes volatile. These volatile compounds will be able to be mixed with either
liquid nitrogen to be served as cool or with water vapor to be served as warm and moist.
The state of the dessert will therefore play a very important role in the organoleptic
properties of the dessert.

Manipulation of crystals
The most difficult but important physical manipulation there in in pastry is to control the
amount and size of crystals that certain ingredients or mixes may form in order to influence
the aspect and texture directly. The following will be about the most commonly used
ingredients or desserts in which crystal manipulation is made.
Ice-Cream
Icecream is one of the most

requested desserts known in pastry
as it has an incredible taste, texture,
temperature and aspect. Although
many factors influence the texture of
ice cream, it is generally understood
that smooth ice cream requires the
majority of ice crystals to be smaller
than about 50 µm in size. Ice
crystals larger than 40 µm to 55 µm
result in coarse or grainy texture if
present in sufficient number.
So, how is ice cream with many

Figure 43: Ice-cream
small ice crystals made? Total solids
content, fat content, sugar content,
air bubbles, residence time, and hardening time all play and important role in forming small
ice crystals and, in turn, a smooth and creamy texture. (See Fig 44 in the next page) An
increase in the total solids (TS) (the percentage of milk fat, non-fat milk solids, sugar and
egg solids) level will decrease the amount of water in the mix, thereby reducing the total
amount of ice that can form. However, a total solid percentage over about 47% will result in
a heavy, chewy ice cream.
The fat content can also influence the size of the ice crystals as fat globules could
mechanically impede the ice crystal growth. It is important to keep the milkfat percentage
high in ice cream in order to develop a smooth and creamy texture. Sugar also influences
the size of the crystals, because in ice cream, higher sucrose content produces smaller ice
crystals and an increase in sugar content from 12 to 18% decreases ice crystal size by
about 25%.
Air bubbles also play a major roll in ice cream… When an ice cream mix is frozen in an ice
cream maker, air bubbles are whipped into the mix. A low overrun (a small amount of air

whipped into the ice cream mix in the ice cream maker) induces the formation of coarser ice
crystals in ice cream compared with the same formulation made at higher overrun. This is
because air cells may provide a physical impediment to ice crystallization during freezing.
So, whipping more air into an ice cream mix appears to result in the formation of smaller ice
crystals.
Above all, residence time (the amount

of time an ice cream mix spends in the
ice cream maker) was found to have
the most pronounced effect on mean
ice crystal. As C. Clarke, 2004, proved
through his experiments: the total
number of ice crystals depends mostly
on the residence time. Short residence
times produce many crystals with a
small mean size, whereas long
residence times and high rotation
speeds result in fewer, larger crystals.
To obtain small ice crystals, it is
necessary to have the shortest
Ice-cream’s general composition residence time possible so as to
Figure 44
minimize the amount of ripening that
occurs within the freezer barrel itself.
As for the temperature, in order to achieve small initial ice crystals, the ice cream mix must
be rapidly frozen in a freezer, after it has been churned in the ice cream maker, to promote
nuclei formation and minimize ice crystal growth. Temperatures as low as -30°C are used in
order to promote rapid nucleation in the freezer! Several ideas involving liquid nitrogen
have also been developed to promote rapid nuclei formation. When ice cream is removed
from the ice cream maker, it must be immediately hardened in a freezer. The longer the ice
cream spends at room temperature once it has been churned in the ice cream maker, the
more ice will melt and the larger the ice crystals will be. The temperature and rate of
hardening determine the final ice crystal size and the physical sensory properties of the
product. Time to accomplish hardening has been assumed to be the time for the
temperature at the center of the package to drop to -18°C or lower, preferably -25 to -
30°C.
All these things are the reasons why one has to keep in mind so many things while trying to
manipulate the crystal formations in ice cream and why it is so difficult to achieve the right
consistency when making that particular dessert.

Sugar
Making sugar crystals is one of the best ways to observe crystallization because it is
relatively easy to do and there are fast results. There are several different parts to the
crystal-making process, and there are also two different ways that the crystals can be
formed, as there is a faster way and a slower way. Though they are the same, the faster
way simulates what happens in the slow way in a much quicker manner.
The basic principle behind

growing sugar crystals is to
saturate the water with sugar to
the point where the water can no
longer contain all of the sugar
molecules. When this happens, if
given the right conditions, the
sugar will creep out of the water,
forming crystals. This can either
happen through over-saturation
or through evaporation.
When a liquid is hot, it can

contain more molecules than
when it is cold. This is because
Figure 45: Sugar crystals on a string
when the molecules are heated,
they move around more, making
room for more molecules. When the molecules freeze, they slow down and expand, making
less room inside a solution for foreign materials. When making a sugar solution designed to
make crystals, completely saturate hot water with sugar until no more can dissolve. This
makes it possible for the crystals to grow when the water cools.
Even when a water solution has been saturated with sugar, it still takes time for crystals to
form. Usually it takes about three weeks to get a good number of crystals. When using the
evaporation method of making crystals, it can take even longer than that. The evaporation
method of making crystals is the same way that mineral crystals are formed in nature. The
water slowly evaporates over time and the mineral, or in this case sugar, deposits are left in
a crystal formation. Usually when growing sugar crystals one needs to give the crystals
something on which to form. This is generally a string suspended above and through the
sugar solution. The reason that it is necessary to have the string is so that the crystals form
faster and in a way that makes them easier to view. The string acts like a guide for where
the crystals should form.

Chocolate
“Life is like a box of chocolates,

you never know what you're
gonna get.” Or so said Winston
Groom, the author of the
famous novel, Forest Gump…
Actually, you really never know
what you’re going to get with
chocolate, as it comes in many
forms and sizes, even at the
molecular level; but what is
chocolate exactly? Many know it
as a delicious, crispy, shiny,
Difference between non-tempered chocolate (left)
sweet, yet sometimes bitter
and tempered chocolate (right)
treat that can bring happiness Figure 46
at times of grief. As it turns
out, chocolate’s structure is similar to a very complicated yet well-made network of
molecules that can form into tiny crystals when correctly manipulated.
1,3-Distearoyl-2-oleoylglycerol
Figure 47
Chocolate gets its shimmer and crunchy

texture from the crystalized form of a
triglyceride11 called 1,3-Distearoyl-2-
oleoylglycerol. (Fig 47) These triglycerides
can actually arrange themselves in many
forms depending on the temperature and
the way they are cooled down. There are
currently six different types of structures Types of chocolate crystal formations
Figure 49
known to food chemists in which those
polymorphs can arrange themselves. (Fig 49)

What most chocolatiers look for when working with chocolate is the β (V) crystalized
structure due to the fact that it is a much more solid organization of the triglycerides. (Fig
48) It will give a great shine to the chocolate, and its melting point (34 ºC) almost exactly
coincides to that of a human’s body temperature. The other structures will either make the
chocolate melt even before one tries to eat it and will lose its shine or be a bit too resistant
to the heat, which will not be quite pleasing to the client.
Figure 48: Formation of the β (V) structure with triglycerides
If one heats and cools chocolate without controlling the temperature, the crystallization of
cocoa butter will result in crystals of different sizes (bad crystals) forming, and the
chocolate will bloom – that is to say it will appear matt and covered with white patches. So
in order to achieve the right uniform crystalline structure, a chocolatier has to temper the
chocolate, that is to say, manipulate the melting and cooling of the chocolate in a slow
fashion so that it gives it time for the triglycerides to form the right crystalized pattern. The
easiest but priciest way of tempering10 chocolate is to buy a tempering machine. This heats
up the chocolate very, very slowly then cools it down equally slowly, leaving the finished
chocolate silky smooth.

