PE ZC213 / TA ZC233

Engineering Measurements L-2

BITS Pilani Swapna Kulkarni

WILP Division, BITS-Pilani, Pilani
Pilani|Dubai|Goa|Hyderabad

1
 PE ZC213 / TA ZC233
Engineering Measurements L-2

BITS Pilani Swapna Kulkarni

WILP Division, BITS-Pilani, Pilani
Pilani|Dubai|Goa|Hyderabad

2
Units and dimensions

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Units and Dimensions (Contd…)
➢ Derived Quantities are physical quantities derived from
combination of base quantities through multiplication or division or
both
➢ Ex- Area, volume, density
➢ Area=Length*Length
➢ Density=mass/Volume
➢ Instruments classification:
➢ Mechanical Instruments
➢ Reliable for static condition
➢ Can’t respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic condition.
➢ Electrical Instruments
➢ It is more rapid than mechanical Instrument.
➢ It uses mechanical meter as an indicating device.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Units and Dimensions (Contd…)
– Electronic instruments
• Use semiconductor devices
• Very fast response.
Instruments classification
– Absolute Instruments
• Doesn’t give direct reading.
• Gives the value to be measured in terms of Instrumental
physical constants.
– Secondary Instruments
• Indicating Recording Integrating
(Ammeter) (X-Y Plotter) (Energy meter)

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Standards
➢ It is necessary to establish certain standard units of length, weight, time,
temperature, and electrical quantities.
➢ NIST has the primary responsibility for maintaining these standards
➢ The standard meter was defined as the length of a platinum-iridium bar
maintained at very accurate conditions at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures
➢ The kilogram was defined in terms of a platinum-iridium mass maintained
at this same bureau
➢ In 1960 the General Conference on Weights and Measures defined the
standard meter in terms of the wavelength of the orange-red light of a
krypton-86 lamp. The standard meter is thus
➢ 1 meter = 1,650,763.73 wavelengths
➢ In 1983 the definition of the meter was changed to the distance light travels
in 1/299,792,458ths of a second

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Standards (Contd…)
➢ The standard for the volt was changed in 1990 to relate to a
phenomenon called the Josephson effect which occurs at liquid
helium temperatures.
➢ At the same time resistance standards were based on a
quantum Hall effect
➢ The Thirteenth General Conference on Weights and Measures
adopted a definition of the second as the duration of
9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the fundamental
state of the atom of cesium-133.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Measurement Basics

➢ Length: is the distance of something measured.

➢ Volume/Capacity: how much something can hold
( generally liquid).
➢ Weight: how much something weighs.
➢ Mass: how much space something takes up.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Systems of Measurement
➢ US/Customary System.
o The US/Customary system has many different units of measurement
o Each unit has a completely different name
o They also have completely different conversion factors

➢ Metric system which is used all over the world

o SI Units (Systemes Internationales d’Unites)
o Two different units are defined
o Fundamental Units
o Derived Units

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Metric Units of Measurement
➢ Meters: Measures length

➢ Liters: Measures volume or capacity

➢ Grams: measures weight/mass

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Fundamental units

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Derived units

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Metric system Prefixes

➢ Mili- 1/1000, which means that 1000mm=1m

➢ Centi- 1/100, which means that 100cg=1g

➢ Deci- 1/10, which means that 10dl=1l

➢ Deka- 10, which means that 1dkm=10m

➢ Hecto- 100, which means that 1hg=100g

➢ Kilo- 1000, which means that 1kl=1000l

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Methods of Measurement

➢ Direct comparison:
➢ Compare unknown quantity (measurand) against a known
quantity (standard). Eg: tape measure.
➢ Direct comparison not always possible or practical. Eg:
measuring sound levels.
➢ Indirect comparison (calibrated system):
➢ Makes use of a sensor or transducing device (transducer) to
transform the measurand into an analogous form.
➢ The sensor is connected to a series of instruments which
convert the output of the sensor into a useful analogous form
which presents the measurand in a useful and practical format.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Generalized Measurement System

➢ A detector-transducer stage, which detects the physical

variable and performs either a mechanical or an electrical
transformation to convert the signal into a more usable form.
In the general sense, a transducer is a device that transforms
one physical effect into another.
➢ Intermediate stage, which modifies the direct signal by
amplification, filtering, or other means so that a desirable
output is available.
➢ A final or terminating stage, which acts to indicate, record,
or control the variable being measured. The output may also be
digital or analog.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Generalized Measurement System

