PE ZC213 / TA ZC233

Engineering Measurements L-4

BITS Pilani Swapna Kulkarni

WILP Division, BITS-Pilani,Pilani
Pilani|Dubai|Goa|Hyderabad

1
Uncertainty Analysis

▪ The result R is a given function of the independent

variables x1, x2, x3, . . . , xn. Thus, R = R(x1, x2, x3, . . .
, xn)
▪ Let wR be the uncertainty in the result and w1,w2, . . . ,
wn be the uncertainties in the independent variables

▪ If the uncertainty in one variable is significantly larger

than the uncertainties in the other variables, say, by a
factor of 5 or 10, then it is the largest uncertainty that
predominates and the others may probably be neglected

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Contd..

How to improve the overall accuracy of a measurement?

1.Selection of measurement method
▪ A resistor has a nominal stated value of 10 Ώ ± 1% A
voltage is impressed on the resistor, and the power
dissipation is to be calculated in two different ways: (1)
from P = E2/R and (2) from P = EI. In (1) only a voltage
measurement will be made, while both current and
voltage will be measured in (2). Calculate the
uncertainty in the power determination in each case
when the measured values of E and I are E=100 V± 1%
and I=10 A± 1%

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Contd..

How to improve the overall accuracy of a measurement?

2. Instrument selection
The voltmeter has an internal resistance Rm, and the value
of R is known only approximately. Calculate the nominal
value of the power dissipated in R and the uncertainty
for the following conditions:

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Simple Probability Concepts

▪ Our primary concern is the application of probability and

statistics to the analysis of experimental data.

▪ Sample space(S):- It is the set of all possible outcomes of a

random experiment.
▪ Sample space associated with Tossing a coin is S-{T,H}
▪ Sample space associated with throwing a Dice is S-
{1,2,3,4,5,6}
▪ Independent and Dependent events:-
▪ If there are two or more events such that the happening of
any one does not depend on the happening of any other,
they are said to be Independent events otherwise they are
Dependent Events.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Contd..

▪ Mutually exclusive events: If the occurrence of one of the event

prevents the occurrence of remaining events
▪ Equally likely events:-If one of the events cannot be expected to
happen to preference to the other.
▪ Conditional probability:-
Let A and B be two events in the sample space such that P(B)≠0.
The probability that the event A occurs under the condition that the
event B also occurs or has already occurred is denoted by P(A/B).

 A  P( A  B )
P  =
B P(B)

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Probability Distributions

- The curve shown in Fig is called a

probability distribution. It shows how
the probability of success in a certain
event is distributed over the distance x.
- We consider the deviation from
xm as the error in the throw

Figure :- Distribution of throes for a good player

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Histograms

▪ A probability distribution shown in above fig is obtained when we

observe frequency of occurrence over a large number of
observations. When a limited number of observations is made and
the raw data are plotted, we call the plot a histogram

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Contd..

Figure:- Cumulative Frequency Distribution

▪ Probability Distribution Function
▪ Probability density function

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Gaussian Distribution

▪ We know that the experimental observation has been subjected to

many random errors.
▪ These random errors may make the final reading either too large or
too small, depending on many circumstances which are unknown to
us
xm is the mean
σ is the standard deviation

The standard deviation is a measure of the width of the distribution

curve

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Contd..

The maximum probability occurs at x = xm, and the value of

this probability is

The probability that a measurement will fall within a certain range x1 of

the mean reading is

Say

where

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Gaussian Distribution Example

▪ Calculate the probabilities that a measurement will fall within one,

two, and three standard deviations of the mean value
Solution

Substitute η1 = 1, 2, and 3.