If one does not have such a machine, the chocolate needs to be melted by bain-marie,
allowing it to melt very slowly. Afterwards, there can be two options: either one adds
chopped pieces of an already tempered chocolate so as if to create a crystal “seed,” or,
actually cause the crystallization by manipulating the heat oneself. The “seed” concept relies
on mixing the right crystalized form of the chocolate (the seed) into the other un- tempered
chocolate, in order for the right crystal pattern to expand and convert all the structures to
the Beta V one. (Fig 49)
Difference in structure between an un-tempered chocolate and a tempered one

Figure 49
The other option is more complicated, as

one has to bring the (dark) chocolate to
46ºC with the bain-marie, then cool it to
27ºC with the help of a marble board and a
metal spatula, and then reheating it again
with the bain-marie to 32 ºC in order for the
right crystals to form. Depending on
weather it is dark, milk, white, or other
kinds of chocolates the temperatures will
vary. This technique actually takes years to
perfect even with the help of the
thermometer; this is why making chocolate
is the most difficult thing to do in patisserie. Tempered Shiny Chocolates
Figure 50

Cream experiment: A change in temperature
In this experiment I tested out different physical manipulations on an ingredient and

observed if the results would be different for each change made. The modifications I made
were in the temperature; (not to an excess because otherwise it would alter the chemical
properties of the ingredient). The ingredient I used was (as one may guess by the image)
whipping cream. The experiment consisted in taking three equal portions of the exact same
whipping cream, and having each of them reach a different temperature before whipping it.
As I mentioned before, if the change in temperature was too extreme, it would affect the
ingredient chemically, therefore I used a special thermometer to be sure nothing went
wrong. The first bowl had a cold whipped cream (A) at 6ºC, the second bowl had a room
temperature whipped cream (B) at 26ºC, and the third had a warm whipped cream at 40ºC.
Whipping cream, apart from making this fabulous, smooth, airy, and soft cream we all know
so well, has actually many secrets; and one of them is that it has to have a 30%-40% fat in
order to be turned into a successful whipped cream. After reading an article about whipping
cream from ASHLAND, a book called the Chemistry of Food, and a website about Milk
Chemistry I was able to understand fully well what was going on in the cream. I learned
about the factors that made it transform to this stiff smooth product after whipping it for
three minutes or so.
Cream is actually made out of the higher butterfat layer skimmed from the top of the milk
before homogenization and it obviously contains a relatively high percentage of milk fat. The
percentage comes around naturally and as I mentioned before, it is crucial for the making of
whipped cream; however, because of the present low-fat diets, many companies are prone
to make “low-fat” or “only 7% fat” creams by taking out some of the fat. These sort of low
fat creams are useless for making whipped cream.
What could this fat that has been mentioned so many times be made out of? Actually 98%
of milk or cream fat is made out of triacylglycerides. As shown in the picture below, a
triacylglycerol consists on a glycerol (at the left) and three fatty acids (in the middle) that
unite through esterification (at the right). However, many people now may wonder, fat and
water don’t mix, how can it be that they mix in the cream?

Figure 53: Making of a triacylglyceride (esterification)
Well, triacylglycerides have a polar part and a non-polar part. The polar part actually mixes
with water, while the non-polar part does not mix well with water. So what happens is that
these triacylglycerides accumulate on the surface of the cream, having the polar part
exposed to the water, and the non-polar part exposed to the air. This is very important for
the formation of micelles, a crucial factor for the whipping cream.
The micelles are formed when the triacylglycerides in the surface are agitated and mixed in
with the water. What will happen is that those triacylglycerides will now be immersed in the
water and its polarity will force them to create a bubble, usually with air inside. The non-
polar part will be pointing towards the interior, and the polar part will point towards the
water. So this is how micelles are made and as a consequence, whipped cream!
Cream is not only

made out of water and
triacylglycerides, as
one may know, it has
many other
biomolecules which
collaborate in the
making of whipped
cream. It has
galactose, proteins,
calcium, calcium
phosphates, etc. One
of the proteins, called
casein, and a small
Figure 54: Casein Micelles
molecule called calcium
phosphate, are actually
another very important factor for creating those micelles. They act like bridges and chains
that surround the fatty bubbles and join them together to make a more solid structure.

When one boils milk or cream, a coat of something white on top of it is usually created; that
coat is actually an accumulation at the top of the casein proteins that have been
denaturalized by the heat.
Curiously, what is actually happening in whipped cream or in milk is that the casein proteins
are able to create complicated “micelles” of their own, (with the help of calcium phosphates)
as seen in the image below. Those complicated micelles have the casein proteins and the
calcium phosphates acting up as a barrier in order to imprison the sub micelles made out of
triacylglycerides. It is therefore important for the making of macro micelles and it is
consequently vital for the stiffness of whipped cream.
As one may know now, these micelles stabilize the cream, make it more solid, and add air
to it. Now, the thing is, depending on the temperature, micelles are less or more likely to
form; and this is where the experiment comes in.
Whipped cream A: I took 200 ml of a

cream with 36% fat, covered it with plastic
and put it on the fridge so that the
temperature would go down to 6ºC. Once the
temperature was the one desired, I took the
whipping whisk machine and whipped it for
three minutes exactly (no sugar, vanilla, or
other ingredients were added in the process.)
The result was one of a very nice whipped

cream, with soft peaks and a solid form. (Fig
55) This is because the fatty acids in the Figure 55: Whipped cream A
triacylglycerides were fluid and yet viscous

enough to create micelles with the help of
casein proteins.
Whipped cream B: For the second one, I

measured the same amount of cream as
before, covered it with plastic too, and let it
settle to room temperature, 26ºC. Once the
temperature was set, I started whisking it
with the same whipping machine and speed…
After one minute and a half of whipping the
cream, I started noticing it wasn’t working so
well and it was still quite liquid. (Fig 51) Figure 51: Whipped cream B