• Detection-transduction stage (sensor-transducer)

• Intermediate stage (signal conditioning)
• Terminating stage (readout, display, recorder)

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Generalized Measurement System

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Generalized Measurement System

Detection-transduction stage (sensor-transducer)

➢ Function: to detect or sense the measurand without affecting it.
➢ Ideally, must also be insensitive to other variables. Eg: Pressure
sensor must be insensitive to acceleration, strain gauge must be
insensitive to temperature.
➢ Unwanted sensitivity is a measuring error.
Noise: high frequency (fast)
Drift: low frequency (slow)

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Generalized Measurement System

Signal conditioning stage

➢ Function: to modify (improve) the transduced information for
compatibility with the terminating (readout / recording/
processing) stage
➢ These include amplification (most common) , filtering (noise
removal), offset adjustment, differentiation, integration,
telemetry….
➢ Sometimes also used to provide electrical power or excitation
signal required by sensor

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Generalized Measurement System

Terminating stage (readout, display, recorder)

➢ Function: to provide information on measurand in a format suitable
for the application.
➢ For (immediate) human recognition, the display usually comprises:
➢ A relative displacement indicator. Eg: needle, / pointer, trace in a screen
(oscilloscope), stylus on a chart, a level change (thermometer)…
➢ In digital (numeric) form. Eg: counter (odometer), numeric LCD etc..
➢ For recording or processing purposes, the terminating stage may
comprise of magnetic recorders, chart (paper) recorders, digital
recorders (PC-based data acquisition systems, digital storage
oscilloscopes), process controllers (PLCs, computer-based control
systems).

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Generalized Measurement System

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Assessing Experimental Data : Errors
➢ Remember: no measurement is perfect – errors always exist.
➢ Measurement error is defined as the difference between the
true value and the measured value.
➢ We can only estimate the size of the error or its likelihood that
it exceeds a certain value.
➢ Errors can be estimated statistically when large number of
measurements are taken.
➢ However, must ensure that measurement systems are
calibrated.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Types of Error
➢ Most errors can be put into two classes: Bias errors and Precision
errors.
➢ Bias errors are also referred to as systematic errors and remain the
same for every measurement made.
➢ Precision errors are also called random errors and are different for
each measurement made. However, the average value of the random
error is zero.
➢ If enough measurements are repeated, the distribution of precision
errors will be revealed and the likely size of the error can be
estimated statistically.
➢ Because bias errors are fixed and do not produce a statistical
distribution, they cannot be estimated using statistical techniques.
➢ They can only be estimated by comparison with a standard or
another instrument or even by experience and common sense.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Types of Error

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Sources of Errors

➢ Bias errors:
➢ Calibration (eg: zero-offset and scale adjustments)
➢ Certain consistently recurring human errors (eg: parallax, poor
synchronisation)
➢ Certain errors caused by defective equipment (eg: poor design,
fabrication and maintenance)
➢ Loading errors (eg: microphone, vehicle speed gun)
➢ Resolution limitations (eg: lack of significant figures in digital
displays)

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Sources of Errors
➢ Random errors:
➢ Certain human errors (eg: lack of concentration)
➢ Disturbances to equipment (eg: ground vibrations, atmospheric
conditions)
➢ Fluctuating experimental conditions (eg: poor experimental
design, must account for inherent oscillations/variations of the
measurand)
➢ System sensitivity limitations (eg: use bathroom scale to
measure mass of small animals)

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Sources of Errors
➢ Combined errors:
➢ Backlash, friction and hysteresis (eg: in mechanical indicators
such as pressure gauges)
➢ Calibration drift or reaction to changing environmental
conditions.
➢ Variations in procedure (eg: when short cuts are taken or
personnel changes)
➢ Illegitimate errors (mistakes):
➢ Blunders and mistakes (eg: forgot to switch on amplifier, write
phone number instead of reading)
➢ Computational errors (eg: use wrong calibration constant)

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Characteristics of Measurement System
➢ A knowledge of the performance characteristics of an
instrument is essential for selecting the most suitable
instrument for specific measuring jobs.
➢ Performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly
divided into two.
❖ Static characteristics: The performance criteria for the measurement of
quantities that remain constant, or vary only quite slowly
❖ Dynamic characteristics :the relationship between the system input and output
when the measured quantity (measurand) is varying rapidly.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Static Characteristics