P(1) = (2)(0.34134) = 0.6827

P(2) = (2)(0.47725) = 0.9545
P(3) = (2)(0.49865) = 0.9973

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Other Distribution Functions
x2
(− )
▪ Rayleigh Probability density function x 2 2
p( x) = e
 2
P(x)

mean = 
2
S .D = 0.656
Variance = 0.43 2
µ x

▪ Triangular Probability density function mean = 0

a
P(x)
S .D =
b b
a2
Variance=
b
-a 0 a x

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

CHAUVENET’S CRITERION

▪ How to reject the bad data points which are out of place in
comparison with bulk of the data?
▪ Chauvenets Criteria – Reading may be rejected if the probability of
obtaining the particular deviation from the mean is less than 1/2n
Procedure:-
▪ first calculates the mean value and standard deviation using all data
points
▪ The deviations of the individual points are then compared with the
standard deviation in accordance with the information in Table and
the dubious points are eliminated.
▪ For the final data presentation a new mean value and standard
deviation are computed with the dubious points eliminated from the
calculation.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Contd..

Reference Table

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Example..

In accordance with Reference Table, we may eliminate only point number 5. When this
point is eliminated, the new mean value is

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Contd..

The new value of the standard

deviation is now calculated with
this table

Thus, by the elimination of the one point the standard deviation has been
reduced from 0.594 to 0.462 cm. This is a 26.5 percent reduction

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Comparison of Data with Normal
Distribution

▪ Chauvenet criterion used to obtain a better estimate of the standard

deviation and mean reading by eliminating bad data.
▪ If the distribution of random errors is not normal, then this elimination
technique will not apply
▪ probability graph paper is used to compare the Data.
▪ Gaussian distribution curve will appear as a straight line on the
graph, and this straight line will intersect the 50 percent ordinate at
an abscissa equal to the arithmetic mean of the data
▪ we plot the data on probability paper and see how well they match
with the theoretical straight line

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Example..

Comment on the normality of the distribution

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Method of Least Squares

▪ The Method of Least Squares is a procedure to determine the

best fit line to data
▪ The Method of Least Squares is a procedure, requiring just
some calculus and linear algebra, to determine what the “best
fit” line is to the data
▪ "Least squares" means that the overall solution minimizes the
sum of the squares of the errors made in the results of every
single equation.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Contd..

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Contd..

We seek an equation of the form

We therefore wish to minimize the quantity

This is accomplished by setting the derivatives with respect to a and b

equal to zero

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Example

From the following data obtain y as a linear function

of x using the method of least squares:

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 We seek an equation of the form

Thus, the desired relation is

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 BITS Pilani
Pilani|Dubai|Goa|Hyderabad

L-4: Electrical Measurement & Electronic Instruments

Ref: T1 [C4.2,4.3,4.5,4.6]

25
 Basic electrical circuit concepts
Basic Quantities: Current
The unit of current is the ampere (A). We note that
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
We normally refer to current as being either direct (dc) or
alternating (ac).
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

i(t) i(t) 0

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

t -0.8 t
-1 ac current
dc current 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

ac current

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Basic electrical circuit concepts
Basic Quantities: Current

I1 = 4 A I2 = - 3 A

Circuit 1 Circuit 2

(a) (b)

In the diagram above, current I1 is actually 4 A as assumed. The

actual positive direction of current I2 (equal to -3 A) in the opposite
direction of the arrow for I2.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Basic electrical circuit concepts
Basic Quantities: voltage
➢ The next quantity of interest is voltage. Voltage is also called
an electromotive force (emf). It is also called potential.
➢ Suppose one coulomb of charge is located at point b and one
joule of energy is required to move the charge to point a. Then
we say that
➢ Vab = 1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton.meter/ coulomb.

➢ Vab = 1 volt states that the potential of point a (voltage at point a

) is l volt (positive) with respect to point b.

➢ The sign associated with a voltage is also called its polarity.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Basicelectricalcircuitconcepts

Basic Quantities : power

Power is defined as the time rate of change of
doing work. We
dw
express this as, p =
dt
We can write above equation as follows:

dw dq
p= = vi
dq dt

Power has units of watts.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Basic Circuit Measurements

➢A voltmeter measures voltage across (in

parallel) a resistance or load
➢An ammeter is inserted in the current path (in
series) to measure current
➢ Resistance is measured across a resistor, out-
of-circuit, with an ohmmeter
➢ Digital Multimeters (DMM’s) measure
voltage, current and resistance