Once the three minutes were up, the result was not so good; nevertheless, it had a certain
stiffness but not as great as the first one. This must have been due to the fatty acids of the
triacylglycerides being more liquid and because of their loss in viscosity. Also, the
intermolecular bonds with the casein must have become more fragile which caused it to
have a less solid texture.
Whipped cream C: In the last one,

once again I measured the 200 ml
of cream and covered it with plastic,
however this time I put it in the
microwave for a very short amount
of time, checking constantly as the
temperature went up to 40º.
Needless to say, as I put the cream

in the whipping machine, after three
minutes of whipping, there was no
result. There were only the
occasional bubbles and a liquid
Figure 57: Whipped cream C heterogeneous mixture. (Fig 57)
This was surely caused because the
fatty acids in the triacylglycerides
were now too liquid to form micelles. Also, it was because the casein proteins had lost a lot
of stability due to the heat and were unable to create “the bridges” between fatty acids.
This experiment proves that by changing the physical state of an ingredient, such as the
temperature, it will ultimately affect the final results’ organoleptic properties. Whipped
cream A turned out to be stiff, smooth, and homogeneous. Whipped Cream B turned out to
be less airy, more liquid, and less homogeneous. Finally, Whipped cream C was completely
liquid and couldn't even be considered whipped cream!

Macarons experiments part 2
A physical change in the ingredient
For the second part of the experiment, I centered on a physical process that had to be made
to an ingredient in the general macaron recipe. The most important physical procedure for
the making of macarons is to change the size of a very well known ingredient: simple sugar.
In order for the recipe to be successful it is said that one has to use pulverised (or
powdered) sugar and NOT normal sized sugar crystals. (See Fig 58 and 59)
This pulverised sugar will be later mixed with almond to make what's called a tant pour tant
Therefore, the only thing I changed from the original recipe was that I did not pulverize the
sugar. I could already tell that the tant pour tant was different, it was lumpy and we could
distinguish the sugar grain from the almond. In difference to this, the usual tant-pour-tant
is very dry, powdery, and smooth; also we cannot distinguish what is sugar and what is
almond anymore. This is surely due to the size of the sugar crystals, by being smaller, it
becomes easier to homogenize, and therefore it becomes difficult to distinguish what is
sugar and what is almond.
Figure 58: Normal sugar Figure 59: Powdered sugar
The next step is making a meringue, for the meringue I made it as authentic to the usual
meringue as there could be: taking hydrolyzed egg whites, adding sugar bit by bit, and
mixing it until it becomes white and fluffy. It turned out perfect! Then, I had to mix the
meringue with the tant pour tant. After what is called “macaronage” all the lumps found

earlier in the tant pour tant were gone. However, I immediately noticed that some sugar
crystals had not dissolved in the meringue, surely, due to their size. If It would have been
powdered sugar, it would have dissolved much more easily.
I finally piped the macarons with a piping bag into the oven paper sheet and let them sit for
25 minutes (an essential procedure for the macaron to form a slight crust.) The aspect
before putting them in the oven was very normal and usual, so I started being skeptic as to
whether using normal sugar would be so dramatic. Then, as I usually did, I finally put them
in the oven and let them bake for 12 minutes exactly. After 5 minutes I already knew my
macarons were not macarons, they did not form the ‘crown3.’ Normally, at five minutes
exactly my macarons always lift up and create the macaron collarette3.
After it was done, I took them out of the oven and waited for them to cool; they had most
definitely not made the typical macaron crown. Their aspect was therefore different. The
color stayed the same, if not a bit too colored, and it actually looking like a butter cookie
more than a macaron. (Fig 52) The texture was a bit dry upon tasting it and very crunchy,
but it was soft in the interior. So, it was dryer than the usual but not too much, however the
crunchiness was too pronounced. As for the taste, it was basically the same familiar sweet
subtle roasted-like almond taste any unflavored normal macaron has.
Figure 52: Macaron made without powdered sugar
As one can see, using normal sugar just can’t work, but why? The big reason is because of
the dissolution problem, it just cannot dissolve as easily as powdered sugar can without the
need of excessive mixing. Since powdered sugar has such small crystals, it dissolves almost
instantly. Now, why would the fact that it has not dissolved cause a problem? Because the
undissolved sugar forms a crust around the macarons when they are put in the oven; as
some of the crystals accumulate and dry on the top layer with the heat, a hardened cover is
created.

That crust, which is too hard, makes it
very difficult or even impossible for the
meringue to lift, which explains the
lack of collarette and the inflated
aspect in the result. Actually, some
people add sugar on top of brownies to
create a characteristic crunchy sweet
crust, but this is not useful in
macarons! So this is why one must not
used normal un-pulverized sugar when
making the tant pour tant of the
macarons.
I have then confirmed that by changing

only a slight physical procedure in one Figure 61: Successful macarons
of the ingredients, the final result will
change considerably.
After doing this whole experiment, I have proved that by changing the physical or chemical
procedures in certain ingredients, it directly affects the final result. Also I have
demonstrated, that those chemical and physical procedures are essential for the success of
the recipe and have also explained why they are necessary.
Figure 62: Successful macarons

Biological Responses
The nervous and metabolic system
Introduction to the biological response
When tasting a treat or dessert, we react in a certain way because the body and nervous
system get stimulated through chemical messages that those sweet pastries send when
they reach the mouth and even the digestive system. There are always variations to how
one will react to a certain food because of the genetic factor affecting the experience of
one’s perception when tasting it. The taste, texture, crunch, appearance, sound and aroma
of the dish will all be very important in sending different messages to the brain. (The
environment actually plays a significant role in influencing the sensitivity of the organoleptic
features in a certain pastry.) In the following, the science behind those biological reactions
will be explained in further detail.
Figure 63: Organoleptic Senses

Figure 53: Various
V visually appeal
appealing
ling Pastries
Response of the Nervous system to the Organoleptic properties
What is meant by “Organoleptic properties” is the aspects of food ingredients/products as

experienced by the 5 senses – sight, smell, taste, touch and sound. These aspects are
considered into account when food safety is concerned. To identify whether a product is
stale or fresh, faded or rotten, the body conducts organoleptic tests automatically upon
encounter with a food. What is incredible when eating is that the food will activate the
mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, auditory system and thermo-
receptors, which will directly and indirectly associate with or activate the limbic system
primarily and even maybe other parts of the brain as a consequence.
Chemoreception (Odor)
In humans, olfaction occurs when odorant molecules bind to specific sites on the olfactory
receptors. These receptors are used to detect the presence of smell. They come together at
the glomerulus, a structure which transmits signals to the olfactory bulb (a brain structure
directly above the nasal cavity and below the frontal lobe). Humans have two distinct
olfactory systems—the main olfactory system, and the accessory olfactory system (used
mainly to detect pheromones). The main olfactory system detects volatile chemicals, and
the accessory olfactory system detects fluid-phase chemicals. Olfaction, along with taste, is
a form of chemoreception. The chemicals themselves that activate the olfactory system, in
general at very low concentrations, are called odorants. Although taste and smell are
separate sensory systems in land animals, water-dwelling organisms often have one
chemical sense.
The binding of the ligand (odor molecule or odorant) to the receptor leads to an action
potential, a short-lasting event in which the electrical membrane potential of a cell rapidly
rises and falls. Sensory neurons will then project axons to the brain within the olfactory