➢ Accuracy
➢ Resolution
➢ Precision ➢ Threshold
➢ Sensitivity ➢ Drift
➢ Linearity ➢ Stability
➢ Reproducibility ➢ Tolerance
➢ Range or span
➢ Repeatability

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Accuracy

➢ It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the

true value of the quantity to be measured.
➢ Accuracy indicates the closeness of the measured value with the
actual or true value, and is expressed in the form of the maximum
error (= measured value – true value) as a percentage of full scale
reading .
➢ Accuracy can be expressed as
–a) Point accuracy: Such accuracy is specified at only one particular point of
scale. It does not give any information about the accuracy at any other Point on the
scale.
–b) Accuracy as percentage of scale span: When an instrument as uniform scale,
its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range.
–c) Accuracy as percentage of true value

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Accuracy

➢ Meter-A has an accuracy of 0.4 and Meter-B has an

accuracy of 0.6.Choose a good meter.
➢ Example:- A quantity with true value of 16 is
measured using 3 meters.
➢M1 – (0 – 30A) M2- (0-30A) M3-(0-30A
Measured value 15.5 15.6 15.7
Error 0.5 0.4 0.3

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Precision
➢ A measure of the consistency or reproducibility of measurements,
i.e. successive readings does not differ.
o Precision is the consistency of the instrument output for a
given value of input.
o Accuracy can be improved by calibration but not precision .
➢ A precision instrument indicates that the successive reading
would be very close, or in other words, the standard deviation of
the set of measurements would be very small.
➢ Quantitatively, the precision can be expressed as:
Precision = measured range /

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Precision
➢ Precision indicates the consistency of meter.
➢ Precision is the measurement of repeatability and reproducibility.
➢ For a good instrument high precision is preferred.
➢ Choose the correct statement.
➢ High precision guarantees high Accuracy
➢ High accuracy guarantees high precision.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Precision (Contd…)

Low precision ,Low Accuracy

High precision ,High Accuracy

High precision ,Low Accuracy
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
 Sensitivity
Sensitivity:
➢ The ratio of the change in output (response) of the instrument
to a change of input or measured variable.
➢ It can be defined as the ratio of the incremental output and the
incremental input
➢ Eg: an accelerometer with a sensitivity of 100 mV/g is more
sensitive than one with a sensitivity of 10 mV/g.
➢ This relation may be linear or nonlinear.
➢ For a good meter high sensitivity preferred. i.e. even for small
changes in input there should be output.
➢ Sensitivity indicates the loading effect.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Linearity:
➢ Linearity is actually a measure of nonlinearity of the
instrument. When we talk about sensitivity, we assume that the
input/output characteristic of the instrument to be
approximately linear. But in practice, it is normally nonlinear,.
The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation from the
linear characteristics as a percentage of the full scale output.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Static Characteristics

➢ Reproducibility : It is the degree of closeness with which a

given value may be repeatedly measured. It is specified in
terms of scale readings over a given period of time.
➢ Repeatability: A measure of how well the output returns to a
given value when the same precise input is applied several
times.
➢ The ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain set of
reading within a given accuracy.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Static Characteristics (Contd…)

➢ Resolution : The smallest change in the measurand that the

instrument will detect.
➢ If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input
value, it will again be found that output does not change at all
until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment is called
resolution.
➢ Threshold: If the instrument input is increased very gradually
from zero there will be some minimum value below which no
output change can be detected. This minimum value defines
the threshold of the instrument.
➢ Stability: It is the ability of an instrument to retain its
performance throughout in specified operating life.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Static Characteristics (Contd…)
➢ Tolerance: The maximum allowable error in the measurement
is specified in terms of some value which is called tolerance.
➢ Range or span: The minimum & maximum values of a
quantity for which an instrument is designed to measure is
called its range or span.
➢ It defines the maximum and minimum values of the inputs or
the outputs for which the instrument is recommended to use.
For example, for a temperature measuring instrument the input
range may be 100-500 oC and the output range may be 4-20
mA.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Calibration

➢ In calibration phase error minimized => Accuracy adjusted

➢ Precision of instrument can’t be adjusted.
➢ Accuracy can be improved up to but not beyond the precision
of the instrument by calibration
➢ During calibration the instrument is checked against a known
standard and subsequently to reduce errors in accuracy
➢ Calibration procedures involve a comparison of the particular
instrument with either:
o (1) a primary standard or
o (2) a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the
instrument to be calibrated or
o (3) a known input source