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Schematic Symbols of meters

The analog voltmeter and ammeter must be

connected to the circuit with proper polarity to avoid
damaging the meter movement

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Examples ofmeterDisplays

Each of the above may be used to represent either an ammeter

(A), a voltmeter (V), or an ohmmeter (Ω)

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 AVoltmeterConnectedtoMeasureVoltage

To measure voltage, the voltmeter is placed in parallel across

the component; that is, one lead is place on each side of the
component.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 An ammeter Connected to Measure Current

➢ To measure current, the ammeter must be placed in series

with the component; that is, it must be in line with the current
path

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 OhmmeterConnectiontoMeasureResistance

➢ To measure resistance
➢ If necessary circuit power must be removed
➢ Usually at least one lead of the component must be removed from
the circuit
➢ the ohmmeter is connected across a component

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Typical portable meters

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Typical portable meters

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Electromagnetic Forces
▪ When a point charge of ‘q’ placed in an Electric Field, what
happens?
▪ The charge experiences a force, given by
F=qE
Where E – Electric field intensity
F – Force experienced by the charge
▪ When a point charge ‘q’ moving with a velocity ‘v’ placed in a
magnetic field then what happens?
▪ It experiences a force given by
F=q(v×B)
Where B – Magnetic Flux Density (wb/m^2)
v – velocity of point charge

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Contd..
▪ When a point charge of ‘q’ placed in both Electric Field and
Magnetic field, then what happens?
▪ The charge experiences a force, given by
F=qE+q(v×B) a magnetic flux density B
Case 1 :- Consider a current-carrying conductor
placed in a magnetic field as shown below
Here electric field E is 0.
So F=q(v×B)

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Contd..
▪ The electric current i in the conductor is defined as the ratio
of the charge ‘dq’ passing a cross section of the conductor to
the transit time ‘dt’.

where ds is an element of length along the conductor covered by the moving charge
in a time dt.

To find the total force F acting on a length L of the conductor, we integrate:

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Contd..

As current flows through the conductor, the spring will stretch and develop the force
required to balance the electromagnetic force.
The total distance x moved by the spring is found by equating the two forces
Kx = BiL
where K is the spring constant

So

We need to measure the total deflection x and

then calculate the current

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Waveform Measures

Fig :- DC Current

i(t) = 7 sin(377t) A

Fig :- AC Current

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Contd..

Average Value:
Average value of a waveform i(t) is given by

where T is the period of the wave

Peak-to-peak value:
Peak-to-peak value of a waveform i(t) is given by
i p− p = imax − imin
RMS value:
RMS value of a waveform i(t) is given by

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Example 1

Find Average value, peak-to-peak value, RMS value

i(t)
6

2 4 t

-6

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

How to calculate RMS
value(for reference)

• Determine the period of given waveform

• Express the waveform into its equational form over full
cycle
• Take the square of the waveform by taking the square of
that equation
• Calculate the area under the waveform over full cycle by
integrating the squared equation over full cycle
• Use following formula to calculate rms value of the
waveform.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Example 2

Find Average Power delivered to Load.

i(t) = 3+4 sin(377t) A

R=1oh
m

2V

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Analog Meters
PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil) Meter
▪ It works on the principle that when ever a current carrying
Conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force
according to Lorentz’s law.
▪ Spring control is used to produce the controlling torque.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

If the coil has N turns and the
length of each turn in the
magnetic field is
L, the force on the coil is
F = NBiL

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

D’Arsonval moving-coil

• A permanent magnet is used to produce the

magnetic field, while the telescope
arrangement and expanded scale improve
the readability of the instrument. The metal
ribbon furnishes the torsional-spring
restraining force in this case, while a
filamentary suspension would be used for a
more sensitive instrument.
• D’Arsonval movement, in one form or
another, may be used for the measurement
of direct current.
• In either event, the D’Arsonval movement is
not directly applicable to the measurement
of alternating current.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Contd..

Fig:- Cross sectional view

▪ What happens when AC signal is applied?

Ans: the meter will either vibrate or, if the frequency is sufficiently
high, indicate zero.
▪ What happens when Spring damages?

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956