nerve that will ultimately pass the message to the olfactory bulb of the brain through
perforations in the cribriform plate. This will in turn project olfactory information to the olfactory
cortex and other areas including the limbic system, causing yet again an emotional stimulation.
Smells are very powerful triggers of specific

memories, and this can actually influence the
experience of the taster upon smelling and
trying out a new or habitual taste. This is partly
due to the fact that the part of the brain that
processes smell has direct links with parts that
are involved in emotion and memory. Sweet or
similar aromatic odors tend to create a sense of
well-being or peacefulness in the brain and
reduce stress, such as vanillin, the ligand
compound found in vanilla.
Chemoreception (Taste)
Taste begins in the mouth, where each of us has

Figure 54: Tasting
between 5,000 and 10,000 taste buds. Most
taste buds are located within the tongue’s small,
visible bumps (or papillae) but some can be found in other areas of the mouth and throat.
Each taste bud contains 50 to 100 taste receptor cells that transmit taste information.
When we eat a strawberry, for example, saliva dissolves the fruit’s chemicals, which then
enter into the central pores of the taste buds and bind to the taste cells. The cells quickly
send “sweet” and “sour” taste messages from these chemicals through nerve fibers to the
brain, where they eventually reach the sensory cortex. However, the whole complex flavor
of “strawberry” requires the addition of
information gained through the smell.
How sensitive we are to sweetness,

bitterness, or any other taste depends on
our genetic makeup. For example,
variants of one gene, TAS2R38, help
determine how strongly an individual will
be able to detect some bitter tastes, and
may explain why some people find
particular nuts or foods bitter while others
won’t. Research also has shown that
certain individuals, dubbed “supertasters,”
Figure 55 : ‘Fondant au Chocolat’

inherit more taste buds and receptor cells than other people. Because tastes are more
intense for them, they tend to avoid powerfully flavored foods, including sugary desserts.
Genetics isn’t the only factor behind taste preferences, though, age and epigenetics also
plays a role. We begin to lose some of our taste buds permanently as we pass through
middle age, a development that can make food taste bland and eating less enjoyable.
Illness and infection also can dull and deaden taste buds or the nerve pathways that send
taste messages to the brain. As for epigenetics, a person’s pallete might have been
« educated » to notice certain tastes in a different fashion through time depending on the
culture and environment.
Mecanoreception and Thermoreception (Touch)
The sence of touch, or somatic system, is very important as it will let a person know if a
pastry is dry, moist, hot, cold, or more, be it through the hands, the mouth or any other
way… The neurons will be in charge of percieveing the texture and temperature of the
dessert and send the message to the brain. Processing will primarily occure in the primary
somatosensory area in the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex: information is sent from the
receptors via sensory nerves, through tracts in the spinal cord and finally into the brain.
This will also activate the limbic system and cause a surge of different emotions.
Sometimes, temperature might even

cause a direct physiological reaction. A
curious reaction is when one tastes
something that is too cold, as oftenly
experienced when eating ice-cream, one
may get what is refered to as a « brain
freeze. » What actually happens is that
when something cold touches the roof of
a person’s mouth, the sudden
temperature change of the tissue
stimulates nerves to cause rapid dilation
and swelling of blood vessels. This is an
attempt to direct blood to the area and
warm it back up. The dilation of the
blood vessels triggers pain receptors, Figure 56: Girl eating ice cream
which release pain-causing
prostaglandins, increase sensitivity to further pain, and produce inflammation while sending
signals through the trigeminal nerve to alert the brain to the problem. Because the
trigeminal nerve also senses facial pain, the brain interprets the pain signal as coming from
the forehead.

Audition
Similarly to the other systems, the neurons of the auditory system will recieve an exterior
stimulation and send signals to the brain, also consequently influencing the limbic system.
During eating, many sounds are produced, which will help the brain determine if the food in
question is crunchy, sizzling, popping, resistant, or many more. The sound waves produced
will then enter the auditory canal, into the inner ear, unto the Organ of Corti where the
receptor cells will translate the information into nerve signals. These nerves signals will
finally reach the brain’s auditory cortex and the sound will finally be percieved.
Photoreception (Sight)
The first things the brain perceives is

the appearance and not the odor, as
one can see the food from long
distance but the smell of a product
may or may not be detected from
long distances. Pungent or sharp
flavored products may give out
odor/aroma spreading to far distances
whereas lighter products may not
spread the odor; therefore, it has
been decided that the appearance
comes first. Through the visual
system or photoreception, one can Figure 57: Shiny looking pastries
already guess the texture, be it
powdery, soft, tender, gritty, rubbery
or waxy. It is one of the first properties examined during the visual (sensory) analysis of a
food product and unlike others, texture will contribute to vision as well as touch. Apart from
the texture there is also the color, size, shape, glossiness and many more properties, which
will ultimately influence the visual and therefore emotional experience of the costumer.
The great biological importance of photoreceptors is that they convert light (visible
electromagnetic radiation) into signals that can stimulate biological processes. To be more
specific, photoreceptor proteins in the cell absorb photons, triggering a change in the cell's
membrane potential. They will later on send those signals through the optic nerve unto the
brain, more concretely, unto the visual cortex. The visual cortex will then send signals to
the limbic system, causing an emotional output or reaction caused by that visual
stimulation. Depending on the organoleptic features of the pastry, one might react in
surprise, enthusiasm, pleasure, or in many more different ways when tasting the pastry…

Brownie experiment: How the brain can trick our
perception
For the first experiment, I intended to challenge the brains of the test subjects in order to
find out if they would distinguish a difference between two brownies, when there was
actually none! The basic idea was to give a certain pastry to the test subjects when their
eyes were closed, and afterwards make them taste the exact same pastry but with their
eyes open and see if they would note a difference. However; first of all I had to prepare the
brownies, make the survey, and find the test subjects; which I will later on explain.
Afterwards I had to draw conclusions from my results and interpret them in order to start
proving one of my hypotheses: “our perceptions of the organoleptic properties change
depending on the “environment” we are submitted to when tasting those pastries.” So I
finally started doing this delicious and incredibly interesting experiment...
Before even starting the experiment, I had to get the idea and have a general view of how it
would turn out. I actually thought of this experiment as I watched a video of a
gastronomical scientist, (a person who specializes in the molecular science of cooking), who
made an experiment which consisted on changing the aspect of the food and see the
reaction of the people who ate it in contrast to when it had a normal aspect. This made me
think that our eyes could easily deceive our brain and therefore influence our perceptions.
Furthermore, I started doubting what would happen to our nervous system when we
completely closed our eyes, and if that would
that vary our perceptions of the pastry…
Afterwards, I made a short test to my family

with dark chocolate, making them try it with
eyes closed and then with their eyes open, to
see if there would be any significant results in
order for me to make the test on a large scale.
To my surprise, they all noted a difference and
thought I gave them a different chocolate!
That concludes to why I decided to do the
experiment and from where I got the idea. Figure 58: Chocolate Brain