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Units and dimensions

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Units and Dimensions (Contd…)
➢ Derived Quantities are physical quantities derived from
combination of base quantities through multiplication or division or
both
➢ Ex- Area, volume, density
➢ Area=Length*Length
➢ Density=mass/Volume
➢ Instruments classification:
➢ Mechanical Instruments
➢ Reliable for static condition
➢ Can’t respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic condition.
➢ Electrical Instruments
➢ It is more rapid than mechanical Instrument.
➢ It uses mechanical meter as an indicating device.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Units and Dimensions (Contd…)
– Electronic instruments
• Use semiconductor devices
• Very fast response.
Instruments classification
– Absolute Instruments
• Doesn’t give direct reading.
• Gives the value to be measured in terms of Instrumental
physical constants.
– Secondary Instruments
• Indicating Recording Integrating
(Ammeter) (X-Y Plotter) (Energy meter)

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Standards
➢ It is necessary to establish certain standard units of length, weight, time,
temperature, and electrical quantities.
➢ NIST has the primary responsibility for maintaining these standards
➢ The standard meter was defined as the length of a platinum-iridium bar
maintained at very accurate conditions at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures
➢ The kilogram was defined in terms of a platinum-iridium mass maintained
at this same bureau
➢ In 1960 the General Conference on Weights and Measures defined the
standard meter in terms of the wavelength of the orange-red light of a
krypton-86 lamp. The standard meter is thus
➢ 1 meter = 1,650,763.73 wavelengths
➢ In 1983 the definition of the meter was changed to the distance light travels
in 1/299,792,458ths of a second

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Standards (Contd…)
➢ The standard for the volt was changed in 1990 to relate to a
phenomenon called the Josephson effect which occurs at liquid
helium temperatures.
➢ At the same time resistance standards were based on a
quantum Hall effect
➢ The Thirteenth General Conference on Weights and Measures
adopted a definition of the second as the duration of
9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the fundamental
state of the atom of cesium-133.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Measurement Basics

➢ Length: is the distance of something measured.

➢ Volume/Capacity: how much something can hold
( generally liquid).
➢ Weight: how much something weighs.
➢ Mass: how much space something takes up.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Systems of Measurement
➢ US/Customary System.
o The US/Customary system has many different units of measurement
o Each unit has a completely different name
o They also have completely different conversion factors

➢ Metric system which is used all over the world

o SI Units (Systemes Internationales d’Unites)
o Two different units are defined
o Fundamental Units
o Derived Units

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Metric Units of Measurement
➢ Meters: Measures length

➢ Liters: Measures volume or capacity

➢ Grams: measures weight/mass

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Fundamental units

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Derived units

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Metric system Prefixes

➢ Mili- 1/1000, which means that 1000mm=1m

➢ Centi- 1/100, which means that 100cg=1g

➢ Deci- 1/10, which means that 10dl=1l

➢ Deka- 10, which means that 1dkm=10m

➢ Hecto- 100, which means that 1hg=100g

➢ Kilo- 1000, which means that 1kl=1000l

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Methods of Measurement

➢ Direct comparison:
➢ Compare unknown quantity (measurand) against a known
quantity (standard). Eg: tape measure.
➢ Direct comparison not always possible or practical. Eg:
measuring sound levels.
➢ Indirect comparison (calibrated system):
➢ Makes use of a sensor or transducing device (transducer) to
transform the measurand into an analogous form.
➢ The sensor is connected to a series of instruments which
convert the output of the sensor into a useful analogous form
which presents the measurand in a useful and practical format.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Generalized Measurement System

➢ A detector-transducer stage, which detects the physical

variable and performs either a mechanical or an electrical
transformation to convert the signal into a more usable form.
In the general sense, a transducer is a device that transforms
one physical effect into another.
➢ Intermediate stage, which modifies the direct signal by
amplification, filtering, or other means so that a desirable
output is available.
➢ A final or terminating stage, which acts to indicate, record,
or control the variable being measured. The output may also be
digital or analog.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Generalized Measurement System

• Detection-transduction stage (sensor-transducer)

• Intermediate stage (signal conditioning)
• Terminating stage (readout, display, recorder)