The next day, I decided I would bake a chocolate pastry for the experiment, as I originally
tested with the dark chocolate I felt it was the most suitable flavor as it has a clear and
familiar taste to everyone. So, I made up my mind to bake chocolate brownies. I actually
already had my brownie recipe since a long time ago, and every single time I had tried it,
they would turn out with the same taste and texture, which was another advantage for me.
After I had my hypothesis, my recipe, and my questions in mind, I wrote down a survey
asking carefully about the “differences” people would maybe notice (or not) when
comparing the two pastries. The following list shows the questions I asked and why I have
asked them:
1. Did you find a difference in texture between brownie A (eyes open) and brownie B (eyes
closed)? If so, what was the difference?
I asked this in order to find out if

their perception of the texture would
be affected upon inspecting the
aspect of the pastry; which seemed
dry. In difference to this, if my
hypothesis of the nervous system
being affected by the surroundings
and situations were correct, the
aspect of the brownie would not
influence their perception since they
would be closing their eyes.
2. Did you find a difference in taste? If Figure 59: Brownies from experiment
so, please specify.
I tried asking this question because I was curious to know if the taste would also be
affected by the situation, meaning that either, 1) Since they are closing their eyes, their
senses become more dull as people “shut down” and therefore will sense less taste...Or
2) Since people cannot see, they will be more alert and therefore concentrate more upon
the perception of “dangerous” tastes, such as the sour taste the dark chocolate might
have…
3. Was there an overall obvious difference between the two pastries or were they the
same?
This question was the most important question, as the answer was a direct “yes” or “no”
it would tell me whether my hypothesis was correct or not. If the people noted a

difference, that would mean that when changing the situation, the person’s nervous
system’s perception of the same exact pastry would be different.
4. Have you noted a difference in the temperature?
This question was actually far-fetched because I doubted that they would note a
difference as the brain fools the perception of temperature much less easily than the
ones of texture and taste. However, something (which I will later on explain) very
unexpected happened.
5. What were your feelings at the time you put brownie A in your mouth?
6. In difference to brownie A, did you have a different feeling when tasting brownie B?
I addressed those last two questions in order to know if the difference in perception (if
there was one) could be caused by the feelings of the person when tasting it, or (vise
versa:) if the feelings of the person would be subject to how they perceived the pastry.
After I set up the survey I

prepared the brownies; the
process of baking the brownies
was very simple, as it only
required for the ingredients to
be put in a bowl, mixed, and
then baked at 180 degrees
Celsius for 10 minutes. Finally,
I cut the brownie into equal
pieces in order for the people
to have equal portions when
tasting them. I found the test
subjects quite easily as all my
classmates were very eager to
taste those brownies during
our class break the next day.
Figure 60: Chart 1: Closing their eyes

The day of the survey, the test
subjects had to close their
eyes, and while keeping them close, they had to taste the brownie. Next, I made them open
their eyes, asked them to look carefully at the chocolate delicacies, and finally let them
taste the brownies once again. Afterwards, they had to complete the survey I previously
prepared. All the multiple choice answers included a “there is no difference whatsoever.”

Finally, I had to bring back the completed surveys home and draw my conclusions. Since it
was a multiple answer survey, it was easy for me to make a percentage of the most
frequent answers. The first relevant information was that 92% out of the 25 test subjects
had noticed a change when closing their eyes in comparison to when they could observe the
food they were about to eat. (Fig 60 on previous page) This clearly shows that when we
change our impression of the food with our sight, we are also changing how we will perceive
the organoleptic properties of that food. Furthermore, upon that 92%, approximately one
fourth of them found a difference in texture, another fourth of them found a difference in
taste, and the rest (half of them) found a variation in both the taste as well as for the
texture. (Fig 61)
These percentages fit perfectly

with my hypothesis, however;
as I had stated before, while
looking at the results, I noticed
something very particular in the
question concerning the
differences in temperature. It
seemed that some people found
a variation! Only 10% had
noticed this change, but what is
very intriguing is that 100% of
those who found that difference
wrote that they felt the brownie
A (with eyes closed) was cooler.
Therefore, I made further
Chart 2: Of those who noticed a change
research on this peculiarity by
Figure 61
looking through articles about
neuroscience or psychology and asking people who specialized on the subject, and came to
a possible explanation.
The color of something influences our brain in a very particular way. As it seems, when
something has “warm colors” that is to say, red, yellow, brown, orange, etc. we perceive it
as warmer. Therefore, that means that as they closed their eyes, the subjects could not be
influenced by the color of the pastry, so they perceived it “cooler” than when they actually
saw it. More appropriately said, the second one “was warmer” to them, as the brown color
influenced their perception by tricking the brain into thinking that brown means warm.

Conclusion
Throughout this report, I have learned

many things concerning the science
behind the making of pastries and the
possible chemical as well as physical
changes that can be used.
The more I researched upon the chemical

changes applied to pastry creams, cakes,
and other very important bases in
“patisserie,” the more I realized that
changing one of these procedures would
directly affect the organoleptic properties
Figure 62: Lemon Tart of the final product. However, I had to
verify it through experimentation;
therefore, I decided to conduct a test, (the macaron experiment part 1,) which consisted on
changing a chemical procedure in one of the main ingredients and observe weather or not it
would affect the organoleptic properties of the dessert. As the experiment went on I became
skeptical and thought that the chemical change applied, more specifically the hydrolysis,
would not actually affect the result whatsoever. However, to my good surprise, the
macarons in question turned out to be completely different in aspect and texture while not
changing in taste. This meant that, through a small chemical change in one of the
ingredients, I had managed to influence two of the organoleptic properties of the final
dessert.
After conducting the experiment, I researched more upon the possibilities of making
chemical manipulation to ingredients, such as different ways of cooking them, jellification,
and different ways of achieving hydrolysis. Through this, I learned about the science behind
caramelization, the maillard reaction, the formation of micelles, and even about
spherification.