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Generalized Measurement System

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Generalized Measurement System

Detection-transduction stage (sensor-transducer)

➢ Function: to detect or sense the measurand without affecting it.
➢ Ideally, must also be insensitive to other variables. Eg: Pressure
sensor must be insensitive to acceleration, strain gauge must be
insensitive to temperature.
➢ Unwanted sensitivity is a measuring error.
Noise: high frequency (fast)
Drift: low frequency (slow)

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Generalized Measurement System

Signal conditioning stage

➢ Function: to modify (improve) the transduced information for
compatibility with the terminating (readout / recording/
processing) stage
➢ These include amplification (most common) , filtering (noise
removal), offset adjustment, differentiation, integration,
telemetry….
➢ Sometimes also used to provide electrical power or excitation
signal required by sensor

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Generalized Measurement System

Terminating stage (readout, display, recorder)

➢ Function: to provide information on measurand in a format suitable
for the application.
➢ For (immediate) human recognition, the display usually comprises:
➢ A relative displacement indicator. Eg: needle, / pointer, trace in a screen
(oscilloscope), stylus on a chart, a level change (thermometer)…
➢ In digital (numeric) form. Eg: counter (odometer), numeric LCD etc..
➢ For recording or processing purposes, the terminating stage may
comprise of magnetic recorders, chart (paper) recorders, digital
recorders (PC-based data acquisition systems, digital storage
oscilloscopes), process controllers (PLCs, computer-based control
systems).

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Generalized Measurement System

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Assessing Experimental Data : Errors
➢ Remember: no measurement is perfect – errors always exist.
➢ Measurement error is defined as the difference between the
true value and the measured value.
➢ We can only estimate the size of the error or its likelihood that
it exceeds a certain value.
➢ Errors can be estimated statistically when large number of
measurements are taken.
➢ However, must ensure that measurement systems are
calibrated.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Types of Error
➢ Most errors can be put into two classes: Bias errors and Precision
errors.
➢ Bias errors are also referred to as systematic errors and remain the
same for every measurement made.
➢ Precision errors are also called random errors and are different for
each measurement made. However, the average value of the random
error is zero.
➢ If enough measurements are repeated, the distribution of precision
errors will be revealed and the likely size of the error can be
estimated statistically.
➢ Because bias errors are fixed and do not produce a statistical
distribution, they cannot be estimated using statistical techniques.
➢ They can only be estimated by comparison with a standard or
another instrument or even by experience and common sense.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Types of Error

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Sources of Errors

➢ Bias errors:
➢ Calibration (eg: zero-offset and scale adjustments)
➢ Certain consistently recurring human errors (eg: parallax, poor
synchronisation)
➢ Certain errors caused by defective equipment (eg: poor design,
fabrication and maintenance)
➢ Loading errors (eg: microphone, vehicle speed gun)
➢ Resolution limitations (eg: lack of significant figures in digital
displays)

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Sources of Errors
➢ Random errors:
➢ Certain human errors (eg: lack of concentration)
➢ Disturbances to equipment (eg: ground vibrations, atmospheric
conditions)
➢ Fluctuating experimental conditions (eg: poor experimental
design, must account for inherent oscillations/variations of the
measurand)
➢ System sensitivity limitations (eg: use bathroom scale to
measure mass of small animals)

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Sources of Errors
➢ Combined errors:
➢ Backlash, friction and hysteresis (eg: in mechanical indicators
such as pressure gauges)
➢ Calibration drift or reaction to changing environmental
conditions.
➢ Variations in procedure (eg: when short cuts are taken or
personnel changes)
➢ Illegitimate errors (mistakes):
➢ Blunders and mistakes (eg: forgot to switch on amplifier, write
phone number instead of reading)
➢ Computational errors (eg: use wrong calibration constant)

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Characteristics of Measurement System
➢ A knowledge of the performance characteristics of an
instrument is essential for selecting the most suitable
instrument for specific measuring jobs.
➢ Performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly
divided into two.
❖ Static characteristics: The performance criteria for the measurement of
quantities that remain constant, or vary only quite slowly
❖ Dynamic characteristics :the relationship between the system input and output
when the measured quantity (measurand) is varying rapidly.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Static Characteristics

➢ Accuracy
➢ Resolution
➢ Precision ➢ Threshold
➢ Sensitivity ➢ Drift
➢ Linearity ➢ Stability
➢ Reproducibility ➢ Tolerance
➢ Range or span
➢ Repeatability