As I became more interested in this new way of presenting food commonly found in modern
gastronomy, I decided to try it out for myself, (the spherification experiment.) This was
done in order to observe the chemical reaction directly and to conclude weather the
organoleptic properties of a cream would differ through spherification or not. Logically
enough, I had the chance to observe how the organoleptic properties from a liquid changed
when it became a sphere. The changes were in texture, as a gel had formed in the
outermost layer, and in aspect, as a 3D sphere of strawberry juice did not look the same as
a “puddle” of the same juice.
Throughout this investigation concerning the chemical manipulations applied to desserts, I

have established and demonstrated that some of the organoleptic features of the
pastry will greatly vary from applying a different chemical process to one of its
ingredient or mixes.
Once I had made my conclusion upon

the chemical changes, I moved on to
the possible physical manipulations
that could be used in an ingredient or
mix and how it could change the
features of the final result. I explored
the different and most common
physical procedures and learned about
the importance in aspect of the
pastries. Most physical changes were
done in order for the pastry to become
more appetizing, such as manipulating
the physical composition of the
ingredients through heat, mixing or
emulsion in order to produce more Figure 63: Ombre Cake
texture, shine, and other organoleptic

qualities to the pastry. I found out that crystallization played a very important part in the
hardness and luster of an ingredient and that it could be manipulated through the heat,
such as with tempering chocolate.
To be sure, I conducted the second part of the macarons experiment, which consisted upon
changing the size of the sugar crystals into smaller ones, or more commonly said, by
pulverizing the sugar. The sugar’s chemical structure did not change whatsoever, so by only
changing its physical structure, I deduced it would not affect the mixture enough to cause a
difference in the organoleptic properties of the dessert. Nevertheless, half way through the
experiment, as mentioned before, I already started to notice a change in the texture, and in

the end, the result compared to normally prepared macarons was quite different! I observed
that the aspect and texture had completely change paralleled to normal macarons. This
induced that by applying a physical change in one of the ingredients or not, it would directly
affect the final features of the dessert itself.
Afterwards, I decided to carry out

another test concerning the
physical manipulations, (the
cream experiment,) but this time
it would be a change in
temperature so it would not be as
easy to carry out. For this, I had
to use a thermometer in order to
be sure that I would not influence
the ingredient, (whipping cream,)
chemically when warming it up as
I was just trying to alter its
physical state. I therefore
carefully changed the
temperature of the whipping
Figure 64: Birthday Cake
cream to see if the change in
temperature would affect the
emulsion, indirectly affecting the organoleptic properties of the final result. Once the
experiment was over, it had been proven that the aspect and texture of the whipped cream
varied completely depending on the temperature of the initial ingredient.
Thanks to this research and experimentation upon the physical changes applied in pastries,
I concluded and proved that some of the organoleptic features of the pastry will
greatly vary from applying a different physical process.
Finally, I studied how the response of the nervous system worked upon eating sweets on
the whole sensory system. This allowed me to learn the complex mechanism of how the
neurons received a “message” from the outside and transformed it into nerve signals, which
would ultimately affect the limbic system and other important parts of the brain. I learned
that depending on which organoleptic features a dessert has, the brain will receive and
generate different signals upon sensing it. The reaction and response of these signals may
be altered depending on the brain’s current activity, on the environment in which a person
is submitted, and on the state of mind in which one receives them.

In order to better understand how the perception of the organoleptic properties of a dessert
varied when a person’s environment or state of mind differed, yet another experiment was
needed, (the brownie experiment.) Throughout the test, the visual experience was being
changed in order to see if it would alter other organoleptic perceptions. If this was true, it
would mean that the by changing one sensory system, it would influence the others, making
the organoleptic experience differ. To my good surprise, the results showed that when 92%
of the people closed their eyes, in difference to when they did not, their perception of the
other organoleptic features in the brownie changed.
I therefore concluded that the perception of the pastries’ features varied upon the
different stimuli the environment offered to the person tasting them.
This research in the science behind pastries helped me understand how vital chemical and
physical procedures are for affecting the organoleptic features of the desserts. Furthermore,
it made me learn valuable information about how the sensory system works and made me
realize that the perception of pastries in the brain is linked to all those factors. Definitively,
it made me realize that in “patisserie” there is an immense complexity behind achieving
successful, delicious, attractive and beautiful pastries for the costumers’ sensory
experience.
Figure 65: Little girl with ice-cream

Annex
List of some of the pastries perpared .................................................... 58

List of figures .................................................................................... 62
Glossary ........................................................................................... 65
Bibliography ...................................................................................... 66

List of some of the pastries prepared
Gateau
Brownies d’Anniversaire
Main Processes
Main Processes
- Baking
- Baking
- Starch Gelatinization
- Melting
-Melting
-Emulsion
Éclairs aux Macarons à la

Chocolats Cannelle
Main Processes
- Baking Main Processes
-Starch - Hydrolysis
Gelatinization -Baking
-Temperage - Egg Gelatinization
Gateau Ombre Tarte au

Citron
Main Processes
-Starch - Baking
Gelatinization - Hydrolysis
- Melting -Egg gelatinization

Macarons à la
Gateau des
Pistache
Cent-trois Ans
Main Processes Main Processes
- Hydrolysis -Emulsion
-Baking -Baking
- Egg Gelatinization - Egg Gelatinization
-Melting
Cheesecake Pavlova au
Decoré Fruits
Main Processes
-Egg and Starch - Baking
Gelatinization - Hydrolysis
-Emulsion
Macarons aux
caramel Muffins aux
Mirtilles
Main Processes
- Hydrolysis Main Processes
-Baking - Baking
- Egg Gelatinization

Macarons à la Gateau Totoro

Main Processes
fraise
- Baking
- Starch and egg
Main Processes
Gelatinization
-Hydrolysis
-Melting
- Baking
-Emulsion
- Melting
-Temperage
Fondant au
Chocolat
Fraisier
Main Processes Main Processes
- Baking - Baking
-Emulsion -Melting
-Emulsion
Paris Brest
Millefeuilles Main Processes

- Baking
Main Processes - Hydrolysis
- Baking -Egg and starch
-Egg Gelatinization gelatinization
-Caramelization

Gateau au Macarons aux

Chocolat Pralinés
Main Processes
Main Processes - Hydrolysis
- Baking - Baking
- Melting -Caramelizing
-Emulsion -Emulsion
Macaron au
Donuts aux
Chocolat
chocolat
Main Processes
-Hydrolysis
Main Processes
- Baking
- Frying
-Emulsion
- Temperage
-Temperage
Macarons à la
Madeleines Vanille
Main Processes
Main Processes
- Baking
- Baking
- Hydrolysis
-Egg gelatinization