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Accuracy

➢ It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the

true value of the quantity to be measured.
➢ Accuracy indicates the closeness of the measured value with the
actual or true value, and is expressed in the form of the maximum
error (= measured value – true value) as a percentage of full scale
reading .
➢ Accuracy can be expressed as
–a) Point accuracy: Such accuracy is specified at only one particular point of
scale. It does not give any information about the accuracy at any other Point on the
scale.
–b) Accuracy as percentage of scale span: When an instrument as uniform scale,
its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range.
–c) Accuracy as percentage of true value

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Accuracy

➢ Meter-A has an accuracy of 0.4 and Meter-B has an

accuracy of 0.6.Choose a good meter.
➢ Example:- A quantity with true value of 16 is
measured using 3 meters.
➢M1 – (0 – 30A) M2- (0-30A) M3-(0-30A
Measured value 15.5 15.6 15.7
Error 0.5 0.4 0.3

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Precision
➢ A measure of the consistency or reproducibility of measurements,
i.e. successive readings does not differ.
o Precision is the consistency of the instrument output for a
given value of input.
o Accuracy can be improved by calibration but not precision .
➢ A precision instrument indicates that the successive reading
would be very close, or in other words, the standard deviation of
the set of measurements would be very small.
➢ Quantitatively, the precision can be expressed as:
Precision = measured range /

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Precision
➢ Precision indicates the consistency of meter.
➢ Precision is the measurement of repeatability and reproducibility.
➢ For a good instrument high precision is preferred.
➢ Choose the correct statement.
➢ High precision guarantees high Accuracy
➢ High accuracy guarantees high precision.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Precision (Contd…)

Low precision ,Low Accuracy

High precision ,High Accuracy

High precision ,Low Accuracy
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
 Sensitivity
Sensitivity:
➢ The ratio of the change in output (response) of the instrument
to a change of input or measured variable.
➢ It can be defined as the ratio of the incremental output and the
incremental input
➢ Eg: an accelerometer with a sensitivity of 100 mV/g is more
sensitive than one with a sensitivity of 10 mV/g.
➢ This relation may be linear or nonlinear.
➢ For a good meter high sensitivity preferred. i.e. even for small
changes in input there should be output.
➢ Sensitivity indicates the loading effect.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Linearity:
➢ Linearity is actually a measure of nonlinearity of the
instrument. When we talk about sensitivity, we assume that the
input/output characteristic of the instrument to be
approximately linear. But in practice, it is normally nonlinear,.
The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation from the
linear characteristics as a percentage of the full scale output.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Static Characteristics

➢ Reproducibility : It is the degree of closeness with which a

given value may be repeatedly measured. It is specified in
terms of scale readings over a given period of time.
➢ Repeatability: A measure of how well the output returns to a
given value when the same precise input is applied several
times.
➢ The ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain set of
reading within a given accuracy.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Static Characteristics (Contd…)

➢ Resolution : The smallest change in the measurand that the

instrument will detect.
➢ If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input
value, it will again be found that output does not change at all
until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment is called
resolution.
➢ Threshold: If the instrument input is increased very gradually
from zero there will be some minimum value below which no
output change can be detected. This minimum value defines
the threshold of the instrument.
➢ Stability: It is the ability of an instrument to retain its
performance throughout in specified operating life.

BITS pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Static Characteristics (Contd…)
➢ Tolerance: The maximum allowable error in the measurement
is specified in terms of some value which is called tolerance.
➢ Range or span: The minimum & maximum values of a
quantity for which an instrument is designed to measure is
called its range or span.
➢ It defines the maximum and minimum values of the inputs or
the outputs for which the instrument is recommended to use.
For example, for a temperature measuring instrument the input
range may be 100-500 oC and the output range may be 4-20
mA.

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 Calibration

➢ In calibration phase error minimized => Accuracy adjusted

➢ Precision of instrument can’t be adjusted.
➢ Accuracy can be improved up to but not beyond the precision
of the instrument by calibration
➢ During calibration the instrument is checked against a known
standard and subsequently to reduce errors in accuracy
➢ Calibration procedures involve a comparison of the particular
instrument with either:
o (1) a primary standard or
o (2) a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the
instrument to be calibrated or
o (3) a known input source

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956