List of Figures
Figure 1: Fraisier: Personal photo from experimentation ............................................... 1
Figure 2: Éclairs au chocolat: Personal photo from experimentation ................................ 3
Figure 3: Oven: Photo from marmiton.com ................................................................. 4
Figure 4: Burned cakes: Photo from alimohamadnoor.blogspot.com ............................... 5
Figure 5: Roasted almonds: Photo from marmiton.com ................................................. 6
Figure 6: Maillard reaction: Illustration from ediblesciencefaire.files.wordpress.com .......... 6
Figure 7: Steamer: Photo from visuaphotos.com .......................................................... 7
Figure 8: Steamed rice muffin pastries: Photo from indonesiaeats.com ........................... 7
Figure 9: Chocolate melted through Bain-Marie: Photo from visualphotos.com ................. 8
Figure 10: Entremets prepared in Bain-Marie: Photo from visualphotos.com .................... 8
Figure 11: Caramelized walnuts: Photo from visualphotos.com ...................................... 9
Figure 12: Caramelan, caramelen and caramelin: Formula from scienceofcooking.com ...... 9
Figure 13: Chemical process of caramelization: Illustration from sciencegeist.net ........... 10
Figure 14: Tarte-tatin: Photo from visualphotos.com .................................................. 11
Figure 15: Egg, Photo from visualphotos.com ............................................................ 12
Figure 16: Egg protein coagulation process: Illustration from foodscience.com............... 12
Figure 17: Meringuettes: Photo from visualphotos.com ............................................... 13
Figure 18: Suisse Meringue: Photo from visualphotos.com .......................................... 14
Figure 19: Sugar syrup being added to half beaten egg whites: Photo from marmiton.com ...15
Figure 20: Lecithin: Formula from lecithin.co.kr ......................................................... 16
Figure 21: Egg Flan: Photo from visualphotos.com ..................................................... 16
Figure 22: Cornstarch granules being heated (before, during and after heating from left to
right): Photo from GuelphCerealLab on youtube.com ................................................... 17
Figure 23: Sodium alginate and Calcium chloride reaction: Photo from chemistryofood.com .18
Figure 24: Basic Spherification: Photo from moleculargastronomy.com ......................... 18

Figure 25: Reverse Spherification: Photo from moleculargastronomy.com ..................... 19
Figure 26: Jelly Fruit Dessert: Photo from tablespoon.com .......................................... 19
Figure 27: Successful macarons: Personal photo from experimentation ......................... 20
Figure 28: Difference between successful and cracked macaron: Personal photo ............ 21
Figure 29: Macarons made without having the egg white hydrolyzed: Personal photos .... 21
Figure 30: Successful macarons, at last: Personal photo from experimentation .............. 22
Figure 31: Sodium Alginate, from seeds to powder: Photo from sciencegeist.net ............ 23
Figure 32: Calcium Chloride: Photo from chemicalscience.com ..................................... 24
Figure 33: Dosing Spoons: Photo from kitchenutensiles.com ....................................... 25
Figure 34: Caviar Maker: Photo from moderngastronomy.com ..................................... 25
Figure 35: Appetizer Spoons: Photo from moderngastronomy.com ............................... 26
Figure 36: Basic Spherification Process: Illustrations from moderngastronomy.com ........ 26
Figure 37: Strawberry juice “caviar”: Personal Photo from experimentation ................... 27
Figure 38: Basic Spherification Process: Illustrations from moderngastronomy.com ........ 27
Figure 39: Reverse Spherification taking place: Personal Photo from experimentation ..... 27
Figure 40: Macarons of different colors and flavors: Photo from visualphotos.com .......... 28
Figure 41: Shiny strawberry cheesecake: Photo from visualphotos.com ........................ 29
Figure 42: Strawberry mousse at solid state: Photo from moderngastronomy.com ......... 30
Figure 43: Vapor sweet strawberry and vanilla dessert: Photo from moderngastronomy.com ..30
Figure 44: Ice-Cream: Photo from visualphotos.com .................................................. 31
Figure 45: Icecream’s general composition: Illustration from foodchemistry.com ........... 32
Figure 46: Sugar crystals on a string: Photo from foodchemistry.com ........................... 33
Figure 47: Difference between non-tempered chocolate (left) and tempered chocolate
(right): Photo from foodchemistry.com ...................................................................... 34
Figure 48: 1,3-Distearoyl-2-oleoylglycerol: Formula from naturasie.com ....................... 34
Figure 49: Types of chocolate crystal formations: Illustration from chocolatealchemy.com ....34
Figure 50: Formation of the β (V) structure with triglycerides: Illustration from
chocolatealchemy.com............................................................................................. 35

Figure 51: Difference in structure between an un-tempered chocolate and a tempered one:
Illustration from chocolatealchemy.com ..................................................................... 36
Figure 52: Tempered Shiny Chocolates: Photo from visualphotos.com .......................... 36
Figure 53: Making of a triacylglyceride (esterification): Formula from sciencegeist.net .... 38
Figure 54: Casein Micelles:Illustration from teknoscienze.com ..................................... 38
Figure 55: Whipped cream A: Personal photo from experiment .................................... 39
Figure 56: Whipped cream B: Personal photo from experiment .................................... 39
Figure 57: Whipped cream C: Personal photo from experiment .................................... 40
Figure 58: Normal sugar: Photo from visualphotos.com .............................................. 41
Figure 59: Powdered sugar: Photo from visualphotos.com ........................................... 41
Figure 60: Macaron made without powdered sugar: Personal photos from experimentation ..42
Figure 63: Organoleptic Senses: Table from foodscience.com ...................................... 44
Figure 64: Various visually appealing pastries: Photo from visualphotos.com ................. 45
Figure 65: Tasting: Photos from visualphotos.com ..................................................... 46
Figure 66: Fondant au Chocolat: Photos from visualphotos.com ................................... 46
Figure 67: Girl eating ice cream: Photos from visualphotos.com ................................... 47
Figure 68: Shiny looking pastries: Photo from 435mag.com ........................................ 48
Figure 69: Chocolate brain: Photo from visualphotos.com ........................................... 49
Figure 70: Brownie from experiment: Personal photo from experimentation .................. 50
Figure 71: Chart 1: Closing their eyes: Pie chart made with chartgo.com ...................... 51
Figure 72: Chart 2: Of those who noticed a change: Pie chart made with chartgo.com .... 52
Figure 73: Lemon tart: Personal photo from experimentation ...................................... 53
Figure 74: Ombre Cake: Personal photo from experimentation .................................... 54
Figure 75: Birthday Cake: Personal photo from experimentation .................................. 55
Figure 76: Little girl with ice-cream: Photo from dreamstime.com ................................ 56

Glossary
1. Amphipathic: A compound having both a polar and a non-polar end. This makes it
soluble in both polar and in nonpolar dissolvents. This property can usually lead to creating
micelles.
2. Crème anglaise: A light pouring custard used as a dessert cream or sauce; it is a mix of
sugar, egg yolks and hot milk or cream, often flavored with vanilla.
3. Crown or collarette: The identity that defines the macaron, without it one cannot name
it “macaron.” It is a lifted area of the meringue that forms uniformly around the border of
the pastry.
4. Gelatinization, Gelification, or Jellification: The process of making something have

the nature of or resemble jelly, especially in consistency.
5. Macaronage: The process of mixing meringue with tant pour tant with a spatula, slowly
folding and mixing the batter at the same time so that most of the air bubbles stay.
Strangely, in this process, we purposely take out some air bubbles because otherwise the
macarons will grow too much and crack. However, we also avoid mixing the batter too much
because the destruction of too many air bubbles would cause the macarons not to lift at all.
6. Micelles: A charged aggregate of molecules of colloidal size in a solution
7. Organoleptic: That has to do with the senses: texture, taste, touch, sight, smell,
temperature, etc.
8. Spherification: The culinary process of shaping a liquid into spheres, which visually and
texturally resemble caviar.
9. Tant pour tant: A mixture of a certain quantity of pulverized white almonds with equal
quantity of pulverized sugar, mixed and sifted. This concept is only used for macarons.
10. Tempering: To bring to a proper, suitable, or desirable state by heating up or cooling

down a certain mixture.
11. Triglyceride: An ester obtained from glycerol by the esterification of three hydroxyl
groups with fatty acids, naturally occurring in animal and vegetable tissues: an important
energy source forming much of the fat stored by the body.

Bibliography
References Caramelizing:
Schmidt, S.J. Exploring the sucrose-water state diagram. Manufacturing Confectioner,

January 2012, 79-89.
Lee, J. W. et al. Investigation of the heating rate dependency associated with the loss of
crystalline structure in sucrose, glucose, and fructose using a thermal analysis approach
(Part I). J Agric. Food Chemistry 2011, 59: 684-701.
References Eggs:
J. William, B. Steven. 1994. Enzymatic Production of Protein Hydrolysis for Food Use. Food
Technology, 10:68-71
References Spherification:
Professional Video of Basic spherification:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BeRMBv95gLk
Professional Video of Reverse spherification:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JPNo79U77yI
Reference Change of aspect in color:
F.B. Yahya. Extraction of aroma compound from pandan leaf and use of the compound to
enhance rice flavor. School of Chemical Engineering: The University of Birmingham, October
2011, 18-19.
Reference for Ice-cream crystals:
Hartel, R. W., 2001, Crystallization in Foods, pp. 259-265
Hartel, R. W. 1996. Ice Crystallization During the Manufacture of Ice Cream. Trends Food
Sci. Technol. 7:315-321.

References Chocolate crystals:
J. Phys. Chem. B, 2004, 108 (40), pp 15450–15453 DOI: 10.1021/jp046723c Publication

Date (Web): September 14, 2004
Chocolate Crystallography University Video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O3r78hnYbtg
Chocolate Chemistry Summaries:
http://www.chocolatealchemy.com/illustrated-tempering/
http://www.compoundchem.com/2014/04/19/the-polymorphs-of-chocolate/
References Cream Experiment:
Ashland Article:
http://www.ashland.com/Ashland/Static/Documents/ASI/Food/TIB_VC-
636_Hydroxypropyl_Cellulose_Whipping_Cream.pdf
The Chemistry of Food:
http://books.google.es/books?id=-
IdyAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA479&lpg=PA479&dq=whipped+cream+micelles&source=bl&ots=UMR3
2gcaZW&sig=VecQ1I-S5QZd7EHbyzULJNE-
gd8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OFFSU_C6Leam0QWmkoD4Dg&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=
whipped%20cream%20micelles&f=false
Milk chemistry:
http://www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/fulldocs/ilca_manual4/Milkchemistry.htm
Reference of how Taste works:
Hayes JA, Keast RSJ. (2011) Two decades of supertasting: Where do we stand? Physiology
and Behavior.
Chaudhari N, Roper SD. (2010) The cell biology of taste. Journal of Cell Biology. 190:285-
296.

Reference Biological Responses
Society for Neuroscience - Brain Briefings, 1995.
Reference Brownie Experiment:
http://psychology.about.com/od/sensationandperception/a/colorpsych.htm
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/01/130103073238.htm
Betina Piqueras-Fiszman, Charles Spence. The Influence of the Color of the Cup on
Consumers' Perception of a Hot Beverage. Journal of Sensory Studies, 2012; 27 (5): 324
DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-459X.2012.00397.x
Ohla K, Le Coutre J, Hudry J, 2010, "How what we see affects what we taste" Perception 39
ECVP Abstract Supplement, page 145

2014 2015 05 1 TR - Baixa

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2014 2015 05 1 TR - Baixa

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2014 2015 05 1 TR - Baixa

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Science Behind

Sara Masson San Gabriel

Bachillerato 2nd, Clase F

The Science Behind Patisserie ii

The Science Behind Patisserie iii

The Science Behind Patisserie iv

Chemical changes in Eggs ................................................................................. 11

Gelatinization .................................................................................................. 16

Macaron experiment part 1: A chemical change in the ingredient .................... 20

Spherification: Basic and reverse ................................................................ 23

Spherification Utensils....................................................................................... 25

Spherification Experiment .................................................................................. 26

Physical Manipulations ........................................................................ 28

Changes in the Temperature .............................................................................. 30

Manipulation of crystals ..................................................................................... 31

Cream experiment: A change in temperature .............................................. 37

Macarons experiments part 2 ..................................................................... 41

Biological Responses .......................................................................... 44

Conclusion ........................................................................................ 53

The Science Behind Patisserie v

In this research report I have focused

The Science Behind Patisserie 1

Some of the experiments consisted in changing a certain aspect or procedure of a pastry

The Science Behind Patisserie 2

The other problem I had was

The Science Behind Patisserie 3

Important chemical changes in Patisserie

Caramelizing, baking, frying, steaming and

The most picturesque one is obviously baking,

The Science Behind Patisserie 4

Depending on how one uses the oven, the

The oven is also very tricky as the

This deflation is caused by the change of

The Science Behind Patisserie 5

What actually happens during the roasting is

Moving on to another kind of

The Science Behind Patisserie 6

In the pastry business, steaming has been

This is actually caused because it has overheated

The Science Behind Patisserie 7

Another form of cooking, similar to steaming

This is a very complicated task to do for just

*(This boiling water should actually be barely

Bain Marie is mostly used for cooking fragile

The Science Behind Patisserie 8

Caramelizing has been used for far

Figure 12 : Caramelan Caramelen and Caramelin

The Science Behind Patisserie 9

The Science Behind Patisserie 10

Chemical changes in Eggs

Hydrolysis of the egg whites

The Science Behind Patisserie 11

Hydrophobic amino acid Hydrophilic amino acid

Figure 16 : Egg Protein Coagulation Process

The Science Behind Patisserie 12

French, Italian, and Suisse meringue

The Science Behind Patisserie 13

On the other hand, Swiss meringue

The Science Behind Patisserie 14